title: Ribose

text: In closed ring riboses, the observed flexibility mentioned above is not observed because the ring cycle imposes a limit on the number of torsion angles possible in the structure. Conformers of closed form riboses differ in regards to how the lone oxygen in the molecule is positioned respective to the nitrogenous base (also known as a nucleobase or just a base) attached to the ribose. If a carbon is facing towards the base, then the ribose is labeled as endo. If a carbon is facing away from the base, then the ribose is labeled as exo. If there is an oxygen molecule attached to the 2' carbon of a closed cycle ribose, then the exo confirmation is more stable because it decreases the interactions of the oxygen with the base. The difference itself is quite small, but when looking at an entire chain of RNA the slight difference amounts to a sizable impact.A ribose molecule is typically represented as a planar molecule on paper. Despite this, it is typically non-planar in nature. Even between hydrogen atoms, the many constituents on a ribose molecule cause steric hindrance and strain between them. To relieve this crowding and ring strain, the ring puckers, i.e. becomes non-planar. This puckering is achieved by displacing an atom from the plane, relieving the strain and yielding a more stable configuration. Puckering, otherwise known as the sugar ring conformation (specifically ribose sugar), can be described by the amplitude of pucker as well as the pseudorotation angle. The pseudo-rotation angle can be described as either "north (N)" or "south (S)" range. While both ranges are found in double helices, the north range is commonly associated with RNA and the A form of DNA. In contrast, the south range is associated with B form DNA. Z-DNA contains sugars in both the north and south ranges. When only a single atom is displaced, it is referred to as an "envelope" pucker. When two atoms are displaced, it is referred to as a "twist" pucker, in reference to the zigzag orientation. In an "endo" pucker, the major displacement of atoms is on the β-face, the same side as the C4'-C5' bond and the base. In an "exo" pucker, the major displacement of atoms is on the α-face, on the opposite side of the ring. The major forms of ribose are the 3'-endo pucker (commonly adopted by RNA and A-form DNA) and 2'-endo pucker (commonly adopted by B-form DNA). These ring puckers are developed from changes in ring torsion angles; there are infinite combinations of angles so therefore, there is an infinite number of transposable pucker conformations, each separated by disparate activation energies.


title: Ribose

text: ATP is derived from ribose; it contains one ribose, three phosphate groups, and an adenine base. ATP is created during cellular respiration from adenosine diphosphate (ATP with one less phosphate group).


title: Ribose

text: Ribose is a building block in secondary signaling molecules such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) which is derived from ATP. One specific case in which cAMP is used is in cAMP-dependent signaling pathways. In cAMP signaling pathways, either a stimulative or inhibitory hormone receptor is activated by a signal molecule. These receptors are linked to a stimulative or inhibitory regulative G-protein. When a stimulative G-protein is activated, adenylyl cyclase catalyzes ATP into cAMP by using Mg or Mn. cAMP, a secondary messenger, then goes on to activate protein kinase A, which is an enzyme that regulates cell metabolism. Protein kinase A regulates metabolic enzymes by phosphorylation which causes a change in the cell depending on the original signal molecule. The opposite occurs when an inhibitory G-protein is activated; the G-protein inhibits adenylyl cyclase and ATP is not converted to cAMP.


title: Ribose

text: Ribose is referred to as the "molecular currency" because of its involvement in intracellular energy transfers. For example, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) all contain the -ribofuranose moiety. They can each be derived from -ribose after it is converted to -ribose 5-phosphate by the enzyme ribokinase. NAD, FAD, and NADP act as electron acceptors in biochemical redox reactions in major metabolic pathways including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, fermentation, and the electron transport chain.


title: Ribose

text: Nucleotides are synthesized through salvage or de novo synthesis. Nucleotide salvage uses pieces of previously made nucleotides and re-synthesizes them for future use. In de novo, amino acids, carbon dioxide, folate derivatives, and phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP) are used to synthesize nucleotides. Both de novo and salvage require PRPP which is synthesized from ATP and ribose 5-phosphate by an enzyme called PRPP synthetase.


title: Ribose

text: Ribokinase catalyzes the conversion of -ribose to -ribose 5-phosphate. Once converted, -ribose-5-phosphate is available for the manufacturing of the amino acids tryptophan and histidine, or for use in the pentose phosphate pathway. The absorption of -ribose is 88–100% in the small intestines (up to 200 mg/kg·h).


title: Ribose

text: One important modification occurs at the C2' position of the ribose molecule. By adding an O-alkyl group, the nuclear resistance of the RNA is increased because of additional stabilizing forces. These forces are stabilizing because of the increase of intramolecular hydrogen bonding and an increase in the glycosidic bond stability. The resulting increase of resistance leads to increases in the half-life of siRNA and the potential therapeutic potential in cells and animals. The methylation of ribose at particular sites is correlated with a decrease in immune stimulation.


title: Ribose

text: Along with phosphorylation, ribofuranose molecules can exchange their oxygen with selenium and sulfur to produce similar sugars that only vary at the 4' position. These derivatives are more lipophilic than the original molecule. Increased lipophilicity makes these species more suitable for use in techniques such as PCR, RNA aptamer post-modification, antisense technology, and for phasing X-ray crystallographic data.


title: Ribose

text: Similar to the 2' modifications in nature, a synthetic modification of ribose includes the addition of fluorine at the 2' position. This fluorinated ribose acts similar to the methylated ribose because it is capable of suppressing immune stimulation depending on the location of the ribose in the DNA strand. The big difference between methylation and fluorination, is the latter only occurs through synthetic modifications. The addition of fluorine leads to an increase in the stabilization of the glycosidic bond and an increase of intramolecular hydrogen bonds.


title: Ribose

text: -ribose has been suggested for use in management of congestive heart failure (as well as other forms of heart disease) and for chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), also called myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME) in an open-label non-blinded, non-randomized, and non-crossover subjective study.


title: Ribose

text: Supplemental -ribose can bypass part of the pentose phosphate pathway, an energy-producing pathway, to produce -ribose-5-phosphate. The enzyme glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase (G-6-PDH) is often in short supply in cells, but more so in diseased tissue, such as in myocardial cells in patients with cardiac disease. The supply of -ribose in the mitochondria is directly correlated with ATP production; decreased -ribose supply reduces the amount of ATP being produced. Studies suggest that supplementing -ribose following tissue ischemia (e.g. myocardial ischemia) increases myocardial ATP production, and therefore mitochondrial function. Essentially, administering supplemental -ribose bypasses an enzymatic step in the pentose phosphate pathway by providing an alternate source of 5-phospho--ribose 1-pyrophosphate for ATP production. Supplemental -ribose enhances recovery of ATP levels while also reducing cellular injury in humans and other animals. One study suggested that the use of supplemental -ribose reduces the instance of angina in men with diagnosed coronary artery disease. -Ribose has been used to treat many pathological conditions, such as chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, and myocardial dysfunction. It is also used to reduce symptoms of cramping, pain, stiffness, etc. after exercise and to improve athletic performance.


title: Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

text: Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles is a 2019 American animated superhero film directed by Jake Castorena and written by Marly Halpern-Graser, based on the comic book miniseries "Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" by James Tynion IV and Freddie Williams II. The story focuses on Batman, Robin, and Batgirl teaming up with the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles in order to save Gotham City from chaos at the hands of both Shredder and Ra's al Ghul. The film features the voices of Troy Baker, Eric Bauza, Darren Criss, Kyle Mooney, and Baron Vaughn.


title: Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

text: "Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" is the first collaboration between Warner Bros. Entertainment and Nickelodeon (once co-owned by then-parent Warner Communications until 1985), and the first Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles film to be distributed by Warner Bros. in the United States since "TMNT". It was produced for the direct-to-video market, and was released on both Blu-ray and Digital HD on June 4, 2019. It achieved positive reviews and grossed over $3.3 million from home video sales.


title: Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

text: While touring Powers Industrial, Barbara Gordon witnesses a power generator being stolen by the Foot Clan and also spots four mysterious and elusive creatures during the robbery that she believes are metahumans. The Foot Clan attacks Wayne Enterprises to steal an experimental cloud seeder machine, but are ambushed by Batman, who fends off the Foot and their leader, Shredder. Meanwhile, the four "metahumans" Batgirl sighted—actually the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles—arrive in Gotham tracking the Shredder, who has allied with an unknown party. After defending Wayne Enterprises from the Penguin, the Turtles encounter and fight Batman, as each side believes the other is working with the Shredder. Batman is able to overpower the Turtles, who retreat.


title: Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

text: Donatello researches Batman and his sighted locations, and uses this information to figure out the location of the Batcave. After a brief scuffle with Robin, Batman and Batgirl arrive, and the Turtles introduce themselves and explain their reason for coming to Gotham. The two groups agree to work together against their common enemies, and Robin reveals that Shredder and the Foot Clan are working with Ra's al Ghul and the League of Assassins. Shredder and Ra's meet and strike a bargain: Ra's will give Shredder access to the Lazarus Pit to become immortal, in exchange for Shredder building a machine that will spray a combination of TCRI mutagen and Joker venom over Gotham, transforming the citizens into insane mutants that will destroy the city. With Shredder's failure to steal the cloud seeder, Ra's hires the Penguin to intercept it, while he and Shredder go to Arkham Asylum and release the Joker. The two trade Joker TCRI mutagen for the Joker venom formula, and Joker uses the mutagen on Arkham's inmates.


title: Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

text: The Bat-Family and the Turtles are alerted about an alarm at Arkham by Commissioner Gordon and investigate. After fighting their way through various members of Batman's rogues gallery, they confront Harley Quinn and Joker, mutated into a spotted hyena and a king cobra. Joker injects Batman with a mixture of Joker venom and mutagen, transforming him into a deranged mutant vampire bat. The heroes are able to inject Batman with an anti-mutagen and restore him, and subdue Harley and Joker. Batgirl learns about the cloud seeder's theft by Penguin, and they realize the incident at Arkham was a distraction. Aware that Shredder and Ra's will be using Joker venom, they deduce they will be at Ace Chemicals to create it.


title: Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

text: At Ace Chemicals, the Bat-family and the Turtles fight through the Foot Clan and the League of Assassins with the Batmobile and the Turtle Van. While Batman fights Shredder and Leonardo engages Ra's, Donatello and Michelangelo sabotage the cloud seeder as it launches. Leonardo subdues Ra's, and Batman is able to defeat the Shredder with a distraction from Raphael. The cloud seeder crashes into the facility and explodes, knocking the Shredder into a vat of Joker venom and destroying Ace Chemicals. At the Batcave, the Turtles prepare to return to New York until Batman reveals a surprise pizza party to celebrate their victory.


title: Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

text: In a post-credits scene, Shredder emerges from the rubble of Ace Chemicals, now possessing a Joker-like appearance and laughing maniacally.


title: Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

text: Warner Bros. Animation was considering adaptations of "Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" and "Wonder Woman" as possible direct-to-video films. The animated adaptation of the miniseries was officially announced in February 2019 to be in production and was released later in the spring.


title: Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

text: The initial announcement revealed Troy Baker would reprise his roles as both Batman from "" video game and various Lego video games and films, and the Joker from "", "", and the "Batman Unlimited" series, making Baker the first actor to portray both characters in the same property. The film also features Darren Criss and Eric Bauza reprising their roles as Raphael and Leonardo, while Kyle Mooney and Baron Vaughn voice Michelangelo and Donatello, respectively. Rachel Bloom voices Batgirl and Cas Anvar voices Ra's al Ghul. In addition, Tom Kenny, John DiMaggio, Carlos Alazraqui and Tara Strong reprise their roles as the Penguin, Mr. Freeze, Bane, Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy from various DC properties. Other key cast members of the film were revealed a month later, which consists of Ben Giroux as Robin, Andrew Kishino as the Shredder, Keith Ferguson as both Baxter Stockman and Two-Face, Brian George reprising his role as Alfred Pennyworth from "", and Jim Meskimen as both Commissioner James Gordon and the Scarecrow.


title: Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

text: The first trailer was released on March 12, 2019. The film had its world premiere at WonderCon Anaheim 2019 on March 31.


title: Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

text: The film was later released to Digital on May 14 on 4K Ultra HD Combo Pack and Blu-ray Combo Pack on June 4, 2019.


title: Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

text: The film earned $609,769 from domestic DVD sales and $2,723,251 from domestic Blu-ray sales, bringing its total domestic home video earnings to $3,333,020.


title: Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

text: "Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" was released to positive reviews. Based on reviews collected on Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of with an average rating of .


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Craniosynostosis is a condition in which one or more of the fibrous sutures in a young infant's skull prematurely fuses by turning into bone (ossification), thereby changing the growth pattern of the skull. Because the skull cannot expand perpendicular to the fused suture, it compensates by growing more in the direction parallel to the closed sutures. Sometimes the resulting growth pattern provides the necessary space for the growing brain, but results in an abnormal head shape and abnormal facial features. In cases in which the compensation does not effectively provide enough space for the growing brain, craniosynostosis results in increased intracranial pressure leading possibly to visual impairment, sleeping impairment, eating difficulties, or an impairment of mental development combined with a significant reduction in IQ.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Craniosynostosis is part of a syndrome in 15% to 40% of affected patients, but it usually occurs as an isolated condition. The term is from "cranio", cranium; + "syn", together; + "ost", relating to bone; + "osis", denoting a condition.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Children born with craniosynostosis have a distinct phenotype, i.e., appearance—observable traits caused by the expression of a condition's genes. The features of craniosynostosis' particular phenotype are determined by which suture is closed. The fusion of this suture causes a certain change in the shape of the skull; a deformity of the skull.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Virchow's law dictates that, when premature suture closure occurs, growth of the skull typically is restricted perpendicularly to the fused suture and enhanced in a plane parallel to it, thus trying to provide space for the fast-growing brain. Using this law, the pattern of skull deformity in craniosynostosis often may be predicted.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: An illustrative example of this phenomenon is scaphocephaly; the name providing a direct hint regarding the deformity of the skull. The literal meaning of the Greek derived word 'scaphocephaly' is boat-head. A synonymous term is 'dolichocephaly' (the prefix dolicho- means elongated).


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Premature sagittal suture closure restricts growth in a perpendicular plane, thus the head will not grow sideways and will remain narrow. This is best seen in a view standing above the child looking downward at the top of the head. Compensatory growth occurs forward at the coronal suture and backward at the lambdoid suture giving respectively a prominent forehead, called frontal bossing, and a prominent back portion of the head, called coning. This is the most common form of craniosynostosis.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Trigonocephaly is a result from the premature closure of the metopic suture. Using Virchow's law again to predict the resulting deformity, this fusion will result in a narrow forehead, which is even further emphasized by ridging of the suture. Compensatory growth occurs at both the coronal sutures, thereby pushing the forehead forwards.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The resulting shape can best be assessed from a top view again, which will reveal a somewhat triangular form of the head. Trigonocephaly is also a Greek-derived word, which can be translated as triangular-shaped head. A facial feature of metopic synostosis is hypotelorism; in the frontal view, it can be seen that the width between the eyes is smaller than usual.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The Greek word πλάγιος "plágios" means "skew". Plagiocephaly can be subclassified as anterior plagiocephaly or posterior plagiocephaly.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Anterior plagiocephaly is a clinical description of unilateral coronal synostosis. Children born with unilateral coronal synostosis develop due to compensatory mechanisms a skew head; a plagiocephaly.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The sagittal suture 'divides' the coronal suture in two halves; unilateral meaning that either the right side or the left side to the sagittal suture is fused. This fact immediately raises an important point. Unlike closure of the sagittal or the metopic suture, right and left are not the same in unilateral coronal synostosis. This asymmetry shows in the skull deformity, as well as in the facial deformity and the complications.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: This time, the skull deformity can only partly be predicted using Virchow's law. Growth is arrested in the plane perpendicular to the fused suture and the forehead is flattened, but only at the ipsilateral side of the head. Ipsilateral indicates the same side of the head as where the suture is closed.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Compensatory growth occurs in a parallel plane, as well as in a perpendicular plane. An increase in growth at the metopic and the sagittal suture accounts for the parallel plane and will result in bulging at the temporal fossa. Compensatory growth in the perpendicular plane occurs on the side of the head with the patent coronal suture, the contralateral side. Half of the forehead will bulge forwards.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Assessment of the skull from a top view shows asymmetry of the frontal bones, an increased width of the skull and a forward displacement of the ear at the ipsilateral side of the head. Assessment of the skull from a frontal view will show asymmetrical features of the face, including a displacement of the chin point of the jaw and a deviation of the tip of the nose. The chin point is located more to the contralateral side of the head, due to the ipsilateral forward displacement of the temporomandibular joint together with the ear. The tip of the nose will also point towards the contralateral side. Complications based on the skull deformation include malocclusion of the jaw, in as many as 90%; a subtle form of strabismus, caused by the asymmetrical placement of the orbits; and refractive error, particularly astigmatism, due to asymmetrical development of the orbits.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Unilateral lambdoid synostosis is also called posterior plagiocephaly, indicating that this gives, just like unilateral coronal synostosis, a 'skew head'. The difference is that this time, the deformity mostly shows at the occiput.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: By Virchow's law, restriction of growth will occur at the ipsilateral side of the head; compensatory growth will occur at the contralateral side of the head. This growth pattern exerts an effect at the base of the skull, which is not even when the child is assessed from a point of view standing behind the child, as well as on the cervical spine, which shows a curvature. In addition, from a point of view standing behind the child, a bulging of the mastoid can be seen.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Brachycephaly, or a 'short head', is the result of a closure of both the coronal sutures. Following Virchow's law, this will result in a child's head with a restriction of growth in the forward direction and in the backward direction: recessed frontal bones and a flattened occiput. Compensatory growth will occur sideways, due to the sagittal suture, and upwards, due to the lambdoid sutures.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Oxycephaly, also known as turricephaly and high-head syndrome, is a type of cephalic disorder. This is a term sometimes used to describe the premature closure of the coronal suture plus any other suture, like the lambdoid suture,


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The word pansynostosis is also Greek-derived and can be translated as "all one bone", indicating that all of the sutures are closed. In general practice, the term is used to describe the children with three or more cranial sutures closed.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Pansynostosis can present in several ways. The appearance can be the same as that seen with primary microcephaly: a markedly small head, but with normal proportions. However, pansynostosis can also appear as a Kleeblattschädel (cloverleaf skull), which presents with bulging of the different bones of the cranial vault.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The condition is associated with syndromes caused by mutations in fibroblast growth factor receptor genes (FGFR), including thanatophoric dwarfism type 2 ("FGFR3") and Pfeiffer syndrome type 2 ("FGFR2").


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Not all cranial abnormalities seen in children with craniosynostosis are solely a consequence of the premature fusion of a cranial suture. This is especially true in the cases with syndromic craniosynostosis. Findings include elevation of the intracranial pressure; obstructive sleep apnea (OSA); abnormalities in the skull base and neurobehavioral impairment.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: When the ICP is elevated the following symptomes may occur: vomiting, visual disturbance, bulging of the anterior fontanel, altered mental status, papilledema and headache.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The main risks of prolonged elevated intracranial pressure may include cognitive impairment and impaired vision through prolonged papilledema and subsequent optic atrophy. These are the main reasons why fundoscopy should be performed during the physical examination of children with craniosynostosis.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The causes of an elevation of the intracranial pressure are best understood using the Monro-Kellie doctrine. The Monro-Kellie doctrine reduces the cranial vault to a box with rigid walls. This box contains three elements: brain, intracranial blood and cerebrospinal fluid. The sum of volumes of these three elements is constant. An increase in one should cause a decrease in one or both of the remaining two, thereby preventing an elevation of the intracranial pressure.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: A compensatory mechanism involves the movement of cerebrospinal fluid from the cranial vault towards the spinal cord. The volume of blood in the cranial vault is auto-regulated by the brain, and will therefore not decrease that easily.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Intracranial pressure will rise as a result of continued brain growth within the rigid skull. It appears that in children with craniosynostosis, the expected decrease of intracranial blood is probably not occurring as it should according to the Monro-Kellie hypothesis. This is shown when the brain expands in the fixed skull, which gives a faster rise in intracranial pressure than would be expected.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The short stops in breathing during the sleep are the mainstay of OSA. Other symptoms can be difficulty in breathing, snoring, day-time sleepiness and perspiration.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The main causative agent of OSA is the [midface hypoplasia], which also poses a risk to the eyes that can be seen bulging out of the eye sockets. Other factors, such as a micrognathism and adenoid hypertrophy, are likely to contribute in causing OSA.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The most common syndromic forms of craniosynostosis; i.e. Apert, Crouzon and Pfeiffer, have an increased risk of developing OSA. The children have nearly 50% chance of developing this condition.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: A theory regarding the involvement of OSA as a causative agent for elevated intracranial pressure suggests an association with the auto-regulation of blood flow in the brain.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Certain cells in the brain respond specifically to an increase of in the blood. The response involves vasodilatation of the cranial vault blood vessels, increasing the volume of one of the elements in the Monro-Kellie doctrine. The increase of concentration in the blood is a consequence of impaired breathing, especially seen when the child with OSA is sleeping. It is well documented that the highest spikes in intracranial pressure often occur during sleep.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Impaired venous outflow is often caused by a hypoplastic jugular foramen. This causes an increase in the intracranial blood volume, thereby causing an increase in intracranial pressure.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: This can be further complicated with a possible Arnold–Chiari malformation, which can partially obstruct the flow of cerebro-spinal fluid from the neurocranium to the spinal cord. The Chiari malformation may be asymptomatic or present with ataxia, spasticity or abnormalities in breathing, swallowing or sleeping.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Due to the impaired venous outflow, which may be further complicated with an Arnold–Chiari malformation, there is often a clinical image of hydrocephalus present. Hydrocephalus is seen in 6.5 to 8% of patients with Apert's syndrome, 25.6% in patients with Crouzon's syndrome and 27.8% of those with Pfeifer's syndrome.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Neurobehavioural impairment includes problems with attention and planning, processing speed, visual spatial skills, language, reading and spelling. A decreased IQ may also be part of the problems.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: It has been suggested that these problems are caused by a primary malformation of the brain, rather than being a consequence of the growth restriction of the skull and elevated intracranial pressure. Some evidence for this statement has been provided by studies using computed tomographic (CT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to identify differences between the structures of the brains of healthy children and those affected with craniosynostosis.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: It has been found that corrective surgery of the cranial vault alters the morphology of the brain compared with the situation before surgical intervention. However the structure was still abnormal in comparison to children without craniosynostosis.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Advances in the fields of molecular biology and genetics, as well as the use of animal models have been of great importance in expanding our knowledge of suture fusion. Research in animal models has led to the idea that the dura mater plays an important role in determining closure or patency of the suture. In contrast to the dura mater it appears that the periosteum is not essential in causing closure or patency.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Instead of describing the abnormalities in structure and form, research focuses nowadays at decoding the molecular interactions that underlie them. Based on data from quantitative real-time PCR on samples of suture junctions during development, cranial suture fusion in mammals is a tightly orchestrated expression of genes in specific temporal order, leading to endochondral ossification. Despite the progress that has been made, many things are still not understood about the suture biology and the exact causative pathways remain yet to be completely understood.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Multiple potential causes of premature suture closure have been identified, such as the several genetic mutations that are associated with syndromic craniosynostosis.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Most likely, a role is played by biomechanical factors, as well as environmental, hormonal and genetical factors.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: New insights have given fuel to a debate whether there might be an intrinsic factor causing the premature fusion of the sutures. Brain structures of children with craniosynostosis were evaluated using magnetic resonance imaging. Differences were seen compared with the brain structures of normal children. The question now is whether these differences are caused by the craniosynostosis, or are the cause of craniosynostosis.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Biomechanical factors include fetal head constraint during pregnancy. It has been found by Jacob et al. that constraint inside the womb is associated with decreased expression of Indian hedgehog protein and noggin. These last two are both important factors influencing bone development.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Environmental factors refer for example to maternal smoking and the maternal exposure to amine-containing drugs. Several research groups have found evidence that these environmental factors are responsible for an increase in the risk of craniosynostosis, likely through effects on fibroblast growth factor receptor genes.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: On the other hand, a recent evaluation of valproic acid (an anti-epilepticum), which has been implicated as a causative agent, has shown no association with craniosynostosis.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Certain medication (like amine-containing drugs) can increase the risk of craniosynostosis when taken during pregnancy, these are so-called teratogenic factors.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Hyperthyroid induced craniosynostosis is a hormone mediated premature closure. It is thought that the bone matures faster due to high levels of thyroid hormone.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: In 6 to 11% of the children born with coronal synostosis, more often involving the bilateral cases than unilateral, other members of the family have been reported that were also born with the same condition. This finding is highly suggestive of a genetic cause, which has possibly been found in the fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) and TWIST genes.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Fibroblast growth factor and fibroblast growth factor receptors regulate fetal bone growth and are expressed in cranial sutures during pregnancy.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The transcription factor gene TWIST is thought to decrease the function of FGFR, thus also indirectly regulating fetal bone growth. A relation between the mutations in these genes and craniosynostosis is therefore possible.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Moloney et al. observed a FGFR3 mutation in as many as 31% of the cases with nonsyndromic coronal synostosis, thus showing that FGFR abnormalities play an important role in nonsyndromic craniosynostosis.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: In terms of syndromic craniosynostosis not only do FGFR3 and TWIST genes feature, but also FGFR1 and in particular FGFR2, which has been reported in 90% of the syndromic craniosynostoses such as Apert, Crouzon, Peiffer and Jackson–Weiss. The mutations can be divided into mutations that lead to gain of function (in FGFR genes) and mutations that lead to loss of function (in TWIST genes). Craniosynostosis is therefore likely the result of a disturbance in the fine balance that regulates the multiplication and maturation of the precursor bone cells in the cranial sutures.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The familial rate, which is different for nonsyndromic and syndromic cases, provides an important clue. In the nonsyndromic cases, a positive family history is found in 2% of the cases with sagittal suture closure and in 6% to 11% of the cases with coronal suture closure.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The mesenchyme above the meninges undergoes intramembranous ossification forming the neurocranium. The neurocranium consists of several bones, which are united and at the same time separated by fibrous sutures. This allows movement of the separate bones in relation to one another; the infant skull is still malleable. The fibrous sutures specifically allow the deformation of the skull during birth and absorb mechanical forces during childhood They also allow the necessary expansion during brain growth.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: In the very first years of life the sutures serve as the most important centers of growth in the skull.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The growth of the brain and the patency of the sutures depend on each other. Brain growth pushes the two sides of the patent sutures away from each other, thereby enabling growth of the neurocranium. This means that the neurocranium can only grow if the sutures remain open.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: This will occur for example when the intracranial pressure drops; the sutures do not experience stretching anymore causing them to fuse.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The evaluation of a child suspected to have craniosynostosis is preferentially performed in a craniofacial center. The three main elements of analysis include medical history, physical examination and radiographic analysis.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Medical history should in any case include questions about risk factors during pregnancy, the familial rate and the presence of symptoms of elevated intracranial pressure (ICP).


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Fundoscopy should always be performed in children with craniosynostosis. It is used to find papilledema which is sometimes the only symptom of elevated intracranial pressure shown in these children.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Other parts of the physical examination include the measurement of the head circumference, the assessment of the skull deformity and the search for deformities affecting other parts of the body. The head circumference and the growth curve of the head provide important clues into making a differentiation between craniosynostosis, primary microcephaly and hydrocephalus. This differentiation has an important influence on the further treatment of the child.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: In a recent article Cunningham et al. described several steps in which a pediatrician should observe the patient to assess skull deformity:


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Syndromal craniosynostosis presents with a skull deformity as well as deformities affecting other parts of the body. Clinical examination should in any case include evaluation of the neck, spine, digits and toes.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Radiographic analysis by performing a computed axial tomographic scan is the gold standard for diagnosing craniosynostosis.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Plain radiography of the skull may be sufficient for diagnosing a single suture craniosynostosis and should therefore be performed, but the diagnostic value is outweighed by that of the CT-scan. Not only can the sutures be identified more accurately, thus objectively demonstrating a fused suture, but also evaluation of the brain for structural abnormalities and excluding other causes of asymmetric growth are possible at the same time. In addition to this, CT-scanning can visualize the extent of skull deformity, thereby enabling the surgeon to start planning surgical reconstruction.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The main difference between plagiocephaly based on craniosynostosis and deformational plagiocephaly is that there is no suture fusion in the latter one. The malleability of the neonatal skull allows the skull to change shape due to extrinsic forces.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: With the tests a pediatrician should perform, as explained above, the difference is quite easy to make.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: In deformational plagiocephaly the skull does not show a bulging of the mastoid and in these patients the skull base and position of the ears is level, all in contrary with plagiocephaly due to craniosynostosis. Displacement of one ear to the front is characteristic for deformational plagiocephaly.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Primary microcephaly shows a clinical image of craniosynostosis, but due to a different cause. The primary failure is the absence of growth of the brain, rendering the sutures of the cranial vault useless. As a consequence, the sutures close, presenting a pansynostosis like image.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: A differentiation between these two conditions can be made with a computed tomography (CT) scan. The subarachnoid spaces are typically enlarged with primary microcephaly, whereas they are reduced or absent in true pansynostosis.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The primary goal of surgical intervention is to allow normal cranial vault development to occur. This can be achieved by excision of the prematurely fused suture and correction of the associated skull deformities. If the synostosis goes uncorrected, the deformity will progressively worsen not only threatening the aesthetic aspect, but also the functional aspect. This is especially prevalent with asymmetric conditions, such as unilateral coronal synostosis, with compromised function of the eyes and the jaw.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: In addition, signs of compromised neurodevelopment have been seen amongst all the synostoses, although this may also be caused by primary maldevelopment of the brain and can thus not be prevented by surgical intervention.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: There are a few basic elements involved in surgical intervention which is aimed at normalization of the cranial vault:


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The prevention of post-surgical complications, including those mentioned above, plays an important role in discussions over the timing of potential surgery. The general consensus is to perform surgery in late infancy, i.e. between six and twelve months. Within this time frame the efficacy of surgery will be enhanced for several reasons:


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Most surgeons will not intervene until after the age of six months due to the heightened risk which blood loss poses before this age. It is generally preferable to wait until after three months of age when anaesthetic risks will also be decreased.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Surgery is not performed in early childhood in every country; in some countries surgical intervention can take place in the late teens.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: It is important that families seek out a Pediatric Craniofacial Physician who has experience with craniosynostosis for proper diagnosis, surgical care, and followup.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: There are two surgical procedures which are commonly used to treat sagittal synostosis. The matter of which procedure is superior is still heavily debated amongst the surgeons treating this condition, however it is generally agreed upon that the cephalic index should be used to assess the efficacy of the preferred surgical intervention.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Retrospective analysis has given an indication that the use of total cranial vault remodelling provides children with a better cephalic index than does the extended strip craniectomy.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: An approach that is currently being evaluated involves the use of springs. This intervention is likely most effective when used in the time frame between three and six months of age.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The main elements of metopic suture closure involve a low volume of the anterior cranial fossa, the metopic ridging and hypotelorism. These problems are all addressed during the surgical intervention.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The volume is increased by placing the frontal bones and the supraorbital rim further forward. This is done by excision of the bones after which they are reshaped with greenstick fracturing. Replacement of the bones provides a possibility for the correction of the hypotelorism at the same time. A bone graft is placed in between the two halves of the supraorbital bars, thereby increasing the width between the orbits. The metopic ridge can then be corrected with a (simple) burring.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The treatment of unilateral coronal synostosis is typically performed in two parts: the forward advancement of the supraorbital bar and the correction of the orbital asymmetry.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The supraorbital bar is the rim just above the eye socket; as discussed under phenotype, the supraorbital and the frontal bone are typically recessed at the ipsilateral side of the head. The goal of treatment is to position this bar together with the frontal bone in a plane three millimetres further forwards than the vertical plane of the cornea.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: A two-dimensional sagittal image is used to pre-operatively determine the extent of movement, which can vary between seven and fifteen millimetres depending on the severity of the deformity.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The orbital asymmetry exists typically of a narrower and taller orbit at the ipsilateral side of the head. The contralateral orbit, however, is wider than usual. Symmetry is restored by extracting a small piece of bone from the supraorbital bar at the contralateral side, thereby reducing the width. This bone fragment is then introduced into the supraorbital bar on the ipsilateral side, thereby increasing width. The height of the orbit is altered at the ipsilateral side only, by extracting a piece of bone.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Any correction of the nasal tip, which points towards the contralateral side, will not be performed during childhood.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: An excision of the flattened occipital bone with release of the fused suture tends to correct the cranial vault deformity.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The treatment of bilateral coronal synostosis shows a high degree of overlap with treatment of unilateral coronal synostosis; in both surgical interventions is the forward advancement of the supraorbital rim together with the frontal bones is an important part of the procedure. Again, the plane three millimetres further forwards than the vertical plane of the [cornea] is the appropriate position to place the bone. The increased height of the skull is addressed in the same procedure. Parts of the flattened occiput are extracted and given a rounder shape by greenstick fracturing them.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The treatment of pansynostosis comprises the expansion of the anterior cranial vault, as well as the posterior cranial vault. Whilst this may be accomplished in one procedure it is generally performed in two stages.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: The most common complications of uncorrected craniosynostosis include increased intracranial pressure, asymmetry of the face, and malocclusion. Asymmetry of the orbits often leads to strabismus.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: It is estimated that craniosynostosis affects 1 in 1,800 to 3,000 live births worldwide. three out of every four cases affect males. Sagittal synostosis is the most common phenotype, representing 40% to 55% of nonsyndromic cases, whilst coronal synostosis represents between 20% to 25% of cases. Metopic synostosis is a factor in 5% to 15% of cases, and lambdoid synostosis is seen in 0% to 5% of nonsyndromic cases.


title: Craniosynostosis

text: Five to 15% of the time more than one suture is involved; this is referred to as "complex craniosynostosis" and is typically part of a syndrome.


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story is a 2005 American adult animated direct-to-video adventure comedy film set in the "Family Guy" fictional universe. Released on September 27, 2005, the film's main plot point concerns Stewie Griffin, following a near death experience, trying to find who he thinks is his real father after seeing the man on TV. He travels to San Francisco, only to find that the man is him from the future. The DVD contains commentaries and a promo Stan Smith (American Dad!) says Good News of the "American Dad!".


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: Fox eventually aired the film as three separate episodes for the "Family Guy" season 4 finale in May 21, 2006. Fox had several scenes cut out and other scenes altered to make it only 66 minutes long. The shortened and separated versions of the three segments – "Stewie B. Goode" (written by Gary Janetti and Chris Sheridan), "Bango Was His Name, Oh!" (written by Alex Borstein), and "Stu and Stewie's Excellent Adventure" (written by Steve Callaghan) – were aired on May 21, 2006.


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: The film opens with the premiere of the film, with celebrities such as Drew Barrymore and her date the Kool-Aid Man, the Greased-Up Deaf Guy, the Evil Monkey, David Bowie, and the Griffin family attending. Everyone goes into the theatre where Channel 5 reveals they have hired Glenn Quagmire to provide them with a bootleg copy of the film. We then see an advertisement for a new movie, "People Who Look Like They Never Sleep...", starring Susan Sarandon and Vince Vaughn, and another film, "The Littlest Bunny", made by Disney and featuring music by Randy Newman. After this, the film begins.


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: When the Griffins go swimming at the Quahog Community Pool, Peter tries teaching Stewie to swim and manages to throw him into the pool, despite Stewie begging to be put down. Lois takes Stewie to swimming lessons, after Stewie nearly drowns, where Stewie meets Brad, a child about his age who is the "Star Swimmer." In jealousy, Stewie does everything he can to steal Brad's glory. As a last resort he tries to kill him by rigging a lifeguard chair with dynamite and luring Brad beneath it with marzipan; however, Stewie's detonator malfunctions, blowing up the legs of the chair and causing it to fall on Stewie, presumbably killing him. He ends up in Hell with Steve Allen. When Stewie is revived by Lois, he believes it is a sign for him to be a good boy.


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: After Peter learns that the new video store will not let him rent pornography, he vents his frustration in front of newscaster Tom Tucker, who gives him a job at Quahog 5 hosting a segment called "What Really Grinds My Gears", in which he rants about things that bother him. Peter becomes extremely popular, eventually overshadowing Tucker, who is fired after attempting to distract Peter during filming.


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: Stewie attempts to be a good boy by smothering Brian with affection. Brian finally goads Stewie into reverting to his old, violent ways by crushing a spider web and eating the spider. Stewie starts drinking heavily, following Brian's way of coping. Brian attempts to cure Stewie of his alcoholism by taking him out for a night of drinking at the Drunken Clam. While drunk, Stewie crashes Brian's car through the wall of the bar. Knowing Stewie is Peter's son, Tom takes advantage of the situation and presents footage of the accident at the news station. Peter is fired and Tom is rehired as the anchor. The next morning, Stewie has a hangover and realizes his lonely existence in the world, wishing that there were someone else to whom he could relate. At the end, Stewie says it is good that he stopped drinking now, so that it would not have any repercussions later in life.


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: Peter buys a TiVo. While watching it, Stewie spots a man in San Francisco on the news that has the same face and hairstyle as him. Stewie then believes that he may be his true father. After several failed attempts to raise money for a plane ticket and learning that Quagmire is going on a cross-country tour in which he plans to have sex with a different woman in every state of America (and Vegas), Brian and Stewie hitch a ride in his RV. At a motel in New Jersey, Quagmire is handcuffed to a bed and mugged by the latest woman. Then Stewie and Brian drive off with his RV, leaving Quagmire at the motel.


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: Meanwhile, Peter and Lois are trying to get intimate, but are constantly interrupted by Chris and Meg. To solve this problem, Peter and Lois decide to teach the children how to find dates. After several "lessons", Peter and Lois send them to the mall. However, Lois is concerned that people will think they're bad parents simply because they wanted their children out of the way so they can be together.


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: Stewie crashes the RV in the desert after going insane from ingesting an entire bottle of "West Coast Turnarounds". After wandering through the desert, Stewie breaks down crying and nearly decides to give up until Brian encourages him to keep going. The two manage to get a rental car and arrive in San Francisco. Stewie mysteriously leaves Brian and confronts the man from TV on a cable car, and is shocked to discover that the man is actually himself from 30 years in the future.


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: "Stu", as Stewie's future self is called, tells Stewie that he is on vacation (Stu explains that rather than just simply travel to different places in the world, people from his time travel to other time periods). Stu reveals he cannot tell anyone about his time, but when he leaves for his time, Stewie stows away with him. Stewie learns he will not become ruler of the world but rather "a 35-year-old "Parade" magazine-reading virgin". Stewie is further disappointed when, doing a family dinner, he learns Lois is still alive, Meg underwent a sex change shortly after college and is now called Ron, Chris is a cop married to a foul-mouthed chain-smoking woman called Vanessa whose only interest is sticking Lois and Peter into a retirement home so she can have their house, and that Brian died after eating chocolate out of the garbage and is seen in Heaven with Ernest Hemingway, Vincent van Gogh and Kurt Cobain, who all shot themselves. Stu passes off Stewie as a Nicaraguan boy named Pablo to everyone until Stu can send him back to his own time.


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: Stewie learns he will work at the Quahog Circuit Shack while living with Rupert, his childhood teddy bear, in a filthy apartment. Disgusted with the way his life will turn out, Stewie remodels Stu's apartment and gets him to lose his virginity to his co-worker, Fran (though he spends more time crying than having sex). The next day, Fran tells everyone about the humiliating experience, costing Stu his job for having relations with a co-worker. Returning home, he finds that his apartment is on fire due to the stress-relieving candles Stewie put there. With his life now ruined, Stu laments the day of his near-death experience at the community pool, revealing that, despite Stewie's earlier ascertation that the incident would have no impact on his life, memories of the experience will re-surface when Stewie is 20 years old, causing him to repress most of his major emotions and preventing him from taking any risks.


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: They visit Lois (who reveals that she had recognized "Pablo" as her "little Stewie" immediately) at a retirement home for a loan and get a new time travel watch, which she agrees to on the condition that Stewie travels back in time to Chris and Vanessa's wedding and kill her as a favor. After saying goodbye to Stu, Stewie travels to the day of the accident (after fulfilling Lois' favor) and prevents himself from getting crushed by the chair. However, future Stewie gets vaporized by present Stewie, thus creating a paradox and skipping the formalities of Future Stewie disappearing eventually. In the bleachers at the pool, Meg is seen talking to a man named Ron, admitting she likes the name.


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: At the end Tricia Takanawa talks with the fans and asks them how they liked the film, receiving completely negative feedback. After this, Tricia asks the family what they did during the show's cancellation between Seasons 3 and 4. Peter talks about how he did several part-time jobs that involved wearing costumes, although he always wound up fired because he kept peeing in them because he thought it was like an astronaut suit, but when he finally did become an astronaut, he did not believe he had to pee in the suit and almost died. Brian talks about how he met his fans and competed in the Iditarod Dog Race, only to get very tired and lose. Lois talks about how she became a prostitute and shows video footage of her trying to beat up a policeman and of her having an argument in a convenience store over her wanting to taste the chips. Meg talks about entertaining the U.S. Navy by singing and dressing like Cher for "If I Could Turn Back Time". However, she was actually repulsing the sailors instead, causing them to abandon and sink the ship they were on. Stewie talks about his appearances in those "damn" talk shows. Chris then talks about his guest appearance on "The West Wing".


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: In the end, during his final speech, Peter rips out a fart as a joke, prompting everyone to laugh. The screen pulls back, revealing it to be on another TV screen with Peter next to it. He explains that over 300 million Americans pass gas each day. He also tells the viewers to "visit my ass" for more information. Peter then rips out another fart as a joke, thus ending the movie.


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: "The A.V. Club" called it "uneven but frequently hilarious". Several reviewers criticised the film for being too long to sustain interest.


title: Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story

text: The episode when broadcast in Canada was subject to a complaint to the Canadian Broadcast Standards Council in 2011. The council ordered that Global Television must apologize to its viewers for not warning them about the violence in a scene where Elmer Fudd kills Bugs Bunny with a rifle during a July 23, 2011 airing of the "Family Guy" episode "Stewie B. Goode". The Council stated "The panel finds that the scene was definitely somewhat gruesome and uncomfortable to watch. It recognizes, however, that the scene was intended to satirize the violence found in that type of cartoon program. The gag was somewhat tongue-in-cheek since "Family Guy" itself is an animated program that sometimes contains violence."


title: Project I.G.I.

text: Project I.G.I. (released in North America as Project I.G.I.: I'm Going In) is a tactical first-person shooter video game. It was developed by Innerloop Studios and released in December 2000 by Eidos Interactive. The game received mixed reviews due to shortcomings including a poorly programmed A.I., lack of a mid-game save option, and the lack of multiplayer features. However it was praised for its sound design and graphics, thanks in part to its use of a proprietary game engine that was previously used in Innerloop's "Joint Strike Fighter".


title: Project I.G.I.

text: A prequel titled "I.G.I. Origins" was announced by publisher Toadman Interactive in 2019 and was to be released in 2023.


title: Project I.G.I.

text: Protagonist David Jones and his analyst Anya learn that a Russian Arms dealer named Josef Priboi had been kidnapped by Russian Mafia and imprisoned in a Military Airbase. He was later moved to another prison. After rescue Josef admits that his uncle Jach is selling a nuclear warhead to someone. After capturing the uncle, Jach Priboi admits to selling it to a Russian leader named EKK. Jones gets orders to transport Jach to headquarters with a chopper .But the chopper gets shot down by Migs near the Russian Border . EKK captures Jach and orders Jones to be killed, but Jones escapes and crosses the border and is rescued by a chopper. He hijacks the train carrying Jach, but EKK derails the train. Jones and Jach escape by a chopper sent by Anya. Jones gets orders to retrieve the warhead and terminate EKK. But he discovers a broken warhead (used to make a nuclear bomb) and fails to kill EKK as she escapes. Then he infiltrates the nuclear base where EKK planted the bomb. Jones kills EKK ,and Anya defuses the bomb.


title: Project I.G.I.

text: The game received "average" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Samuel Bass of "Next Generation" said that the game "quickly transforms itself into a frustratingly mediocre experience".


title: Project I.G.I.

text: It received a "Silver" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Josaia Voreqe "Frank" Bainimarama ( ]; born 27 April 1954) is serving as the prime minister of Fiji since 2007. A member of the Fiji First Party, he began his career as a naval officer and commander of the Fijian Military Forces.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama attended Marist Brothers High School, the Asian Institute of Technology and Dalhousie University. He joined the Fijian Navy in 1975 and rose through the ranks, becoming an Able Seaman and a Midshipman in 1976, an Ensign in 1977 and later promoted to a sub-lieutenant at the end of that year. He was promoted to lieutenant-commander in 1986 and became a commander of the Fijian navy in 1988. He later became captain in 1991. In 1997, Bainimarama was appointed Chief of Staff of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces. In 1998, he was promoted to a Commodore and later became the commander of the Armed Forces in 1999. He relinquished command in 2014, and in recognition of his military service, he was promoted to Rear Admiral.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama instigated the 2006 coup, removing Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase from power. He later restored Ratu Josefa Iloilo as president and himself as acting prime minister in 2007. He held this title until the 2014 election, where his FijiFirst Party won, and was sworn in as prime minister of Fiji by President Ratu Epeli Nailatikau. In the 2018 Fijian general election, FijiFirst won an outright majority, and Bainimarama became prime minister for a second term on 20 November 2018.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: In January 2022, Bainimarama underwent heart surgery in Melbourne, Australia. During his recovery, Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum was named Acting Prime Minister. Bainimarama returned to Fiji in March 2022.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama has taken power twice in Fiji's history, the first time as Head of the Interim Military Government of Fiji from 29 May to 13 July 2000, after organising a counter-coup to neutralise the ethnic Fijian putsch led by George Speight. He handed power over to the newly appointed President Ratu Josefa Iloilo. He was instrumental in the rise to power of the government of the Prime Minister, Laisenia Qarase, but his intense criticism of the government's policy of showing leniency towards persons implicated in the coup later strained his relations with the regime, and on 5 December 2006, he overthrew the Qarase government and announced that he had "reluctantly" assumed the powers of the presidency. He restored Ratu Josefa Iloilo to the presidency on 4 January 2007, and was formally appointed Interim Prime Minister by Iloilo the next day. The appointment was declared lawful by the Supreme Court of Fiji in October 2008.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama stepped down on 10 April 2009 as interim prime minister, after the country's court of appeal ruled the removal of the democratic government during his 2006 military coup was unlawful. President Ratu Josefa Iloilo then announced that he had abolished the constitution, assumed all governing power and revoked all judicial appointments. He reappointed Bainimarama as prime minister.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama's naval career spans three decades. He has received a number of honours for his service. He has been made an Officer Brother in the Order of St John of Jerusalem, and has received the Meritorious Service Decoration, the Peacekeeping Medal for United Nations peacekeepers, the General Service Medal, the Fiji Republic Medal, and the 25 Anniversary Medal.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Following his education at Marist Brothers High School, Bainimarama enlisted with the Fijian Navy on 26 July 1975 and rose smoothly through the ranks, becoming an Able Seaman in August 1976, a Midshipman in December the same year, and an Ensign on 1 November 1977.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: After completing the Midshipmen's Supplementary Course in Australia, he was appointed Navigation officer of HMFS "Kiro" in August 1978. At the end of that year, he was promoted to Sub-Lieutenant. In January 1979, Bainimarama embarked on the Chilean naval training ship, the Buque Escuela "Esmeralda", which spent six months circumnavigating South America. On his return to Fiji in August, Bainimarama was appointed executive officer of HMFS "Kiro".


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: After a brief Navigation Course in HMAS "Watson" in March 1982, Bainimarama underwent Search and Rescue training at the United States Coast Guard Centre in New York City. On his return to Fiji, he was appointed commander of HMFS "Kikau", his first command post. He went on to command HMFS "Kula", and spent four months in 1984 in the markings of the Exclusive Economic Zones of Tonga, Tuvalu, and Kiribati. After being promoted to Lieutenant Commander in February 1986, he departed for Sinai where he served for eighteen months with the Multinational Force and Observers.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama returned to Fiji in September 1987. He took charge of the delivery of two naval ships, the "Levuka" and "Lautoka", from Louisiana in the United States. He became Commanding Officer of the Fijian Navy in April 1988, and was promoted to the rank of Commander on 4 October that year. He held this post for the next nine years.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama underwent further training at the Malaysian Armed Forces Staff College in 1991 and at the Australian Defence Force Warfare Centre at RAAF Williamtown, Newcastle, New South Wales, where he studied Maritime Surveillance Training. This was followed by Disaster Management training at the Asian Institute of Technology in 1993, and Exclusive Economic Zone Management training at Dalhousie University, Canada, in 1994. He was promoted to the rank of Captain in October of that year, and went on to attend the Australian Joint Services Staff College (JSSC). He attended the Integrated Logistics Support Overview course of the Australian Defence Co-operation Program on 23 September 1996, and the Chief of Army Conferences in Singapore in 1998 and 1999, as well as the Chief of Defence Conference in Hawaii.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama was appointed as the Acting Chief of Staff on 10 November 1997, and was confirmed in this post on 18 April 1998. On 1 March 1999, he was promoted to the rank of Commodore and was named commander of the Armed Forces, to replace Brigadier-General Ratu Epeli Ganilau, who resigned to pursue a political career. It was in his capacity as commander of the Armed Forces that Bainimarama assumed command on 29 May 2000. He relinquished command on 5 March 2014, to Brigadier-General Mosese Tikoitoga. Bainimarama was promoted to the rank of rear admiral on his retirement in recognition of his military service.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: A group led by George Speight, a businessman who had been declared bankrupt following the cancellation of several contracts by the government, entered Parliament buildings on 19 May 2000 and disaffected elements of the Fijian population rallied to his side. For 56 days Prime Minister Mahendra Chaudhry and most of his cabinet, along with many parliamentarians and their staff, were held as hostages while Speight attempted to negotiate with the president, Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, who denounced the coup and declared a state of emergency.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Believing that President Kamisese Mara was not dealing effectively with the situation, Bainimarama forced Mara to resign on 29 May 2000, in what some politicians have since called "a coup within a coup," and formed an interim military government, which negotiated an accord under which the rebels would release all hostages, including the deposed Prime Minister Mahendra Chaudhry, and would surrender without penalty. The government later reneged on the last part of the agreement and arrested Speight on 27 July 2000, with Bainimarama saying that he had signed that part of the accord "under duress."


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama attended a Leadership and Change Management course with the Public Service Training and Development program in February 2002, and a Policy Planning Analysis and Management course at the University of the South Pacific in Suva the following month. He went on to attend the Defence and Strategic Studies Annual Conference at the Australian Defence College in Canberra on 2 August, and the Program for Senior Executives in National and International Security at Harvard University in the United States from 18 to 30 August. In November that year, he was promoted to Rear Admiral, but this promotion was reverted to Commodore on 1 February 2003. In 2014, he was made rear admiral again.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: On 4 September 2003, Bainimarama attended the Pacific Armies Management Seminar XXVII in Seoul, South Korea, and went on to attend the PKO Capacity Building Seminar in the Philippine capital of Manila.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Despite his deteriorating relationship with the government, Bainimarama was reappointed commander of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces on 5 February 2004. That month, he attended the Pacific Area Special Operations Conference. This was followed by the Seminar Executive Course at the Asia Pacific Centre for Strategic Studies in Hawaii in April. In May and June, he attended the South East Asia Security Symposium. In September, he attended both the PAMS XXVII in the Indian capital of New Delhi, and the 7th Chief of Defence Conference in Tokyo, Japan.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: On 14 December 2005, Bainimarama began an official visit to China, at the invitation of the People's Liberation Army.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama, who initially kept a high profile after the coup, later became embroiled in constant controversy. He repeatedly entered the political arena to criticise government policy – especially its policy of leniency, as he saw it, towards persons responsible for the coup. Politicians countered with charges of inappropriate interference in political affairs, and some accused him of hypocrisy, saying that he himself had a case to answer for his role in Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara's resignation from the presidency.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama condemned the early release of persons imprisoned for their involvement in the 2000 coup, including former Vice-President Ratu Jope Seniloli and Ratu Naiqama Lalabalavu, the Paramount Chief of the Tovata Confederacy. He spoke out against the organising of Fiji Week, a week of religious services and cultural ceremonies, in which persons could apologise for their participation in the coup, that was held from 4 to 11 October 2004. On 13 May 2005, he announced his implacable opposition to the government's proposal to establish a Reconciliation and Unity Commission, with the power to grant compensation to victims of the 2000 coup, and amnesty to perpetrators of it. He agreed with detractors who called it a sham to grant amnesty to supporters of the government who had played roles in the coup. His attack on the legislation, which continued unremittingly throughout May and June and into July, further strained his already tense relationship with the government.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: On 11 July, Bainimarama issued one of his strongest-worded challenges yet to the government, saying that it was forcing the country into the same anarchy as in 2000. In an eight-page statement, he warned that the military would take decisive action against any "destabilisers" – among whom he named Attorney-General Bale and Ministry of Reconciliation Chief Executive Apisalome Tudreu. ""The military will dish out the same fate we dealt George Speight and his group to anyone whom we think deserves this treatment,"" Bainimarama said. He said that he would arrest and put on trial anyone who threatened the stability of Fiji. The next day, it was revealed that a draft document signed by Bainimarama had originally contained a direct threat to overthrow the government if the bill went through. ""The RFMF must stop the Bill from passing or get rid of the Government if it is passed. We can recover without this government, we cannot recover from this Bill,"" said part of an emboldened paragraph, which was edited out of the document, part of the Military's draft submission to the parliamentary committee considering the bill, before publication. The document accused Prime Minister Qarase and Attorney-General Bale of playing the race card deliberately for political reasons.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Home Affairs Minister Vosanibola finally admitted on 13 July that the government was constitutionally powerless to do anything to discipline the military commander. He said that the government was very concerned about Bainimarama's behaviour, and accused the media of exacerbating the tensions. ""You (the media) can play a major role and come to us first instead of coming to us after highlighting what he (Bainimarama) has said,"" Vosanibola told the Fiji Times. On 20 July, however, Bainimarama claimed that Vosanibola had attempted to dismiss him in June. Vosanibola had presented a letter of termination to the government, which they had discussed, he claimed.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: On 24 August, Bainimarama went public with allegations that Senator Apisai Tora and other politicians, whom he did not name, had asked him to depose President Iloilo in 2000. Tora angrily denied the accusations, and was supported by Prime Minister Qarase, who claimed to have attended the meeting where the topic of removing President Iloilo was alleged to have come up. No such topic was discussed, Qarase said. Bainimarama reiterated his allegations on 1 September, and police spokeswoman Sylvia Low said that a file had, in fact, been opened as far back as 2001, when Bainimarama had made a statement to the police naming individuals he said were involved in the plot. That file was still open, Low said.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: On 5 September, a team of Criminal Investigation Officers interviewed Bainimarama about his allegations. The details of the discussion were not disclosed, except that Bainimarama had filed an official statement. He told the media after the meeting that he was willing to testify in court. Earlier, Kevueli Bulamainaivalu, the police officer heading the investigation, had said on 29 August that until Commodore Bainimarama had filed an official report and signed it, the police could do nothing.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama's detractors accused him of hypocrisy for vehemently opposing what he saw as the government's policy of leniency towards perpetrators of the 2000 coup, when there were unanswered questions about his own role in it.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: On 25 April 2004, then-Opposition Leader Mick Beddoes called on the army to answer for its failure to protect President Mara while the country was in crisis. He called this ""a fundamental failure"" on the part of the army. On 5 January 2005, Joji Kotobalavu, a spokesman for Prime Minister Qarase, reminded the public that Bainimarama himself was currently under investigation for his role in the apparently forced resignation of President Mara.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: On 2 May 2005, Police Commissioner Andrew Hughes announced that Bainimarama had volunteered to make a statement about his own role in Mara's resignation. To lay any charges, Hughes had earlier said, it would have to be proven that Bainimarama actually forced the president to resign.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama told the Fiji Live news service on 13 December that Noah Musingku, a Papua New Guinea businessman who once ran a failed pyramid scheme and has since been involved with an armed separatist movement on the island of Bougainville, had contacted him several months earlier, offering F$35 million for his cooperation with respect to "security work" in Bougainville. Bainimarama recognised the scheme as an obvious "con job", he said, and did not reply to the letter.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: On 31 October 2006, while Bainimarama was in Egypt visiting Fijian forces on peacekeeping duties in the Middle East, President Iloilo moved to terminate the appointment of Bainimarama, appointing instead Lieutenant Colonel Meli Saubulinayau who declined to take the position. Senior Fijian military officers backed Bainimarama, who quickly called on the Government to resign. The governments of Australia, New Zealand, the U.S. and others called for calm, and asked for assurances that the Fijian military not rise against the government.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: In late November 2006, Bainimarama handed down a list of demands to Qarase, one of which was the withdrawal of three controversial bills, including the Qoliqoli Bill (which would have transferred ownership of maritime resources to the Fijian people) and the Reconciliation, Tolerance, and Unity Bill, which would have offered conditional pardons to persons convicted of involvement in the 2000 coup. Despite further talks in Suva and in Wellington, New Zealand, Bainimarama gave the Prime Minister Qarase an ultimatum of 4 December to accede to his demands or to resign. In a televised address, Qarase agreed to put the three contentious bills on hold, review the appointment of Andrew Hughes as police commissioner (Bainimarama had demanded his dismissal), and give the police the option of discontinuing investigations into the commander's alleged acts of sedition. He refused further concessions, saying that he had conceded all that was possible within the law.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Military manoeuvres followed, including the seizure of government vehicles and the house arrest of Prime Minister Qarase. On 5 December President Ratu Josefa Iloilo was said to have signed a legal order dissolving Parliament after meeting with Bainimarama. The president later issued a statement categorically denying having signed any such decree, however, and the exiled Commissioner of Police, Andrew Hughes, implicated Iloilo's secretary in the fabrication of the decree at the direction of Commander Bainimarama.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: As of 9 December, there were reported arrests of members of the media and open dissenters, as well as incidents of intimidation and violence committed against political figures. Stuart Huggett, chairman of the Public Service Commission, was reported to have been assaulted.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama told a press conference on 15 December that he would agree to attend a forthcoming meeting of the Great Council of Chiefs, the feudal body empowered to choose the country's president, vice-president, and fourteen of the thirty two Senators, only in his capacity as president of the Republic, the Fiji Sun reported. Told that the Great Council still recognised Ratu Josefa Iloilo as president, he said that in that case he would boycott the meeting. He also condemned the Great Council's invitation to deposed Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase, saying that Qarase would not be allowed to return to Suva to attend the meeting.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: On 6 September 2007, Bainimarama imposed a renewed state of emergency for one month, alleging that Qarase and his spokesman were spreading lies and attempting to cause destabilisation, following Qarase's return to Suva after having been confined to the island of Vanua Balavu since his ouster. Bainimarama said that Qarase and his spokesman should return to Vanuabalavu and that they could "talk from there".


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama became acting Minister of Finance on 18 August 2008 after Chaudhry and the other Labour Party ministers withdrew from the interim government.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: The immediate cause of the military coup was Prime Minister Qarase's refusal to withdraw the Qoliqoli Bill. Bainimarama stated that his main reasons for overthrowing the Qarase government were that it was corrupt, and that it was conducting racially discriminatory policies against the country's Indo-Fijian minority. In a speech publicly announcing the coup, he stated that Qarase's policies had "divided the nation now and will have very serious consequences to our future generations". He added that "the passing of the Reconciliation, Qoliqoli and Land Claims [Bills] will undermine the Constitution, will deprive many citizens of their rights as guaranteed under the Constitution and compromise and undermine the integrity of the Constitutional Offices including the Judiciary". He explained that he would amend the race-based electoral rolls, so as to "lead us into peace and prosperity and mend the ever widening racial divide that currently besets our multicultural nation".


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: "[I]n 1970, Fiji started its journey as a young nation on a rather shaky foundation, with a race-based Constitution, one which rigidly compartmentalised our communities. The 'democracy' which came to be practised in Fiji was marked by divisive, adversarial, inward-looking, race-based politics. The legacy of leadership, at both community and national levels, was a fractured nation. Fiji's people were not allowed to share a common national identity."


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Of the two major communities, indigenous Fijians were instilled with fear of dominance and dispossession by Indo-Fijians, and they desired protection of their status as the indigenous people. Indo-Fijians, on the other hand, felt alienated and marginalised, as second-class citizens in their own country, the country of their birth, Fiji. [...]


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Fiji's overall situation by 2006 had deteriorated sharply, heightened by massive corruption and lawlessness [...].


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: [P]olicies which promote racial supremacy [...] must be removed once and for all. [...] Fiji will look at making the necessary legal changes in the area of electoral reform, to ensure true equality at the polls. [...] [E]very person will be given the right to vote for only one candidate, irrespective of race or religion."


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: This was to be achieved, he declared, through a People's Charter for Change, Peace and Progress, the stated aim of which was to "rebuild Fiji into a non-racial, culturally-vibrant and united, well-governed, truly democratic nation that seeks progress, and prosperity through merit-based equality of opportunity, and peace".


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: "My vision for Fiji is one that's free of racism. That's the biggest problem we've had in the last 20 years and it needs to be taken out. It's the lies that are being fed to indigenous Fijians that are causing this, especially from our chiefs who are the dominating factor in our lives. And the politicians take advantage of that. We need to change direction in a dramatic way. We need to get rid of Qarase and everything associated with the 2000 coup and begin entirely on a new path.""


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Davis noted that Bainimarama had introduced greater ethnic diversity into senior positions, and suggested that "maybe that's what drives Bainimarama most of all; the notion, however quixotic, of a multiracial meritocracy belatedly fulfilling the great promise Fiji had in its early post-independence years, when a visiting pope John Paul II famously described it as a model for the developing world. Before the greed, the racism and the gun."


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: In September 2011, the Bainimarama government introduced a decree severely curtailing labour rights, so as to "ensure the present and continued viability and sustainability of essential national industries". In particular, the decree banned strikes in all but exceptional circumstances, subjecting them in addition to government authorisation on a case-by-case basis. It also curtailed the right for workers to take their grievances to courts of law. The Fiji Trades Union Congress said the decree "offers major weapons to the employers to utilise against unions [...] It outlaws professional trade unionists, eliminates existing collective agreements, promotes a biased system of non-professional bargaining agents to represent workers, severely restricts industrial action, strengthens sanctions against legally striking workers and bans overtime payments and other allowances for workers in 24-hour operations". Attar Singh, general secretary for the Fiji Islands Council of Trade Unions, said: "We have never seen anything worse than this decree. It is without doubt designed to decimate unions [...] by giving [employers] an unfair advantage over workers and unions". Amnesty International said the decree threatened "fundamental human rights [...], including the right to freedom of association and assembly, and the right to organise".


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: In April 2009, the Court of Appeal ruled the removal of the democratic government during his 2006 military coup was illegal.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: President Ratu Josefa Iloilo then announced that he had abolished the constitution, assumed all governing power and revoked all judicial appointments.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: After abolishing the constitution and sacking the judiciary, President Ratu Josefa Iloilo reappointed Commodore Frank Bainimarama as prime minister only 24 hours later. On 24 April, the president made him Companion of the Order of Fiji in recognition of his "eminent achievement and merit of highest degree and service to Fiji and to humanity at large".


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: On 3 November 2009, Bainimarama banished the envoys of Australia and New Zealand giving them 24 hours to leave the country.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: The controversy stemmed from Bainimarama's move to appoint Sri Lankan judges to replace the country's judiciary, which he ousted in April 2009.


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama displays above his office desk portraits of Elizabeth II, former Queen of Fiji, and of her consort, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. He has said of himself: "I'm still loyal to the Queen. Many people are in Fiji. One of the things I'd like to do is see her restored as our monarch, to be Queen of Fiji again." However, in 2012 Bainimarama's government abolished the Queen's Official Birthday holiday in Fiji and replaced the Queen's image on Fiji's banknotes and coins with the Fijian coat of arms (themselves granted by royal warrant).


title: Frank Bainimarama

text: Bainimarama hails from the village of Kiuva in the Kaba Peninsula, Tailevu Province. He is the brother of Ratu Meli Bainimarama and Ratu Timoci Bainimarama, both senior civil servants. He was Roman Catholic-educated and graduated from Marist Brothers High School in Suva. He is married to Maria Makitalena; they have six children and several grandchildren. He is a sports enthusiast, with a particular passion for rugby union and athletics; he became president of the Fiji Rugby Union on 31 May 2014.


title: Ternopil

text: Ternópil ( ; ; , or ; ; ) is a city in the west of Ukraine. Administratively, Ternopil serves as the administrative centre of Ternopil Oblast and has the status of city of oblast significance. Located on the banks of the Seret. Until 1944, it was known mostly as Tarnopol. Ternopil is one of the major cities of Western Ukraine and the historical regions of Galicia and Podolia. It is served by Ternopil Airport. The population of Ternópil was estimated at .


title: Ternopil

text: The city is the administrative center of Ternopil Oblast (region), as well as of surrounding Ternopil Raion (district) within the oblast. It hosts the administration of Ternopil urban hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine.


title: Ternopil

text: According to Ukrainian Census (2001), Ternopil city and Ternopil oblast are homogeneously populated by ethnic Ukrainians. Ternopil city and Ternopil oblast are also homogeneously Ukrainian-speaking.


title: Ternopil

text: The city was founded in 1540 by Polish commander and Hetman Jan Amor Tarnowski, as a military stronghold and castle. On 15 April 1540, the King of Poland Sigismund I in Cracow handed Tarnowski a permission for the establishment of Tarnopol settlement, in the vicinity of Sopilcze ("Sopilche"). Its Polish name "Tarnopol" means "Tarnowski's city" and stems from a combination of the founder's family name and the Greek term "polis". The etymology of the Tarnowski family surname, originating from the city of Tarnów (and thus the Ukrainian name "Ternopil"), is explained as derived from a field covered with thorns (). The city's coat of arms is based on the Tarnowski family Leliwa coat of arms.


title: Ternopil

text: In 1544 the Tarnopol Castle was completed and repelled the first Tatar attacks. On 20 January 1548, Tarnopol was granted legal rights by the King of Poland Sigismund I the Old which allowed the town to hold three fairs annually, and weekly trades on Mondays. Tarnopol received Magdeburg city rights two years later from Jan Tarnowski, regulating the duties of town residents. In 1548 the King of Poland also gave permission to create a pond near the Tarnopol suburb of Kutkovets. In 1549 the city managed to survive a Tatar siege by efforts of the Polish Duchess Eudokia Czartoryska (see House of Czartoryski). After the death of the Crown Hetman in 1561, Tarnopol became the property of his son Jan Krzysztof Tarnowski, who died childless in 1567. Starting in 1567 the city was owned by the daughter of Crown Hetman Zofia Tarnowska who was married to Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski. In 1570 she died in childbirth, and Tarnopol was passed to the Ostrogski family. In 1575 it was plundered by the Tatars. In 1623 the city passed to the Zamoyski family. In 1589 Tarnopol was visited by the Austrian diplomat who also mentioned the city's castle.


title: Ternopil

text: With the ongoing 1648–1654 Khmelnytsky Uprising, many residents of the city joined the ranks of the Khmelnytsky forces particularly during the 1649 Siege of Zbarazh that is located just . In September 1655 the united army of Muscovite and Ukrainian Cossack forces occupied Ternopil among other cities as it was moving towards Lwow (Lviv).


title: Ternopil

text: During the 1672–1676 Polish–Ottoman War, Tarnopol was almost completely destroyed by Turkish forces of Ibrahim Shishman Pasha in 1675 and rebuilt by Aleksander Koniecpolski but did not recover its previous glory until it passed to Marie Casimire, the wife of king John III Sobieski in 1690. The city was later sacked for the last time by Tatars in 1694, and twice by Russians in the course of the Great Northern War in 1710 and the War of the Polish Succession in 1733. In 1747 Józef Potocki invited the Dominicanes and founded the beautiful late-baroque Dominican Church (today the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception of The Blessed Virgin Mary of the Ternopil-Zboriv archeparchy of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church). The city was looted during the Confederation of Bar (1768–1772) by the confederates, the king's army, and by the Russians. In 1770 it was devastated by an outbreak of smallpox.


title: Ternopil

text: In 1772, after the First Partition of Poland, the city came under Austrian rule. In 1809, after the War of the Fifth Coalition, the city came under Russian rule, incorporated into the newly created "Ternopol krai". In 1815 the city (then with 11,000 residents) returned to Austrian rule in accordance with the Congress of Vienna. In 1820 Jesuits expelled from Polatsk by the Russians established a gymnasium in Tarnopol. In 1843 the last city's owner Jerzy Michal of Turkul sold the city to its residents for 175,000 florins. In 1870 the Galician Railway of Archduke Charles Louis connected Tarnopol with Lemberg in Austria-Hungary, accelerating the city's growth. At that time Tarnopol had a population of about 25,000.


title: Ternopil

text: The region was part of Habsburg Galicia and was an ethnic mix of mainly Roman Catholic Poles, Greek Catholic Ruthenians, and Jews. Intermarriage between Poles and Ruthenians was common. Church of St. Mary of the Perpetual Assistance was consecrated in 1908, with its main tower reaching . In 1954, the church was blown up by Communist authorities and in its place, the city's central supermarket was built. During World War I the city passed from German and Austrian forces to Russia several times. In 1917, the city and its castle were burnt down by fleeing Russian forces. After the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the city was proclaimed as part of the West Ukrainian People's Republic on 11 November 1918. After Polish forces captured Lwów during the Polish-Ukrainian War, Tarnopol became the country's temporary capital (22 November to 30 December 1918). After the act of union between the West Ukrainian Republic and the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR), Ternopol formally passed under the UPR's control. On 15 July 1919, the city was captured by Polish forces. In 1920 the exiled Ukrainian government of Symon Petlura accepted Polish control of Tarnopol and of the entire area after receiving the assurance of Józef Piłsudski, the Lithuanian born Field Marshal of the Polish Army, that there would be no peace with the Russians without creating a Ukrainian state. In July and August 1920 the Red Army captured Tarnopol in the course of the Polish-Soviet War. The city then served as the capital of the Galician Soviet Socialist Republic. Although the Poles and their Ukrainian allies badly defeated the Russians on the battle field and the Russians had offered to cede Ukraine and Belarus , Polish politicians in Warsaw refused to honor Piłsudski's promise. By the terms of the Riga treaty, the Soviets and Poles effectively partitioned Ukraine. For the next 19 years, the ethnically mixed Ternopol area remained in Polish control.


title: Ternopil

text: After Poland established control over the West Ukrainian People's Republic, the Polish government started political repressions against ethnic Ukrainians, which culminated in the Pacification of Ukrainians in Eastern Galicia in 1930.


title: Ternopil

text: From 1922 to September 1939, Tarnopol served as the capital of the Tarnopol Voivodeship that consisted of 17 powiats. According to the Polish census of 1931, individuals speaking Ukrainian/Ruthenian accounted for 46% of the Tarnopol Voivodeship, while Polish speaking population consisted of 49%. The city itself consisted of 77.7% Poles, 14.0% Jewish and 8.05% Ukrainian/Ruthenian population. After World War II, Communist Party historians reported that Edward Szturm de Sztrem, the pre-war chairman of the Polish census statistical office, admitted that the census returns, particularly those from the south-east, had been altered at the executive level. Another account stated that he admitted "that officials had been directed to undercount minorities, especially those in the eastern provinces".


title: Ternopil

text: At the onset of World War II, the Soviet invasion of Poland began on September 17, 1939. The Red Army entered eastern Poland in furtherance of the secret Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and contrary to the Soviet–Polish Non-Aggression Pact. Tarnopol was captured, renamed Ternopol (in Russian) or Ternopil (in Ukrainian), and incorporated into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic under Ternopol Oblast. The Soviets made it their first priority to decimate the Polish intelligentsia and destroy Ukrainian political movements. Ukrainian nationalist leaders were imprisoned. Mass arrests, torture, and executions of Ukrainians, Poles and Jews followed. The Soviets also carried out mass deportations of "enemies of the working class" to Kazakhstan. In practice, this translated into members of the former state administration, police, border service, and land and business owners, Christians and Jews alike.


title: Ternopil

text: On 2 July 1941, the city was occupied by the Nazis who immediately led a Jewish pogrom, partly assisted by the local population. Several thousand Jews were murdered until the Germans ordered the program stopped. Between then and July 1943, 10,000 Jews were murdered by Nazi Germans, another 6,000 were rounded up and sent to Belzec extermination camp, and a few hundred others to labor camps. During most of this time Jews lived in the Tarnopol Ghetto. Many Ukrainians were sent as forced labour to Germany.


title: Ternopil

text: In the years 1942–1943, the Polish Armia Krajowa was active opposing Nazi rule and performing operations in a bid to incorporate Ternopil into a future Polish state. Ukrainians, politically represented by Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), on the other hand, fought for the creation of their independent state. In the years 1942 – 1949, Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) was active in Ternopil region and battled for independence of Ukraine (opposing Nazis, Polish Armia Krajowa and People's Army of Poland as well as the Soviets), following Act of restoration of the Ukrainian state proclaimed in Lviv on 30 June 1941.


title: Ternopil

text: During the Soviet offensive in March and April 1944, the city was encircled. In March 1944, the city was declared a "fortified place" (Gates to the Reich) by Adolf Hitler, to be defended until the last round was fired. The stiff German resistance caused extensive use of heavy artillery by the Red Army on March 7–8, resulting in the complete destruction of the city and killing of nearly all German occupants (55 survivors out of 4,500). Unlike many other occasions, where the Germans had practised a scorched earth policy during their withdrawal from territories of the Soviet Union, the devastation was caused directly by the hostilities. Finally, Ternopol was occupied by the Red Army on 15 April 1944. After the second Soviet occupation, 85% of the city's living quarters were destroyed. Due to heavy destruction, the regional seat was moved to Chortkiv.


title: Ternopil

text: From 1944 to 1949 (active) and 1949–1956 (localized), the Ukrainian Insurgent Army resisted Soviet rule in the region and fought for Ukraine's independence.


title: Ternopil

text: Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, the ethnic Polish population of Ternopil and its region was forcibly deported to postwar Poland and settled in, and near Wrocław (among other locations), as part of Stalinist ethnic cleansing in the Soviet Ukraine. In the following decades, Ternopil was rebuilt in a typical Soviet style and only a few buildings were reconstructed.


title: Ternopil

text: Polish Jews settled in Ternopil beginning at its founding and soon formed a majority of the population. During the 16th and 17th centuries there were 300 Jewish families in the city. The Great Synagogue of Ternopil was built in Gothic Survival style between 1622 and 1628.


title: Ternopil

text: After the first partition of Poland, Ternopil came under Austrian domination. Nevertheless, Joseph Perl was able to continue his efforts to improve the condition of the Jews, which he had begun under the Russian rule. In 1813 he established a Jewish school which had as its chief object the instruction of Jewish youth in German as well as in Hebrew and in various other subjects. Controversy between the traditional Hasidim and the modernising Maskilim which this school caused, resulted four years later in a victory for the latter, whereupon the institution received official recognition and was placed under communal control. Starting in 1863, the school policy was gradually modified by Polish influences, and very little attention was given to instruction in German. The "Tempel für Geregelten Gottesdienst", opened by Perl in 1819, also caused dissensions within the community, and its rabbi, Samuel Judah Löb Rapoport, was forced to withdraw. This dispute also was eventually settled in favour of the Maskilim. As of 1905, the Jewish community numbered 14,000 in a total population of 30,415. Jews took an active role in the import/export trade with Russia conducted through the border city of Pidvolochysk. In 1939, the Jewish population was 18,500.


title: Ternopil

text: In September 1941, the Germans announced the creation of the Tarnopol Ghetto for Jews still remaining in the city. In the winter of 1941–42,