title: Evolution of the horse

text: Three lineages within Equidae are believed to be descended from the numerous varieties of "Merychippus": "Hipparion", "Protohippus" and "Pliohippus". The most different from "Merychippus" was "Hipparion", mainly in the structure of tooth enamel: in comparison with other Equidae, the inside, or tongue side, had a completely isolated parapet. A complete and well-preserved skeleton of the North American "Hipparion" shows an animal the size of a small pony. They were very slim, rather like antelopes, and were adapted to life on dry prairies. On its slim legs, "Hipparion" had three toes equipped with small hooves, but the side toes did not touch the ground.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: In North America, "Hipparion" and its relatives ("Cormohipparion", "Nannippus", "Neohipparion", and "Pseudhipparion"), proliferated into many kinds of equids, at least one of which managed to migrate to Asia and Europe during the Miocene epoch. (European "Hipparion" differs from American "Hipparion" in its smaller body size – the best-known discovery of these fossils was near Athens.)


title: Evolution of the horse

text: "Pliohippus" arose from "Callippus" in the middle Miocene, around 12 mya. It was very similar in appearance to "Equus", though it had two long extra toes on both sides of the hoof, externally barely visible as callused stubs. The long and slim limbs of "Pliohippus" reveal a quick-footed steppe animal.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: Until recently, "Pliohippus" was believed to be the ancestor of present-day horses because of its many anatomical similarities. However, though "Pliohippus" was clearly a close relative of "Equus", its skull had deep facial fossae, whereas "Equus" had no fossae at all. Additionally, its teeth were strongly curved, unlike the very straight teeth of modern horses. Consequently, it is unlikely to be the ancestor of the modern horse; instead, it is a likely candidate for the ancestor of "Astrohippus".


title: Evolution of the horse

text: "Dinohippus" was the most common species of Equidae in North America during the late Pliocene. It was originally thought to be monodactyl, but a 1981 fossil find in Nebraska shows some were tridactyl.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: "Plesippus" is often considered an intermediate stage between "Dinohippus" and the extant genus, "Equus".


title: Evolution of the horse

text: The famous fossils found near Hagerman, Idaho were originally thought to be a part of the genus "Plesippus". Hagerman Fossil Beds (Idaho) is a Pliocene site, dating to about 3.5 mya. The fossilized remains were originally called "Plesippus shoshonensis", but further study by paleontologists determined the fossils represented the oldest remains of the genus "Equus". Their estimated average weight was 425 kg, roughly the size of an Arabian horse.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: At the end of the Pliocene, the climate in North America began to cool significantly and most of the animals were forced to move south. One population of "Plesippus" moved across the Bering land bridge into Eurasia around 2.5 mya.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: The genus "Equus", which includes all extant equines, is believed to have evolved from "Dinohippus", via the intermediate form "Plesippus". One of the oldest species is "Equus simplicidens", described as zebra-like with a donkey-shaped head. The oldest fossil to date is ~3.5 million years old, discovered in Idaho. The genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly aged "Equus livenzovensis" documented from western Europe and Russia.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: Molecular phylogenies indicate the most recent common ancestor of all modern equids (members of the genus "Equus") lived ~5.6 (3.9–7.8) mya. Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Myr before present date for the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Myr BP. The oldest divergencies are the Asian hemiones (subgenus "E. (Asinus)", including the kulan, onager, and kiang), followed by the African zebras (subgenera "E. (Dolichohippus)", and "E. (Hippotigris)"). All other modern forms including the domesticated horse (and many fossil Pliocene and Pleistocene forms) belong to the subgenus "E. (Equus)" which diverged ~4.8 (3.2–6.5) million years ago.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: Pleistocene horse fossils have been assigned to a multitude of species, with over 50 species of equines described from the Pleistocene of North America alone, although the taxonomic validity of most of these has been called into question. Recent genetic work on fossils has found evidence for only three genetically divergent equid lineages in Pleistocene North and South America. These results suggest all North American fossils of caballine-type horses (which also include the domesticated horse and Przewalski's horse of Europe and Asia), as well as South American fossils traditionally placed in the subgenus "E. (Amerhippus)" belong to the same species: "E. ferus". Remains attributed to a variety of species and lumped as New World stilt-legged horses (including Haringtonhippus, "E. tau", "E. quinni" and potentially North American Pleistocene fossils previously attributed to "E. cf. hemiones", and "E. (Asinus)" cf. "kiang") probably all belong to a second species endemic to North America, which despite a superficial resemblance to species in the subgenus "E. (Asinus)" (and hence occasionally referred to as North American ass) is closely related to "E. ferus". Surprisingly, the third species, endemic to South America and traditionally referred to as "Hippidion", originally believed to be descended from "Pliohippus", was shown to be a third species in the genus "Equus", closely related to the New World stilt-legged horse. The temporal and regional variation in body size and morphological features within each lineage indicates extraordinary intraspecific plasticity. Such environment-driven adaptative changes would explain why the taxonomic diversity of Pleistocene equids has been overestimated on morphoanatomical grounds.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: According to these results, it appears the genus "Equus" evolved from a "Dinohippus"-like ancestor ~4–7 mya. It rapidly spread into the Old World and there diversified into the various species of asses and zebras. A North American lineage of the subgenus "E. (Equus)" evolved into the New World stilt-legged horse (NWSLH). Subsequently, populations of this species entered South America as part of the Great American Interchange shortly after the formation of the Isthmus of Panama, and evolved into the form currently referred to as "Hippidion" ~2.5 million years ago. "Hippidion" is thus only distantly related to the morphologically similar "Pliohippus", which presumably became extinct during the Miocene. Both the NWSLH and "Hippidium" show adaptations to dry, barren ground, whereas the shortened legs of "Hippidion" may have been a response to sloped terrain. In contrast, the geographic origin of the closely related modern "E. ferus" is not resolved. However, genetic results on extant and fossil material of Pleistocene age indicate two clades, potentially subspecies, one of which had a holarctic distribution spanning from Europe through Asia and across North America and would become the founding stock of the modern domesticated horse. The other population appears to have been restricted to North America. However, one or more North American populations of "E. ferus" entered South America ~1.0–1.5 million years ago, leading to the forms currently known as "E. (Amerhippus)", which represent an extinct geographic variant or race of "E. ferus".


title: Evolution of the horse

text: Early sequencing studies of DNA revealed several genetic characteristics of Przewalski's horse that differ from what is seen in modern domestic horses, indicating neither is ancestor of the other, and supporting the status of Przewalski horses as a remnant wild population not derived from domestic horses. The evolutionary divergence of the two populations was estimated to have occurred about 45,000 YBP, while the archaeological record places the first horse domestication about 5,500 YBP by the ancient central-Asian Botai culture. The two lineages thus split well before domestication, probably due to climate, topography, or other environmental changes.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: Several subsequent DNA studies produced partially contradictory results. A 2009 molecular analysis using ancient DNA recovered from archaeological sites placed Przewalski's horse in the middle of the domesticated horses, but a 2011 mitochondrial DNA analysis suggested that Przewalski's and modern domestic horses diverged some 160,000 years ago. An analysis based on whole genome sequencing and calibration with DNA from old horse bones gave a divergence date of 38–72 thousand years ago.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: In June 2013, a group of researchers announced that they had sequenced the DNA of a 560–780 thousand year old horse, using material extracted from a leg bone found buried in permafrost in Canada's Yukon territory. Before this publication, the oldest nuclear genome that had been successfully sequenced was dated at 110–130 thousand years ago. For comparison, the researchers also sequenced the genomes of a 43,000-year-old Pleistocene horse, a Przewalski's horse, five modern horse breeds, and a donkey. Analysis of differences between these genomes indicated that the last common ancestor of modern horses, donkeys, and zebras existed 4 to 4.5 million years ago. The results also indicated that Przewalski's horse diverged from other modern types of horse about 43,000 years ago, and had never in its evolutionary history been domesticated.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: A new analysis in 2018 involved genomic sequencing of ancient DNA from mid-fourth-millennium B.C.E. Botai domestic horses, as well as domestic horses from more recent archaeological sites, and comparison of these genomes with those of modern domestic and Przewalski's horses. The study revealed that Przewalski's horses not only belong to the same genetic lineage as those from the Botai culture, but were the feral descendants of these ancient domestic animals, rather than representing a surviving population of never-domesticated horses. The Botai horses were found to have made only negligible genetic contribution to any of the other ancient or modern domestic horses studied, which must then have arisen from an independent domestication involving a different wild horse population.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: The karyotype of Przewalski's horse differs from that of the domestic horse by an extra chromosome pair because of the fission of domestic horse chromosome 5 to produce the Przewalski's horse chromosomes 23 and 24. In comparison, the chromosomal differences between domestic horses and zebras include numerous translocations, fusions, inversions and centromere repositioning. This gives Przewalski's horse the highest diploid chromosome number among all equine species. They can interbreed with the domestic horse and produce fertile offspring (65 chromosomes).


title: Evolution of the horse

text: Digs in western Canada have unearthed clear evidence horses existed in North America until about 12,000 years ago.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: However, all Equidae in North America ultimately became extinct. The causes of this extinction (simultaneous with the extinctions of a variety of other American megafauna) have been a matter of debate. Given the suddenness of the event and because these mammals had been flourishing for millions of years previously, something quite unusual must have happened. The first main hypothesis attributes extinction to climate change. For example, in Alaska, beginning approximately 12,500 years ago, the grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra, which was covered with unpalatable plants. The other hypothesis suggests extinction was linked to overexploitation by newly arrived humans of naive prey that were not habituated to their hunting methods. The extinctions were roughly simultaneous with the end of the most recent glacial advance and the appearance of the big game-hunting Clovis culture. Several studies have indicated humans probably arrived in Alaska at the same time or shortly before the local extinction of horses. However, a 2021 study describing archaeological evidence suggesting humans arrived much earlier raises new questions about this theory. Additionally, it has been proposed that the steppe-tundra vegetation transition in Beringia may have been a consequence, rather than a cause, of the extinction of megafaunal grazers.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: In Eurasia, horse fossils began occurring frequently again in archaeological sites in Kazakhstan and the southern Ukraine about 6,000 years ago. From then on, domesticated horses, as well as the knowledge of capturing, taming, and rearing horses, probably spread relatively quickly, with wild mares from several wild populations being incorporated en route.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: Horses only returned to the Americas with Christopher Columbus in 1493. These were Iberian horses first brought to Hispaniola and later to Panama, Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Argentina, and, in 1538, Florida. The first horses to return to the main continent were 16 specifically identified horses brought by Hernán Cortés. Subsequent explorers, such as Coronado and De Soto, brought ever-larger numbers, some from Spain and others from breeding establishments set up by the Spanish in the Caribbean. Later, as Spanish missions were founded on the mainland, horses would eventually be lost or stolen, and proliferated into large herds of feral horses that became known as mustangs.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: The ancestors of the horse came to walk only on the end of the third toe and both side (second and fourth) "toes". Skeletal remnants show obvious wear on the back of both sides of metacarpal and metatarsal bones, commonly called the "splint bones". They are the remnants of the second and the fourth toes. Modern horses retain the splint bones; they are often believed to be useless attachments, but they in fact play an important role in supporting the carpal joints (front knees) and even the tarsal joints (hocks).


title: Evolution of the horse

text: A 2018 study has found remnants of the remaining digits in the horse's hoof, suggesting a retention of all five digits (albeit in a "hourglass" arrangement where metacarpals/tarsals are present proximally and phalanges distally).


title: Evolution of the horse

text: Throughout the phylogenetic development, the teeth of the horse underwent significant changes. The type of the original omnivorous teeth with short, "bumpy" molars, with which the prime members of the evolutionary line distinguished themselves, gradually changed into the teeth common to herbivorous mammals. They became long (as much as 100 mm), roughly cubical molars equipped with flat grinding surfaces. In conjunction with the teeth, during the horse's evolution, the elongation of the facial part of the skull is apparent, and can also be observed in the backward-set eyeholes. In addition, the relatively short neck of the equine ancestors became longer, with equal elongation of the legs. Finally, the size of the body grew as well.


title: Evolution of the horse

text: The ancestral coat color of "E. ferus" was possibly a uniform dun, consistent with modern populations of Przewalski's horses. Pre-domestication variants including black and spotted have been inferred from cave wall paintings and confirmed by genomic analysis.


title: Ticagrelor

text: Ticagrelor, sold under the brand name Brilinta among others, is a medication used for the prevention of stroke, heart attack and other events in people with acute coronary syndrome, meaning problems with blood supply in the coronary arteries. It acts as a platelet aggregation inhibitor by antagonising the P2Y receptor. The drug is produced by AstraZeneca.


title: Ticagrelor

text: The most common side effects include dyspnea (difficulty breathing), bleeding and raised uric acid level in the blood.


title: Ticagrelor

text: It was approved for medical use in the European Union in December 2010, and in the United States in July 2011. In 2020, it was the 247th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1million prescriptions.


title: Ticagrelor

text: In the US, ticagrelor is indicated to reduce the risk of stroke in people with acute ischemic stroke or high-risk transient ischemic attack.


title: Ticagrelor

text: In the EU, ticagrelor, co-administered with acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), is indicated for the prevention of atherothrombotic events in adults with acute coronary syndromes or a history of myocardial infarction and a high risk of developing an atherothrombotic event; and for the prevention of atherothrombotic events in adults with a history of myocardial infarction and a high risk of developing an atherothrombotic event.


title: Ticagrelor

text: Contraindications to ticagrelor are active bleeding, increased risk of bradycardia, concomitant therapy of ticagrelor and strong cytochrome P-450 3A (CYP3A4) inhibitors and moderate or severe hepatic impairment due to the risk of increased exposure to ticagrelor.


title: Ticagrelor

text: The common adverse effects are increased risk of bleeding (which may be severe) and shortness of breath (dyspnoea). Dyspnoea is usually transient and mild-to-moderate in severity, with a higher risk at < 1 month, 1–6 months and >6 months of follow up compared to clopidogrel. Discontinuation of therapy is rare, although some people do not persist or switch therapies. People who develop tolerable dyspnoea as a side effect of ticagrelor should be reassured to continue therapy, as it does not impact on the drug's cardiovascular benefit and bleeding risk in acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Furthermore, two small subgroup analyses found no associations between ticagrelor and adverse changes in heart and lung function that may induce dyspnoea in stable coronary artery disease (CAD) and people with ACS without heart failure or significant lung disease.


title: Ticagrelor

text: Ventricular pauses ≥3 seconds may occur in people with ACS the first week of treatment, but are likely to be mostly asymptomatic and transient, without causing increased clinical bradycardic adverse events. Caution is recommended when using ticagrelor in people with advanced sinoatrial node disease. Allergic skin reactions such as rash and itching have been observed in less than 1% of people taking ticagrelor.


title: Ticagrelor

text: Inhibitors of the liver enzyme CYP3A4, such as ketoconazole and possibly grapefruit juice, increase blood plasma levels of ticagrelor and consequently can lead to bleeding and other adverse effects. Ticagrelor is a weak CYP3A4 inhibitor and is known to increase the concentrations of CYP3A4 metabolised medications; however, this interaction is unlikely to be clinically significant for atorvastatin and simvastatin at recommended doses. CYP3A4 inducers, for example rifampicin and possibly St. John's wort, can reduce the effectiveness of ticagrelor. There is no evidence for interactions via CYP2C9.


title: Ticagrelor

text: The drug also inhibits P-glycoprotein (P-gp), leading to increased plasma levels of digoxin, ciclosporin and other P-gp substrates. Levels of ticagrelor and AR-C124910XX (the active metabolite of ticagrelor formed by O-deethylation) are not significantly influenced by P-gp inhibitors.


title: Ticagrelor

text: It is recommended to use low-dose aspirin (75–100 mg per day) with ticagrelor as dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT). The combination of ticagrelor with aspirin doses greater than 100 mg per day "may" be less effective.


title: Ticagrelor

text: Like the thienopyridines prasugrel, clopidogrel and ticlopidine, ticagrelor blocks adenosine diphosphate (ADP) receptors of subtype P2Y. In contrast to the other antiplatelet drugs, ticagrelor has a binding site different from ADP, making it an allosteric antagonist, and the blockage is reversible. Moreover, the drug does not need hepatic activation, which might work better for people with genetic variants regarding the enzyme CYP2C19 (although it is not certain whether clopidogrel is significantly influenced by such variants). Ticagrelor was found to result in a lower risk of stroke at 90 days than clopidogrel, which requires metabolic conversion, among Han Chinese CYP2C19 loss-of-function carriers with minor ischemic stroke or TIA.


title: Ticagrelor

text: Ticagrelor is absorbed quickly from the gut, the bioavailability being 36%, and reaches its peak concentration after about 1.5 hours. The main metabolite, AR-C124910XX, is formed quickly via CYP3A4 by de-hydroxyethylation at position 5 of the cyclopentane ring.


title: Ticagrelor

text: Plasma concentrations of ticagrelor are slightly increased (12–23%) in elderly people, women, people of Asian ethnicity, and people with mild hepatic impairment. They are decreased in people that self-identified as 'black' and those with severe renal impairment. These differences are not considered clinically relevant. In Japanese people, concentrations are 40% higher than in Caucasians, or 20% after body weight correction. The drug has not been tested in people with severe hepatic impairment.


title: Ticagrelor

text: Consistently with its reversible mode of action, ticagrelor is known to act faster and shorter than clopidogrel. This means it has to be taken twice instead of once a day which is a disadvantage in respect of compliance, but its effects are more quickly reversible which can be useful before surgery or if side effects occur.


title: Ticagrelor

text: Ticagrelor is a nucleoside analogue: the cyclopentane ring is similar to the sugar ribose, and the nitrogen rich aromatic ring system resembles the nucleobase purine, giving the molecule an overall similarity to adenosine. The substance has low solubility and low permeability under the Biopharmaceutics Classification System.


title: Ticagrelor

text: The PLATO trial concluded superiority of ticagrelor compared to clopidogrel in reducing the rate of death from vascular causes, MI, and stroke in people presenting with acute coronary syndromes. A "post-hoc" subgroup analysis of the PLATO trial suggested a reduction in total mortality with ticagrelor compared to clopidogrel in people with non-ST elevation acute coronary syndrome. However, this finding should only be considered exploratory as it was not a primary endpoint of the PLATO trial. Subsequent studies have also been underpowered in evaluating total mortality benefits with ticagrelor.


title: Ticagrelor

text: The PLATO trial found that ticagrelor use, in conjunction with low-dose aspirin (where tolerated), had better all-cause mortality rates than the same treatment plan with clopidogrel (4.5% vs. 5.9%, p<0.001) in treating people with acute coronary syndrome. People given ticagrelor were less likely to die from vascular causes, heart attack, or stroke, regardless of whether the treatment plan was invasive. While the patient group on ticagrelor had more instances of fatal bleeding and intracranial bleeding, the difference in cases was not considered significant (p=0.70). Rates of major bleeding were not significantly different between the two groups (7.9% vs. 7.7%, p=0.57). However, dyspnoea was significantly more likely in the ticagrelor group (13.8% vs. 7.8%, p<0.001). Premature discontinuation of the study drug was far more common in the ticagrelor group (23.4% vs. 21.5%, p=0.002), which could be due to adverse events (7.4% vs. 6.0%, p<0.001) or the patient’s unwillingness to continue (10.1% vs. 9.2%, p = 0.04).


title: Ticagrelor

text: The PLATO trial showed a statistically insignificant trend toward worse outcomes with ticagrelor versus clopidogrel among US participants in the study – who comprised 1627 of the total 13,326 participants. The hazard ratio actually reversed for the composite end point cardiovascular (death, MI, or stroke): 11.1% for participants given ticagrelor and 9.1% for participants given clopidogrel (HR = 1.27). It is important to note that even though there was a trend to worse outcomes in the US patient population, this trend was still classed as insignificant, and therefore should not affect patient use in the US population.


title: Ticagrelor

text: There is some conjecture in the safety and efficacy of ticagrelor within the Asian population, despite significant thrombotic benefits. A meta-analysis of observational studies in several Asian countries proposed that ticagrelor did not increase the risk of considerable bleeding events in Asian individuals. It is important to note that despite this being “real world” data, the study did not provide ethnic population demographics, leading to potential generalisation of data for Asian individuals. There is evidence to suggest that East Asian individuals are at a higher risk of bleeding events when using ticagrelor. Several recent meta-analyses of RCTs have been carried out in this population and although underpowered (more research is needed), the Asian Pacific Society of Cardiology Guidelines have taken these trials into account. The guidelines recommend that people of East Asian origin exercise caution and that treatment continuation after six months be based on net-clinical benefit.


title: Ticagrelor

text: In 2019, the results of the ISAR-REACT 5 trial was published, comparing ticagrelor and prasugrel in participants with acute coronary syndrome.


title: Ticagrelor

text: An "in vitro" assay and mouse model study published in 2019, showed antibacterial activity against antibiotic-resistant Gram-positive bacteria including "Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus" (MRSA) and "Vancomycin Resistant Enterococcus" (VRE). This study used concentrations of ticagrelor for bactericidal activity that far exceeded those achieved by standard post Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS) doses. A single-center retrospective cohort study demonstrated a significant reduction in gram-positive infection in the first year of ticagrelor compared with clopidogrel post ACS. Treatment with ticagrelor post PCI was also associated with a significantly lower absolute 1-year risk of "S. aureus" bacteraemia, sepsis, and pneumonia compared to clopidogrel in a nationwide observational study, however no causal inference can be drawn from the observational data.


title: God's Gonna Cut You Down

text: "God's Gonna Cut You Down" (also known as "God Almighty's Gonna Cut You Down", "God's Gonna Cut 'Em Down", "Run On" and "Sermon") is a traditional American folk song. It was first recorded by the Golden Gate Quartet in 1946 and first issued in 1947 by the Jubalaires. Since then, the track has been recorded in a variety of genres, including country, folk, alternative rock, electronic and black metal. The lyrics warn evildoers that they cannot avoid God's eventual judgment.


title: God's Gonna Cut You Down

text: As "God's Gonna Cut You Down", it was performed by Odetta on "Odetta Sings Ballads and Blues" (1956), Johnny Cash on the posthumously released "" (2006). Marilyn Manson also used this title for a non-album single in 2019. As "Run On", it has been recorded by Elvis Presley and Tom Jones, and The Blind Boys of Alabama. The song has been covered by many other artists. A version by Bill Landford & the Landfordaires from 1949 was later sampled heavily for the 1999 song "Run On" by Moby.


title: God's Gonna Cut You Down

text: Johnny Cash recorded a version of "God's Gonna Cut You Down" on "" in 2003, with an arrangement quite different from most known gospel versions of the song. As of January 2016, this version of the song sold 672,000 copies in the United States.


title: God's Gonna Cut You Down

text: A music video, directed by Tony Kaye, was made for this version in late 2006, three years after Cash's death. The video was shot entirely in black and white and features a number of celebrities: David Allan Coe, Patricia Arquette, Travis Barker, Peter Blake, Bono, Sheryl Crow, Johnny Depp, the Dixie Chicks (now known as The Chicks), Flea, Billy Gibbons, Whoopi Goldberg, Woody Harrelson, Dennis Hopper, Terrence Howard, Jay-Z, Mick Jones, Kid Rock, Anthony Kiedis, Kris Kristofferson, Amy Lee, Tommy Lee, Adam Levine, Shelby Lynne, Chris Martin, Kate Moss, Graham Nash, Iggy Pop, Lisa Marie Presley, Q-Tip, Corinne Bailey Rae, Keith Richards, Chris Rock, Rick Rubin, Patti Smith, Sharon Stone, Justin Timberlake, Kanye West, Brian Wilson, and Owen Wilson.


title: God's Gonna Cut You Down

text: This version has appeared in the Fox series "Gotham", during the episode titled "What the Little Bird Told Him". It also featured in the season three episode of NBC series "The Blacklist", "The Director: Conclusion", and in the CBC series "Republic of Doyle", where it closed episode 10 of season 2, "The Special Detective".


title: God's Gonna Cut You Down

text: The song is currently being used by Houston Astros refief pitcher Ryan Pressly as entrance music. It has been used by St. Louis Cardinals relief pitcher Andrew Miller, Los Angeles Angels relief pitcher Cody Allen, as well as Kansas City Royals closer Brad Boxberger as entrance music. In Independent baseball, Tyler Nordgren of the Ottawa Champions also uses this song as his walk-up song.


title: God's Gonna Cut You Down

text: The song is featured in the single-player campaign of "Battlefield 3", and a version of Cash's performance that was remixed by Ninja Tracks is used in the Gamescom gameplay trailer for "Battlefield 1".


title: God's Gonna Cut You Down

text: The song is also used in the "" launch trailer, and in the initial trailer for the 2010 Coen brothers remake of "True Grit".


title: God's Gonna Cut You Down

text: The "Mondkopf Plus de Sommeil" remix of Cash's performance appeared in an ad campaign for the all-new 2011 Jeep Grand Cherokee (WK2).


title: God's Gonna Cut You Down

text: Marilyn Manson recorded a cover version of the track during sessions for their tenth studio album, "Heaven Upside Down", which was released in 2017. They performed the song live several times during that album's supporting concert tour. Their studio version of the track first appeared on the Ethan Hawke film "24 Hours to Live", the soundtrack of which was issued via Varèse Sarabande on December 8, 2017. The song was then released as a standalone digital download and streaming single on October 18, 2019, in tandem with a tour by the band. A vinyl picture disc was released on December 13, 2019, and limited to 3,000 copies worldwide. The vinyl single features one of Manson's watercolor paintings as its artwork.


title: God's Gonna Cut You Down

text: A music video directed by Tim Mattia, who previously directed the video for the "Born Villain" track "Hey, Cruel World...", was filmed in Joshua Tree, California and was also released on October 18. The track peaked at number eight on Hot Rock Songs and at number one on Rock Digital Songs—the band's highest peak on either chart.


title: Doom 64

text: Doom 64 is a first-person shooter game by Midway Games. It was first released for the Nintendo 64 in 1997, as the second spin-off game in the "Doom" series after "Final Doom" (1996), and the third game in the series overall. A remastered port was developed by Nightdive Studios and published by Bethesda Softworks for Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One in March 2020, and for Stadia in May 2020.


title: Doom 64

text: "Doom 64" was developed from 1994 by Midway Studios San Diego under supervision of id Software, the main developer of the "Doom" franchise, and was tentatively titled "Doom: The Absolution". It has a customized version of the "Doom" engine, enabling new kinds of level geometry, and dynamic colored lighting. It has new sprite graphics for weapons and monsters.


title: Doom 64

text: It received positive reviews from critics, praising its graphics, level design, soundtrack, and general atmosphere, with some criticizing the lack of new gameplay elements compared to the previous games of the series. It gained a cult following, with several fan-made PC source ports and mods.


title: Doom 64

text: "Doom 64" gameplay is similar to earlier "Doom" games. The player must advance through 28 story levels (and 4 secret levels) by battling demons, collecting weapons and keys, and activating switches to reach the level's exit while surviving deadly ambushes and traps. The "Doom" engine and gameplay elements were customized, and all visual assets such as weapon and monster graphics are unique to "Doom 64".


title: Doom 64

text: All the weapons from "Doom II" are present, but with new sprites and sound effects. The chainsaw has two blades instead of one, the fists have bloodstained gloves instead of brass knuckles, the plasma gun has an electric core that emits a sparking sound, the rocket launcher has a small kickback, the shotgun's priming handle is at the grip instead of under the barrel, and the double-barreled "Super" shotgun reloads faster and causes kickback.


title: Doom 64

text: A new weapon named the Unmaker which is a hit scan weapon, but looks like a projectile weapon uses the same cell ammunition as the plasma gun and BFG 9000. It had originated in the "Doom Bible" in 1992, and was planned for the original "Doom" in 1993, but never appeared. Its appearance in "Doom 64" is its only official appearance prior to "Doom Eternal", in which it is spelled "Unmaykr". With the power of three ancient artifacts found throughout the game, it becomes more powerful by shooting three laser beams (at a quicker rate than default) instead of one. The first artifact increases the laser speed, the second artifact adds a second laser, and the third artifact allows the weapon to fire three simultaneous lasers which can automatically aim separately from one another, allowing the weapon to attack three different enemies at once with huge amounts of rapid damage.


title: Doom 64

text: Following the Doom Marine's success at thwarting Hell in "Doom", "", and in the "Final Doom" storyline, a planetary policy is established to quarantine the U.A.C. research installations with apocalyptic levels of radiation. For years, the installations stood motionless and abandoned, until a long forgotten satellite monitoring one of the installations, barely functioning due to years of being subjected to the high levels of radiation, sends a message back to Earth.


title: Doom 64

text: The message indicates that a single entity, with vast rejuvenation powers and masked by the extreme radiation levels, escaped detection in its crippled state. This entity systematically altered decaying dead carnage back into corrupted living tissue, resurrecting the demons.


title: Doom 64

text: As the only experienced survivor of the "Doom" episodes, the Marine is sent in alone to exterminate them. Later, he realizes the demons had planned for this, after he unknowingly allowed himself to be lured back into Hell. The demons are unable to defeat him, and with the Unmaker, he eventually battles and kills the Mother Demon. The game ends with the Marine, no longer capable of having a normal life following his encounters with Hell's forces, deciding to remain in Hell forever to ensure no demon ever rises again.


title: Doom 64

text: In the "Lost Levels" from the 2020 remaster, the story continues as the Mother Demon was revealed to have a sister called the "Resurrector". It banishes the Marine back onto Phobos, forcing him to fight his way back to Hell to stop the Demons. It branches the storyline between the original games with the 2016 reboot of "Doom" and "Doom Eternal".


title: Doom 64

text: "Doom 64" was developed by Midway Games at its San Diego studio. id Software, the primary developer of the "Doom" franchise, supervised the project. Development began in late 1994. Its tentative title of "The Absolution" was changed to "Doom 64" for brand recognition, and reused as the name of the last level. Midway wanted to include every demon from the original games, and a few extra levels, into the final product, but deadlines and storage size constraints of the Nintendo 64 Game Pak cartridges made them exclude the levels and a few demons. Midway stated that a multiplayer mode was not included because Nintendo did not provide the necessary resources for multiplayer programming. Midway justified the decision based on alleged slowdown during split-screen multiplayer in other games on the console and the competitive nature of the mode. A Midway representative stated, "Everyone knows that the best part of playing multiplayer is not knowing where your opponent is and with a four-player split-screen, everyone can easily see where their opponents are."


title: Doom 64

text: The environments were built from 3-dimensional polygon models, and the enemies were created by pre-rendering sprites with SGI workstations. The Nightmare Imp was originally developed for the PlayStation version of "Doom" and appeared in a near-complete beta of the game, but was removed just prior to release for unknown reasons. It debuted in "Doom 64" instead.


title: Doom 64

text: "Doom 64" was slated to be a North American launch game but was postponed until April 1997. A "Next Generation" writer speculated that this was due to id Software having expressed dissatisfaction with the level designs, an assertion that is not otherwise substantiated. Nintendo's then-recent decision to remove the ability to run over animals from the Nintendo 64 version of "Cruis'n USA" raised concerns about the possibility of censoring "Doom 64", but Midway vice president of software Mike Abbot said Nintendo had not voiced any concerns about the game's violent content. He pointed out that "Cruis'n USA" was perceived by the public as a family game, but the "Doom" series was targeted towards mature gamers, making violent content less of a concern.


title: Doom 64

text: The music and sound effects were composed by Aubrey Hodges, who had created the original sound effects and music for the PlayStation version two years earlier. The original "Doom 64" team was working on a potential sequel titled "Doom Absolution" designed only for two-player deathmatches soon after the first game was released, but canceled it. Because id Software was impressed with the team's work on "Doom 64", they were assigned to the Nintendo 64 version of "Quake" at this time.


title: Doom 64

text: By the time "Doom 64" was released, the original "Doom" had been converted to nearly every platform capable of running it. Critics agreed that "Doom 64" was by far the best-looking "Doom" to date, exceeding even the PC version. They were enthusiastic about the level designs, deeming them imaginative and much more challenging than those of the original "Doom". A "Next Generation" critic remarked that "even the most skillful "Doom" fans will have their hands full. And pushing door switches often causes whole rooms to rearrange and fold out into new shapes."


title: Doom 64

text: However, most reviewers said that the new graphics and levels were not enough to keep the game from feeling like yet another port of the original "Doom". Peer Schneider of "IGN" concluded, "Make no mistake about it, this is the best update to "Doom" so farbut if you've played the PC, PSX, SNES, Mac, Saturn, etc versions to death, you can do without this one." "GamePro" disagreed with the majority on this point, stating that ""Doom 64" pumps the tried-and-true corridor-shooter formula full of life, with another challenging, intense experience that showcases the system's capabilities." They rated it a perfect 5.0 out of 5 in all four categories: graphics, sound, control, and fun factor. Shawn Smith of "Electronic Gaming Monthly" instead regarded the lack of advancements in the basic "Doom" gameplay as a positive: "Some of you may want to see your space Marine jumping around or swimming underwater. Purists wouldn't want these features added because "Doom" wasn't about that stuff. I'll have to agree with the purists."


title: Doom 64

text: Most critics praised the game's musical score for its atmospheric effect. Schneider and "GamePro" were both pleased with how well the analog control works, but Jeff Gerstmann of "GameSpot" said it was off and said of the game overall, "On paper, "Doom 64" sounds better than the original could ever hope to be, but the end result feels more like a bastardization of the original." Comparing it to contemporary Nintendo 64 shooter "", Schneider and "GamePro" both remarked that "Doom 64" has less freedom of exploration and depth of control, but is more intense and "anxiety-filled".


title: Doom 64

text: "Doom 64" has garnered a cult following, with multiple fan-made PC source ports compatible with PC WAD files. Most prominently, "Doom 64 TC" (2003) is a massive collaborative PC fan port led by Samuel Vilarreal to add numerous enemy variants and levels; and "Doom 64 EX" (2008) is a source port to re-create the original experience made by Vilarreal, who had worked on "Doom 64 TC" and a Nintendo DS port of "Doom 64". Patrick Klepek from "Kotaku" described it as the most underrated "Doom" game. Others praised the game for some of the best and most unique level designs, and for its darker and more sinister tone in contrast to the intense and aggressive action of the original "Doom".


title: Doom 64

text: Versions of "Doom 64" for PC, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One by Nightdive Studios were released on March 20, 2020, and for Stadia on May 12, 2020. These were included as a bonus for pre-orders of "Doom Eternal", which was released almost simultaneously.


title: Doom 64

text: The re-release includes "The Lost Levels" expansion, additional missions intended "to connect 'old' "Doom" to 'new' "Doom"". The Doom Marine is forced out of hell by the Resurrector, the Mother Demon's sister, and must fight his way back to hell to slay the creature.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: The National Assembly () is the unicameral parliament and legislative body of the Republic of Bulgaria.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: The National Assembly consists of 240 members elected for a four-year term, elected by proportional representation in multi-seat constituencies. Political parties must garner a minimum of 4% of the national vote in order to enter the Assembly. Bulgaria has a multi-party system.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: The Assembly is responsible for enactment of laws, approval of the budget, scheduling of presidential elections, selection and dismissal of the Prime Minister and other ministers, declaration of war, concluding peace and deployment of troops outside Bulgaria, and ratification of international treaties and agreements. It is headed and presided by the Chairperson of the National Assembly of Bulgaria.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: By the Constitution, the National Assembly is inaugurated by the eldest elected member of Parliament. On the first day of sitting, they preside over the election of the Speaker (Chairperson) and two deputies.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: Once elected, the Speakers retain their party allegiances, which means that they remain as MPs and are allowed to take part in debates and voting.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: 121 MPs must be present in order for any session to commence, and 50%+1 of those present must vote "for" any point of order or bill to be approved.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: Ministers may be chosen from among the MPs or they may be experts outside Parliament. All MPs picked to be Cabinet ministers lose their MP status, and other members from their party are called up to Parliament to fill the seats they vacate.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: Parliament sits Wednesday to Friday, and sessions begin at 9 am. Parliamentary committees sit in the afternoons.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: In 2020-2021, the old Parliament House was only used for special occasions, such as the opening and closing of the legislative session or the inauguration of a new president. Following the April 2021 parliamentary elections, the legislature returned to the old parliament building.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: The Chamber is made up of 286 seats, all facing the 5-seat speaker's bench in a 26 x 11 arrangement. In front of the Speaker, also facing the chamber, is the pulpit, in front of which is the stenographers' desk.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: Parties sit in parliamentary groups, loosely following the rule that the political left sit to the Speaker's left and the political right to his right. Generally, the largest parties choose the left, right or centre wings of the chamber, with smaller blocks accommodating themselves wherever convenient. Individual MPs will sometimes sit entirely outside their block or stand, and, since compulsory electronic registration was implemented, may even vote from any seat in the house.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: To the speaker's right, also facing the chamber, is a section with 17 seats reserved for the Cabinet, any of whom may or may not be present at any time during a parliamentary session. Any of them may, however, be called up by Parliament at any time if needed.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: Located in the former Bulgarian Communist Party in the Largo, The Chamber is made up of 270 seats arranged in a hemicycle of twelve rows, all facing the 7-seat speaker's bench. In front of the Speaker, also facing the chamber, is the pulpit containing a stenographers' desk at the center and two sections reserved for the Cabinet, each with 13 seats, at the sides.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: The new plenary hall, which is located under a glass roof, is larger than the old one and can be easily remodeled to fit the 400-member Grand National Assembly. It was used briefly in 2020-2021 during the end of GERB's third government. Following the April 2021 parliamentary elections, the legislature returned to the old parliament building.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: In addition to the ordinary National Assembly, a Grand National Assembly ("Велико народно събрание", "Veliko narodno sabranie") may be convened in order for matters of special jurisdiction, such as: 1) Adoption of a new Constitution; 2) Amendment of certain articles of the Constitution, e.g. those related with the basic civil rights; 3) Changes in the territory (gain or loss) of the Republic, etc. Before the World War II the Grand National Assembly was also competent in electing the Regency of the Bulgarian Kingdom if the tzar had not come to age. The First and the Third Grand National Assemblies also elected the first two Bulgarian monarchs after the liberation from Ottoman rule – Prince (Knjaz) Alexander Battenberg and Prince (Knjaz) Ferdinand Saxe Coburg-Gotha.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: As an organ, the Grand National Assembly was introduced with the Tarnovo Constitution of 1879, abolished in 1947 and reintroduced with the 1991 constitution. In different constitutional provisions, it was constituted by a different number of representatives. According to the 1991 Constitution, it consists of 400 deputies (as opposed to 240 in the ordinary one). The 1991 Constitution was adopted by the Seventh Grand National Assembly and was composed of 200 members being elected by proportional representation and the other 200 under a first-past-the-post voting system. The Constitution provides that the elections for Grand National Assembly shall be conducted in the same manner as those for the Ordinary National Assembly.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: A qualified majority of 2/3 during three voting procedures on separate dates is required for a decision to be made. The Grand National Assembly can also serve as an ordinary National Assembly, taking care of regular legislative activities, in urgent cases only. After it has concluded its work on the matter for which it was elected, the Grand National Assembly is dissolved "ex lege" and the President of the Republic shall appoint elections for an ordinary National Assembly.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: A total of seven Grand National Assemblies have been in operation in Bulgaria, the last one from 10 July 1990 to 12 July 1991 adopting the current constitution.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: The National Assembly's main building has been proclaimed a monument of culture for its historic significance. Situated in downtown Sofia, it was designed in Neo-Renaissance style by Konstantin Jovanović.


title: National Assembly (Bulgaria)

text: Due to insufficient space in the main building at Parliament Square, the National Assembly is now housed by of the Bulgarian Communist Party, located at the Largo - the so-called Party House. Initially, only administrative offices have been relocated, but proposals to convert the into an interior space for the plenary chamber have been made since 1996, with the relocation taking place in 2020. After the April 2021 Bulgarian parliamentary election, the National Assembly moved again to the old Parliament House because ITN, Democratic Bulgaria, ISMV, and DPS viewed the as a symbol of Bulgaria's communist past.


title: Taxiwaala

text: Taxiwaala () is a 2018 Indian Telugu-language supernatural comedy thriller film directed by Rahul Sankrityan, and produced by UV Creations and GA2 Pictures. The film stars Vijay Deverakonda, Priyanka Jawalkar, and Malavika Nair while Madhunandan, Ravi Varma, and Shiju play supporting roles with music composed by Jakes Bejoy. The car used was a modified Hindustan Contessa.


title: Taxiwaala

text: Shiva comes to Hyderabad to live with his friend and find a job. His friend suggests him a couple of jobs and Shiva tries all of them. But he is not satisfied and decides to become a taxi driver. He goes to his village to get money from his brother but instead gets it from his sister-in-law who readily gives away her Mangalsutra (wedding chain) to him. Shiva and his friends search for a car in their budget but fail. One morning, Shiva gets a call from an unknown person who tells him that he has a car which is ready to be sold. Shiva meets the car's owner and takes the car happily, while his friend is a little hesitant.


title: Taxiwaala

text: Shiva starts to work for the Ola Cab Service. On his first ride, he falls in love with a girl named Anusha. Then, he starts to experience spooky things in the car. He tries to contact the car's previous owner but is unable to do so. A fake fakir comes and fools them by taking the car away. The fakir is almost killed while he is inside the car. Next morning, Shiva and his friends see the car in their garage. Shiva has to arrange money for his sister-in-law's delivery, so he starts to drive the car again. He is saved from an accident by the car itself. Once, after dropping Anusha at her residence, Shiva is pleaded by a doctor to drop him somewhere. But, the doctor is killed when is hit in the car and is ran on by a train after being thrown out of the car.


title: Taxiwaala

text: Shiva decides to go to the car's previous owner's house and steal something so that he can demand money from him. He and his friends go there and find a person in the store room of the house. They admit him in a hospital. The person wakes up and tells that he knows why the car behaves oddly. He tells that he was a professor of psychology and parapsychology. Once, he teaches a subject called Astral projection through which one can separate his/her soul from the body before death and can also meet the dead. A student named Sisira Bharadwaj asks him to perform it on her. He asks her the reason behind her intention. In a flashback, Sisira tells her story- She lives with her asthma diagnosed mother and her step-father, Raghuram. In the night, after a clash between her and her mother, she wakes up due to suffocation and couldn't find her inhaler and knocks sisira's door only to be neglected by her and her mother dies when she opens the door and she is greatly disturbed by this. She tells him that she wants to meet her mother. The professor performs Astral Projection on her and in the process, she starts to go deep into the Astral world and realises that her mother was actually killed by Raghuram and the doctor, who snatched away the inhaler from her.


title: Taxiwaala

text: Raghuram arrives and takes the professor and Sisira in a car, along with his friend, who is a doctor. But both of them hit the professor and Sisira's soul is separated from her body. Sisira's body is taken away by a clinic as she donates her body. On knowing this, Shiva apologizes to her spirit. The professor tells them that Sisira can be brought back to life if they get her body. Shiva and his friends go to the clinic and get the body, with the help of the security guard turned fakir who had tried to steal their car earlier. Raghuram wishes to see Sisira's body and comes to the clinic. He is almost killed by her spirit, but saves himself. Shiva beats him and takes him and Sisira's body to the professor's lab. Raghuram wakes up and tries to take Sisira's body away but the vehicle gets burned by Sisira's soul. Shiva gets extremely saddened.


title: Taxiwaala

text: He gets a call from Anusha who tells him that his sister-in-law gave birth to a baby girl. He goes to the hospital only to realize the baby had died due to chromosome abnormality. All of them go to the garage and console each other. While the baby's body is in the car, Sisira's soul enters the body and the baby starts crying. Shiva, his brother, his sister-in-law, his friends, the professor and Anusha come together and cuddle the baby.


title: Taxiwaala

text: 123telugu.com in its review noted that "The audio of Taxiwala is not the regular song and dance album which will impress the moment you hear it. This is a situational album which will grow on you once you watch the thriller and connect with the story", and said it was "Youthful and Contemporary". Telugu360 said "Taxi Waala is an outright classy album and Jakes Bejoy strikes a very emotional chord as well." IndiaGlitz in its review noted "Taxiwala is a winsome album boasting of two melodious songs and two cinematic numbers. If the singers and the lyricist give their vocal/poetic best, the music director blends the known and the new well."


title: Taxiwaala

text: The movie was initially set to release in May but it was postponed. In June, months before release of the movie, an uncut version of the movie was put up on the internet. On 7 November 2018, 10 days prior to the release of the film, a 45-minute clip of the film was leaked by the piracy website Tamil Rockers. The full movie was leaked a week later. Police immediately swung into action and the culprits were arrested.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: Brendon Hartley (born 10 November 1989) is a New Zealand professional racing driver who is currently competing in the FIA World Endurance Championship with Toyota Gazoo Racing.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: He won the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship, alongside his teammates Mark Webber and Timo Bernhard, and also went on to win the 2017 FIA World Endurance Championship alongside Bernhard and Earl Bamber. He won the 2017 24 Hours of Le Mans with Bamber and Bernhard, the 2020 24 Hours of Le Mans with Sébastien Buemi and Kazuki Nakajima, and the 2022 24 Hours of Le Mans with Buemi and Ryō Hirakawa.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: He formerly competed in Formula One for Scuderia Toro Rosso, making his debut at the 2017 United States Grand Prix.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: Hartley was born in Palmerston North in a family well integrated within motorsport. His father, Brian, had raced in many forms of motorsport, including Formula Atlantic. At the age of six, Hartley began his motor racing career in kart racing, following in his brother Nelson's footsteps. Six years later, he competed in his first full-scale race championship, competing in the Formula First category. Hartley finished the season in seventh. In 2003, he won that year's New Zealand Formula Ford Festival which resulted in him getting a drive for the following year's Formula Ford championship. In a car his brother had used the previous year, he started four races and won two of them.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: After a season in Formula Toyota New Zealand, Hartley moved to Europe, competing in the Eurocup Formula Renault 2.0 and Formula Renault 2.0 Northern European Cup (NEC). He finished 14th and 10th in the Drivers' Championship in the Eurocup and North European Cup respectively, taking a podium position at Anderstorp in the latter. In his second year in Formula Renault, he stayed in the Eurocup, but moved from the NEC to the Italian championship. He took three wins in the Eurocup and three podiums in the Italian championship, and took the championship title in the Eurocup.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: In 2007 Hartley also made his Formula Three debut in the Masters of Formula 3 at Zolder event, finishing 4th. This resulted in a test with A1 Team New Zealand and the role of the rookie driver for the series. In 2008, he competed in the British Formula 3 Championship for Carlin Motorsport, winning five times, and eventually finished the championship in third. He also competed in eight races in the Formula Three Euroseries for Carlin and RC Motorsport, and achieved two finishes in the points, although he was ineligible for points. In non-championship races, Hartley finished fifth at the Masters of Formula 3, and third at the Macau Grand Prix. After crashing in the qualification race, he started 20th on the grid and recorded the fastest race lap.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: He stayed with Carlin for the full F3 Euroseries in 2009, finishing eleventh despite missing two rounds due to Formula Renault 3.5 Series commitments. In that series, Hartley competed for the defending champion Tech 1 Racing team, and ended fifteenth in the championship.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: He was signed at Tech 1 for a full season of Formula Renault 3.5 in 2010, where he was partnered by Australian and fellow Red Bull Junior driver, Daniel Ricciardo. During the series' summer break it was announced that Hartley had been dropped from the Red Bull Junior Team. His seat was taken by British Formula 3 championship leader Jean-Éric Vergne.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: Despite the loss of his Red Bull backing, Hartley made his GP2 Series début at Monza in September, replacing Vladimir Arabadzhiev at the Coloni team. He scored a point in the season finale at Yas Marina to place 27th in the championship.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: For 2011, Hartley returned to Formula Renault 3.5, driving alongside Jan Charouz for the Gravity–Charouz Racing team. He also returned to GP2 for the eighth round of the series at Spa-Francorchamps, replacing Kevin Mirocha and driving alongside Johnny Cecotto Jr. in the Ocean Racing Technology team, for whom he had tested before the start of the season. He finished in fifth place in his first race with the team, and 19th in the overall championship.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: Hartley began the 2012 season without a drive, but returned to Ocean for the second round of the championship in Bahrain in place of Jon Lancaster. After the two rounds in Bahrain, he was in turn replaced by Víctor Guerin. He finished 25th in the championship.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: With no suitable single-seater drives available, Hartley joined the Murphy Prototypes sportscar team, which was competing in the LMP2 class in the European Le Mans Series. Following the cancellation of the second round of the ELMS championship (which would have been Hartley's début event) and the series' future in doubt, Murphy was one of several ELMS teams invited to compete as a guest entry in the 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps, a round of the more prestigious FIA World Endurance Championship. Driving the team's Oreca 03-Nissan, Hartley finished tenth overall and third in the LMP2 class with teammates Warren Hughes and Jody Firth. The trio teamed up again for the 24 Hours of Le Mans, but retired from the race after completing 196 laps of the circuit.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: In October 2017, Hartley was offered a drive in Formula One by Toro Rosso for the United States Grand Prix which was held in Austin. Hartley replaced Pierre Gasly, who was absent contesting the Super Formula Championship final. It was Hartley's F1 debut where he became the ninth New Zealander to race in Formula One.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: In November 2018, Hartley was released from the Toro Rosso team. In early May 2019, Toyota Gazoo Racing's WEC program announced that Hartley would be driving for the team for the full 2019/20 season, replacing the former occupant, Fernando Alonso. In August 2019, Geox Dragon Racing announced they had contracted Hartley for the 2019/20 Formula E season.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: In February 2008, aged 18, Hartley got his first taste of Formula One. He was invited to perform a show run for Red Bull Racing in Riyadh. From here he performed the initial three-day shake-down test for Scuderia Toro Rosso's 2008 spec car, the STR3. In November 2008, it was announced he would be providing cover for Mark Webber, who had broken his leg in a cycling accident, by performing testing duties alongside permanent test driver Sébastien Buemi for Red Bull in the 2008 RB4 F1 car.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: For the season, Hartley was appointed as official reserve driver for both the Red Bull Racing and Scuderia Toro Rosso teams. However, unable to get his mandatory superlicence approved until April 2009, he was replaced in this role by retired F1 driver David Coulthard for the first races in Melbourne and Sepang. Hartley made his debut as reserve and test driver at the Spanish Grand Prix on 8 May. He is the first New Zealander to achieve F1 driver status since Mike Thackwell in 1984. He was replaced in the role by fellow Red Bull Junior driver Jaime Alguersuari for the second half of the season. However Hartley did not return to the reserve driver role with Red Bull and Toro Rosso following Jaime Alguersuari's promotion to a race seat, preferring to focus on his F3 and Renault World Series. David Coulthard again took over the role.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: For the season, Hartley was again appointed official reserve driver for both Red Bull Racing and Scuderia Toro Rosso. He shared the reserve driver duties with his Formula Renault 3.5 teammate, Australian Daniel Ricciardo. The two drivers shared the duties on a race-by-race basis until round six of the championship. Following this race, Hartley's support from Red Bull was dropped, based on the fact he had not won a race in his season and a half in the championship.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: On 13 September 2012, he participated in the young driver test at Magny-Cours. He drove 87 laps for Mercedes on the final day, setting the third quickest time behind Jules Bianchi (Ferrari) and Rodolfo González (Force India).


title: Brendon Hartley

text: Hartley said that the simulator development work and the test drive with Mercedes would give him a new opportunity to get back into Formula One.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: Hartley made his Formula One début for Toro Rosso at the 2017 United States Grand Prix, replacing Pierre Gasly, who was absent to take part in the final round of the Japanese Super Formula Championship; he raced with the number 39. He qualified in 17th position after being eliminated during Qualifying 1, but started from 19th position due to engine penalties. He finished the race in 13th position, one lap down on race winner Lewis Hamilton. It was confirmed on 26 October that Hartley would remain a Toro Rosso driver for the remainder of the season, replacing Daniil Kvyat, and he chose 28 (the same number previously used by Will Stevens in 2015) as his permanent race number.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: On 16 November 2017 Hartley was confirmed by Toro Rosso as a full-time driver alongside Pierre Gasly for the season. Hartley scored points at the Azerbaijan Grand Prix with tenth, German Grand Prix with tenth again and the United States Grand Prix with his highest finish in ninth. He finished the season in nineteenth place, four places and 25 points behind his teammate, albeit with two more non-finishes.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: On 26 November 2018 it was confirmed that Hartley would not continue with Toro Rosso for 2019. He was replaced by Thai driver Alexander Albon.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: On 4 February 2019, Scuderia Ferrari announced that Hartley would be one of their development drivers for the 2019 season, alongside former Manor and Sauber and current Formula E driver Pascal Wehrlein.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: Following his exit from Formula One, Hartley reunited with Porsche for testing ahead of the manufacturer's debut in the championship. In August 2019, it was announced he would make his debut in the 2019–20 season with GEOX Dragon Racing, partnering Nico Müller.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: Hartley left the Dragon Racing team with immediate effect in July 2020. Since then, he has been replaced by Sérgio Sette Câmara.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: Hartley was signed to drive an Oreca 03 for Murphy Prototypes in the 2012 and 2013 European Le Mans Series as well as the 2012 and 2013 24 Hours of Le Mans races. This was also complemented with a drive in the Rolex Sports Car Series for Starworks Motorsport in the Daytona Prototype category in 2013. He completed all but one round in that series due to a clash for the final round of the 2013 European Le Mans Series.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: Porsche announced Hartley as a factory driver of the Porsche 919 Hybrid in the FIA World Endurance Championship. Over the next four years, he won the 2015 and 2017 FIA World Endurance Championship. He also won the 2017 24 Hours of Le Mans and placed second in 2015 sharing the car with drivers including Timo Bernhard, former Formula One driver Mark Webber and fellow Kiwi Earl Bamber.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: After one year in Formula One, Hartley was back in 2019 1000 Miles of Sebring, replacing Jenson Button in SMP Racing. He finished the race on the podium, behind two Toyota TS050s. Weeks later, Toyota announced that he would be driving for the team for 2019/20 season replacing two-time Formula One world champion Fernando Alonso.


title: Brendon Hartley

text: Hartley kept his ties with the American racing scene driving again for Starworks Motorsport in the 2014 and 2015 Daytona 24 Hours. In the 2016 Daytona 24 Hour he drove with Ford Chip Ganassi Racing. This tie saw him invited to drive for Chip Ganassi's Indycar team in 2018 but he had to decline due to securing a drive in Formula One with Toro Rosso. The 2017 WeatherTech SportsCar Championship saw him do three rounds for Extreme Speed Motorsports driving a Nissan Onroak DPi culminating in a victory at the 2017 Petit Le Mans.


title: Syndicate

text: A syndicate is a self-organizing group of individuals, companies, corporations or entities formed to transact some specific business, to pursue or promote a shared interest.


title: Syndicate

text: The word "syndicate" comes from the French word "syndicat" which means "trade union" ("syndic" meaning "administrator"), from the Latin word "syndicus" which in turn comes from the Greek word σύνδικος ("syndikos"), which means "caretaker of an issue"; compare to ombudsman or representative.


title: Syndicate

text: The "Merriam Webster Dictionary" defines syndicate as a group of people or businesses that work together as a team. This may be a council or body or association of people or an association of concerns, officially authorized to undertake a duty or negotiate business with an office or jurisdiction. It may mean an association of racketeers in organized crime. It may refer to a business concern that sells materials for publication (newspaper, radio, TV, internet) in a number of outlets simultaneously, or a group of newspapers under one management.


title: Syndicate

text: A syndicate, labor syndicate or worker's syndicate can also mean a trade union. This usage mirrors the common meaning of the word's etymological cousins in languages such as French and Spanish.


title: Syndicate

text: In this sense, the term is also associated with anarchist theory, specifically anarcho-syndicalism, in which trade unions form an alternative to both the nation state and capitalist corporations. Anarchists, syndicalists, and other libertarian socialists use the word "syndicate" to refer to an enterprise managed by its workers. Such an enterprise is governed by a face-to-face meeting of everyone who works there, in which each worker has one vote. Either there are no managers, or the managers are directly elected and recallable. In either case, the most important decisions are made collectively by the whole workforce. This is known as workers' self-management.


title: Syndicate

text: Crime syndicates are formed to coordinate, promote, and engage in organized crime, running common illegal businesses on a subnational, national, or international scale. The subunit of the syndicate is a crime family or clan, organized by blood relationships, as seen in the Italian Mafia and the Italian American Mafia crime families (the Five Families dominating New York City crime, namely, the Gambino crime family, Genovese crime family, Lucchese crime family, Bonanno crime family, and the Colombo crime family).


title: Syndicate

text: In media, syndicates are organizations by name and credit. For example, BBC Radio International is a radio syndicated business. A news ticker, residing in the lower third of the television screen image, usually shows syndicated news stories.


title: Syndicate

text: Print syndication distributes news articles, columns, comic strips, and other features to newspapers, magazines and websites. They offer reprint rights and grant permissions to other parties for republishing content of which they own/represent copyrights.


title: Syndicate

text: A group formed of several business entities, like companies or corporations, which share common interests in a market but usually are not direct competitors. Larger companies or corporations form syndicates to strengthen their position in the market. Internet companies and corporations, focusing on various Internet ventures, tend to form syndicates within their own group, with direct competitors involved. In such cases, they share a certain type of market, like brand management or search engine optimization, and usually form a Conglomerate Syndicate. They may be syndicated nationally or internationally.


title: Syndicate

text: A sales syndicate is a cartel with a joint sales agency. Such combinations were widespread before the Second World War. The organizational merger of the sales departments of the individual enterprises caused an increased dependence of the cartel member on the cartel administration. This in trend stabilized these combinations.


title: Syndicate

text: Some headquarters and other premises of these syndicate cartels have remained up to the present via their monument status as historical buildings.


title: Syndicate

text: In finance, a bank syndicate, often referred to simply as a syndicate, is a group of banks lending a usually large amount of money for a specific purpose and to one single borrower. Syndicated loans are loans underwritten by a bank syndicate and are more common in the US, where financial markets are in corporate ownership rather than private equity markets as in Europe or South America.


title: Syndicate

text: Insurance contracts (contracts of indemnity) processed under the syndicate form of business organization date to the Hammurabi Code. The notion of insurance syndicate as a process for supplying indemnity was first codified in Lex Rhodia and is still used today as shipping's Law of General Average.


title: Syndicate

text: It is canon to the operation of the insurance syndicate that the liability of the suppliers of surplus is several and not joint. This means that members or subscribers at insurance syndicates obligate themselves to a precise individual separate and several liability rather a joint liability. Insurance syndicates are not "incorporated" and may not be incorporated: the US Supreme Court has held in Roby v Lloyd's that insurance syndicates have no separate existence.


title: Syndicate

text: Some insurance markets such as Lloyd's of London provide insurance coverage underwritten by syndicates of investors who bear the full liability for meeting the costs of any claims. Each member of the syndicate has several liability which is a full and unfettered liability for the costs and expenses for the consequences of the underwriting entered into by the syndicate.


title: Syndicate

text: In the United States there are four major insurance syndicates that supply indemnity through the several liability of their syndicate names - which are called subscribing members.


title: Syndicate

text: Because these arrangements are neither public nor regulated, they are hard to describe and attribute. But upon information and belief, there are thousands of such arrangements in existence around the world where risks are shared by affinity/governmental/industrial groups on a several liability basis.


title: Syndicate

text: Lottery syndicates are formed to pool tickets thus increasing the chances of winning. Lottery syndicates are more common in the UK and Europe in general. They are legal in the US, but legal problems are regularly reported.


title: Syndicate

text: Researchers argue that syndicates may reduce the potential for market failure in crowdfunding, a method that allows creators to raise funds for projects from many different investors through online platforms. Equity crowdfunding allows creators to issue equity to investors when they make an investment in the project. In equity crowdfunding, information asymmetry between the creator and investor may result in a variety of problems and, in some cases, market failure.


title: Syndicate

text: A syndicate can be started by an individual, angel investor, or venture capitalist. An individual who wants to form a syndicate creates an investment strategy and discloses it on a crowdfunding platform. Other investors can choose to back the individual, who is the leader. The backing investors must follow the leader's investment strategy and pay them a fee. Syndicates do not exist on all equity crowdfunding platforms.


title: Oud-Heverlee Leuven

text: Oud-Heverlee Leuven (), also called OH Leuven or OHL, is a Belgian football club from the city of Leuven. It was created in 2002 from the merger of three clubs, "F.C. Zwarte Duivels Oud-Heverlee", whose registration number it inherited, "Daring Club Leuven", and "Stade Leuven". The club's home ground is Den Dreef, located in Heverlee. The club currently plays in the country's first level, Belgian First Division A.


title: Oud-Heverlee Leuven

text: F.C. Zwarte Duivels Oud-Heverlee was founded in 1957, climbing out of the provincial leagues in 1996 and winning the Belgian Fourth Division title during the 1999–2000 season. Promoted to the Belgian Third Division they joined their Leuven neighbours Stade Leuven, founded in 1905, which had played over 30 seasons in the Belgian Second Division and one year in the First in the 1949–50 season. , F.C. Zwarte Duivels Oud-Heverlee was in bad financial shape, moving up and down between third and fourth division since 1991.


title: Oud-Heverlee Leuven

text: In 2002, the city of Leuven decided that both Third division teams, Zwarte Duivels Oud-Heverlee and K. Stade Leuven, would merge also with the third club from Leuven, K. Daring Club Leuven, which was at that time playing at the fifth level of the league. Daring Club Leuven was founded in 1922, had played several seasons in the Belgian Second Division, and after being the leading club from the Leuven region between 1958 and 1964, had dropped down into the provincial leagues in 1979 and stayed there since. The new club took over the registration of Zwarte Duivels Oud-Heverlee, and started playing in the Belgian Third Division under the name Oud-Heverlee Leuven.


title: Oud-Heverlee Leuven

text: At the end of its first season, the club narrowly lost out on promotion, going down on penalty kicks to Eendracht Aalst in the Third division play-off final, after finishing 2nd in the 3rd division B, 5 points behind champions Tubize. After a 3rd place in the same division in season 2003–04, Oud-Heverlee Leuven finished 2nd once again in season 2004–05 and this time they did win the promotion play-off and entered the second division in the 2005–06 season. After two seasons finishing 6th and 5th, OH Leuven finished 3rd in the 2007–08 Belgian Second Division season with 61 points. This allowed them to take part in the promotion playoffs where the team finished as the bottom 4th after losing all six games to Tubize, Antwerp, and Lommel United.


title: Oud-Heverlee Leuven

text: Two seasons with the team finishing 9th and 14th were followed by a second division title on Sunday 24 April 2011, when Oud-Heverlee Leuven secured the 2010–11 2nd division championship and gained promotion to the First division for the season 2011–12, following a 2–2 draw at Antwerp. The team rounded off the season the following Sunday with a 2–0 home win against Lommel United, gathering a total of 73 points from 34 games and finishing 8 points ahead of 2nd placed Lommel United. Their promotion brought First division football to the city of Leuven for the first time since the 1949–50 season, when Stade Leuven had finished bottom of the league and were relegated.


title: Oud-Heverlee Leuven

text: OH Leuven secured its top flight status following a 0–0 draw at home against Lierse on 3 March 2012, marking the first time a team from the city of Leuven managed to remain at the highest level of Belgian football for more than a single season. In the 2013–14 season, OH Leuven was relegated after losing the 2014 promotion/relegation play-offs. Although finishing 6th, the team was promoted next year via the 2015 promotion/relegation play-offs, but it was immediately relegated again after finishing last in the 2015–16 season.


title: Oud-Heverlee Leuven

text: In September 2016, OH Leuven were caught up in a scandal affecting football in England. In relation to allegations made against individuals within English football, OH Leuven chairman Jimmy Houtput was alleged to have offered up the club as a "conduit" to allow third-party companies to gain ownership of football players in England. Houtput claimed he was "merely trying to obtain the identity of the possible investor(s) and would never take part in illegal activities to circumvent the third-party ownership", but subsequently resigned as OH Leuven chairman on 30 September.


title: Oud-Heverlee Leuven

text: Later that season, with the club struggling financially, OH Leuven was taken over by the King Power International Group led by Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha who already owned Leicester City.


title: Oud-Heverlee Leuven

text: In July 2018, OH Leuven reclaimed the registration number that originally belonged to Stade Leuven, to "reclaim the glorious past", thus dropping registration number 6142 (originally belonging to F.C. Zwarte Duivels Oud-Heverlee) and reverting to 18.


title: Oud-Heverlee Leuven

text: On 27 October 2018, the club's chairman, Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha, died in a helicopter crash following Leicester City's home game against West Ham United.


title: Oud-Heverlee Leuven

text: Upon its foundation in 2002, white was chosen as the club color, with the logo of the new club combining the green of "Stade Leuven", the black of "Zwarte Duivels Oud-Heverlee" and the red of "Daring Leuven". Throughout the years, the home shirt has remained white, often decorated with a few red or green stripes or colored sleeves. The away shirt color has alternated mostly between red and green but has been black, yellow and blue as well.


title: Oud-Heverlee Leuven

text: Their stadium is called Stadion Den Dreef and is situated on Kardinaal Mercierlaan in the south Leuven suburb of Heverlee (not to be confused with 'Oud-Heverlee' in the club name, which is in fact a separate municipality). The entrance for visiting fans is on Tervuursevest.


title: Oud-Heverlee Leuven

text: The following list the top scorers for OH Leuven per season, counting only goals scored during official matches: league, cup and playoffs.


title: Oud-Heverlee Leuven

text: The list below consists of current and former players of OH Leuven that have gained caps for their national team.


title: Indian nationality law

text: Indian nationality law details the conditions by which a person holds Indian nationality. The two primary pieces of legislation governing these requirements are the Constitution of India and the Citizenship Act, 1955.


title: Indian nationality law

text: All persons born in India between 26 January 1950 and 1 July 1987 automatically received citizenship by birth regardless of the nationalities of their parents. Between 1 July 1987 and 3 December 2004, citizenship by birth was granted if at least one parent was a citizen. Individuals born in the country since then receive Indian citizenship at birth only if both parents are Indian citizens, or if one parent is a citizen and the other is not considered an illegal migrant.


title: Indian nationality law

text: Foreigners may become Indian citizens by naturalisation after residing in the country for at least 12 years and renouncing any previous nationalities. Members of certain religious minority communities from neighbouring countries qualify for a reduced residence requirement of six years. Indian citizens who permanently settle in Pakistan or Bangladesh, or voluntarily acquire foreign citizenship automatically lose Indian citizenship.


title: Indian nationality law

text: India was previously ruled by the British Empire and local residents were British subjects and British protected persons. Although India gained independence in 1947 and Indians no longer hold British nationality, they continue to have favoured status when residing in the United Kingdom; as Commonwealth citizens, Indians are eligible to vote in UK elections and serve in public office there.


title: Indian nationality law

text: The distinction between the meaning of the terms citizenship and nationality is not always clear in the English language and differs by country. Generally, nationality refers a person's legal belonging to a nation state and is the common term used in international treaties when referring to members of a state; citizenship refers to the set of rights and duties a person has in that nation.


title: Indian nationality law

text: In general discourse within the Indian context, the two terms are used interchangeably. However, the Supreme Court provides a more precise definition applicable in Indian law; citizenship is a legal status that can only be held by natural persons and determines the civil and political rights a person may exercise, while nationality is a status that can apply to both natural and juridical persons that determines the rights that entity has in the context of international law.


title: Indian nationality law

text: The East India Company was founded by royal charter in 1600 and granted a monopoly on all English trade with Asia. Over the course of the 17th century, the company secured a strong commercial presence in the Indian subcontinent through trade in indigo dye, saltpeter, and Indian textiles. Operations became more lucrative as the Mughal Empire entered into decline in the 18th century, giving the company opportunity to gain further advantages by intervening in regional politics. The vast financial resources of the firm and its superior military enabled it to defeat rival European trade companies and become the dominant power in India. The company itself ruled as the direct governing body from 1757 to 1858, though sovereignty was often shared with the Crown. Although legislation was enacted referencing British subjects in India, no comprehensive nationality statute existed to define which persons were subjects, leaving the status of native Indians ambiguous throughout this period.


title: Indian nationality law

text: Legislation passed in 1852 allowed foreigners residing in territory governed by the East India Company to naturalise as British subjects by application to the government. There was no minimum residence requirement and candidates simply needed approval from a relevant official. The oath of allegiance administered to successful applicants required them to swear loyal service to the company, as well as allegiance to the British monarch.


title: Indian nationality law

text: India was brought under direct rule of the British Empire in 1858. Territories were broadly divided between two political groupings: the provinces of British India, which were administered by the British government, and the princely states, which were areas ruled by local monarchs given limited autonomy in exchange for accepting British suzerainty. Provincial residents were British subjects, while subjects of princely state rulers were considered British protected persons instead.


title: Indian nationality law

text: Although Britain held comprehensive jurisdiction in both types of holdings, domestic law treated the princely states as foreign territory. British protected persons were treated as aliens in the United Kingdom, but both Indian British subjects and protected persons could be issued British Indian passports. Protected persons could not travel to the UK without first requesting permission, but were afforded the same consular protection as British subjects when travelling outside of the Empire. A person with connections both to directly governed portions of British India and one of the princely states could be a British subject and British protected person simultaneously.


title: Indian nationality law

text: British nationality law during this time was uncodified and did not have a standard set of regulations, relying instead on past precedent and common law. Until the mid-19th century, it was unclear whether naturalisation rules in the United Kingdom were applicable in other parts of the Empire. Each colony had wide discretion in developing their own procedures and requirements for admitting foreigners as subjects. Naturalisation in Britain was achieved through individual Acts of Parliament until 1844, when a more streamlined administrative process was introduced. In 1847, the Imperial Parliament formalised a clear distinction between subjects who were naturalised in the UK and those who did so in other territories. Individuals who were naturalised in the UK were deemed to have received the status by imperial naturalisation, which was valid throughout the Empire. Those naturalised in colonies were said to have gone through local naturalisation and were given subject status valid only within the relevant territory. For example, a subject locally naturalised in Bengal was a British subject there, but not in England nor New South Wales. Like protected persons, locally naturalised British subjects were still entitled to imperial protection when travelling outside of the Empire.


title: Indian nationality law

text: The Imperial Parliament brought regulations for British subject status into codified statute law for the first time with passage of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914. British subject status was standardised as a common nationality across the Empire. This Act allowed Dominions and British India to grant subject status to aliens by imperial naturalisation, but did not prevent further grants of local naturalisation under local legislation. The continued application of local naturalisation allowed British Indian authorities to avoid adding English language requirements to the naturalisation process.


title: Indian nationality law

text: Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Queen Victoria issued a royal proclamation to the "Princes, Chiefs and People of India" in 1858, declaring the Crown to be "bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the same obligations of duty which bind us to all our other subjects". Official rhetoric emphasised British subject status as a platform of equity, illustrating an imperial philosophy that all subjects of the Crown were equal before the law, regardless of race or background.


title: Indian nationality law

text: This ideal was directly contradicted by a series of immigration restrictions in other colonies and Dominions that were created to exclude non-white migrants, including Indian British subjects, from entering their borders. Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa all enacted legislation severely restricting Indian immigration in some form by the early 20th century. Indians had greater success exercising their British subject rights in Britain itself, exemplified by the election of two Indian candidates to the House of Commons, Dadabhai Naoroji and Mancherjee Bhownaggree.


title: Indian nationality law

text: Demands for an equal imperial citizenship with the same status and rights as European British subjects were a primary motivator for Indian civil rights movements throughout the Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. While the imperial government had recognised these claims as legitimate prior to the First World War, it was nervous at the prospect of these movements becoming revolutionary in nature and decided to forcefully suppress local unrest rather than politically address Indian concerns. As it became apparent that equality within the British Empire would not be possible, the focus of post-war Indian political movements turned towards independence.


title: Indian nationality law

text: British India was partitioned into two independent Dominions on 15 August 1947, the Union of India and Federation of Pakistan. India transitionally retained the British sovereign as its head of state until its continued membership in the Commonwealth of Nations as a republic was agreed upon at the 1949 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference. Indians continued to be British subjects until independent India enacted its own nationality legislation. Subjects of the princely states, who were previously considered British protected persons, became British subjects of India when their states acceded to India.


title: Indian nationality law

text: British subject status was reformed under the British Nationality Act 1948. The Act abandoned the common nationality used across the Empire and redefined British subject to mean any citizen of a Commonwealth country. A Commonwealth citizen was defined in this Act to have the same meaning. British subject/Commonwealth citizen status co-existed with the citizenship of each Commonwealth country. Because India had not enacted citizenship regulations by the time the 1948 Act took effect, Indians (and citizens of all other Dominions without citizenship laws) were provisionally classed as "British subjects without citizenship".


title: Indian nationality law

text: The citizenship provisions of the Constitution of India came into force on 26 November 1949, in advance of the document's full effective date and the country's conversion into a republic on 26 January 1950. The partition resulted in large-scale population movements across the new borders separating India and Pakistan. In this context, the Constituent Assembly limited the scope of the Constitution's citizenship provisions for the immediate purpose of determining citizenship of these migrants. The Citizenship Act later enacted by Parliament in 1955 provides a full framework detailing citizenship requirements after that point.


title: Indian nationality law

text: Any individual domiciled in India automatically became an Indian citizen in 1949 if they were: born in India, born to at least one parent who themself was born in India, or living in India for at least five years prior to the Constitution's commencement. Individuals of Indian descent living outside of the country could register for citizenship, but a person who had voluntarily acquired citizenship of a foreign state was barred from Indian citizenship. Commonwealth countries were defined as non-foreign in Indian law.


title: Indian nationality law

text: Persons who migrated from the area that became part of Pakistan could be registered as Indian citizens if they (or a parent or grandparent) were born in any part of pre-partition India as defined in the Government of India Act 1935 and had either become domiciled in Indian territory before 19 July 1948, or had been registered as a citizen of India by Dominion officials after that date, but before commencement of the Constitution. Migrants from Pakistan were required to have been domiciled in India for at least six months prior to applying for registration. Conversely, persons who migrated from India to Pakistan and settled there at any time are not considered Indian citizens.


title: Indian nationality law

text: Under the 1955 Act, citizens of other Commonwealth member states were eligible to obtain Indian citizenship by registration in lieu of naturalisation, though there were no specific advantages to this method of acquisition. This pathway was available until Commonwealth citizen status was removed from Indian law in 2003. The UK itself updated its nationality law to reflect the more modest boundaries of its remaining territory and overseas possessions with the British Nationality Act 1981, which redefined the term "British subject" to no longer also include Commonwealth citizens. Indian citizens remain Commonwealth citizens in British law and are still eligible to vote and stand for public office in the UK.


title: Indian nationality law

text: Remaining European colonial possessions in India were reintegrated by 1961. French-administered Chandernagore held a referendum in 1949 resulting in the city's merger with West Bengal, while the rest of French India was relinquished by 1954. Portuguese India was taken by force with two military offensives in 1954 and 1961. Although most residents of these territories were given a choice between acquiring Indian citizenship and retaining their previous nationalities, those from Dadra and Nagar Haveli were not. In Goa, Daman and Diu, residents automatically became Indian citizens on 20 December 1961 unless they had made a written declaration before this date stating their intention to retain their existing nationality. Portugal did not recognise the annexation of its former Indian territories; persons born in applicable areas before 3 June 1975 were recognized as Portuguese citizens.


title: Indian nationality law

text: The Kingdom of Sikkim was an autonomous monarchy in northeastern India from the 17th century to 1975. Although Britain (and later India) had control over its foreign affairs, Sikkim was never considered a princely state and always held full autonomy over domestic matters. Sikkim lacked codified nationality legislation until 1961, when the Sikkim Subject Regulation came into force. This legislation initially defined Sikkim subjects as anyone of native ancestry with their permanent home in the country, or a person permanently settled in Sikkim who had cut all ties with their previous country or had acquired immovable property in Sikkim. Subject status was further restricted by a requirement to have held property rights in Sikkim before 1937, effectively barring a large number of Nepali residents from obtaining a permanent status in the country. Dual citizenship was prohibited and women automatically lost their rights as subjects on their marriage to non-Sikkimese men.


title: Indian nationality law

text: The ethnic qualification to subject status was particularly unpopular, leading to a revolt and the repeal of the regulation in the following year. However, the 1962 amendment also created a facilitated naturalisation pathway for non-subjects of native ancestry; any person descended from a person domiciled in Sikkim before 1850 could apply for subject status even if they did not live in the country.


title: Indian nationality law

text: After the dissolution of Sikkim's monarchy and its accession to India in 1975, any person registered as a Sikkimese subject before 26 April 1975 became an Indian citizen. This process of acquisition left certain groups of people living in Sikkim stateless including long-term residents without property, Sikkimese women who married non-Sikkimese, and individuals who had otherwise qualified for subject status but failed to complete registration before 1975.


title: Indian nationality law

text: Indian nationality regulations were broadly permissive when they were first created at the time of the republic's founding. Successive governments since the 1980s have gradually increased the difficulty of acquiring Indian citizenship in response to changing patterns of immigration from neighbouring countries.


title: Indian nationality law

text: Large-scale migration into Assam from Bengal began during colonial rule. British authorities encouraged workers from outside the region to resettle there to provide a continual source of labour for railway construction, agricultural development, and resource mining. The National Register of Citizens for Assam was created in 1951 to maintain a central ledger of all citizens in the state as a result of local discontent towards the influx of migrants.


title: Indian nationality law

text: Assam's population growth rate was substantially higher than the rest of India for the entire period between 1901 and 1981. The highest levels of migration occurred in the decade following the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War; an estimated 1.8 million people settled in the state in the 1970s, compared to 221,000 in the 1950s and 424,000 in the 1960s. During a local election in 1979, a substantial portion of the enrolled electorate was discovered to be non-citizens. Ensuing backlash triggered the multi-year Assam Movement, which demanded the expulsion of foreigners in the state. Protest organisers and government officials ultimately agreed on the Assam Accord in 1985, which resulted in the addition of Section 6A to the Citizenship Act that same year. Under this change, any person who had been living in Assam prior to 1966 was an Indian citizen; those who settled there between 1966 and 1971 were removed from electoral rolls and subject to a 10-year waiting period before becoming eligible to register for citizenship. Migrants arriving after 1971 were all considered to have illegally immigrated.