title: Blanche Devereaux

text: Blanche is portrayed as promiscuous. In one episode, it is stated that her initials, Blanche Elizabeth Devereaux, spell out the word "BED". However, in a previous episode, Viola Watkins called her "Blanche Marie Hollingsworth". Blanche spends a great deal of her time with men, a source of condemnation from and amusement for her roommates. Blanche's seemingly liberated sexual behavior was in contrast to the sexual climate of the 1980s, when AIDS was beginning to seep into the nation's consciousness. However, in the episode "72 Hours", Blanche was cognizant of the dangers of HIV and STDs; she always used protection and knew every lover's sexual history. It was implied in one episode that she has had numerous interracial sexual liaisons with Black men, though no such relations were ever depicted on camera.


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: However, despite Blanche's alleged promiscuity, it was hinted that Blanche overly exaggerated many of her sexual encounters, telling Dorothy that telling tall tales was a tradition of the South.


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: In spite of her liberal attitude to sex, Blanche was actually conservative in many respects. She was a Republican, and she had a hard time accepting her brother Clayton being gay, especially when he visited her again with his partner Doug (Michael Ayr) whom he intended to marry (though Blanche eventually accepted this). In "The Golden Palace" episode “Camp Town Races Aren't Nearly as Much Fun as They Used to Be,” she hung up a Confederate battle flag and was unaware of the offence it caused to black people, including their hotel manager Roland (Don Cheadle) who viewed it as a symbol of racism, while Blanche saw it as a symbol of heritage and happy memories of growing up in the South.


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: Throughout the course of the show, Blanche's precise age was never told. In the first-season episode "Blanche and the Younger Man" she admits that she is over fifty. During the Mother's Day episode, Blanche's mother says that she was 17 in 1949, placing her birth year in 1931 or 1932. In an episode later in the series, Rose successfully got all of Blanche's documentation, but when she sat down with the other girls to go over the information she had received, the age columns of all of papers said "Deleted by Authority of the Governor", implying Blanche had sex with the Governor to get her age struck from her record. In a 1993 episode of "The Golden Palace", Blanche's brother, Tad, confirms to Rose that Blanche is in her early 60s.


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: In the first episode of season two, Blanche fears she is pregnant. She told the girls that she will be 65 when the baby is 18, therefore she would be 47 in season 2. However Sophia responds with “try 70” implying that Blanche's real age is 52.


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: In real life, Rue McClanahan was the youngest member of the show's cast (11 to 12 years younger than the other three series regulars).


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: At various times over the course of the series, Blanche mentions the names of five children: Janet, Rebecca, Matthew "Skippy", Doug, and "Biff". However, in the third-season episode "Bringing Up Baby", when Dorothy questions an impulsive car purchase, Blanche says to her: "I have had four children, I have never had a Mercedes". She mentions three sons – Skippy, Biff, and Doug – in the episode "Bringing Up Baby", and Skippy's proper name (Matthew) was mentioned in the episode "To Catch a Neighbor"; that character appeared played by Texan comic Bill Engvall on an episode of "The Golden Palace". During the series, Blanche learns that George also had a son named David (Mark Moses), as the result of an affair.


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: During the course of the show, Blanche is revealed not to have been very "hands-on" as a mother, as she frequently left her children to nannies and housekeepers. She had a strained relationship with both of her daughters, especially Janet, something that led to some of the most dramatic storylines, as she expressed regrets that she was not there for her children more, and it is loosely implied that she might have even been emotionally abusive to them when they were growing up. However, Blanche slowly rebuilt her relationships with Janet and Rebecca throughout the series. By the time the series ended, both Rebecca and Janet had healed their relationships with their mother.


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: Blanche's daughter, Rebecca, was seen most often on the show, although Blanche and she had frequent falling outs and bitter fights. When Rebecca was introduced, she was overweight and about to marry a verbally abusive man (Joe Regalbuto). Later in the series, they fought over a slimmed-down Rebecca's decision to be artificially inseminated and raising the baby without a father. Rebecca decided to visit a birthing center saying: "Hospitals have a rigid way of doing things." After hearing a frightening shriek, Rebecca changes her mind and lets her mother take her to a hospital and even lets her help with the labor in the delivery room, where Rebecca gave birth to her daughter Aurora. They then feuded again when Blanche's new suitor mistakened her for Aurora's mother and Blanche, who was actually babysitting, went along with it, which, upon the truth being revealed, caused Rebecca to accuse Blanche of using Aurora to "get a man". In each case, they eventually made up again, which was something Blanche seems not to have entirely done with Janet.


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: Blanche's youngest son Matthew "Skippy" appears in "the Golden Palace", played by actor Bill Engvall. In the storyline, Blanche reluctantly supports him as he trades his career from stockbroker to a comedian. Blanche seems very protective of her youngest child, as when hilariously offering one of her sons to Dorothy in exchange for a Mercedes she says: "Which one do you want? Biff, Doug, Skippy? No, don't take Skippy. He has asthma."


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: Besides Aurora, Blanche has at least three other grandchildren: David, Melissa, and Sarah, all born to Janet, who married a "yankee". Blanche's 14 year-old grandson David visited the girls in the first season, but was unhappy and rebellious, due to problems in his home life. Sophia eventually hit him for being disrespectful. After David confided in Blanche, she told Janet that she wanted David to live with her, leading to a bitter falling out between mother and daughter.


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: Blanche acts as co-roommate and landlord to Rose Nylund, Dorothy Zbornak, and Sophia Petrillo. Throughout the series, Rose and she are often involved in the same activities. Though she, like Dorothy and Sophia, is annoyed at times by Rose's constant storytelling, she saw her as both her best friend and a surrogate sister. Blanche has her own collection of strange stories which she shares from time to time, often tales of her rivalry with sisters Virginia and Charmaine or of the promiscuous stunts she pulled as a teenager.


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: Her relationship with Dorothy is mixed with envy and condemnation and sisterhood on both parts: Dorothy envies and condemns Blanche's sexual comfortability, while Blanche envies Dorothy's intelligence and condemns her fashion sense, among other things. And yet, both Dorothy and she at times isolate themselves from Rose, ganging up on her when the latter said anything particularly foolish, and taking turns hitting her on the head with a newspaper or magazine. Their relationship is also symbiotic; in one of the last episodes in the series, Dorothy admitted that Blanche has helped her be comfortable with her own sexuality, while Dorothy herself has always served as Blanche's other voice of reason. Although Blanche is only a few years younger than Dorothy and Rose, she frequently brags about being the youngest roommate in the house.


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: Blanche considers Sophia as both a mother figure and as a mean old lady. Sophia considers Blanche as one of her own daughters, and very vocally, as a street prostitute. In the pilot episode, Sophia bluntly tells Blanche, "You look like a prostitute".


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: Rue McClanahan said playing the role of Blanche made her "one of the most recognizable women in the world", and resulted in her being named the "Fifth most beloved celebrity over 55" in the world. She said the fame of Blanche Devereaux, on television "week after week for decades", made McClanahan inseparable from Blanche in the public eye.


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: Blanche and the other three women were hailed as breakthrough television role models for older women, being attractive, stylishly dressed, and romantically active.


title: Blanche Devereaux

text: Outside "The Golden Girls" and "The Golden Palace", Blanche appears in the "Empty Nest" episode "Fatal Attraction" and the "Nurses" episode "Moon Over Miami".


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: Pogroms in the Russian Empire () were large-scale, targeted, and repeated anti-Jewish rioting that began in the 19th century. Pogroms began to occur after Imperial Russia, which previously had very few Jews, acquired territories with large Jewish populations from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire from 1772 to 1815. These territories were designated "the Pale of Settlement" by the Imperial Russian government, within which Jews were reluctantly permitted to live, and it was within them where the pogroms largely took place. Jews were forbidden from moving to other parts of European Russia (including Finland), unless they converted from Judaism or obtained a university diploma or first guild merchant status. Migration to the Caucasus, Siberia, the Far East or Central Asia was not restricted.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: The 1821 Odessa pogroms are sometimes considered the first pogroms. After the execution of the Greek Orthodox patriarch, Gregory V, in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed in response. The initiators of the 1821 pogroms were the local Greeks, who used to have a substantial diaspora in the port cities of what was known as Novorossiya.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: The use of the term "pogrom" became common in the English language after a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots swept through south-western Imperial Russia (present-day Ukraine and Poland) from 1881 to 1884; when more than 200 anti-Jewish events occurred in the Russian Empire, the most notable of them were pogroms which occurred in Kiev, Warsaw and Odessa.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: The event which triggered the pogroms was the assassination of Tsar Alexander II for which some blamed "agents of foreign influence", implying that the Jews committed it. One of the conspirators was of Jewish origins, and the importance of her role in the assassination was greatly exaggerated during the pogroms that followed. Another conspirator was baselessly rumored to be Jewish. The extent to which the Russian press was responsible for encouraging perceptions of the assassination as a Jewish act has been disputed.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: Local economic conditions (such as ancestral debts owed to Jewish moneylenders) are thought to have contributed significantly to the rioting, especially with regard to the participation of the business competitors of local Jews and the participation of railroad workers. Russia's industrialization caused Russians to be moving into and out of major cities. People trying to escape the big cities carried their antisemitic values with them, spread the ideas throughout Russia and caused more pogroms in different regions of Russia. That has been argued that to have been actually more important than rumours of Jewish responsibility for the death of the Tsar. Those rumours, however, were clearly of some importance, if only as a trigger, and they drew upon a small kernel of truth: one of the close associates of the assassins, Hesya Helfman, was born into a Jewish home. The fact that the other assassins were all atheists and that the wider Jewish community had nothing to do with the assassination had little impact on the spread of such antisemitic rumours and the assassination inspired "retaliatory" attacks on Jewish communities. During these pogroms, thousands of Jewish homes were destroyed; many families were reduced to poverty and large numbers of men, women and children were injured in 166 towns in the south-western provinces of the Empire such as Ukraine.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: There also was a large pogrom on the night of 15–16 April 1881 (the day of Eastern Orthodox Easter) in the city of Yelizavetgrad (now Kropyvnytskyi). On 17 April, the Army units were dispatched and were forced to use firearms to extinguish the riot. However, that only incited the whole situation in the region and a week later series of pogroms rolled through parts of the Kherson Governorate.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: On 26 April 1881, an even bigger disorder engulfed the city of Kiev. The Kiev pogrom of 1881 is considered the worst one that took place in 1881. The pogroms of 1881 did not stop then. They continued on through the summer, spreading across a big territory of modern-day Ukraine: (Podolia Governorate, Volyn Governorate, Chernigov Governorate, Yekaterinoslav Governorate, and others). During these pogroms the first local Jewish self-defense organizations started to form, the most prominent one in Odessa. It was organized by the Jewish students of the Novorossiysk University.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: For decades after the 1881 pogroms, most government officials had antisemitic beliefs that Jews in villages were more dangerous than Jews who lived in towns. The Minister of the Interior Nikolay Pavlovich Ignatyev rejected the theory that pogroms were caused by revolutionary socialists and instead, he adopted the idea that they were a protest by the rural population against Jewish exploitation. With this idea in mind, he wrongly believed and spread the idea that pogroms had spread from villages to towns. Historians today recognize that although rural peasantry did largely participate in the pogrom violence, pogroms began in the towns and spread to the villages.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: The new Tsar Alexander III initially blamed revolutionaries and the Jews themselves for the riots and in May 1882 issued the May Laws, a series of harsh restrictions on Jews.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: The pogroms continued for more than three years and were thought to have benefited from at least the tacit support of the authorities, although there were also attempts by the Russian government to end the rioting.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: The pogroms and the official reaction to them led many Russian Jews to reassess their perceptions of their status within the Russian Empire, and so led to significant Jewish emigration, mostly to the United States.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: These pogroms were referred to among Jews as the "Storms in the South." Changed perceptions among Russian Jews also indirectly gave a significant boost to the early Zionist movement.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: At least 40 Jews were killed during pogroms between April to December 1881. An additional 225 Jewish women reported being raped; Of these, 17 were reportedly killed while being raped.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: The leaders of the Jewish community in London were slow to speak out. It was only after Louisa Goldsmid's support following leadership from an anonymous writer named "Juriscontalus" and the editor of "The Jewish Chronicle" that action was taken in 1881. Public meetings were held across the country and Jewish and Christian leaders in Britain spoke out against the atrocities.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: A much bloodier wave of pogroms broke out from 1903 to 1906, leaving an estimated 2,000 Jews dead and many more wounded, as the Jews took to arms to defend their families and property from the attackers. The 1905 pogrom against Jews in Odessa was the most serious pogrom of the period, with reports of approximately 400 Jews killed.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: The anti-Jewish riots in Kishinev, Bessarabia [modern Moldova], are worse than the censor will permit to publish. There was a well laid-out plan for the general massacre of Jews on the day following the Orthodox Easter. The mob was led by priests, and the general cry, "Kill the Jews", was taken up all over the city. The Jews were taken wholly unaware and were slaughtered like sheep. The dead number 120 [Note: the actual number of dead was 47–48] and the injured about 500. The scenes of horror attending this massacre are beyond description. Babies were literally torn to pieces by the frenzied and bloodthirsty mob. The local police made no attempt to check the reign of terror. At sunset the streets were piled with corpses and wounded. Those who could make their escape fled in terror, and the city is now practically deserted of Jews.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: This series of pogroms affected 64 towns (including Odessa, Yekaterinoslav, Kiev, Kishinev, Simferopol, Romny, Kremenchug, Nikolayev, Chernigov, Kamenets-Podolski, Yelizavetgrad), and 626 small towns (Russian: городок) and villages, mostly in Ukraine and Bessarabia.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: Historians such as Edward Radzinsky suggest that many pogroms were incited by authorities and supported by the Tsarist Russian secret police (the Okhrana), even if some happened spontaneously. The perpetrators who were prosecuted usually received clemency by Tsar's decree.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: Even outside of these main outbreaks, pogroms remained common; there was an anti-Jewish riot in Odessa in 1905 in which thousands of Jews were killed.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: The 1903 Kishinev pogrom, also known as the Kishinev Massacre, in present-day Moldova killed 47–49 persons. It provoked an international outcry after it was publicized by "The Times" and "The New York Times". There was a second, smaller Kishinev pogrom in 1905.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: A pogrom on July 20, 1905, in Yekaterinoslav (present-day Dnipro, Ukraine), was stopped by the Jewish self-defense group. One man in the group was killed.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: On July 31, 1905, there was the first pogrom outside the Pale of Settlement, in the town of Makariev (near Nizhni Novgorod), where a patriotic procession led by the mayor turned violent.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: At a pogrom in Kerch in Crimea on 31 July 1905, the mayor ordered the police to fire at the self-defence group, and two fighters were killed (one of them, P. Kirilenko, was a Ukrainian who joined the Jewish defence group). The pogrom was conducted by the port workers apparently brought in for the purpose.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: After the publication of the Tsar's Manifesto of October 17, 1905, pogroms erupted in 660 towns mainly in the present-day Ukraine, in the Southern and Southeastern areas of the Pale of Settlement. In contrast, there were no pogroms in present-day Lithuania. There were also very few incidents in Belarus or Russia proper. There were 24 pogroms outside of the Pale of Settlement, but those were directed at the revolutionaries rather than Jews.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: The greatest number of pogroms were registered in the Chernigov gubernia in northern Ukraine. The pogroms there in October 1905 took 800 Jewish lives, the material damages estimated at 70,000,000 rubles. 400 were killed in Odessa, over 150 in Rostov-on-Don, 67 in Yekaterinoslav, 54 in Minsk, 30 in Simferopol—over 40, in Orsha—over 30.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: In 1906, the pogroms continued: January — in Gomel, June — in Bialystok (ca. 80 dead), and August — in Siedlce (ca. 30 dead). The Russian secret police and the military personnel organized the massacres.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: In many of these incidents the most prominent participants were railway workers, industrial workers, and small shopkeepers and craftsmen, and (if the town was a river port (e.g. Dnipro) or a seaport (e.g. Kerch)), waterfront workmen; peasants joined in mainly to loot.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: The pogroms increasingly angered American opinion. The well-established German Jews in the United States, although they were not directly affected by the Russian pogroms, were well organized and convinced Washington to support the cause of Jews in Russia. Led by Oscar Straus, Jacob Schiff, Mayer Sulzberger, and Rabbi Stephen Samuel Wise, they organized protest meetings, issued publicity, and met with President Theodore Roosevelt and Secretary of State John Hay. Stuart E. Knee reports that in April, 1903, Roosevelt received 363 addresses, 107 letters and 24 petitions signed by thousands of Christians, public and church leaders alike—all calling on the Tsar to stop the persecution of Jews. Public rallies were held in scores of cities, topped off at Carnegie Hall in New York in May. The Tsar retreated a bit and fired one local official after the Kishinev pogrom, which Roosevelt had explicitly denounced. But Roosevelt was mediating the war between Russia and Japan at the time and could not publicly take sides. Therefore, Secretary Hay took the initiative in Washington. Finally, Roosevelt forwarded a petition to the Tsar, who rejected it claiming that the Jews themselves were at fault. Roosevelt won Jewish support in his 1904 landslide reelection. The pogroms continued, as hundreds of thousands of Jews fled Russia, most heading for London or New York. With American public opinion turning against Russia, Congress officially denounced its policies in 1906. Roosevelt kept a low profile, as did his new Secretary of State Elihu Root. However, in late 1906 Roosevelt did appoint the first Jew to the cabinet, naming Oscar Straus as his Secretary of Commerce and Labor.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: The pogroms are generally thought to have been organized or at least condoned by the authorities. However, that view was challenged by Hans Rogger, I. Michael Aronson and John Klier, who were unable to find such sanction to be documented in the state archives.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: However, the antisemitic policy that was carried out from 1881 to 1917 made them possible. Official persecution and harassment of Jews influenced numerous antisemites to presume that their violence was legitimate. That sentiment was reinforced by the active participation of a few major and many minor officials in fomenting attacks and by the reluctance of the government to stop the pogroms and to punish those responsible for them.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: The pogroms of the 1880s caused a worldwide outcry and, along with harsh laws, propelled mass Jewish emigration from Russia. Among the passed antisemitic laws were the 1882 May Laws, which prohibited Jews from moving into villages, allegedly in an attempt to address the cause of the pogroms (when, in fact, the pogroms were caused by an entirely different reason). The majority of the Russian High Commission for the Review of Jewish Legislation (1883–1888) actually noted the fact that almost all of the pogroms had begun in the towns and attempted to abolish the laws. However, the minority of the High Commission ignored the facts and backed the laws. Two million Jews fled the Russian Empire between 1880 and 1920, with many going to the United Kingdom and United States. In response, the United Kingdom introduced the Aliens Act 1905, which introduced immigration controls for the first time, a main objective being to reduce the influx of Eastern European Jews.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: In reaction to the pogroms and other oppressions of the Tsarist period, Jews increasingly became politically active. Jewish participation in The General Jewish Labor Bund, colloquially known as the Bund, and in the Bolshevik movements, was directly influenced by the pogroms. Similarly, the organization of Jewish self-defense leagues, which stopped the pogromists in certain areas during the second Kishinev pogrom, such as Hovevei Zion, led to a strong embrace of Zionism, especially by Russian Jews.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: In 1903, Hebrew poet Hayyim Nahman Bialik wrote the poem "In the City of Slaughter" in response to the Kishinev pogrom.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: Elie Wiesel's "The Trial of God" depicts Jews fleeing a pogrom and setting up a fictitious "trial of God" for His negligence in not assisting them against the bloodthirsty mobs. In the end, it turns out that the mysterious stranger who has argued as God's advocate is none other than Lucifer. The experience of a Russian Jew is also depicted in Elie Wiesel's "The Testament".


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: A pogrom is one of the central events in the musical play "Fiddler on the Roof", which is adapted from Russian author Sholem Aleichem's Tevye the Dairyman stories. Aleichem writes about the pogroms in a story called "Lekh-Lekho". The famous Broadway musical and film "Fiddler on the Roof" showed the cruelty of the Russian pogroms on the Jews in the fictional Anatevka in the early 20th century.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: In the adult animated musical drama film "American Pop", set during Imperial Russia during the late 1890s, a rabbi's wife and her young son Zalmie escape to America while the rabbi is killed by the Cossacks.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: In the animated film "An American Tail", set during and after the 1880s pogroms, Fievel and his family's village is destroyed by a pogrom. (Fievel and his family are mice, and their Cossack attackers are cats.)


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: The novel "The Sacrifice" by Adele Wiseman also deals with a family that is displaced after a pogrom in their home country and who emigrate to Canada after losing two sons to the riot and barely surviving themselves. The loss and murder of the sons haunts the entire story.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: Mark Twain gives graphic descriptions of the Russian pogroms in Reflections on Religion, Part 3, published in 1906.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: Joseph Joffo describes the early history of his mother, a Jew in the Russia of Tsar Nicholas II, in the biographical 'Anna and her Orchestra'. He describes the raids by Cossacks on Jewish quarters and the eventual retribution inflicted by Anna's father and brothers on the Cossacks who murdered and burnt homes at the behest of the tsar.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: In Bernard Malamud's novel "The Fixer", set in Tsarist Russia around 1911, a Russian-Jewish handyman, Yakov Bog, is wrongly imprisoned for a most unlikely crime. It was later made into a film directed by John Frankenheimer with a screenplay by Dalton Trumbo.


title: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

text: Isaac Babel recounts a pogrom he experienced as a child in Mykolaiv, ca. 1905, in "The Story of My Dovecote". He describes another pogrom against travelers on a train in early 1918 in the short story "The Way".


title: Renault Trafic

text: The Renault Trafic (pronounced as "traffic") is a light commercial van produced by the French automaker Renault since 1980. It is also marketed as the Fiat Talento, the Nissan NV300, the Nissan Primastar, the Mitsubishi Express and, until the model year of 2018, as the Opel/Vauxhall Vivaro (previously, Opel/Vauxhall Arena).


title: Renault Trafic

text: The third generation Vauxhall Vivaro was produced in GM Manufacturing Luton plant starting in 2013. However, following the takeover of Opel/Vauxhall by Groupe PSA, the Trafic-based Vivaro went out of production in 2018, and was replaced by the next generation Vivaro based on the Citroen Jumpy EMP2 Platform for the 2019 model year.


title: Renault Trafic

text: The original Renault Trafic was sold from 1980 to 2000, and was somewhat revised and updated during its lifetime.


title: Renault Trafic

text: Originally, the van had some variations in the front end shape depending on which engine was fitted, with the original 1397 cc motor fitting behind a flat grille, and the 2.1 litre diesel engine and larger 1647 cc petrol engines requiring an extended plastic grille and deeper bumper.


title: Renault Trafic

text: The 1721 cc OHC engine replaced the 1647 cc OHV unit in the mid 1980s, which fitted under the shorter grille, but required a small lump in the bonnet. The diesel and 2.2 petrol carried on with the extended grille.


title: Renault Trafic

text: In the end of 1984, a four-wheel drive version was introduced. This was a part time system coupled with the diesel engine and a five speed manual transmission. This model operated as a front wheel drive until the rear wheels were engaged with a dog clutch, a system similar to the one used by Renault on the R18 4x4.


title: Renault Trafic

text: In May 1989, the Trafic underwent a major front end facelift, with a rounder shape and a plastic bumper, and the new longer body shape covering all varieties of engine. In 1995, the Mk1 Trafic got its final facelift, with a new grille, new tail lights, large double rear view mirrors, and a new interior with a modern dashboard and multi adjustable seats.


title: Renault Trafic

text: The chassis and cab of the 1980s models were used as the base vehicle by Winnebago Industries to build the Winnebago 'LeSharo' from 1983, and Itasca Phasar.


title: Renault Trafic

text: For the chassis and cab version to meet safety and emission requirements in the United States, this version was sold with Renault's J7T: , and 2.1 litre diesel and turbo diesel engines, coded as J8S and shared with the 1985 to 1987 AMC/Jeep Cherokee/Commanche.


title: Renault Trafic

text: Note: Jeep versions used the Garrett T2 turbo and Winnebago's, the larger T3. C.A.R.B. granted a series of yearly waivers to Winnebago for the non compliance of fitting On Board Diagnostics (OBD I), and remained in effect throughout the model run from 1983 to 1992.


title: Renault Trafic

text: The Mk1 Trafic became popular for professional conversion into budget family motorhomes due to the flexibility of the design and the generous internal space for what was a relatively small van. Popular converters were "Auto Sleepers" and "Holdsworth" (now defunct). Other motorhome builders using the Trafic Mk1 as a base include Hymer, Elddis, Eriba, and Autostar.


title: Renault Trafic

text: From 1997 to 2001, the Renault Trafic was marketed as the Opel Arena in Germany and as the Vauxhall Arena in the United Kingdom. Nick Reilly, Vauxhall's chairman and managing director commented that the Arena was the first time the company had a total commercial range ever since the days of the old Bedford CF that ended production in 1986.


title: Renault Trafic

text: In June 2007, Tata Motors announced the introduction of the Winger, a panel van and minibus based on the 1995 to 2001 version of the Renault Trafic, but fitted with Tata's own two litre diesel engines, with or without turbo.


title: Renault Trafic

text: The Inokom Permas was launched in Malaysia in 1998.<ref name="Inokom Permas launch 07/1998 library.perdana.org.my"></ref> Production of the van was at Kulim District.


title: Renault Trafic

text: For South America, the vehicle was made in the Renault Argentina facility at Santa Isabel, Córdoba. In Brazil, it was badged as Chevrolet Trafic and later as the Renault Trafic or Chevrolet SpaceVan. A pickup version was sold as the Renault Trafic Rodeo. Production ended in 2002.


title: Renault Trafic

text: The second Trafic resulted from a joint venture between German Opel, Japanese Nissan, and French Renault. It is also sold as an Opel/Vauxhall Vivaro and Nissan Primastar.


title: Renault Trafic

text: Designed by Renault's corporate design department based within the company's Technocentre outside Paris, the Trafic was developed by the engineering team of Renault's light commercial vehicle unit at Villiers-Saint-Frédéric. Manufactured by GM Manufacturing Luton at its plant in Luton — beside Primastar and the Vivaro — the Trafic was the first Renault vehicle to be built in the United Kingdom in more than thirty years.


title: Renault Trafic

text: In an agreement between Renault and Nissan, versions of the van are also manufactured at Nissan's plant in Barcelona, Spain. In particular, high roof versions for Vauxhall, Renault, and Nissan are made in Barcelona because the Luton assembly plant has a low roof which cannot accommodate the extra height of the high roof.


title: Renault Trafic

text: The van exists in several versions, from a three seater with all the rear space available for loads, to a nine seater. Its name is based on the French word for "trade" or "traffic" (depending on the context). The van was designed by Renault in Paris, and both Renault and Opel versions are manufactured by Opel at their plant in Luton. In 2012, production of the Vauxhall Vivaro totalled 36,982 and 16,483 for the Renault Trafic.


title: Renault Trafic

text: A mild facelift in October 2006 had the orange indicators swapped for clear ones, which were more integrated into the headlamp housings. On the Opel model, the indicators moved from the front bumpers, up into the headlamp housings, thus looking more similar to the Renault. Production ended in June 2015.


title: Renault Trafic

text: The Nissan Primastar was also launched in 2001, and is available in panel van, combi, bus, and chassis cab configurations. Two wheelbases and two roof heights are available, as well as three diesel engines and a petrol. In the end of 2014, the last Primastar rolled off the production line. It was replaced by the NV300 in September 2016.


title: Renault Trafic

text: The Opel Vivaro from the German automaker Opel was launched in September 2001. While the Vivaro is sold as an Opel in most European markets, in the United Kingdom it was sold as a Vauxhall. The Vivaro is primarily manufactured at GM Manufacturing Luton (previously IBC) in Luton, England and by Nissan at their Zona Franca (Barcelona) facility in Spain.


title: Renault Trafic

text: The Vivaro is available in panel van, minibus, combined bus/van, and platform crew cab configurations. Two different wheelbase styles, and two roof height options are also available, as well as three diesel engine power options and a petrol engine.


title: Renault Trafic

text: The vehicle was given a mild facelift in 2006, during which the front indicators were moved from the front bumper, up into the headlight housing and only a 2.0 L four cylinder diesel engine is available in two states of tune; a or mated to a six speed manual or optional automatic transmission.


title: Renault Trafic

text: The Vivaro e Concept debuted September 2010 at the IAA Commercial Vehicle Show in Hanover, Germany. It is plug in hybrid vehicle, with an extended range up to and includes 21 kWh lithium ion batteries enabling over of pure electric driving range.


title: Renault Trafic

text: Renault released a new generation Trafic in September 2014. It was again rebadged and sold as the Opel Vivaro in Europe and Vauxhall Vivaro in the UK. Styling was updated for the 2019 model year and again for model year 2021.


title: Renault Trafic

text: Two lower power variants (90 PS and 120 PS) use a variable geometry turbocharger, while the highest output (140 PS) variant employs a twin turbocharger arrangement; other features include variable output water and oil pumps and a maintenance free timing chain.


title: Renault Trafic

text: Opel/Vauxhall Vivaro variants for the United Kingdom and mainland Europe were manufactured at GM Manufacturing Luton, except for the high roof variants, which were manufactured at Sandouville. The new Vivaro dropped the previous larger capacity diesel engines, in favour of a 1.6 Energy dCi (Renault)/CDTI (Opel) engine. From 2016, Vauxhall Vivaro models gained a "Made In Britain" badge at the rear. The Opel/Vauxhall Vivaro went out of production in 2018, when Opel/Vauxhall was acquired by Groupe PSA; it was replaced by a new generation Vivaro which was a rebadged Citroën Jumpy for the model year of 2019.


title: Renault Trafic

text: Renault–Nissan Alliance partner Nissan sold a rebadged Trafic II (X83) as the Primastar. The Primastar was renamed to the NV300 for 2016 and moved to the Trafic III (X82). The light commercial vehicle variant of the NV300 reverted to Primastar in 2021.


title: Renault Trafic

text: In July 2016, Fiat introduced a rebadged Trafic, called Talento to replace its Scudo, which had been a rebadged Citroën Jumpy. In October 2020, Renault announced it would stop supplying Talentos to Fiat, as Fiat Chrysler had declared plans to merge with Renault's rival Groupe PSA to form Stellantis. The Talento resumed production as a rebadged Jumpy.


title: Renault Trafic

text: In 2020, the Trafic was rebadged and introduced as the third-generation Mitsubishi Express for Australia, and as a replacement for the former L300 in the New Zealand market. It was discontinued two years later. The existing Renault Trafic has also been sold in these markets since 2014.


title: Renault Trafic

text: Launched in 2018, the Formula Edition was available on the Trafic alongside the Kangoo and Master, and featured a new paint and wheels, plus black and yellow trim.


title: Renault Trafic

text: The 100% electric Trafic was officially presented at the 2022 IAA. It is equipped with a electric traction motor drawing from the same 52 kW-hr battery as the larger electric Master E-Tech, giving a WLTP range of . The van can accept charging power of up to 7 kW (single-phase AC) or 22 kW (three-phase AC), and a fast-charging option (50 kW DC) is available. A passenger van variant may be based on the Hippie Caviar Hotel concept shown in 2021.


title: John Ioannidis

text: John P. A. Ioannidis (; , ; born August 21, 1965) is a Greek-American physician-scientist, writer and Stanford University professor who has made contributions to evidence-based medicine, epidemiology, and clinical research. Ioannidis studies scientific research itself, meta-research primarily in clinical medicine and the social sciences. He has served on the editorial board of over twenty scientific journals.


title: John Ioannidis

text: Ioannidis's 2005 essay "Why Most Published Research Findings Are False" was the most-accessed article in the history of Public Library of Science (PLOS) as of 2020, with more than three million views.


title: John Ioannidis

text: Born in New York City in 1965, Ioannidis was raised in Athens, Greece. He was valedictorian of his class at Athens College, graduating in 1984, and won a number of awards, including the National Award of the Greek Mathematical Society. He graduated in the top rank of his class at the University of Athens Medical School (1990), then attended Harvard University for his medical residency in internal medicine. He did a fellowship at Tufts University for infectious disease and received a PhD in biopathology at the University of Athens (1996).


title: John Ioannidis

text: From 1998 to 2010, Ioannidis was chairman of the Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, University of Ioannina School of Medicine. In 2002, he became an adjunct professor at Tufts University School of Medicine. He has also been president of the Society for Research Synthesis Methodology. He is highly cited, having an h-index of 235 on Google Scholar in November 2022.


title: John Ioannidis

text: He is now a Professor of Health Research Policy at Stanford University School of Medicine and a professor by courtesy of Biomedical Data Science and Statistics at Stanford University. He is director of the Stanford Prevention Research Center, and co-director, along with Steven N. Goodman, of the Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford.


title: John Ioannidis

text: Ioannidis's 2005 paper "Why Most Published Research Findings Are False" is the most downloaded paper in the Public Library of Science. In the paper, Ioannidis says that most published research does not meet good scientific standards of evidence. Ioannidis has also described the replication crisis in diverse scientific fields including genetics, clinical trials, neuroscience, and nutrition. His work has aimed to identify solutions to problems in research, and on how to perform research more optimally. In a series of five papers about research published in The Lancet and titled "Research: increasing value, reducing waste", Ioannidis co-authored papers discussing prioritization, transparency and the assessment of existing evidence when making decisions for the funding of research so that they meet the needs of users of research and examining how to correct weaknesses in research design, methods, and analysis by involving experienced statisticians and methodologists and avoiding stakeholders with conflicts of interest.


title: John Ioannidis

text: Ioannidis's research at Stanford focuses on meta-analysis and meta-research – the study of studies. Thomas Trikalinos and Ioannidis coined the term "Proteus phenomenon" to describe tendency for early studies on a subject to find larger effect than later ones.


title: John Ioannidis

text: He was an early and influential public critic of Theranos, the now-fallen Silicon Valley blood test startup that at its height was valued at up to $9 billion. He criticized it for "stealth research" that it had not made available for other scientists to review.


title: John Ioannidis

text: Ioannidis has defined meta-research to include "thematic areas of methods, reporting, reproducibility, evaluation, and incentives (how to do, report, verify, correct, and reward science)". He has performed large-scale assessments of the presence of reproducible and transparent research indicators such as data sharing, code sharing, protocol registration, declaration of funding and conflicts of interest in biomedical sciences, social sciences, and psychology. He has led or co-led efforts to define and improve reproducibility in science, e.g. computational reproducibility, and to reduce research waste in study design, conduct, and analysis. Ioannidis has co-authored the Manifesto for Reproducible Science, an eight-page document illuminating the need to fix the flaws in the current scientific process and mitigate the "reproducibility crisis" in science.


title: John Ioannidis

text: In "Why Most Public Research Findings are False" (2005), Ioannidis focused on why most published research findings cannot be validated. In a later paper on PLOS Medicine (2014), he discusses what can be done to improve this situation and make more published research findings to be true and in a third paper (2016) he showed why clinical research in particular is usually not useful and how this can be amended. In the first of the three PLOS papers he stated that "a research finding is less likely to be true when the studies conducted in a field are smaller; when effect sizes are smaller; when there is a greater number and lesser preselection of tested relationships; where there is greater flexibility in designs, definitions, outcomes, and analytical modes; when there is greater financial and other interest and prejudice; and when more teams are involved in a scientific field in chase of statistical significance". In the second paper, he discussed solutions: "adoption of large-scale collaborative research; replication culture; registration; sharing; reproducibility practices; better statistical methods; standardization of definitions and analyses; more appropriate (usually more stringent) statistical thresholds; and improvement in study design standards, peer review, reporting and dissemination of research, and training of the scientific workforce". In the third paper, he proposed eight features that are important for useful clinical research: problem base, context placement, information gain, pragmatism, patient-centeredness, value for money, feasibility, and transparency. Ioannidis was invited to present his findings as a keynote speaker at the "Evidence Live 2016" conference, hosted jointly by the Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (CEBM) at the Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences, University of Oxford and the BMJ.


title: John Ioannidis

text: Ioannidis has developed and popularized several methods for meta-analysis and has made several conceptual advances in this field. These include methods for assessing heterogeneity and its uncertainty, methods for meta-analysis involving multiple treatments, methods and processes for umbrella reviews, and several approaches to identifying bias and adjusting the results of meta-analyses for bias, such as publication bias and reporting bias resulting in funnel-plot asymmetry. He has also alerted about the misuse and misinterpretation of bias tests. Along with David Chavalarias, he catalogued 235 biases across the entire publication record of biomedical research. Ioannidis has been critical of flawed, misleading and redundant meta-analyses, estimating that few meta-analyses in medicine are both bias-free and clinically useful. He has performed empirical evaluations of the concordance of results between meta-analyses and large trials and between randomized trials and non-randomized studies.


title: John Ioannidis

text: Ioannidis has been one of the strong proponents and earlier advocates of evidence-based medicine. However, he has alerted that, over the years, as evidence-based medicine acquired more prominence and influence, it was hijacked to serve other agendas that are often biased. In an essay written to honor his late mentor David Sackett, he stated that "Influential randomized trials are largely done by and for the benefit of the industry. Meta-analyses and guidelines have become a factory, mostly also serving vested interests. National and federal research funds are funneled almost exclusively to research with little relevance to health outcomes. We have supported the growth of principal investigators who excel primarily as managers absorbing more money. Diagnosis and prognosis research and efforts to individualize treatment have fueled recurrent spurious promises. Risk factor epidemiology has excelled in salami-sliced, data-dredged articles with gift authorship and has become adept to dictating policy from spurious evidence. Under market pressure, clinical medicine has been transformed to finance-based medicine. In many places, medicine and health care are wasting societal resources and becoming a threat to human well-being. Science denialism and quacks are also flourishing and leading more people astray in their life choices, including health. Evidence-based medicine still remains an unmet goal, worthy to be attained." He has described four inter-related problems that create what he calls the Medical Misinformation Mess: "First, much published medical research is not reliable or is of uncertain reliability, offers no benefit to patients, or is not useful to decision makers. Second, most healthcare professionals are not aware of this problem. Third, they also lack the skills necessary to evaluate the reliability and usefulness of medical evidence. Finally, patients and families frequently lack relevant, accurate medical evidence and skilled guidance at the time of medical decision-making." He has supported these views by contributing to a meta-epidemiological study which found that only 1 in 20 interventions tested in Cochrane Reviews have benefits that are supported by high-quality evidence., and a related study showing that the quality of this evidence does not seem to improve over time.


title: John Ioannidis

text: Ioannidis has made methodological and conceptual contributions to the debates surrounding the use and misuse of statistical methods and inference. He has been an advocate of the approach to redefine statistical significance by requesting more stringent statistical significance thresholds; he has proposed and empirically validated stringent thresholds for genome-wide significance in genetics; and has been critical of the approach to entirely abandon statistical significance.


title: John Ioannidis

text: Ioannidis has contributed to several influential guidelines for reporting different types of research, such as PRISMA for meta-analyses, TRIPOD for multivariable prognostic and diagnostic models, and others on clinical trials and observational research. He is the lead author of the CONSORT for harms, a guideline that provides guidance on how to properly report on harms in randomized trials and has contributed to PRISMA for harms, a guideline for reporting of harms in meta-analyses.


title: John Ioannidis

text: Ioannidis was one of the first to advocate the use of meta-analysis in genetic epidemiology to assess replication and the incorporation of meta-analysis in large-scale consortia of multiple investigators performing genome-wide association studies. He led and contributed to many such efforts in diverse areas of genetic epidemiology and in other areas of molecular epidemiology.


title: John Ioannidis

text: Ioannidis has been critical of nutritional epidemiology research practices and has recommended reforms to improve the credibility of research in the field. By means of empirical reviews, he has highlighted that there are studies suggesting that almost every nutrient is associated with cancer risk, which is an implausible situation. He has also suggested that more attention is needed for proper disclosures of both financial and non-financial conflicts of interest in nutrition research. He also co-authored the DIETFITS randomized trial that showed no difference between a low-fat and a low-carb diet.


title: John Ioannidis

text: In an effort to improve the credibility of research on risk factors, Ioannidis has proposed that exposure-wide or environment-wide association studies should be performed and he has outlined the similarities and differences between such studies and genome-wide association studies in genetics. By assessing all risk factors together instead of one at a time, this practice aims to reduce selective reporting and publication bias. He has also advocated for the use of large national population databases with systematically collected data to minimize bias and improve yield of trustworthy discoveries. He has worked on the potential uses of such approaches in big data and artificial intelligence.


title: John Ioannidis

text: Ioannidis has performed critical assessments of the evidence behind mental health interventions (pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy). He co-authored a network meta-analysis on more than 500 randomized trials of anti-depressants showing a modest benefit from these medications for major depression. He has identified the potential for sponsorship bias in meta-analyses in mental health and has empirically assessed the totality of meta-analyses on mental health interventions, estimating that beneficial effects do exist, but they tend to be modest and thus a research agenda is needed to identify more effective interventions.


title: John Ioannidis

text: Along with colleagues, Ioannidis has performed empirical evaluations and meta-research assessments of large numbers of scientific studies in neuroscience and have found that lack of power is a very common problem, leading to both false-negatives (the inability to discover true signals) and false-positives (finding spurious signals).


title: John Ioannidis

text: In empirical assessments of all meta-analyses that have been conducted on economics topics, Ioannidis and colleagues have found that most of the studies in these fields are small and under-powered. Using bias detection and correction methods, they have concluded that nearly 80% of the reported effects in the empirical economics literature is exaggerated; typically by a factor of two, and with one-third inflated by a factor of four or more.


title: John Ioannidis

text: Ioannidis has served on the editorial board of a number of scientific journals, including the "European Journal of Clinical Investigation" (editor-in-chief, 2010–2019), "BMC Medicine", "International Journal of Epidemiology", "Journal of the American Medical Association," "Journal of Clinical Epidemiology," "Journal of Infectious Diseases," "International Journal of Molecular Epidemiology and Genetics", "International Journal of Epidemiology", "Journal of Translational Medicine," "Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice", "Clinical Chemistry," "Physiological Reviews", "Royal Society Open Science", "Research Integrity and Peer Review", "BioMed Central Infectious Diseases", "Biomarker Research", "Diagnostic and Prognostic Research", "PLoS Medicine," "PLoS Biology," "The Lancet," "Annals of Internal Medicine," "JNCI," and "Science Translational Medicine".


title: John Ioannidis

text: In an editorial on STAT published March 17, 2020, Ioannidis wondered whether the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic may be a "once-in-a-century evidence fiasco" and asked for obtaining more reliable data to deal with the pandemic. He estimated that the coronavirus could cause 10,000 U.S. deaths if it infected 1% of the U.S. population, and argued that more data was needed to determine how widely the virus would spread. The virus in fact eventually became widely disseminated, and would cause more than one million deaths in the U.S. Ioannidis expressed doubt that vaccines or treatments would be developed and tested in time to affect how the pandemic would unfold. Marc Lipsitch, Director of the Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, objected to Ioannidis's characterization of the global response in a reply that was published on STAT the next day after Ioannidis's. Ioannidis later stated that early in 2020 he wrote about needing more data, without that meaning he was mocking those who worried about COVID-19, and that he was elated with the quick development of vaccines and treatments, and the scientific progress made since 2020.


title: John Ioannidis

text: In March 2020, Ioannidis tried to organize a meeting at the White House where he and colleagues would caution President Donald Trump against "shutting down the country for [a] very long time and jeopardizing so many lives in doing this," according to a proposal he submitted. The meeting did not come to pass, but on March 28, after Trump said he wanted the country reopened by Easter, Ioannidis wrote to his colleagues, "I think our ideas have the White House regardless".


title: John Ioannidis

text: Ioannidis widely promoted a study of which he had been co-author, "COVID-19 Antibody Seroprevalence in Santa Clara County, California", released as a preprint on April 17, 2020. It asserted that Santa Clara County's number of infections was between 50 and 85 times higher than the official count, putting the virus's fatality rate as low as 0.1% to 0.2%. Ioannidis concluded from the study that the coronavirus is "not the apocalyptic problem we thought". The message found favor with right-wing media outlets, but the paper drew criticism from a number of epidemiologists who said its testing was inaccurate and its methods were sloppy. Writing for "Wired", David H. Freedman said that the Santa Clara study compromised Ioannidis's previously excellent reputation and meant that future generations of scientists may remember him as "the fringe scientist who pumped up a bad study that supported a crazy right-wing conspiracy theory in the middle of a massive health crisis." Ioannidis has also promoted the idea that there were financial incentives to put COVID-19 on death certificates and as such, they were unreliable during the pandemic, as well as the idea that doctors killed COVID-19 patients through premature intubations. Both of these beliefs contradict the available evidence.


title: John Ioannidis

text: It was later reported that the study received $5,000 in funding from the founder of the JetBlue airline, which led to criticism over a potential conflict of interest. In a guest opinion article in "Scientific American," former colleagues of Ioannidis wrote that a legal firm had determined he had no financial conflict. A review by the Stanford School of Medicine faulted the study for shortcomings including a public perception of a conflict of interest, but found "no evidence that any of the study funders influenced the design, execution, or reporting of the study".


title: John Ioannidis

text: Amid controversy over his COVID-19 work and his frequent televised interviews, Ioannidis was harassed in memes and emails, including one falsely claiming his mother died of COVID-19. Some scientists and commentators voiced concerns over the backlash and the highly politicized scientific dispute in general.


title: John Ioannidis

text: In March 2021 Ioannidis estimated the global infection fatality rate from COVID-19 at 0.15%, in an article in the "European Journal of Clinical Investigation" (EJCI). In an article in "Science-Based Medicine", David Gorski said that the EJCI article included "ad hominem" criticisms against a co-author of a higher estimate who had criticized his work on Twitter.


title: John Ioannidis

text: In February 2022 Ioannidis co-authored a paper examining the role of indoor and outdoor air quality in the spread of SARS-CoV-2, which concluded that environmental health may be a crucial component in the prevention of COVID-19 and suggested preventive measures such as indoor monitoring and mechanical ventilation.


title: John Ioannidis

text: In 2022, Ioannidis authored a paper in "BMJ Open" arguing that signatories of the Great Barrington Declaration were shunned as a fringe minority by those in favor of the John Snow Memorandum. According to him, the latter used their large numbers of followers on Twitter and other social media and op-eds to shape a scientific groupthink against the former, who had less influence as measured by the Kardashian Index. "The BMJ" published responses to his paper, including a comment by Gavin Yamey, David Gorski, and Gideon Meyerowitz-Katz which argued that Ioannidis's paper featured "factual errors, statistical shortcomings, failure to protect the named research subjects from harm, and potentially undeclared conflicts of interest that entirely undermine the analysis presented." In the same exchange of comments on "The BMJ", Ioannidis addressed the concerns of Yamey, Gorski and Meyerovitz-Katz in his "Fourth set of replies", additionally stating that his "COVID-19 papers have been cited about 5 thousand times in the scientific literature by tens of thousands of scientists and were discussed by millions of people," and dismissed conflict of interest by asserting that he did not sign the Great Barrington Declaration or any other petition or signature collection on COVID-19, as he is against the notion that scientific matters and evidence could be decided by signature collections and prefers these matters be handled by heavily moderated public debates.


title: John Ioannidis

text: In 2010, David H. Freedman in "The Atlantic" stated in a special edition about "Brave Thinkers" that Ioannidis "may be one of the most influential scientists alive."


title: John Ioannidis

text: In 2011, Sharon Begley's article "Why Almost Everything You Hear About Medicine Is Wrong" in "Newsweek" said Ioannidis was "cementing his role as one of medicine's top mythbusters".


title: John Ioannidis

text: In 2013, Richard Smith's article "Time for science to be about truth rather than careers" likened listening to Ioannidis to "listening to a great opera or watching a gripping football match: you feel inspired, uplifted, and privileged."


title: John Ioannidis

text: In 2014, "The Economist" featured Ioannidis and Steven Goodman in an article on the Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford, and George Johnson of the "New York Times" wrote an article on the importance of reproducible research, profiling Ioannidis's two 2005 papers as playing a critical role in raising concern about the issue in the scientific community, as later expressed by the journal "Nature".


title: John Ioannidis

text: In 2016, Quartz ran a feature on Ioannidis titled "The man who made scientists question themselves has just exposed huge flaws in evidence used to give drug prescriptions".


title: John Ioannidis

text: In 2019, a STAT article on the healthcare replication crisis mentioned that Ioannidis had found that only a minority of widely cited health research studies carried out over the last decade could be replicated, with at least 1 in 6 actually being contradicted by later studies, and Elsevier featured his analogy of reproducibility in research to "taming a complex beast".


title: John Ioannidis

text: In 2021, David Gorski's article "What the heck happened to John Ioannidis?" described statements by Ioannidis about COVID-19 as inflammatory and politically charged, and said Ioannidis had made egregious "ad hominem" attacks. Gorski called Ioannidis "a cautionary tale of how even science watchdogs can fall prey to hubris."


title: John Ioannidis

text: Ioannidis has received elected membership to the National Academy of Medicine, the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, the European Academy of Cancer Sciences, the American Epidemiological Society and vice-president of the Association of American Physicians.


title: Ornithischia

text: Ornithischia () is an extinct order of mainly herbivorous dinosaurs characterized by a pelvic structure superficially similar to that of birds. The name "Ornithischia", or "bird-hipped", reflects this similarity and is derived from the Greek stem ' (), meaning "of a bird", and ' (), plural "", meaning "hip joint". However, birds are only distantly related to this group as birds are theropod dinosaurs.


title: Ornithischia

text: Ornithischians with well known anatomical adaptations include the ceratopsians or "horn-faced" dinosaurs (e.g. "Triceratops"), the pachycephalosaurs or "thick-headed" dinosaurs, the armored dinosaurs (Thyreophora) such as stegosaurs and ankylosaurs, and the ornithopods. There is strong evidence that certain groups of ornithischians lived in herds, often segregated by age group, with juveniles forming their own flocks separate from adults. Some were at least partially covered in filamentous (hair- or feather- like) pelts, and there is much debate over whether these filaments found in specimens of "Tianyulong", "Psittacosaurus", and "Kulindadromeus" may have been primitive feathers.


title: Ornithischia

text: In 1887, Harry Seeley divided Dinosauria into two clades: Ornithischia and Saurischia. Ornithischia is a strongly supported clade with an abundance of diagnostic characters (common traits). The two most notable traits are a "bird-like" hip and beak-like predentary structure, though they shared other features as well.


title: Ornithischia

text: Early ornithischians were relatively small dinosaurs, averaging about 1–2 meters in body length, with a triangular skull that had large circular orbits on the sides. This suggests that early ornithischians had relatively huge eyes that faced laterally. The forelimbs of early ornithischians are considerably shorter than their hindlimbs. A small forelimb such as those present in early ornithischians would not have been useful for locomotion, and it is evident that early ornithischians were bipedal dinosaurs. The entire skeleton was lightly built, with a largely fenestrated skull and a very stout neck and trunk. The tail is nearly half of the dinosaurs' overall length. The long tail presumably acted as a counterbalance and as a compensating mechanism for shifts in the creature's center of gravity. The hindlimbs of early ornithischians show that the tibia is considerably longer than the femur, a feature that suggests that early ornithischians were adapted for bipedality, and were fast runners.


title: Ornithischia

text: The ornithischian pelvis was "opisthopubic", meaning that the pubis pointed down and backwards (posterior), parallel with the ischium (Figure 1a). Additionally, the ilium had a forward-pointing process (the preacetabular process) to support the abdomen. This resulted in a four-pronged pelvic structure. In contrast to this, the saurischian pelvis was "propubic", meaning the pubis pointed toward the head (anterior), as in ancestral reptiles (Figure 1b).


title: Ornithischia

text: The opisthopubic pelvis independently evolved at least three times in dinosaurs (in ornithischians, birds and therizinosauroids). Some argue that the opisthopubic pelvis evolved a fourth time, in the clade Dromaeosauridae, but this is controversial, as other authors argue that dromaeosaurids are mesopubic.


title: Ornithischia

text: Ornithischians shared a unique bone called the predentary (Figure 2). This unpaired bone was situated at the front of the lower jaw, where it extended the dentary (the main lower jaw bone). The predentary coincided with the premaxilla in the upper jaw. Together, they formed a beak-like apparatus used to clip off plant material. In ceratopsian dinosaurs, it opposed the rostral bone.


title: Ornithischia

text: In 2017 Baron & Barrett suggested that "Chilesaurus" may represent an early diverging ornithischian that had not yet acquired the predentary of all other ornithischians.


title: Ornithischia

text: Ornithischia is a branch-based clade defined as all dinosaurs more closely related to "Iguanodon" than to either "Allosaurus" or "Camarasaurus".


title: Ornithischia

text: During its long history of study, numerous different subgroups of ornithischians have been recognized. Since the 1980s, many have been given phylogenetic definitions in accordance to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). In 2020, the International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature (also known as the ICPN or PhyloCode) was formalized, which treats all the definitions made under the ICZN as informal and inapplicable for scientific use unless re-registered under the ICPN. In 2021, an international group of researchers led by Daniel Madzia registered almost all of the most commonly used ornithischian clades under the ICPN, with the intent of standardizing their definitions. A composite cladogram showing most of their clades and specifiers is shown below.


title: Ornithischia

text: Due to the complexities of early ornithischian evolution, Madzia and colleagues named the new clade Saphornithischia to encompass the taxa traditionally considered ornithischians, to the exclusion of potentially early forms like Silesauridae, "Pisanosaurus" or "Chilesaurus", which some authors have considered basal ornithischians while others consider them non-ornithischians or non-dinosaurs.


title: Ornithischia

text: In 2022, Norman "et al." redefined the clade Prionodontia, proposed by Richard Owen in 1874 and often seen as a synonym of Ornithischia, to be the least inclusive clade including "Iguanodon", "Scelidosaurus", and "Echinodon", similar to its original proposal. They note that it would represent the same clade as Saphornithischia, and despite the latter being registered under the ICPN, Prionodontia may receive priority as it was coined over a century earlier. Their analysis also treats "silesaurids" as a paraphyletic grade of basal ornithischians forming no distinct family, so they coin the clade Parapredentata to include all dinosaurs in the least inclusive clade containing "Silesaurus" and "Iguanodon".


title: Ornithischia

text: Currently, the exact placement of Ornithischia within the dinosaur lineage is a contentious issue. Traditionally, Ornithischia is considered the sister group of Saurischia (which contains Theropoda and Sauropodomorpha). However, in the alternative hypothesis of dinosaur relationships that was proposed by Baron, Norman & Barrett in the journal "Nature" in 2017, Ornithischia was recovered as the sister group to the Theropoda, which grouped together in the clade Ornithoscelida. This hypothesis was recently challenged by an international consortium of early dinosaur experts led by Max Langer. However, the data that supported the more traditional placement of Ornithischia, as sister taxon of Saurischia, was found not to be statistically significant from the evidence that supported the Ornithoscelida hypothesis, in both the study by Langer "et al." and the reply to the study by Baron "et al." A further 2017 study found some support for the previously abandoned Phytodinosauria model, which classifies ornithischians together with sauropodomorphs.


title: Ornithischia

text: Ornithischians shifted from bipedal to quadrupedal posture at least three times in their evolutionary history and it has been shown primitive members may have been capable of both forms of movement.


title: Ornithischia

text: Most ornithischians were herbivorous. In fact, most of the unifying characters of Ornithischia are thought to be related to this herbivory. For example, the shift to an opisthopubic pelvis is thought to be related to the development of a large stomach or stomachs and gut which would allow ornithischians to digest plant matter better. The smallest known ornithischian is "Fruitadens haagarorum". The largest "Fruitadens" individuals reached just 65–75 cm. Previously, only carnivorous, saurischian theropods were known to reach such small sizes. At the other end of the spectrum, the largest known ornithischians reach about 15 meters (smaller than the largest saurischians).


title: Ornithischia

text: However, not all ornithischians were strictly herbivorous. Some groups, like the heterodontosaurids, were likely omnivores. At least one species of ankylosaurian, "Liaoningosaurus paradoxus", appears to have been at least partially carnivorous, with hooked claws, fork-like teeth, and stomach contents suggesting that it may have fed on fish.


title: Ornithischia

text: There is strong evidence that some ornithischians lived in herds. This evidence consists of multiple bone beds where large numbers of individuals of the same species and of different age groups died simultaneously.


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: Becky is a 2020 American thriller film directed by Jonathan Milott and Cary Murnion, from a screenplay by Nick Morris, Lane Skye, and Ruckus Skye. The film stars Lulu Wilson, Kevin James, and Joel McHale.


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: "Becky" was scheduled to have its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival in April 2020, but the festival was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was released on video-on-demand, digital platforms and in select drive-in theaters on June 5, 2020, by Quiver Distribution and Redbox Entertainment. The film received mixed reviews from critics, though many praised Wilson's performance.


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: A law enforcement officer and a civilian, possibly a psychologist, are trying to interview thirteen-year-old Becky Hopper regarding an event that recently took place at her family's house. Even though the audience sees her having flashbacks of the event, Becky only gives vague answers and pretends not to remember anything apart from some insignificant minor details.


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: Two weeks earlier, Becky was a bullied high school student whose mother died a year earlier. She has a strained relationship with her father Jeff, who attempts to reconnect with her with a trip to their lakefront home. Meanwhile, prisoner Dominick Lewis, a Neo-Nazi, and his men Wallace “Apex” Landham, Sonny Cole, and Roman Hammond are being transferred in a prison van. Dominick has an inmate killed to get the guards to pull over, using the opportunity to kill them and pose as policemen. They stop a man and his two children on the street and take their car, killing the man and apparently the children.


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: Jeff's girlfriend Kayla and her young son Ty arrive at the house, upsetting Becky. Jeff announces that he and Kayla are engaged. Hurt, Becky runs out of the house, followed by her beloved dog, Diego (a Cane Corso). At her small fort in the woods, she retrieves a large key, the bow of which is formed in the shape of a valknut symbol. Dominick and his men show up at the house, take everyone hostage, and demand the key. Kayla and Ty try to escape but are caught by Apex, who tries to help them while Cole kills Dora, the family's other dog. Jeff lies about Becky's presence to protect her, but Dominick catches on and shoots Kayla in the leg to get the truth out of them.


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: Becky, still in the woods, becomes aware of the intruders' presence and talks over a walkie-talkie, lying about calling the police. Dominick calls her bluff and brings Jeff outside to the family's firepit to lure Becky out. He begins to torture Jeff with a hot metal rod. Becky relents and says she will give him the key. Dominick allows her father to talk through the talkie, but Jeff tells Becky to run. Jeff breaks free and finds Becky, telling her he loves her before Dominick shoots him dead. Dominick demands the key and Becky gouges out his left eye with it before fleeing with Diego.


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: Dominick goes back into the house to cut off the dangling eye and sends Cole and Hammond out to retrieve the key. Cole finds and chases Becky back to her fort. Cole tries to negotiate with Becky, but she surprises him and stabs him repeatedly with colored pencils and jabs a sharp ruler through his neck, killing him.


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: Apex shows Kayla and Ty compassion and Dominick tries to have Apex reaffirm his loyalty to him. After finding Cole's corpse, Hammond chases Becky down to the lake, where she makes him trip and land on a wooden plank of nails. Hammond falls in the lake and Becky uses a nearby boat motor to shred Hammond's chest. She is found by Apex, who momentarily incapacitates Diego. Not wanting to hurt Becky, Apex urges her to flee.


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: Becky makes her presence known to Kayla and Ty; Kayla tries to distract Dominick by asking him about the key's purpose. Becky sets off the car alarm to lure Dominick out as Kayla tries to free herself. Apex fends off Dominick long enough for Becky to use a lawnmower to run over Dominick's head. Becky then shoots Apex in the head. Kayla and Ty come out with Diego and sit beside Becky as they wait for the police. In the present, Becky claims she does not remember the gang's deaths, with a cold look on her face, one hand nonchalantly playing with the key dangling from a ribbon around her neck.


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: In May 2019, it was announced Simon Pegg and Lulu Wilson had joined the cast of the film, with Jonathan Milott and Cary Murnion directing from a screenplay by Nick Morris, Lane Skye and Ruckus Skye. In July 2019, it was announced Kevin James had joined the cast of the film, replacing Pegg who dropped out due to a scheduling conflict. In August 2019, Joel McHale, Amanda Brugel and Robert Maillet joined the cast of the film.


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: The film was scheduled to have its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 20, 2020. However, the festival was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. That same month, Quiver Distribution and Redbox Entertainment acquired distribution rights to the film and set it for a June 5, 2020, release.


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: Through its first 10 days of release, the film ranked as high as 8th on Spectrum's rental charts and 12th at the iTunes Store.


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: "Becky" made $205,797 from 45 theaters in its opening weekend, finishing second among reported films. It made $192,138 from 50 theaters in its second weekend, becoming the first film to officially top "The Wretched" at the box office. It made $85,056 the following week but was itself dethroned by newcomer "Followed", before returning to first in its fourth weekend.


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads: ""Becky" isn't quite able to sustain enough intensity to fully take advantage of its premise, though it serves up entertainingly nasty thrills for genre fans." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 54 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews."


title: Becky (2020 film)

text: Dennis Harvey of "Variety" called the film an "over-the-top yet effectively taut thriller" and "Wilson's nimble half-brat, half-she-devil performance is key to our buying the basic premise, aided by solid supporting cast contributions. James grows less intimidating the more dialogue he's given in an otherwise trim script by marital duo Ruckus and Lane Skye." Jordan Mintzer of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote: ""Becky" tends to work best when it revels in the blood-splattered set pieces of its script (written by Ruckus Skye, Lane Skye and Nick Morris), going that extra mile and a half in the gore department (special effects makeup was by Karlee Morse) to create some truly disgusting moments, albeit ones that are laced with a grim sense of humor."


title: History of lesbianism

text: Lesbianism is the sexual and romantic desire between women. There are historically far fewer mentions of lesbianism than male homosexuality, due to many historical writings and records focusing primarily on men.


title: History of lesbianism

text: Homosexuality in ancient Egypt between women is less often recorded, or alluded to, in documents and other artifacts as compared to homosexuality among men, but it does appear in such document. The "Dream Book" of the Carlsberg papyrus XIII claims that "If a woman dreams that a woman has intercourse with her, she will come to a bad end." Depictions of women during the New Kingdom suggest they enjoyed, in a relaxed and intimate atmosphere, the company of other women who were scantily clad or naked. Some cosmetics-related items, which may have been owned and used by women, feature nude and suggestive depictions of women.


title: History of lesbianism

text: Evidence of female homosexuality in the ancient Greek world is limited. Most surviving sources from the classical period come from Athens, and they are without exception written by men. At least among these Athenian men, the discussion and depiction of female homosexual activity seems to have been taboo. Kenneth Dover suggests that, due to the role played by the phallus in ancient Greek men's conceptions of sexuality, female homosexual love was not explicitly defined as a sexuality or category by the authors of surviving sources.


title: History of lesbianism

text: Nonetheless, there are a few references to female homosexuality in ancient Greek literature. The writing of two poets from the archaic period, Sappho (c. 630 – c. 570 BC) and Alcman (fl. 7th century BC), has been interpreted as concerning female homosexual desire. Alcman wrote hymns known as "partheneia", which discuss attraction between young women. Though these hymns are ambiguous, historians have posited that they are erotic or sexual. At roughly the same time, Sappho's poems discuss her love for both men and women. For instance, in Sappho's Ode to Aphrodite, the poet asks Aphrodite for aid in wooing another woman. It is noticeable that the fragment describes Sappho both giving to and receiving sexual contact from the same partner, in contrast with the rigid active/passive partner dichotomy observed in Greek male homosexual relationships. Only one fragment of Sappho's poetry, Sappho 94, contains a clear mention of female homosexual acts.


title: History of lesbianism

text: Sappho is the most often mentioned example of an ancient Greek woman who may have actually engaged in sexual acts with women. Her sexuality has been debated by historians. Some, such as Denys Page, argue that she was attracted to women. Others, such as Eva Stigers, point out that that the descriptions of love between women in Sappho's writings are not necessarily evidence for her own sexuality. Some historians have gone so far as to argue that Sappho's circle were involved in female homosexuality as a kind of initiation ritual. The earliest evidence of Sappho's reputation for homosexual desire comes from the Hellenistic period, with a fragment of a biography found in the Oxyrhynchus Papyri which criticizes Sappho for being "gynaikerastria."


title: History of lesbianism

text: Similarly, some find evidence in Plutarch that Spartan women engaged in homosexual activities, although Plutarch wrote many centuries after classical Greece. In Plutarch's biography of Lycurgus of Sparta, part of his "Parallel Lives", the author claims that older Spartan women formed relationships with girls that were similar to the "erastes"/"eromenos" relationships that existed between some older and younger male Greeks. Sarah Pomeroy believes that Plutarch's depiction of homosexual relationships between Spartan women is plausible. For instance, Pomeroy argues that homosexual relationships between the girls would have "flourished" in the girls' choirs that performed the "partheneia" of Alcman.


title: History of lesbianism

text: There are at least two other women poets who wrote in the style of Sappho: Erinna of Teos or Telos (c. late 400s BC) and Nossis of Locri (c. 300 BC). Erinna's "Distaff" and epigrams lament her childhood friend Baucis in a manner which "contains echoes of Sappho." Nossis of Locri wrote three epigrams in a similar style, one of which bears striking resemblance to the floral eroticism found in Sappho's works. It reads as follows: Nothing is sweeter than desire. All other delights are second.


title: History of lesbianism

text: knows not her flowers, what roses they are. In classical Athens, the idea of homosexual women is briefly mentioned in the Speech of Aristophanes in Plato's Symposium. Later references to female homosexuality in Greek literature include an epigram by Asclepiades, which describes two women who reject Aphrodite's "rules" but instead do "other things which are not seemly". Dover comments on the "striking" hostility shown in the epigram to female homosexuality, contrasting it with Asclepiades' willingness to discuss his own homosexual desire in other works, suggesting that this apparent male anxiety about female homosexuality in ancient Greece is the reason for our paucity of sources discussing it.


title: History of lesbianism

text: In Greek mythology, the story of Callisto has been interpreted as implying that Artemis and Callisto were lovers. The myth of the Amazons has also been interpreted as referring to female homosexual activities.


title: History of lesbianism

text: Female-female relationships or sexual activities were occasionally depicted on Greek art. Fr example, a plate from Archaic Thera appears to show two women courting. An Attic red figure vase in the collection of the Tarquinia National Museum in Italy shows a kneeling woman fingering the genitals of another woman in a rare explicit portrayal of sexual activity between women in Greek art.


title: History of lesbianism

text: The "Arthashastra", an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft likely edited and compiled between the second and third centuries CE, describes the fines individuals must pay for engaging in "ayoni", non-vaginal sex. This category includes all non-vaginal sex, whether heterosexual or otherwise. Although both men and women who have sex with each other have to pay a fine, the fine for two women is lower. Overall, "while homosexual sex is unsanctioned" in the "Arthashastra", it is also "treated as a minor offense."


title: History of lesbianism

text: The "Manusmriti", a first century legal text, places a very small fine upon sex between nonvirgin women; however, one who "manually deflowers a virgin" is sentenced to the loss of two fingers. If two virgins are caught, the 'doer' "has to pay double the girl's dowry and is given ten whiplashes." It is clear that this stemmed from anxiety over the girl's marriage prospects. Notably, the "Manusmriti" also fails to provide a punishment for "mutual" oral or manual sex.


title: History of lesbianism

text: The lesbian love story between Iphis and Ianthe, in Book IX of Ovid's the "Metamorphoses", is most vivid. When Iphis' mother becomes pregnant, her husband declares that he will kill the child if it is a girl. She bears a girl and attempts to conceal her sex by giving her a name that is of ambiguous gender: Iphis. When the "son" is thirteen, the father chooses a golden-haired maiden named Ianthe as the "boy's" bride. The love of the two girls is written sympathetically:


title: History of lesbianism

text: "They were of equal age, they both were lovely,""Had learned the ABC from the same teachers,""And so love came to both of them together""In simple innocence, and filled their hearts""With equal longing."


title: History of lesbianism

text: However, as the marriage draws ever closer, Iphis recoils, calling her love "monstrous and unheard of". The goddess Isis hears the girl's moans and turns her into a boy.


title: History of lesbianism

text: References to love between women are sparse. Phaedrus attempts to explain lesbianism through a myth of his own making: Prometheus, coming home drunk from a party, had mistakenly exchanged the genitals of some women and some men. Phaedrus remarks: "Lust now enjoys perverted pleasure."


title: History of lesbianism

text: It is quite clear that "paiderastia" and lesbianism were not held in equally good light, possibly because of the violation of strict gender roles. Seneca the Elder mentions a husband who killed his wife and her female lover and implies that their crime was worse than that of adultery between a male and female.


title: History of lesbianism

text: Iamblichus, a Greek novelist from the first century AD, is best known for his "Babylonaica", or "Babylonian Tales". The "Babylonaica" contains a side story about "Berenice, who was daughter of the king of Egypt, and about her wild and lawless passions: and how she had relations with Mesopotamia." According to an ancient summary of the episode, Berenice and Mesopotamia (a woman) are wed. Although the "Babylonaica" mainly deals with a heterosexual couple, Sinonis and Rhodanes, Berenice and Mesopotamia exist as foils for the pair. Helen Morales cautions that this tale ought not to be treated as "certain evidence...that lesbian marriages were performed in the Roman imperial period," but the mere fact that it exists and survives is remarkable.


title: History of lesbianism

text: Lucian's "Dialogues of the Courtesans" contain an episode in which a woman named Megilla renames herself Megillus and wears a wig to cover her shaved head. She marries Demonassa of Corinth, although Megillus is from Lesbos. Her friend Leaena comments that "They say there are women like that in Lesbos, with faces like men, and unwilling to consort with men, but only with women, as though they themselves were men." Megillus seduces Leaena, who feels that the experience is too disgusting to describe in detail. Leila J. Rupp writes in "Sapphistries: A Global History of Love Between Women": "Two things are significant in this depiction: the connection of an aggressive woman from Lesbos with masculinity and the portrayal of the seduced as a prostitute."


title: History of lesbianism

text: In another dialogue ascribed to Lucian, two men debate over which is better, male love or heterosexuality. One man protested that if male affairs were legitimized, then lesbianism would soon be condoned as well, an unthinkable notion.


title: History of lesbianism

text: The apocryphal "Apocalypse of Peter" describes the punishment of both male and female homosexuals in Hell:


title: History of lesbianism

text: In medieval Europe, the Christian Church took a stricter view of same-sex relations between women. Penitentials, developed by Celtic monks in Ireland, were unofficial guidebooks which became popular, especially in the British Isles. These books listed crimes and the penances that must be done for them. For example, "...he who commits the male crime of the Sodomites shall do penance for four years". The several versions of the "Paenitentiale Theodori", attributed to Theodore of Tarsus, who became archbishop of Canterbury in the 7th century, make special references to lesbianism. The "Paenitentiale" states, "If a woman practices vice with a woman she shall do penance for three years". Penitentials soon spread from the British Isles to mainland Europe. The authors of most medieval penitentials either did not explicitly discuss lesbian activities at all, or treated them as a less serious sin than male homosexuality.


title: History of lesbianism

text: The Old French legal treatise "Li livres de jostice et de plet" (c. 1260) is the earliest reference to legal punishment for lesbianism akin to that for male homosexuality. It prescribed dismemberment on the first two offences and death by burning for the third: a near exact parallel to the penalty for a man, although what "dismemberment" could mean for a medieval woman is unknown. In Spain, Italy, and the Holy Roman Empire, sodomy between women was included in acts considered unnatural and punishable by burning to death, although few instances are recorded of this taking place. In the Holy Roman Empire under Charles V, a law on sexual offences specifically prohibits sex acts between women.


title: History of lesbianism

text: There exist records of about a dozen women in the medieval period who were involved in lesbian sex, as defined by Judith Bennett as same-sex genital contact. All of these women are known through their involvement with the courts, and were imprisoned or executed. An early example of a woman executed for homosexual acts occurred in 1477, when a girl in Speier, Germany, was drowned. The 16th-century writings of Spanish jurist Antonio Gomez mentions the burning of two nuns for the use of "material instruments".


title: History of lesbianism

text: Not all women were so harshly punished, though. In the early fifteenth century, a Frenchwoman, Laurence, wife of Colin Poitevin, was imprisoned for her affair with another woman, Jehanne. She pleaded for clemency on the grounds that Jehanne had been the instigator and she regretted her sins, and was freed to return home after six months imprisonment. A later example, from Pescia in Italy, involved an abbess, Sister Benedetta Carlini, who was documented in inquests between 1619 and 1623 as having committed grave offences including a passionately erotic love affair with another nun when possessed by a Divine male spirit named "Splenditello". She was declared the victim of a "diabolical obsession" and placed in the convent's prison for the last 35 years of her life.


title: History of lesbianism

text: However, an Italian surgeon, William of Bologna, attributed lesbianism to a "growth emanating from the mouth of the womb and appearing outside the vagina as a pseudopenis."


title: History of lesbianism

text: In the medieval Arab world, lesbianism was considered to be caused by heat generated in a woman's labia, which could be alleviated by friction against another woman's genitalia. Medieval Arabic medical texts considered lesbianism to be inborn. For instance, Masawaiyh reported:


title: History of lesbianism

text: The earliest story about lesbianism in Arabic literature comes from the "Encyclopedia of Pleasure", and tells the story of the love between a Christian, Hind bint al-Nu'man, and an Arab woman, Hind bint al-Khuss, and we know from the Fihrist, a tenth-century catalogue of works in Arabic, of writings about twelve other lesbian couples which have not survived. In addition, Ahmad al-Tifashi wrote a collection of stories, known as "A Promenade of the Hearts", which included some poems on homosexual and lesbian themes. Other accounts which mentioned lesbian relationships, include Allen Edwardes in his "The Jewel in the Lotus: A Historical Survey of the Sexual Culture of the East", and Leo Africanus who reported about female diviners in Fez. Moreover, the "mutazarrifat" (refined courtly ladies, also used for lesbians) were present in the Islamic world such as Wallada bint al-Mustakfi in Al-Andalus, and slave girls ("qaynas") who lived in the Abbasid Caliphate.


title: History of lesbianism

text: Between 1170 and 1180 Maimonides, one of the foremost rabbis in Jewish history, compiled his magnum opus, the "Mishneh Torah". It is the only Medieval-era work that details all of Jewish observance, and as regarding lesbianism states:


title: History of lesbianism

text: For women to be "mesollelot" [women rubbing genitals against each other] with one another is forbidden, as this is the practice of Egypt, which we were warned against: "Like the practice of the land of Egypt ... you shall not do" (Leviticus 18:3). The Sages said [in the midrash of Sifra Aharei Mot 8:8–9], "What did they do? A man married a man, and a woman married a woman, and a woman married two men."


title: History of lesbianism

text: Even though this practice is forbidden, one is not lashed [as for a Torah prohibition] on account of it, since there is no specific prohibition against it, and there is no real intercourse. Therefore, [one who does this] is not forbidden to the priesthood because of harlotry, and a woman is not prohibited to her husband by this, since it is not harlotry. But it is appropriate to administer to them lashings of rebellion [i.e., those given for violation of rabbinic prohibitions], since they did something forbidden. And a man should be strict with his wife in this matter, and should prevent women known to do this from coming to her or from her going to them.


title: History of lesbianism

text: The "Florentine Codex", an encyclopedic work on the Aztec and other peoples of Central America finished in 1577, contains a section on Aztec homosexuality. Book ten of the "Codex" covers both male and female sexuality; Geoffrey Kimball provides a terminology guide to and new translation of this source. According to Kimball, the context of the Classical Nahuatl term "xōchihuah" ("owner of flowers") seems to denote a "homosexual of either sex." Another word, "patlācheh", seems to refer specifically to a lesbian.


title: History of lesbianism

text: Kimball's translation includes the following excerpt: She is a possessor of arrows; an owner of darts.


title: History of lesbianism

text: one who possesses various young women.Although the text goes on to include other unflattering descriptions of a woman who has sex with other women, "the invective against the homosexual woman is much less strident against the homosexual man." Kimball adds that the first line of this excerpt "may refer to a woman who violates the sex-role stereotype, or it may have some other reference, at present not yet understood."


title: History of lesbianism

text: Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (12 November 1648-17 April 1695) was a prolific scholar, poet, writer, and protofeminist known for her searing critiques of misogyny. She also "addressed to three vicereines more than forty passionate, often playful, love poems." The romantic nature of these poems has been debated by scholars for decades, but Amanda Powell argues that nonromantic readings of de la Cruz's work stem from historical and modern assumptions of heterosexuality. For example, De la Cruz's "Redondilla 87", which rapturously extols the qualities of a woman named "Feliciana," could be read in a homoerotic manner.


title: History of lesbianism

text: In early modern England, female homosexual behavior became increasingly culturally visible. Some historians, such as Valerie Traub, have argued that this led to increasing cultural sanctions against lesbian behaviors. For instance, in 1709, Delariviere Manley published "The New Atlantis", attacking lesbian activities. However, others, such as Friedli and Faderman have played down the cultural opposition to female homosexuality, pointing out that it was better tolerated than male homosexual activities. Additionally, despite the social stigma, English courts did not prosecute homosexual activities between women, and lesbianism was largely ignored by the law in England. Although Mary Hamilton, the "Female Husband" according to Henry Fielding, was whipped for fraud, the courts and the press of the time do not seem to have believed she committed any crimes. Terry Castle contends that English law in the eighteenth century ignored female homosexual activity not out of indifference, but out of male fears about acknowledging and reifying lesbianism.


title: History of lesbianism

text: The literature of the time attempted to rationalize some lesbian activities, commonly searching for visible indications of sapphic tendencies. In "The New Atlantis", the "real" lesbians are depicted as being masculine. However, Catherine Craft-Fairchild argues in "Sexual and Textual Indeterminacy: Eighteenth-Century English Representations of Sapphism" (2006) that Delariviere Manley fails to establish a coherent narrative of lesbians as anatomically distinct from other women, whereas Fielding in "The Female Husband" focuses on the corruption of Hamilton's mind. Jonathan Swift, writing for the "Tatler" in 1711, acknowledges the difficulty inherent in establishing such a narrative framework, where he describes a woman having her virginity tested by a lion. Despite the onlookers' failure to detect anything amiss, the lion identified her as "no true Virgin." At the same time, positive -- or potentially positive writings -- concerning female homosexuality drew on the languages of both female same-sex friendship and heterosexual romance. At the time, there were no widespread cultural motifs of homosexuality. Only among the less respectable members of society does it seem that there was any sort of a lesbian subculture. It is likely that there was such a subculture amongst dancers and prostitutes in eighteenth- and early-nineteenth century Paris as well as in eighteenth-century Amsterdam.