title: University of Pretoria

text: On 10 October 1930, the University of Pretoria Private Act, No. 13 of 1930 changed the name of the TUC to the University of Pretoria. The TUC originally established as an English-medium institution had evolved into the only fully bilingual university in South Africa and remained as such until the early 1930s. The rapid increase of Afrikaans-speaking students brought about an imbalance between the demographics of students and the languages of instruction. By 1931, although 65% of students were Afrikaans-speaking, 68% of the classes were conducted in English. In 1932, the University Council addressed the imbalance, deciding that Afrikaans would become the only medium of instruction. An increase in student numbers necessitated the building of new facilities such as the Club Hall and Administration Building (colloquially known as the ship) when the seventh faculty, the Medical Faculty, was established in 1943. This period further saw the establishment of numerous student activities such as the annual Spring Day event and intervarsity. Student publications established include the "Trek" in 1931, the first "Rag Mag" in 1936 and the weekly student newspaper "Die Perdeby" in 1939. The period of 1948–1982 is characterised by the substantial increase in numbers of an almost exclusively white student body and the concomitant physical growth of the university infrastructure. The nearly doubling of student numbers demanded the physical expansion of the Hatfield campus and new buildings were built in quick succession as the campus grew eastward. In the mid-1960s, the university urgently required additional land and acquired the adjacent property of Christian Brothers' College, Saint Gabriel's. This property now forms the eastern section of the Hatfield campus.


title: University of Pretoria

text: During the period of 1982 to 2008, the university transformed into a bilingual, multiracial and inclusive institution. The comparatively smooth introduction of students from all races formed the initial impetus for transformation and in 1989 the university was declared officially desegregated and opened for all races. In 1993, a policy document was introduced, aiming to position the university in a newly democratic South Africa. In 1994, the university regained its status as a bilingual university when a new language policy was adopted. However, in 2019 a new language policy was adopted which discontinued Afrikaans as a language of instruction in favour of English only.


title: University of Pretoria

text: In 1999, the only two veterinary science faculties in the country, those of the University of Pretoria and Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, formerly Medunsa, were amalgamated. The university's Onderstepoort campus once again housed the only veterinary faculty in South Africa. In 2000, the Teachers Training College Pretoria, formerly the Normal College Pretoria founded in 1902, was incorporated into the university's Faculty of Education, which saw the faculty moving to the self-sufficient Groenkloof campus.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The university's business school in Illovo, Johannesburg, the Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS), was established in January 2000 following a substantial contribution by Sir Donald Gordon, the founder of Liberty Life and Liberty International, and a major investment by the University of Pretoria following discussions which started in 1998. The now defunct Vista University's Mamelodi campus was incorporated on 2 January 2004, as part of the restructuring of South African tertiary institutions. In 2011, GIBS opened a satellite campus on Pritchard Street in the inner city of Johannesburg. The Business school follows on the university's, now defunct Graduate School of Management's, long tradition of MBA tuition as the first business school outside North America and replaced it in January 2008.


title: University of Pretoria

text: As set out in the Higher Education Act No 101 of 1997, the university is governed by the council with the vice-chancellor and principal, Tawana Kupe, the executive head responsible for the day-to-day administration, and the chancellor, Wiseman Nkuhlu, being the non-resident titular head of the university. The registrar is responsible for the academic administration of the university, as well as legal matters, and is secretary to the University Council and Senate.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The university's academic activities are divided into nine faculties and one business school. Whilst the faculties comprise 140 departments and 85 institutes, bureaus and centres.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The university's main campus and central administration offices are situated in the suburb of Hatfield, Pretoria and houses six of the nine faculties. The campus, bordered by the suburb of Brooklyn to the south and Hatfield to the north, was built over and has more than 60 buildings of historical value.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Adjacent to the Hatfield campus is the Hillcrest campus, which contains the High Performance Centre and LC de Villiers Sports Grounds, which were developed on . Adjacent to the sport grounds is the university's experimental farm, which is used to conduct field experiments for the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences. The campus is served by the Hatfield Gautrain station connecting Pretoria and Johannesburg. A university bus shuttle service operates between the Hatfield campus and the Groenkloof and Prinshof campuses, whilst a park-and-ride shuttle service operates between the Hatfield and Hillcrest campus.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The university's art collection consists primarily of paintings, sculptures and graphic works by South African artists including the likes of Jacobus Hendrik Pierneef, Gregoire Boonzaier, William Kentridge and Sam Nhlengethwa. The collection also incorporates artworks by renowned international artists such as Max Pechstein, Käthe Kollwitz, Max Liebermann, George Grosz, Otto Mueller, Rembrandt van Rijn, Thomas Benton and Marc Chagall. The university's sculpture collection, the largest such collection in South Africa, contains sculptures by Sidney Kumalo, Maureen Quinn, Michael Teffo, Anton Smit and others.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The Old Arts Building was proclaimed a provincial heritage site in 1968 and houses the Van Tilburg Collection, Van Gybland-Oosterhoff Collection and Mapungubwe Collection. The Van Tilburg Collection is a permanent museum that exhibits 17th and 18th century furniture, paintings, Delft ceramics and other works of art, and includes the largest South African collection of Chinese ceramic objects, from the Qin (221–206 BC), Han (202 BC – AD 220), Tang (AD 618–906), Song (AD 960–1279), Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) dynasties.The university is the custodian of the collection of artefacts found at the Mapungubwe National Park and World Heritage Site and such display these artefacts in the Mapungubwe Museum. Gold ornaments, ivory, bone, ceramic-ware, clay figurines, trade beads, iron and copper artefacts are on permanent public display. The Van Gybland-Oosterhoff Collection is a ceramic collection, donated by Dr Horace Hugo Alexander van Gybland Oosterhoff and accepted by the university on 14 March 1939, is the largest collection of objects, publications, memorabilia and photographs of historical interest, relating to Dutch culture outside the Netherlands.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The Old Merensky Library houses the Edoardo Villa Museum. The Edoardo Villa Museum currently houses the largest collection of sculptures by the Italian artist Edoardo Villa and one South Africa's most renowned sculptors, who was mentored by Minotti at the Scuola D’Arte Andrea Fontoniby.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The Van Wouw Museum is the largest collection of bronze, marble and plaster sculptures by the famous pioneer South African sculptor, Anton van Wouw (1862–1945). Van Wouw, who is widely regarded as the founder of traditional sculpture in South Africa, created masterful artworks portraying Boer figures and the indigenous peoples of South Africa. Besides documents, photos, paintings and tools the exhibits are mainly bronze maquettes and casts of Van Wouw's sculptural work. The Van Wouw Museum is housed in Anton Van Wouw's last residence, a Dutch national monument.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Other minor art collections include the Christo Coetzee collection which was bequeathed to the university by the artist in 2001 and consists of more than 3000 objects, NPK Ceramics Collection, Hilgard Muller Collection, Mike Edwards Collection, Kruger Collection, Frans Esterhuizen Cartoon Collection, Hansie Visagie Puppet Collection, Friends of the Pretoria Art Association Art Collection, Baldinelli Trust Collection and Mimi Coertse Collection.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The university's Science, Engineering and Technology (SET) Discovery Centre, Sci-Enza, was officially launched in 1977. The Discovery Centre is an umbrella complex where young children, students and adults can explore the world of science, engineering and technology in a "play-as-you-learn" way. Activities at the Centre museum include: a digital planetarium; exploratorium; camera obscura; biological science exhibit; botanical garden and indigenous technology exhibit.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The main hall and site of ceremonies, the Aula, was designed by Karel Jooste and completed in 1958. The Aula was the first opera house to be built in the capital and remained the major venue in the city until the State Theatre's completion in the early 1980s. The 1012-seat auditorium has played host to foreign dignitaries, presidents and local and international artists. The main music complex, comprising the 500-seat Musaion and 3000-seat Amphitheatre, was built between 1960 and 1964. The University Chapel, formally the Church of Saint Alfons Maria de Liguori, and the accompanying monastery, was built in 1925 and was bought from the Catholic Church in 1980. Saint Alfons, who was canonised in 1839, was the founder of the order of Ligournians (or Redemptorists), an order founded in 1732 in Naples, Italy and dedicated to helping underprivileged communities.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The possibility of training veterinarians in South Africa was frequently raised after the first Colonial Veterinary Surgeon in South Africa was appointed in approximately 1874, but it was not until 1920 that the Swiss-born veterinarian, Sir Arnold Theiler, was appointed as Director of Veterinary Education and Research at Onderstepoort under the supervision of the then Transvaal University College. New facilities were inaugurated at the end of 1921 and the first residence was opened in 1924. The first eight South African trained veterinarians qualified in 1924.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The Faculty of Veterinary Sciences was developed on the Onderstepoort campus, with buildings covering a total of north-west of the Hatfield campus and north of the Pretoria city center. The Onderstepoort Veterinary Academic Hospital provides clinical services rendered with full student participation as part of the primary teaching mission of the Faculty of Veterinary Science. It is the only faculty in South Africa educating veterinarians and veterinary nurses.


title: University of Pretoria

text: During the Conference of Teachers in Town and Refugee Camp Schools of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony of 1–10 July 1902, a resolution was passed to establish "Normal Schools" for the education of teachers in Johannesburg and Pretoria. The Pretoria Normal School, was first established in a house in 126 Rissik Street. In 1903 the Johannesburg Normal School's 40 students were transferred to Pretoria when it was closed and the Pretoria and Johannesburg institutions were merged to form the Transvaal Normal College. When the Transvaal University College was established in 1908 the first students include students from the Transvaal Normal College. In 1909 the school was renamed the Pretoria Normal College when new teacher training facilities were established in Heidelberg and Johannesburg. In 1954 the school was again renamed to the "Onderwyskollege van Pretoria" (English: Teachers College Pretoria). In 1974 the University of Pretoria took over the sole responsibility for training secondary teacher from the Teachers College Pretoria.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Although the Teachers College Pretoria purchased new college grounds in Groenkloof during 1975, the college only occupied the new grounds in 1988 and was inaugurated in 1989. The Johannesburg , Transvaal College of Education, Laudium and the Transvaal Education College Soshanguve amalgamate and move their operations to the Teachers College Pretoria in 1993 and the latter two in 1998 respectively. In 2000 the Teachers Training College Pretoria was incorporated into the university's Faculty of Education, which saw the faculty moving from the main Hatfield campus to the self-sufficient Groenkloof campus.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Students in the Faculty of Health Sciences are taught at the Prinshof campus, adjoining the Steve Biko Hospital (formerly Pretoria Academic Hospital and HF Verwoerd Hospital), the main healthcare training facility of the university, and the Tshwane District Hospital. Additional healthcare training facilities include the Kalafong Hospital on the western outskirts of Pretoria in the suburb of Atteridgeville, the Weskoppies Psychiatric Hospital west of the city centre and built on the site of the old Pretoria botanical gardens and Tembisa Hospital south of Pretoria in the East Rand, Johannesburg.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The university's business school, the Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS), is situated in a greenfield campus in the Illovo Boulevard, mixed-use commercial node between the suburbs of Rosebank and Sandton in Johannesburg, with a satellite Inner City campus on Pritchard Street. The Illovo campus is served by the Rosebank Gautrain station, with a nearby Gautrain bus stop and the inner city campus by the Johannesburg Park Station. GIBS Europe operates out of London, United Kingdom offering company specific programmes.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The Witbank and Hammanskraal satellite campuses, were established in 1988 and 1994 respectively and are used as additional practical facilities and for community engagement. The now defunct Vista University's Mamelodi campus was incorporated on 2 January 2004, as part of the restructuring of South African tertiary institutions. The Mamelodi campus hosts the extended BSc degree programme and functions as the community engagement hub for the university.


title: University of Pretoria

text: In 1933, the university decided that the library collection necessitated the building of a new library building, the collection which at that time was kept in the Old Arts building. The library was designed by the South African architect Gerard Moerdijk, following a donation of £10,000 (£ as of 2018) from mining geologist Hans Merensky and construction started in 1937. Drawing from his inspiration from Persia and Africa, the design of the building incorporates several architectural styles including Art Deco, Neo-Classicism, Arts and Crafts, Cape Dutch and Regency. The Old Merensky Library was proclaimed a provincial heritage site in 1991.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Despite expansions to the Old Merensky Library in 1957, the library subsequently became insufficient to meet the growing needs of the institution and in 1975 the Merensky Library II was completed, currently housing 7 of 9 the faculty libraries. Besides the main Merensky Library complex, the university library system also includes the separately administered Jotello F Soga Library (Veterinary Science), Oliver R Tambo Law Library, Education Library, Mamelodi Library, Dentistry Library and Health Sciences Library.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The Oliver R Tambo Law Library houses the Faculty of Law's collection of legal materials and the Law of Africa collection in the library is the single most comprehensive and current collection of primary legal materials of African countries.


title: University of Pretoria

text: In 1974 the Jotello F Soga Library of the Faculty of Veterinary Science at the Onderstepoort campus was established and is named in honour of the first South African to qualify as a veterinary surgeon, Dr Jotello Festiri Soga.


title: University of Pretoria

text: In 2006 the university established UPSpace, its own open access digital research repository. and the university's library has since become one of 27 partners in the World Digital Library project.


title: University of Pretoria

text: In 1978 the first task group responsible for the investigation in creating an archive system for the University of Pretoria was chaired by Prof. A.N. Pelzer (Vice-rector). Due to the death of Prof. Pelzer in 1981 the project stalled, but by 1994 the need for a central archive system was again recognised by the acting Registrar, Prof. C.R. de Beer. The archives were finally established by 13 September 1994 by the Management of the university and this date is considered as the founding date of the archives of the University of Pretoria.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The university's achievements and performance in research locally and internationally, including its collaboration and cooperation with the private sector, industry, science councils, foundations and NGOs, the large number of graduates that it produces (particularly doctoral and other postgraduate students) as well as scientists and engineers and its focus on innovation, contribute directly towards enhancing the South Africa's competitiveness. A 2010 report by Centre for Higher Education Transformation identified the university as a top research-intensive university in South Africa. The university is member of the CDIO Initiative, an international engineering education collaboration.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The strategic alliance formed in 1999 between the University of Pretoria and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), has been abandoned for unpublished reasons. This alliance, which was known as the Southern Education and Research Alliance (SERA), collaborated locally and internationally with universities, NGOs, companies and multinational bodies in various research areas.


title: University of Pretoria

text: UPeTD (University of Pretoria electronic theses and dissertations) was launched in July 2000 and forms part of the university's open scholarship programme. In August 2021, the Webometrics World Ranking of Institutional Repositories, UPSpace is ranked 130th Internationally, 2nd in Africa and 1st in South Africa. The records in UPeTD were migrated to the UPSpace institutional repository in August 2014, and UPeTD was subsequently discontinued.


title: University of Pretoria

text: UPSpace (Institutional research repository of the University of Pretoria) is the name of the open access digital institutional repository of the University of Pretoria, established as a means for the management and dissemination of digital materials created by the institution and its community members. UPSpace contains a collection of the intellectual and research output produced by past and current researchers of the University of Pretoria. The spectrum of material covered includes the following: historical or archival material, research articles, popular research material, unpublished research, inaugural addresses, conference proceedings, technical reports and open lectures.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Residence is provided to students in 24 undergraduate and postgraduate residences and 3 postgraduate-only residences spread over the university's campuses. The first students of the Transvaal University College resided in the Kya Rosa, a Victorian house in Skinner Street. In 1915, the first male residence, Kollegetehuis, was constructed on the Hatfield campus and the first female residence, Asterhof, in 1925. Students not living in a university residence can join one of four Day Houses ( Docendo, Dregeana, Luminous, and Vividus Ladies) which gives them the opportunity to partake in organised student life activities.


title: University of Pretoria

text: More than 100 student clubs and organisations operate on the university campus. These include numerous student government, service providers, and service organisations. The most prominent amongst these are the Student Parliament, Student Representative Council, and Constitutional Tribunal (Student Court). The Student Parliament is the plenary body of student governance and determines the wider mandate for student governance. The Student Representative Council (SRC) is the executive body of student governance and subsequently charters and provides most of the funding for other student groups, and represents students' interests when dealing with the administration. The SRC is the residential student government, specialising in programming, policy, and facilities and services. Societies are registered in the following categories as catering for religious, political, social, cultural, academic and other. The Constitutional Tribunal is the judicial body of student governance and adjudicates disputes primarily between student organisations. Its judges sit on the panel of student disciplinary hearings. The various service providers are the university's primary programming organisations, serving as a centre of social, cultural, intellectual and recreational life.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The university has a long tradition of student activities and traditions. It is common belief that if a blossom from a Jacaranda tree falls on your head, you will do well in the end-of-year exams. Other traditions and customs vary by residence, day house and faculty.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The university started the tradition of Rag (student society) (Afrikaans: Jool), a student-run charitable fundraising organisation, in South Africa in 1925. During Rag, students take to the streets in a parade of floats whilst collecting money for charity.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The university's Springday celebrations are a declared university holiday and are held annually on the second Wednesday of September.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Students' song and dance competitions include Insync (formerly Ienkmelodienk), Serenade and Serrie. In addition, the university's Drama Department hosts the annual week-long Krêkvars Arts Festival each July in the intimate Bok, Lier and Masker theatres on Hatfield campus. The festival has transformed from an event started in 2000 and centred around the drama honours students' directing course to an open festival where other students and the public at large are encouraged to put on productions.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The amphitheatre hosts the annual Insync song and dance competition between the first years of the various residences and day houses in January. The annual Serenade and Serrie singing competitions between the residences and day houses are held in the Musaion and Aula theatres in July/August and April/May respectively. The winners of the Serenade competition go on to represent the university at the National Serenade competition.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The university maintains the: UP Symphony Orchestra (UPSO), the only comprehensive student orchestra in Pretoria frequently performing symphonic repertoires, UP Chorale, UP Brass Band, Tuks Camerata, UP Children's choir, UP Concert choir and the UP Youth choir. The university supports, and has been host to the annual National Youth Orchestra course for a number of years.


title: University of Pretoria

text: In addition to cultural activities, students participate in several other non-cultural activities. The university organises the annual SAE International sanctioned student automotive engineering Baja SAE competition in South Africa sponsored by Sasol. Baja SAE is an intercollegiate and interuniversity design competition run by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) where teams of engineering students design, build and race small off-road cars.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Oom Gert (translates affectionately to Uncle Gert, from Dutch and Afrikaans) has been the official university mascot since 1929 and has been the object of perennial attempted kidnappings.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The Perdeby ( The Wasp), the official university newspaper, was founded in 1939 and has a readership of approximately 30 000. Tuks FM (107.2 FM), the campus radio station, was established on 9 February 1981 and is hosted by university students and broadcast to the Northern Gauteng area.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Civic service and outreach programmes are performed in the fields in which the university has proven competencies. These fields include professional associations, business and management and are performed in underdeveloped or developing communities.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The university maintains a long tradition of student participation in sport and recreation. The university has 30 registered sport clubs and 10 academies, in which 9 000 students annually participate in on a competitive and recreational level, more than 1 000 volunteers are involved in sport in various designations and capacities. In 2007, the university produced 93 Senior Proteas and Springboks and 4 South Africa national rugby union team (Springbok) Captains. The university's sports facilities, on the Hillcrest campus, include the LC de Villiers Sports Grounds and the High Performance Centre (HPC), situated at an altitude of approximately above sea level, were developed on an area of .


title: University of Pretoria

text: The HPC, which was established in 2002, has become the favoured location for the pre-departure camps of Team South Africa in addition to being chosen by several national and international federations as their preferred specialisation centre.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The HPC has a bifurcated role between hosting the TuksSport academies and hosting athletes and teams for pre-season or pre-event training. The HPC includes the Institute for Sport Research, Sport Science and Medical Unit and the Sports Law Centre.


title: University of Pretoria

text: HPC's TuksSport High School, established in 2002, is an independent specialised co-ed sports school catering for Grade 8 – 12 learners following the National Curriculum as offered by the Gauteng Department of Education. The school is supported by several national sporting federations and allows learners to train and travel internationally whilst staying in school.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Rugby is a particularly popular sport, and there are competitions between residences, faculties, and the university participates in the National Club Championships, Carlton Cup and the Varsity Cup Rugby Union tournament, involving the top 8 rugby playing universities in the South Africa. In the 2012 and 2013 seasons, the university won the Varsity Cup and the under 20-year-old Varsity Rugby Young Guns competitions.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The university has a very active club that was only founded in 2013. The club is affiliated to Mind Sports South Africa and caters for all the disciplines that are controlled by such National Federation.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The club has had some major successes in 2014, with no less than 12 gamers qualifying for National Team Trials. The club has also become the top university club in South Africa.


title: University of Pretoria

text: In 2002 the university established the Tuks Football Academy and the University of Pretoria F.C. oginally playing in the SAFA Gauteng South Division. In the 2003–04 season the university acquired Pretoria City F.C.'s second division status, subsequently winning the National First Division (NFD) Vodacom League play-offs and being promoted to the NFD in 2004–05. In the 2006–07 season the club qualified for the Mvela Golden League play-offs. In the 2008–09 season the club was a Nedbank Cup finalist losing to Premier Soccer League team Moroka Swallows 0–1.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Following the 2011/2012 season the University of Pretoria F.C. will gain promotion to the South African Premier Soccer League (PSL), the top domestic league.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Alumni in commerce include several CEOs of JSE Top 50 and American Fortune 500 companies. Dr. Anton Rupert was a South African entrepreneur, businessman, conservationist and founder of the Rembrandt Group, which eventually split up into Remgro, Richemont, the second-largest luxury goods company in the world by turnover, and Reinet Investments, as of January 2008 the largest component of the Luxembourg Stock Exchange. He was honoured as Tukkie of the century, former chancellor of the university, and a major benefactor of the university. Marius Kloppers was the CEO of BHP, the world's largest mining company and named by CNN Money as the world's 18th most powerful person in business. Johan De Nysschen was the former president at Audi Japan and is the current president of Audi America. Russell Loubser is a former CEO of the Johannesburg Stock Exchange, and a member of the team that started the futures industry in South Africa in 1987. Meyer Kahn is the Chairman of SABMiller the second largest brewer in the world.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Alumni in law include several Judges of the High Court, Supreme Court of Appeal and Constitutional Court as well as serving as United Nations Special Rapporteurs and the United Nations International Law Commission. Johann van der Westhuizen is a judge in the Constitutional Court of South Africa. He was appointed to the bench in 2004 by Thabo Mbeki. He was previously a professor at the University of Pretoria Faculty of Law and the founding director of the university's Centre for Human Rights. He currently sits on the board of the Centre for Human Rights and the University of Pretoria Council. Johann Kriegler is a former Constitutional Court and Appeal Court judge from South Africa. Christof Heyns (10 January 1959 – 28 March 2021), a former director (1999–2006) of the Centre for Human Rights, was a professor of human rights law, co-director of the Institute for International and Comparative Law in Africa at the University of Pretoria and United Nations Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions. Dire Tladi is a former Principal State Law Adviser for International Law for the South African Department of International Relations and Cooperation, legal advisor to the South Africa Mission to the United Nations and member of the United Nations International Law Commission.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Albert Geyser was a South African cleric, scholar and anti-apartheid theologian. He was one of the first Afrikaner nationalists to speak out against the Broederbond and apartheid on theological grounds. He is also known for his work as one of a number of scholars involved in the first annotated edition (1953–1958) of the Bible in Afrikaans. Johan Heyns, was an influential Afrikaner Calvinist theologian and moderator of the general synod of the Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk (NGK). He was assassinated, although his murder was never officially resolved it is widely believed that it was directly related to his criticism of Apartheid. Nelson Mandela paid homage to him as a martyr for his country and a soldier of peace.


title: University of Pretoria

text: Alumni include several sporting personalities. South Africa national rugby union team member's (Springboks) associated with the university include coach Heyneke Meyer and former Springbok captains Victor Matfield, Wynand Claassen, Naas Botha and Joost van der Westhuizen. Other notable sporting personalities include Caster Semenya, Tatjana Schoenmaker and Oscar Pistorius, who became the first double amputee runner at an Olympic Games when he competed at the London 2012 Summer Olympics.


title: University of Pretoria

text: In 2022, when the university allegedly owed Tshwane R34 million in outstanding municipal bills, Tshwane moved to disconnect the water and power supply of their Hillcrest campus. The university paid up under protest at the last minute, stating that an interruption would compromise various facilities including student residences, sensitive research equipment and experiments, data centres and live animals.


title: University of Pretoria

text: The university's medical school has been ranked among the top five in the country. In 2022 Dr Angelique Coetzee, then chairwoman of the South African Medical Association, stated in a radio interview that admission processes at medical schools are highly politicized, and that medical faculties implement race quotas. After she apologized for her statements and resigned as chairwoman, Dirk Hermann of Solidarity reiterated that race-based admission processes were explicitly included in admission policies, and stated that these were detrimental to white students and health care.


title: Departure (Journey album)

text: Departure is the sixth studio album by American rock band Journey. It was released on February 29, 1980 by Columbia Records.


title: Departure (Journey album)

text: "Departure" was Journey's highest-charting album to that point, giving them their first appearance in the top 10 of the "Billboard" 200 album charts, peaking at No. 8. The album includes "Any Way You Want It", the lead off track and top 25 single.


title: Departure (Journey album)

text: The album featured an edgier sound, thanks partly to the "live in studio" way the songs were recorded. The band went into The Automatt studio with 19 tracks, eventually trimming down to 12.


title: Departure (Journey album)

text: "Departure" would mark the last full-time studio album appearance of founding member Gregg Rolie, and his penultimate recording with the band: his final contributions would appear on "Dream, After Dream", a soundtrack album to the Japanese film of the same name, which would also be released in 1980. Rolie had become tired of life on the road and decided to leave the band after assisting in the selection of his replacement, Jonathan Cain, then of The Babys. Rolie sang lead vocals on only one song on "Departure", the ballad "Someday Soon".


title: Departure (Journey album)

text: In 1986, Columbia reissued "Departure" on compact disc in the U.S. and Europe. They subsequently remastered the album in 1996. BMG/Columbia remastered "Departure" again in 2006 for European, Japanese and American listeners, adding bonus tracks 13 "Natural Thing" and 14 "Little Girl". Dave Donnelly at DNA Mastering in New York City led the 2006 project.


title: Departure (Journey album)

text: "Cash Box" called the single "Walks Like a Lady" a "short, to-the-point, easy blues/pop track" with "finger lickin’ good blues [guitar] leads in a subdued but tasteful style" and "moodsetting organ work."


title: Vellus hair

text: Vellus hair is short, thin, light-colored, and barely noticeable hair that develops on most of a human’s body during childhood. Exceptions include the lips, the back of the ear, the palm of the hand, the sole of the foot, some external genital areas, the navel, and scar tissue. The density of hair – the number of hair follicles per area of skin – varies from person to person. Each strand of vellus hair is usually less than 2 mm (1/13 inch) long and the follicle is not connected to a sebaceous gland.


title: Vellus hair

text: Vellus hair is most easily observed on children and adult women, who generally have less terminal hair to obscure it. Vellus hair is not lanugo hair. Lanugo hair is a much thicker type of hair that normally grows only on fetuses.


title: Vellus hair

text: Vellus hair is differentiated from the more visible terminal or androgenic hair, which develops only during and after puberty, usually to a greater extent on men than it does on women.


title: Vellus hair

text: The Latin language uses the word "vellus" to designate "a fleece" or "wool." Vellus hair is sometimes colloquially referred to as peach fuzz, due to its resemblance to the downy epidermic growths on the peach fruit.


title: Vellus hair

text: Vellus hair replaces lanugo hair on a human fetus at 36 to 40 weeks of gestation. The growth cycle of vellus hair is different from the growth cycle of terminal hair. At puberty, androgen hormones cause much of the vellus hair to turn into terminal hair and stimulate the growth of new hair in the armpit and the pubic area. In men, this change in vellus hair also occurs on the face (beard) and the body.


title: Vellus hair

text: Vellus hair provides both thermal insulation and cooling for the body. This insulation regulates body temperature: the vellus hair functions like a wick for sweat. While a skin pore is open, sweat wets a strand of vellus hair. The sweat on the external part of the strand evaporates. More sweat wets the external part of the vellus strand and then evaporates. This process is called perspiration.


title: Vellus hair

text: The unusual growth of vellus hair can be a side effect of some types of disease. An abundance of vellus hair can develop from an increase in the production of the cortisol hormone in a person with Cushing's syndrome. Anorexia nervosa increases vellus hair. Vellus hair can also be found in men with male pattern baldness or with hirsutism. Hormonal fluctuations in pregnant women cause foetal vellus hair to change to terminal hair. The terminal hair is usually shed after the birth of the baby upon the return of the hormones to the normal levels.


title: Saga

text: Sagas are prose stories and histories, composed in Iceland and to a lesser extent elsewhere in Scandinavia.


title: Saga

text: The most famous saga-genre is the "Íslendingasögur" (sagas concerning Icelanders), which feature Viking voyages, migration to Iceland, and feuds between Icelandic families. However, sagas' subject matter is diverse, including pre-Christian Scandinavian legends; saints and bishops both from Scandinavia and elsewhere; Scandinavian kings and contemporary Icelandic politics; and chivalric romances either translated from Continental European languages or composed locally.


title: Saga

text: Sagas originated in the Middle Ages, but continued to be composed in the ensuing centuries. Whereas the dominant language of history-writing in medieval Europe was Latin, sagas were composed in the vernacular: Old Norse and its later descendants, primarily Icelandic.


title: Saga

text: While sagas are written in prose, they share some similarities with epic poetry, and often include stanzas or whole poems in alliterative verse embedded in the text.


title: Saga

text: The main meanings of the Old Norse word "saga" (plural "sǫgur") are 'what is said, utterance, oral account, notification' and the sense used in this article: '(structured) narrative, story (about somebody)'. It is cognate with the English words "say" and "saw" (in the sense 'a saying', as in "old saw"), and the German "Sage"; but the modern English term "saga" was borrowed directly into English from Old Norse by scholars in the eighteenth century to refer to Old Norse prose narratives.


title: Saga

text: The word continues to be used in this sense in the modern Scandinavian languages: Icelandic "saga" (plural "sögur"), Faroese "søga" (plural "søgur"), Norwegian "soge" (plural "soger"), Danish "saga" (plural "sagaer"), and Swedish "saga" (plural "sagor"). It usually also has wider meanings such as 'history', 'tale', and 'story'. It can also be used of a genre of novels telling stories spanning multiple generations, or to refer to saga-inspired fantasy fiction. Swedish "folksaga" means folk tale or fairy tale, while "konstsaga" is the Swedish term for a fairy tale by a known author, such as Hans Christian Andersen. In Swedish historiography, the term "sagokung", "saga king", is intended to be ambiguous, as it describes the semi-legendary kings of Sweden, who are known only from unreliable sources.


title: Saga

text: Kings' sagas ("konungasögur") are of the lives of Scandinavian kings. They were composed in the twelfth to fourteenth centuries. A pre-eminent example is "Heimskringla", probably compiled and composed by Snorri Sturluson. These sagas frequently quote verse, invariably occasional and praise poetry in the form of skaldic verse.


title: Saga

text: The Icelanders' sagas ("Íslendingasögur"), sometimes also called "family sagas" in English, are purportedly (and sometimes actually) stories of real events, which usually take place from around the settlement of Iceland in the 870s to the generation or two following the conversion of Iceland to Christianity in 1000. They are noted for frequently exhibiting a realistic style. It seems that stories from these times were passed on in oral form until they eventually were recorded in writing as "Íslendingasögur", whose form was influenced both by these oral stories and by literary models in both Old Norse and other languages. The majority — perhaps two thirds of the medieval corpus — seem to have been composed in the thirteenth century, with the remainder in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. These sagas usually span multiple generations and often feature everyday people (e.g. "Bandamanna saga") and larger-than-life characters (e.g. "Egils saga"). Key works of this genre have been viewed in modern scholarship as the highest-quality saga-writing. While primarily set in Iceland, the sagas follow their characters' adventures abroad, for example in other Nordic countries, the British Isles, northern France and North America. Some well-known examples include "Njáls saga", "Laxdæla saga" and "Grettis saga".


title: Saga

text: The material of the short tales of Icelanders ("þættir" or "Íslendingaþættir") is similar to "Íslendinga sögur", in shorter form, often preserved as episodes about Icelanders in the kings' sagas.


title: Saga

text: Like kings' sagas, when sagas of Icelanders quote verse, as they often do, it is almost invariably skaldic verse.


title: Saga

text: Contemporary sagas ("samtíðarsögur" or "samtímasögur") are set in twelfth- and thirteenth-century Iceland, and were written soon after the events they describe. Most are preserved in the compilation "Sturlunga saga", from around 1270–80, though some, such as "Arons saga Hjörleifssonar" are preserved separately. The verse quoted in contemporary sagas is skaldic verse.


title: Saga

text: According to historian Jón Viðar Sigurðsson, "Scholars generally agree that the contemporary sagas are rather reliable sources, based on the short time between the events and the recording of the sagas, normally twenty to seventy years... The main argument for this view on the reliability of these sources is that the audience would have noticed if the saga authors were slandering and not faithfully portraying the past."


title: Saga

text: Legendary sagas ("fornaldarsögur") blend remote history, set on the Continent before the settlement of Iceland, with myth or legend. Their aim is usually to offer a lively narrative and entertainment. They often portray Scandinavia's pagan past as a proud and heroic history. Some legendary sagas quote verse — particularly "Vǫlsunga saga" and "Heiðreks saga" — and when they do it is invariably Eddaic verse.


title: Saga

text: Chivalric sagas ("riddarasögur") are translations of Latin pseudo-historical works and French chansons de geste as well as Icelandic compositions in the same style. Norse translations of Continental romances seem to have begun in the first half of the thirteenth century; Icelandic writers seem to have begun producing their own romances in the late thirteenth century, with production peaking in the fourteenth century and continuing into the nineteenth.


title: Saga

text: While often translated from verse, sagas in this genre almost never quote verse, and when they do it is often unusual in form: for example, "Jarlmanns saga ok Hermanns" contains the first recorded quotation of a refrain from an Icelandic dance-song, and a metrically irregular riddle in "Þjalar-Jóns saga".


title: Saga

text: Saints' sagas ("heilagra manna sögur") and bishops' sagas ("biskupa sögur") are vernacular Icelandic translations and compositions, to a greater or lesser extent influenced by saga-style, in the widespread genres of hagiography and episcopal biographies. The genre seems to have begun in the mid-twelfth century.


title: Saga

text: Icelandic sagas are based on oral traditions and much research has focused on what is real and what is fiction within each tale. The accuracy of the sagas is often hotly disputed.


title: Saga

text: Most of the medieval manuscripts which are the earliest surviving witnesses to the sagas were taken to Denmark and Sweden in the seventeenth century, but later returned to Iceland. Classical sagas were composed in the thirteenth century. Scholars once believed that these sagas were transmitted orally from generation to generation until scribes wrote them down in the thirteenth century. However, most scholars now believe the sagas were conscious artistic creations, based on both oral and written tradition. A study focusing on the description of the items of clothing mentioned in the sagas concludes that the authors attempted to create a historic "feel" to the story, by dressing the characters in what was at the time thought to be "old fashioned clothing". However, this clothing is not contemporary with the events of the saga as it is a closer match to the clothing worn in the 12th century. It was only recently (start of 20th century) that the tales of the voyages to North America (modern day Canada) were authenticated.


title: Saga

text: Most sagas of Icelanders take place in the period 930–1030, which is called "söguöld" (Age of the Sagas) in Icelandic history. The sagas of kings, bishops, contemporary sagas have their own time frame. Most were written down between 1190 and 1320, sometimes existing as oral traditions long before, others are pure fiction, and for some we do know the sources: the author of King Sverrir's saga had met the king and used him as a source.


title: Saga

text: While sagas are generally anonymous, a distinctive literary movement in the 14th century involves sagas, mostly on religious topics, with identifiable authors and a distinctive Latinate style. Associated with Iceland's northern diocese of Hólar, this movement is known as the North Icelandic Benedictine School ("Norðlenski Benediktskólinn").


title: Saga

text: The vast majority of texts referred to today as "sagas" were composed in Iceland. One exception is "Þiðreks saga", translated/composed in Norway; another is "Hjalmars och Hramers saga", a post-medieval forgery composed in Sweden. While the term "saga" is usually associated with medieval texts, sagas — particularly in the legendary and chivalric saga genres — continued to be composed in Iceland on the pattern of medieval texts into the nineteenth century.


title: Saga

text: Icelanders produced a high volume of literature relative to the size of the population. Historians have proposed various theories for the high volume of saga writing.


title: Saga

text: Early, nationalist historians argued that the ethnic characteristics of the Icelanders were conducive to a literary culture, but these types of explanations have fallen out of favor with academics in modern times. It has also been proposed that the Icelandic settlers were so prolific at writing in order to capture their settler history. Historian Gunnar Karlsson does not find that explanation reasonable though, given that other settler communities have not been as prolific as the early Icelanders were.


title: Saga

text: Pragmatic explanations were once also favoured: it has been argued that a combination of readily available parchment (due to extensive cattle farming and the necessity of culling before winter) and long winters encouraged Icelanders to take up writing.


title: Saga

text: More recently, Icelandic saga-production has been seen as motivated more by social and political factors.


title: Saga

text: The unique nature of the political system of the Icelandic Commonwealth created incentives for aristocrats to produce literature, offering a way for chieftains to create and maintain social differentiation between them and the rest of the population. Gunnar Karlsson and Jesse Byock argued that the Icelanders wrote the Sagas as a way to establish commonly agreed norms and rules in the decentralized Icelandic Commonwealth by documenting past feuds, while Iceland's peripheral location put it out of reach of the continental kings of Europe and that those kings could therefore not ban subversive forms of literature. Because new principalities lacked internal cohesion, a leader typically produced Sagas "to create or enhance amongst his subjects or followers a feeling of solidarity and common identity by emphasizing their common history and legends". Leaders from old and established principalities did not produce any Sagas, as they were already cohesive political units.


title: Saga

text: Later (late thirteenth- and fourteenth-century) saga-writing was motivated by the desire of the Icelandic aristocracy to maintain or reconnect links with the Nordic countries by tracing the ancestry of Icelandic aristocrats to well-known kings and heroes to which the contemporary Nordic kings could also trace their origins.


title: Saga

text: The corpus of Old Norse sagas is gradually being edited in the Íslenzk fornrit series, which covers all the "Íslendingasögur" and a growing range of other ones. Where available, the Íslenzk fornrit edition is usually the standard one. The standard edition of most of the chivalric sagas composed in Iceland is by Agnete Loth.


title: Saga

text: A list, intended to be comprehensive, of translations of Icelandic sagas is provided by the National Library of Iceland's Bibliography of Saga Translations.


title: Saga

text: Many modern artists working in different creative fields have drawn inspiration from the sagas. Among some well-known writers, for example, who adapted saga narratives in their works are Poul Anderson, Laurent Binet, Margaret Elphinstone, Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué, Gunnar Gunnarsson, Henrik Ibsen, Halldór Laxness, Ottilie Liljencrantz, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, George Mackay Brown, William Morris, Adam Oehlenschläger, Robert Louis Stevenson, August Strindberg, Rosemary Sutcliff, Esaias Tegnér, J.R.R. Tolkien, and William T. Vollmann.


title: Alexander Technique

text: The Alexander Technique, named after its developer Frederick Matthias Alexander (1869–1955), is a type of alternative therapy based on the idea that poor posture gives rise to a range of health problems.


title: Alexander Technique

text: Alexander began developing his technique's principles in the 1890s in an attempt to address his own voice loss during public speaking. He credited his method with allowing him to pursue his passion for performing Shakespearean recitations.


title: Alexander Technique

text: Proponents and teachers of the Alexander Technique believe the technique can address a variety of health conditions, but there is a lack of research to support the claims. , the UK National Health Service cites evidence that the Alexander Technique may be helpful for long-term back pain and for long-term neck pain, and that it could help people cope with Parkinson's disease. Both the American health-insurance company Aetna and the Australian Department of Health have conducted reviews and concluded that there is insufficient evidence for the technique's health claims to warrant insurance coverage.


title: Alexander Technique

text: The Alexander Technique is used as a therapy for stress-related chronic conditions. It does not attempt to cure the underlying cause, but to teach people how to avoid bad habits which might exacerbate their condition.


title: Alexander Technique

text: The Technique is used as an alternative treatment to improve both voice and posture for people in the performing arts. it was on the curriculum of prominent Western performing arts institutions.


title: Alexander Technique

text: According to Alexander Technique instructor Michael J. Gelb, people tend to study the Alexander Technique for reasons of personal development.


title: Alexander Technique

text: A review of the evidence for the Alexander Technique for various health conditions provided by the UK National Health Service, last updated in 2021, said that advocates of the technique made claims for it that were not supported by evidence, but that there was evidence suggesting that it might help with: "long-term back pain – lessons in the technique may lead to reduced back pain-associated disability and reduce how often you feel pain for up to a year or more; long-term neck pain – lessons in the technique may lead to reduced neck pain and associated disability for up to a year or more; Parkinson's disease – lessons in the technique may help you carry out everyday tasks more easily and improve how you feel about your condition"


title: Alexander Technique

text: The NHS further states: "Some research has also suggested the Alexander Technique may improve general long-term pain, stammering, and balance skills in older people to help them avoid falls. But the evidence in these areas is limited and more studies are needed. There's currently little evidence to suggest the Alexander Technique can help improve other health conditions, including asthma, headaches, osteoarthritis, difficulty sleeping (insomnia), and stress."


title: Alexander Technique

text: A review published in "BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine" in 2014 focused on "the evidence for the effectiveness of AT sessions on musicians' performance, anxiety, respiratory function and posture" concluded that "evidence from RCTs and CTs suggests that AT sessions may improve performance anxiety in musicians. Effects on music performance, respiratory function and posture yet remain inconclusive."


title: Alexander Technique

text: A 2012 Cochrane systematic review found that there is no good evidence that the Alexander Technique is effective for treating asthma, and randomized clinical trials are needed in order to assess the effectiveness of this type of treatment approach.


title: Alexander Technique

text: A review by Aetna last updated in 2021 stated: "Aetna considers the following alternative medicine interventions experimental and investigational because there is inadequate evidence in the peer-reviewed published medical literature of their effectiveness." The Alexander Technique is included in that list.


title: Alexander Technique

text: A 2015 review, conducted for the Australian Department of Health in order to determine what services the Australian government should pay for, examined clinical trials published to date and found that "overall, the evidence was limited by the small number of participants in the intervention arms, wide confidence intervals or a lack of replication of results." It concluded that "the Alexander Technique may improve short-term pain and disability in people with low back pain, but the longer-term effects remain uncertain. For all other clinical conditions, the effectiveness of the Alexander Technique was deemed to be uncertain, due to insufficient evidence." It also noted that "evidence for the safety of Alexander Technique was lacking, with most trials not reporting on this outcome." Subsequently in 2017, the Australian government named the Alexander Technique as a practice that would not qualify for insurance subsidy, saying this step would "ensure taxpayer funds are expended appropriately and not directed to therapies lacking evidence".


title: Alexander Technique

text: The Alexander Technique is most commonly taught in a series of private lessons which may last from 30 minutes to an hour. The number of lessons varies widely, depending on the student's needs and level of interest. Students are often performers, such as actors, dancers, musicians, athletes and public speakers, people who work on computers, or those who are in frequent pain for other reasons. Instructors observe their students, and provide both verbal and gentle manual guidance to help students learn how to move with better poise and less strain. Sessions include chair work – often in front of a mirror – during which the instructor will guide the student while the student stands, sits and walks, learning to move efficiently while maintaining a comfortable relationship between the head, neck, and spine, and table work or physical manipulation.


title: Alexander Technique

text: In the United Kingdom, there is no regulation for who can offer Alexander Technique services. Professional organisations do exist, however, typically offering 3 year courses to people becoming instructors.


title: Alexander Technique

text: The Alexander Technique is based on the personal observations of Frederick Matthias Alexander (1869–1955). Alexander's career as an actor was hampered by recurrent bouts of laryngitis, but he found he could overcome it by focusing on his discomfort and tension, and relaxing. Alexander also thought posture could be improved if one became more conscious of one's own bodily movement.


title: Alexander Technique

text: While on a recital tour in New Zealand (1895), Alexander came to believe in the wider significance of improved carriage for overall physical functioning, although evidence from his own publications appears to indicate it happened less systematically and over a long period of time.


title: Alexander Technique

text: Alexander did not originally conceive of his technique as therapy, but it has become a form of alternative medicine.


title: Alexander Technique

text: The American philosopher and educator John Dewey became impressed with the Alexander Technique after his headaches, neck pains, blurred vision, and stress symptoms largely improved during the time he used Alexander's advice to change his posture. In 1923, Dewey wrote the introduction to Alexander's "Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual".


title: Alexander Technique

text: Fritz Perls, who originated Gestalt therapy, credited Alexander as an inspiration for his psychological work.


title: Primula vulgaris

text: Primula vulgaris, the common primrose, is a species of flowering plant in the family Primulaceae, native to western and southern Europe, northwest Africa, and parts of southwest Asia. The common name is primrose, or occasionally common primrose or English primrose to distinguish it from other "Primula" species also called primroses.


title: Primula vulgaris

text: The scientific name "Primula" is a diminutive of the Latin "primus", "prime", alluding to the fact that this flower is among the first to appear in spring. The vernacular name has the same meaning: primrose derives from a late Latin form "prima rosa", consisting of "prima", "first" (feminine), and "rosa", "rose".


title: Primula vulgaris

text: "Primula vulgaris" is a perennial growing tall, with a basal rosette of leaves which are more-or-less evergreen in favoured habitats. It flowers in early spring in the northern hemisphere (February–April) on slopes and meadows.


title: Primula vulgaris

text: The leaves are 5–25 cm long and 2–6 cm broad, often heavily wrinkled, with an irregularly crenate to dentate margin. The leaf blade is gradually attenuated towards the base and unevenly toothed. The single stem, extremely short, is hidden in the centre of the leaf rosette. The delicately scented flowers are 2–4 cm in diameter, borne singly on short slender stems.


title: Primula vulgaris

text: The flowers are typically pale yellow, though white or pink forms are often seen in nature. The flowers are actinomorphic with a superior ovary which later forms a capsule opening by valves to release the small black seeds. The flowers are hermaphrodite but heterostylous; individual plants bear either "pin" flowers (longuistylous flower: with the capita of the style prominent) or "thrum" flowers (brevistylous flower: with the stamens prominent). Fertilisation can only take place between pin and thrum flowers. Pin-to-pin and thrum-to-thrum pollination is ineffective.


title: Primula vulgaris

text: The native range of "P. vulgaris" encompasses western and southern Europe. In the north, the distribution area extends from central Norway near the Faroe Islands via the British Isles, Denmark, northern Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and France to southern Portugal in the south and the tip of North Africa in Algeria. To the east, the range extends through the southern European peninsulas to the Crimea, Balkans, Syria, Turkey and Armenia.


title: Primula vulgaris

text: In appropriate conditions, "P. vulgaris" can cover the ground in open woods and shaded hedgerows. It is found mainly by streams, under bushes, in orchards and clear, moist deciduous forests. Occasionally it also appears in meadows. In Central Europe plants thrive best on nutrient-rich, but lime-poor, humus-rich, loose and often stony loam soils in winter-mild situations. In more populated areas it has sometimes suffered from over-collection and theft so that few natural displays of primroses in abundance can now be found. However it is common on motorway verges and railway embankments where human intervention is restricted. To prevent excessive damage to the species, picking of primroses or the removal of primrose plants from the wild is illegal in many countries, e.g. the UK Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (Section 13, part 1b).


title: Primula vulgaris

text: Most (90%) individuals are heterostylous, the minority monostylous. The flowers of the species are visited by a variety of insects, such as butterflies (Lepidoptera), Hymenoptera, beetles (Coleoptera) and Diptera. Which visitors pollinate plants is not fully established. However, good pollinators are said to be bumblebees and hairy flies of the genus "Bombylius". However, the most common visitors to the flowers are small beetles of the genus "Meligethes" – often there are up to 12 or more pollen-covered individuals in a single flower. The beetles also fly from flower to flower and, at least theoretically, are well suited as pollinators.


title: Primula vulgaris

text: Plants of the World Online accepts only one subspecies in addition to the nominate subsp. "vulgaris":


title: Primula vulgaris

text: The primrose is distinguished from other species of "Primula" by its pale yellow (in the nominate subspecies) flowers produced singly on long flower stalks which are covered in rather shaggy hairs. The flowers open flat rather than concave as in the case of "Primula veris", the cowslip.


title: Primula vulgaris

text: A pink form is widely seen, growing amongst the much more common yellow forms; this may be a genetic variant rather than a garden escape. Occasional red forms are more likely to be naturalised from garden varieties.


title: Primula vulgaris

text: The wild primrose is a staple of cottage garden plantings, and is widely available as seeds or young plants. It grows best in moist but well-drained soil in light shade. It is increased by seed and division. The throat is usually coloured rich yellow.


title: Primula vulgaris

text: Primrose breeding of named coloured varieties became popular in the nineteenth and early twentieth century. Numerous cultivars have been selected for garden planting, often derived from subsp. "sibthorpii" or hybrids between the subspecies; these and other garden hybrids are available in a wide range of colours, including white, yellow and red, or brown and red in all gradations as well as dark red, pink, purple, dark brown and dark blue, and with an extended flowering season.


title: Primula vulgaris

text: The term "Polyanthus", or "Primula polyantha", refers to various tall-stemmed and multi-coloured strains of "P. vulgaris" × "P. veris" hybrids. Though perennial, they may be short-lived and are typically grown from seed or from young plants as biennials.


title: Primula vulgaris

text: Both flowers and leaves are edible, the flavour ranging between mild lettuce and more bitter salad greens. The leaves can be cooked in soup but preferably with other plants because they are sometimes a little strong. The leaves can also be used for tea, and the young flowers can be made into primrose wine. In the past the whole plant and especially the root were considered to have analgesic, anti-spasmodic, diuretic and expectorant properties. It contains small amounts of saponins, and was given for colds.


title: Primula vulgaris

text: Primrose flowers, and the flowers of related members of the Primulaceae are often removed from their stalks and scattered on the ground by green finches apparently consuming the ovaries and nectaries.


title: Primula vulgaris

text: The primrose was Benjamin Disraeli's favourite flower; Primrose Day and the Primrose League were given their names in honour of this.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: A Suitable Boy is a novel by Vikram Seth, published in 1993. With 1,349 pages (1,488 pages in paperback), the English-language book is one of the longest novels published in a single volume.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: "A Suitable Boy" is set in a newly post-independence, post-partition India. The novel follows four families during 18 months, and centres on Mrs. Rupa Mehra's efforts to arrange the marriage of her younger daughter, Lata, to a "suitable boy". Lata is a 19-year-old university student who refuses to be influenced by her domineering mother or opinionated brother, Arun. Her story revolves around the choice she is forced to make between her suitors Kabir, Haresh, and Amit.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: It begins in the fictional town of Brahmpur, located along the Ganges. Patna, Brahmpur, along with Calcutta, Delhi, Lucknow and other Indian cities, forms a colourful backdrop for the emerging stories.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: The novel alternately offers satirical and earnest examinations of national political issues in the period leading up to the first post-Independence national election of 1952, including Hindu–Muslim strife, the status of lower caste peoples such as the jatav, land reforms and the eclipse of the feudal princes and landlords, academic affairs, abolition of the Zamindari system, family relations and a range of further issues of importance to the characters.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: The novel is divided into 19 parts, with each generally focusing on a different subplot. Each part is described in rhyming couplet form on the contents page.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: In 1951, 19-year-old Lata Mehra attends the wedding of her older sister, Savita, to Pran Kapoor, a university lecturer. Lata’s mother, Mrs. Rupa Mehra, says that it is time for Lata to be married as well, which Lata dismisses as she intends to concentrate on her studies in English literature. Nevertheless Mrs. Rupa Mehra begins to put out feelers to her friends and family, for a suitable boy for Lata.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: In the meantime Lata is approached several times by a boy her own age and after a few meetings feels she is in love with him. His name is Kabir Durrani, and Lata is distressed when she realises he is Muslim as her Hindu family would never allow her to marry a Muslim man. When her early morning meetings with Kabir are discovered she tries to run away with Kabir, who refuses. Ultimately Lata agrees to go with her mother to Calcutta to live with her arrogant older brother Arun, who is already married.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: As Lata is leaving she is spotted by Haresh Khanna, an ambitious shoe manufacturer who is involved in business with Kedarnath Tandon, the husband of Pran’s older sister, Veena. He is intrigued by her beauty and sadness.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: In Calcutta, Lata is surprised to find herself enjoying her time with her brother, and his wife Meenakshi. She meets Meenakshi’s eccentric family, the Chatterjis, and bonds with her older brother, Amit, an England-educated poet who is under pressure from his family to marry. Though Amit initially only intends on being friendly to Lata as a member of his extended family, he begins to consider her as a possible wife. Mrs. Rupa Mehra is horrified when she realises that Amit and Lata might be considering marriage, as she dislikes Meenakshi and therefore disapproves of the Chatterjis. She goes to Delhi to renew her efforts to find a spouse for Lata. By accident she is introduced to Haresh Khanna and decides he is suitable for Lata. Despite the fact that he is in love with another woman (whom he cannot marry due to her family's objection), Haresh agrees to meet Lata. Lata finds the idea of marrying Haresh ridiculous but nevertheless has an agreeable time with him and gives him permission to write to her.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: Returning home she hears that Kabir was involved in reuniting her sister-in-law Veena with her young son after a mass stampede separated them. She nevertheless vows to forget about Kabir only to be surprised when they are both cast in the university’s production of "Twelfth Night". During rehearsals her brother-in-law Pran is hospitalised, and his wife Savita gives birth. Lata takes on a more prominent role in taking care of her sister and niece which results in her realising her mother is only trying to ensure her happiness and safety. She begins corresponding more warmly with Haresh and despite still being attracted to Kabir tells him that she is no longer interested in marrying him.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: Haresh loses his managerial job at the shoe factory but inveigles his way into a lesser position as the foreman at the Praha shoe factory with promise of upward mobility. His new circumstance fails to impress Arun and Meenakshi who are also biased against him as they are aware of Amit's attraction to Lata and want to encourage that match.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: In the new year the Mehra family once again travels to Calcutta to spend time with Arun and Meenakshi and to reconnect with Haresh. At a cricket match Haresh, Kabir and Amit all meet and recognise that they are all loosely acquainted, but fail to realise that they are all, in one way or another, courting Lata. Kabir is in Calcutta trying to work up the courage to speak to Lata, however he fails to do so and Lata receives a letter from her best friend informing her that Kabir was spotted in an intimate conversation with another woman. Haresh is more persistent in his courtship of Lata, but after she off-handedly calls him mean, he takes offence and their relationship comes to a standstill.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: In the new year, based on Kabir's invitation, Amit comes to speak at Lata's school. She reconnects with Kabir where she learns that the information he was courting another woman was false. However she tells him she is seriously writing to Haresh and is strongly considering marrying him. Amit also takes this opportunity to more seriously propose to Lata. Lata meets Kabir one last time where she realises that the passion she feels for him is not the basis for a good marriage. After receiving an apologetic letter from Haresh renewing his offer of marriage and a second letter from Arun, strongly encouraging her to reject Haresh, Lata decides once and for all to marry Haresh.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: Concurrent to the main plot is the story of Maan Kapoor, a brother to her brother-in-law Pran. Maan is the feckless youngest child of respected politician Mahesh Kapoor, the state Minister of Revenue. At a Holi celebration, Maan sees the courtesan singer, Saeeda Bai, perform. He visits her house and begins to court her. They become lovers. Saeeda Bai later feels that her feelings for him are interfering with her work and reputation. She sends him away with her young sister Tasneem's Urdu teacher, Rasheed, to his remote village under the pretence of wanting Maan to learn flawless Urdu. Maan spends the time becoming acquainted with Rasheed's family who are politically influential but immoral and corrupt.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: When Maan returns to Brahmpur he resumes his love affair with Saeeda Bai and gains favour with his father who decides to run for office again in the seat where Rasheed's family lives. After campaigning with his father, Maan returns to Saeeda Bai's house where he sees his friend Firoz and believes from veiled comments of Saeeda Bai that the two have been having a love affair behind his back. In reality, Firoz had come to propose to Tasneem, when Saeeda Bai reveals that Tasneem is in fact her secret daughter and Firoz's half-sister. In the ensuing confusion Maan stabs Firoz in a fit of jealousy. The scandal that follows causes his father to lose his seat and his mother to die after a series of strokes.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: However once Firoz recovers he insists that the stabbing was caused by his own clumsiness and his friend Maan is made a free man.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: The wedding between Lata and Haresh takes place with joy to all except Kabir who is invited but does not come. A few days later Lata and Haresh take a train to his home to begin their new lives together.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: Four family trees are provided in the beginning of the novel to help readers keep track of the complicated interwoven family networks:


title: A Suitable Boy

text: Seth has stated that the biggest influence on writing "A Suitable Boy" was the five-volume 18th century Chinese novel "The Story of the Stone" by Cao Xueqin.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: A sequel, to be called "A Suitable Girl", was due for publication in 2017. this was still unpublished. In an article that appeared in the Khaleej Times on 4 November 2019, Vikram Seth was quoted as saying that he had not yet devised an ending for the book.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: On 5 November 2019 "BBC News" included "A Suitable Boy" on its list of the 100 most inspiring novels.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: The Independent wrote that "the movement and music of the writing in "A Suitable Boy" take time to absorb, but its unobtrusive, powerfully rational sweetness eventually compels the reader to its way of seeing."


title: A Suitable Boy

text: Daniel Johnson wrote in "The Times": ""A Suitable Boy" is not merely one of the longest novels in English: it may also prove to be the most fecund as well as the most prodigious work of the latter half of this century - perhaps even the book to restore the serious reading public's faith in the contemporary novel. I have little doubt that... Vikram Seth is already the best writer of his generation", while Eugene Robinson of the "Washington Post" compared Seth favourably to Tolstoy.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: Christopher Hitchens, in "Vanity Fair", gave the novel a glowing review, saying the prose "has a deceptive lightness and transparency to it".


title: A Suitable Boy

text: The book was among the contenders in a 2014 list by "The Telegraph" of the 10 all-time greatest Asian novels, and Emma Lee-Potter of "The Independent" listed it as one of the 12 best Indian novels.


title: A Suitable Boy

text: A six-part series adapted from the novel and titled "A Suitable Boy", directed by Mira Nair, written by Andrew Davies and starring Tabu, Ishaan Khatter, Tanya Maniktala and Rasika Dugal, was broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom from 26 July 2020. The production is the first BBC historical drama with a cast completely featuring people of colour, except for Austrian opera singer Thomas Weinhappel as 'Hans'. The series is streaming on Acorn TV in the US and Canada and Netflix in other territories.


title: Pete Farndon

text: Peter Granville Farndon (12 June 1952 – 14 April 1983) was an English bassist and founding member of the rock band the Pretenders. In addition to playing bass with the group, Farndon sang backup vocals and co-wrote two of the group's songs ("The Wait" and "Space Invader"), before a drug problem resulted in his dismissal from the group in 1982 and his death a year later.


title: Pete Farndon

text: Farndon attended Hereford Cathedral School in his home city of Hereford, before embarking on his musical career. Farndon's musical influences included Stanley Clarke and Jeff Beck. Farndon played with Cold River Lady until the middle of 1976, and then toured with Australian folk-rock band The Bushwackers in 1978.


title: Pete Farndon

text: Farndon joined the Pretenders in early 1978 and was the first member of the 1978–82 lineup to be recruited by Chrissie Hynde. Farndon recalled their first rehearsal: "I'll never forget it, we go in, we do a soul number, we do a country and western number, and then we did 'The Phone Call' which is like the heaviest fuckin' punk rocker you could do in 5/4 time. Impressed? I was very impressed." A guitarist was still needed, and Farndon recruited lead guitarist James Honeyman-Scott into the group that summer. Farndon, Honeyman-Scott, and bandmate Martin Chambers all hailed from Hereford.


title: Pete Farndon

text: Chambers worked with Farndon to adjust to Hynde's timing: "Pete and I did a fair amount of work on our own, in terms of the rhythm section being able to play Chrissie's odd timing things. So Pete and I would come in a couple of hours ahead of the others and baby talk our way through the songs. You know, 'da dad da, boom boom.' She didn't count in the traditional way so we had to reinterpret the counts. Once we made the adjustment and learned to go with her flow, so to speak, it became second nature. It's the bedrock of Pretenders music."


title: Pete Farndon

text: Farndon played a large role in shaping the Pretenders' tough image, often wearing his biker clothing, or later, samurai gear onstage. Hynde later acknowledged that two Pretenders' songs, "Biker" and "Samurai" had "references to a Pete Farndon type of character". As a performer, Hynde recalled that "Pete was fantastic. Pete was blagging it a lot because technically he wasn't any kind of great musician. But he had real heart, like in boxing terms, he could win the fight on heart alone. And he had a great energy, borne of a kind of desperation."


title: Pete Farndon

text: By early 1982, Farndon's drug use was causing strained relations with his bandmates. He became increasingly belligerent and according to Hynde, "was in bad shape. He was really not someone you could work with." The situation came to a head when guitarist James Honeyman-Scott threatened to quit the band if Farndon was not fired. On 14 June 1982, band manager Dave Hill, on the orders of Hynde, fired Farndon. Two days after Farndon's dismissal, Honeyman-Scott was found dead of heart failure caused by a cocaine overdose. Four years into the career of the Pretenders, Hynde and drummer Martin Chambers were the only original members left, and less than a year later, the only two living members.


title: Pete Farndon

text: After his dismissal from the Pretenders, Farndon worked with former Clash drummer Topper Headon, guitarist Henry Padovani, organist Mick Gallagher, and vocalist Steve Allen (formerly of Deaf School) in a short-lived band they called Samurai.


title: Pete Farndon

text: On 14 April 1983, at the age of 30, Farndon was found by his wife drowned in the bath at his home in London, having lost consciousness after overdosing on heroin. He is buried at St. Peter's Church, Withington, Herefordshire, England.


title: Spriggan

text: A spriggan is a legendary creature from Cornish folklore. Spriggans are particularly associated with West Penwith in Cornwall.


title: Spriggan

text: "Spriggan" is a dialect word, pronounced with the grapheme <gg> as /d͡ʒ/, sprid-jan, and not sprigg-an, borrowed from the Cornish plural "spyrysyon" 'spirits'.


title: Spriggan

text: Spriggans have often been depicted as grotesquely ugly, wizened old men with large childlike heads. They were said to be found at old ruins, cairns, and barrows guarding buried treasure. Although small in stature, they have often been considered to be the ghosts of giants and retained gigantic strength, and in one story collected by Robert Hunt, they showed the ability to swell to enormous size. Hunt associated these spirits with the hillfort known as Trencrom Hill in Cornwall.


title: Spriggan

text: Spriggans were notorious for their unpleasant dispositions, and delighted in working mischief against those who offended them. They raised sudden whirlwinds to terrify travellers, sent storms to blight crops, and sometimes stole away mortal children, leaving their ugly changelings in their place. They were blamed if a house was robbed or a building collapsed, or if cattle were stolen. In one story, an old woman got the better of a band of spriggans by turning her clothing inside-out (turning clothing supposedly being as effective as holy water or iron in repelling fairies) to gain their loot.


title: Spriggan

text: On Christmas Eve, spriggans met for a midnight Mass at the bottom of deep mines, and passersby could hear them singing. However, it was not spriggans but the buccas or knockers who were associated with tin mining, and who played a protective role towards the miners.


title: Spriggan

text: Based on the collections of Robert Hunt and William Bottrell, Katharine Briggs characterized the spriggans as fairy bodyguards. "The English Dialect Dictionary" (1905) compared them to the trolls of Scandinavia.


title: Spriggan

text: A sculpture of a spriggan by Marilyn Collins can be seen in Crouch End, London, in some arches lining a section of the Parkland Walk (a disused railway line). The sculpture was installed in 1993. If walking along the Parkland Walk from Finsbury Park to Highgate station, the "Spriggan" is to the right just before the disused railway platforms of the former Crouch End station. To the left, on the southside of the Parkland Walk is Crouch Hill Park where Ashmount School has been located since January 2013. The sculpture is sometimes mistaken for the Green Man or Pan.


title: Spriggan

text: Spriggans have been featured as fey creatures in the Dungeons & Dragons roleplaying game since the 1980s.


title: Spriggan

text: Additionally, Spriggans - in the style of the Parkland Walk sculpture - can be found in "The Elder Scrolls" series of video games and they are portrayed as females.


title: Brian Moynihan

text: Brian Thomas Moynihan (born October 9, 1959) is an American investment banker, businessman and the chairman and CEO of Bank of America. He joined the board of directors, following his promotion to president and CEO in 2010.


title: Brian Moynihan

text: Moynihan was born in Marietta, Ohio October 9, in 1959, the sixth of eight children in a family of Irish descent. Moynihan graduated from Brown University in 1981, where he majored in history, co-captained the rugby team, and met his future wife, classmate Susan E. Berry. He earned a Juris Doctor from the University of Notre Dame Law School, before returning to Providence, Rhode Island to join Edwards & Angell LLP, the city's largest corporate law firm.


title: Brian Moynihan

text: Moynihan held numerous banking positions before becoming president of consumer and small business banking (SBB) at Bank of America in January 2009.


title: Brian Moynihan

text: He joined Fleet Boston bank in April 1993 as a deputy general counsel. From 1999 to April 2004, he served as executive vice president, managing Fleet's brokerage and wealth management division. After Bank of America (BofA) merged with FleetBoston Financial in 2004, he joined BoA as president of global wealth and investment management. He was named CEO of Merrill Lynch after its sale to BoA in September 2008, and became the CEO of Bank of America after Ken Lewis stepped down in 2010.


title: Brian Moynihan

text: On August 25, 2011, CNBC's Drew Sandholm noted that "[d]espite having recently told investors Bank of America ... doesn't need to raise capital, CEO Brian Moynihan will accept $5 billion in capital from famed investor Warren Buffett. The deal not only surprised the "Fast Money" traders on Thursday, it also caused them to question Moynihan's credibility."


title: Brian Moynihan

text: On September 12, 2011, CNBC's John Carney noted that Moynihan had "once again laid out his company's plan to meet regulatory capital requirements and denied that the bank will have to issue new stock to raise capital ... [Moynihan] says that Warren Buffett's $5 billion counts as Tier 1 Capital. But the markets have largely ignored the investment, most likely because it looks a lot more like debt than capital."


title: Brian Moynihan

text: On October 26, 2011, "Huffington Post" blogger Jillian Berman noted that BoA "has also been hammered in the stock and bonds markets" and "was the worst performer in the Dow Jones Industrial Average for two-quarters straight ... while Moody's downgraded the bank last month." She added while Jamie Dimon, JPMorgan Chase's CEO, received a $19 million raise in 2010, Moynihan's salary stayed level at $950,000.


title: Brian Moynihan

text: On December 27, 2011, Julia LaRoche wrote in "Business Insider" that Moynihan "admitted the proposed $5 monthly fee for debit card users wasn't the best idea". She quoted him as saying: "We struck a chord with customers that no one anticipated. We learned our lesson and stopped it." It was later reported that the failed fee plan led to a 20% increase in account closures during the last three months of 2011.


title: Brian Moynihan

text: "Business Insider" noted that "a group of law professors and activists from a non-profit called Public Citizen sent a 24 page petition to Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke and Treasury Secretary Geithner asking them to consider breaking up and reforming Bank of America.


title: Brian Moynihan

text: He currently lives in Wellesley, Massachusetts, and frequently commutes between Boston and Bank of America's headquarters in Charlotte, North Carolina using Bank of America's private jets. This practice has come under scrutiny from some shareholders.


title: Brian Moynihan

text: The bank's 2012 shareholder meeting in Charlotte, North Carolina convened "as protests swirled inside and outside", according to the "San Francisco Chronicle". There were complaints from shareholders regarding the bank's mortgage servicing operations, decreased share prices, and other issues. Protesters converged outside the building, which they were barred from entering by police and metal barricades. In response to the criticisms of the bank's mortgage servicing operations, Moynihan tried to reassure the audience, saying "you can call us and we will figure it out".


title: Brian Moynihan

text: In 2012, Moynihan, alongside several other CEO's, faced heavy criticism from Bernie Sanders in a report titled "Top Corporate Tax Dodgers". According to the report, Moynihan's Bank of America paid no federal income tax in 2010 and received a $1.9 billion tax refund despite making $4.4 billion in profits. The report also includes criticisms of Bank of America's use of tax havens.


title: Nomenclature

text: Nomenclature (, ) is a system of names or terms, or the rules for forming these terms in a particular field of arts or sciences. The principles of naming vary from the relatively informal conventions of everyday speech to the internationally agreed principles, rules and recommendations that govern the formation and use of the specialist terms used in scientific and any other disciplines.


title: Nomenclature

text: Naming "things" is a part of general human communication using words and language: it is an aspect of everyday taxonomy as people distinguish the objects of their experience, together with their similarities and differences, which observers identify, name and classify. The use of names, as the many different kinds of nouns embedded in different languages, connects nomenclature to theoretical linguistics, while the way humans mentally structure the world in relation to word meanings and experience relates to the philosophy of language.


title: Nomenclature

text: Onomastics, the study of proper names and their origins, includes: anthroponymy (concerned with human names, including personal names, surnames and nicknames); toponymy (the study of place names); and etymology (the derivation, history and use of names) as revealed through comparative and descriptive linguistics.


title: Nomenclature

text: The scientific need for simple, stable and internationally accepted systems for naming objects of the natural world has generated many formal nomenclatural systems. Probably the best known of these nomenclatural systems are the five codes of biological nomenclature that govern the Latinized scientific names of organisms.


title: Nomenclature

text: The word "nomenclature" is derived from the Latin "nomen" ('name'), and "calare" ('to call'). The Latin term "nomenclatura" refers to a list of names, as does the word "nomenclator", which can also indicate a provider or announcer of names.


title: Nomenclature

text: The study of proper names is known as "onomastics", which has a wide-ranging scope that encompasses all names, languages, and geographical regions, as well as cultural areas.


title: Nomenclature

text: The distinction between onomastics and nomenclature is not readily clear: onomastics is an unfamiliar discipline to most people, and the use of nomenclature in an academic sense is also not commonly known. Although the two fields integrate, nomenclature concerns itself more with the rules and conventions that are used for the formation of names.


title: Nomenclature

text: Due to social, political, religious, and cultural motivations, things that are the same may be given different names, while different things may be given the same name; closely related similar things may be considered separate, while on the other hand significantly different things might be considered the same.


title: Nomenclature

text: For example, Hindi and Urdu are both closely related, mutually intelligible Hindustani languages (one being sanskritised and the other arabised). However, they are favored as separate languages by Hindus and Muslims respectively, as seen in the context of Hindu-Muslim conflict resulting in the violence of the 1947 Partition of India. In contrast, mutually unintelligible dialects that differ considerably in structure, such as Moroccan Arabic, Yemeni Arabic, and Lebanese Arabic, are considered to be the same language due to the pan-Islamism religious identity.


title: Nomenclature

text: Names provide us with a way of structuring and mapping the world in our minds so, in some way, they mirror or represent the objects of our experience.


title: Nomenclature

text: Elucidating the connections between language (especially names and nouns), meaning, and the way we perceive the world has provided a rich field of study for philosophers and linguists. Relevant areas of study include: the distinction between proper names and proper nouns; as well as the relationship between names, their referents, meanings (semantics), and the structure of language.


title: Nomenclature

text: Modern scientific taxonomy has been described as "basically a Renaissance codification of folk taxonomic principles".""


title: Nomenclature

text: Formal systems of scientific nomenclature and classification are exemplified by biological classification. All classification systems are established for a purpose. The scientific classification system anchors each organism within the nested hierarchy of internationally accepted classification categories. Maintenance of this system involves formal rules of nomenclature and periodic international meetings of review. This modern system evolved from the folk taxonomy of prehistory.


title: Nomenclature

text: Folk taxonomy can be illustrated through the Western tradition of horticulture and gardening. Unlike scientific taxonomy, folk taxonomies serve many purposes. Examples in horticulture would be the grouping of plants, and naming of these groups, according to their properties and uses:


title: Nomenclature

text: Folk taxonomy is generally associated with the way rural or indigenous peoples use language to make sense of and organise the objects around them. Ethnobiology frames this interpretation through either "utilitarianists" like Bronislaw Malinowski who maintain that names and classifications reflect mainly material concerns, and "intellectualists" like Claude Lévi-Strauss who hold that they spring from innate mental processes. The literature of ethnobiological classifications was reviewed in 2006. Folk classification is defined by the way in which members of a language community name and categorize plants and animals whereas ethnotaxonomy refers to the hierarchical structure, organic content, and cultural function of biological classification that ethnobiologists find in every society around the world.


title: Nomenclature

text: Ethnographic studies of the naming and classification of animals and plants in non-Western societies have revealed some general principles that indicate pre-scientific man's conceptual and linguistic method of organising the biological world in a hierarchical way. Such studies indicate that the urge to classify is a basic human instinct.


title: Nomenclature

text: In almost all cultures objects are named using one or two words equivalent to 'kind' ("genus") and 'particular kind' ("species"). When made up of two words (a "binomial") the name usually consists of a noun (like "salt", "dog" or "star") and an adjectival second word that helps describe the first, and therefore makes the name, as a whole, more "specific," for example, "lap dog", "sea salt", or "film star". The meaning of the noun used for a common name may have been lost or forgotten ("whelk", "elm", "lion", "shark", "pig") but when the common name is extended to two or more words much more is conveyed about the organism's use, appearance or other special properties ("sting ray", "poison apple", "giant stinking hogweed", "hammerhead shark"). These noun-adjective binomials are just like our own names with a family or surname like "Simpson" and another adjectival Christian or forename name that specifies which Simpson, say "Homer Simpson". It seems reasonable to assume that the form of scientific names we call binomial nomenclature is derived from this simple and practical way of constructing common names—but with the use of Latin as a universal language.


title: Nomenclature

text: In keeping with the utilitarian view other authors maintain that ethnotaxonomies resemble more a "complex web of resemblances" than a neat hierarchy.


title: Nomenclature

text: A name is a label for any noun: names can identify a class or category of things; or a single thing, either uniquely or within a given context. Names are given, for example, to humans or any other organisms, places, products—as in brand names—and even to ideas or concepts. It is names as nouns that are the building blocks of nomenclature.


title: Nomenclature

text: The word "name" is possibly derived from the Proto-Indo-European language hypothesised word . The distinction between names and nouns, if made at all, is extremely subtle, although clearly "noun" refers to names as lexical categories and their function within the context of language, rather that as "labels" for objects and properties.


title: Nomenclature

text: Human personal names, also referred to as "prosoponyms", are presented, used and categorised in many ways depending on the language and culture. In most cultures (Indonesia is one exception) it is customary for individuals to be given at least two names. In Western culture, the first name is given at birth or shortly thereafter and is referred to as the given name, the forename, the baptismal name (if given then), or simply the first name. In England prior to the Norman invasion of 1066, small communities of Celts, Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians generally used single names: each person was identified by a single name as either a personal name or nickname. As the population increased, it gradually became necessary to identify people further—giving rise to names like John the butcher, Henry from Sutton, and Roger son of Richard...which naturally evolved into John Butcher, Henry Sutton, and Roger Richardson. We now know this additional name variously as the second name, last name, family name, surname or occasionally the byname, and this natural tendency was accelerated by the Norman tradition of using surnames that were fixed and hereditary within individual families. In combination these two names are now known as the personal name or, simply, the name. There are many exceptions to this general rule: Westerners often insert a third or more names between the given and surnames; Chinese and Hungarian names have the family name preceding the given name; females now often retain their maiden names (their family surname) or combine, using a hyphen, their maiden name and the surname of their husband; some East Slavic nations insert the patronym (a name derived from the given name of the father) between the given and the family name; in Iceland the given name is used with the patronym, or matronym (a name derived from the given name of the mother), and surnames are rarely used. Nicknames (sometimes called hypocoristic names) are informal names used mostly between friends.


title: Nomenclature

text: The distinction between proper names and common names is that proper names denote a unique entity e.g. London Bridge, while common names are used in a more general sense in reference to a class of objects e.g. bridge. Many proper names are obscure in meaning as they lack any apparent meaning in the way that ordinary words mean, probably for the practical reason that when they consist of Collective nouns, they refer to groups, even when they are inflected for the singular e.g. "committee". Concrete nouns like “cabbage” refer to physical bodies that can be observed by at least one of the senses while abstract nouns, like “love” and “hate” refer to abstract objects. In English, many abstract nouns are formed by adding noun-forming suffixes ('-ness', '-ity', '-tion') to adjectives or verbs e.g. "happiness," "serenity," “concentration.” Pronouns like "he", "it", "which", and "those" stand in place of nouns in noun phrases.


title: Nomenclature

text: The capitalization of nouns varies with language and even the particular context: journals often have their own house styles for common names.


title: Nomenclature

text: Distinctions may be made between particular kinds of names simply by using the suffix -onym, from the Greek "ónoma" (ὄνομα, 'name'). So we have, for example, hydronyms name bodies of water, synonyms are names with the same meaning, and so on. The entire field could be described as chrematonymy—the names of things.