title: Jefferson Hack

text: In 2013, Hack launched Dazed Studio, the creative agency wing of Dazed Media, which makes digital, video, print, events and social media for brands, "Dazed & Confused" was rebranded as "Dazed" in spring 2014.


title: Jefferson Hack

text: Hack has worked with Björk and as creative consultant to U2. In 2015 he worked with Rihanna on a project with Alexander McQueen and "Another Magazine" that resulted in the world's first digital cover magazine and in 2015 with fashion designer Karl Lagerfeld which resulted in the world's first handcrafted hologram fashion magazine cover.


title: Jefferson Hack

text: Hack was in a relationship with model Kate Moss in the early 2000s. Together they have a daughter, Lila Grace Moss-Hack born in 2002. He lives in East London.


title: Lil Mama

text: Niatia Jessica Kirkland (born October 4, 1989), better known by her stage name Lil Mama, is an American rapper, singer, actress and television presenter from Brooklyn, New York and Harlem, New York. She experienced top 10 "Billboard" placements at seventeen with her debut album "VYP (Voice of the Young People)" (2008) which debuted at #25 on the Billboard 200. The album spawned her four major singles including her staple song and dance anthem "Lip Gloss", earning her two Teen Choice Awards and Monster Single of the Year nominations at the MTV VMA's. Lil Mama gained further attention in Pop music after a collaboration with Avril Lavigne, for the remix of her hit single "Girlfriend".


title: Lil Mama

text: Lil Mama took a hiatus from music after success of her hit single "Hustler Girl" to stay focused on serving as a judge for total of seven seasons on MTV's America's Best Dance Crew at the age of nineteen from 2008–2012, which made her one of the youngest judges on any competitive television show in history. Working with producer and fellow judge Randy Jackson, she served alongside JC Chasez, Shane Sparks, Mario Lopez, and Layla Kayleigh.


title: Lil Mama

text: She was cast in her breakout role of the late Hip-Hop artist Lisa "Left Eye" Lopes, in the VH1 biographical film "", which aired in October 2013 and garnered 4.5 million views in the first night. From the success of the film, Lil Mama joined TLC on their tour for their Greatest Hits album. She got the opportunity to perform a tribute to the late rapper at the 2013 American Music Awards performing the Grammy Award winning song "Waterfalls".


title: Lil Mama

text: Lil Mama continued to remain in the public eye, returning to music, making new tracks with fellow rapper MC Lyte on her single "Ball". She made "Billboard" history again with her song "Sausage" at the BET Awards. She appeared on multiple magazine covers and was back in television with "".


title: Lil Mama

text: Niatia Jessica Kirkland was born in 1989 in Brooklyn, New York and is the eldest daughter of eight children. She was raised in Harlem, New York, from her kindergarten to her eighth grade year. She moved back to Brooklyn and attended Edward R. Murrow High School until her Senior year where she continued her education through independent studies. Lil Mama is a third generation of West African, Trinidadian, and Jamaican descent and the third born child. Being the oldest daughter, she got her nickname "Lil Mama". She has two older brothers and three younger brothers, one of whom is also a dancer and underground rapper along with her younger sister and last brother. She has one maternal aunt and several paternal uncles.


title: Lil Mama

text: Kirkland faced personal and financial struggles at an early age and experienced even more poverty when her mother, Tara, was diagnosed with breast cancer, which often led Kirkland to struggle in school as she had to care for her siblings and see her mother back and forth in hospitals from procedures. Both her parents had separated when she was a young child, but Lil Mama always maintained a close relationship with her father, visiting him consistently. Her family became homeless and their mother had moved her and her siblings into a shelter due to poverty at the time. Lil Mama told Power 105.1 she stayed in the shelters for seven years from her kindergarten year until the beginning of her eighth grade year when they managed to get an apartment in the Bronx and gain more stability. Her younger sibling's father was deceased, so her mother was the Matriarch of her family. She contributed to helping her mother financially by taking up small jobs such as baking. Growing up, Kirkland witnessed many hardships in her community including gang & drug violence, teen pregnancy, and domestic violence.


title: Lil Mama

text: After her mother Tara's fight with cancer became terminal, her mother moved in with Lil Mama's aunt and Tara's older sister. She stayed there so she could be cared for and help with the care of the younger children in her family.


title: Lil Mama

text: As one of eight children, she began to express herself artistically by writing poetry and music. She even trained at dance schools for Ballet, Jazz dance, Tap dance, South African dance, Hip-hop dance, and Street dance; she was in many competitions and recitals making her a professional dancer. She was influenced by Mc Lyte, Lil Kim, Left Eye, Missy Elliot, Lauryn Hill, and her parents. Her mother was a talented singer and her father Allen Brunner was a musician and DJ. Lil Mama decided to explore her talents further when she took interest in the Rap Culture, and from then on she continued to perfect her talent in rapping and managed to become an avid free-stylist.


title: Lil Mama

text: Lil Mama became known as the "Voice of the Young People" for being a teen sensation and connecting with her younger fans as she continued to present herself as that and embrace it in her music videos and songs. She became the "Queen of Hip-Pop" for mixing her rhymes with pop influences, which started after her collaboration with Avril Lavigne. She first introduced herself as the "Birth of Hip-Pop" at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards sporting a baby-styled look. She later told MTV how she intended to spread and influence more artists to spread the genre of hip-pop. After her 2009 re-release of her single "L.I.F.E.", Mama introduced her fans to a whole new side of the darker reality that young people face. The song was followed by a music video that incorporated the themes of the song which included teen pregnancy, drug addiction, child abandonment, domestic violence, and more. This showed Lil Mama as a legitimate rapper for even adults to listen to.


title: Lil Mama

text: Since the release of her first album, Lil Mama has been in and out of studios making new music. She released the single "Dough Boy" featuring Mishon. After that release she made appearances on tracks with other artists, including "Turn it up" with Mishon and "Sexiest" by Yahaira. She also released "On & On & On", and "NYNYLALA" featuring Snoop Dogg. The two singles were intended to be a part of her second studio album, but instead they were released on iTunes and digital download but were later removed for unknown reasons. She then released two more singles entitled "Scrawberry" and "Hustler Girl", both singles were followed by music videos. Scrawberry introduced a new look for Lil Mama, in which she would wear colorful wigs and futuristic attire; this would be her new style for next few years; however, the song was released on her MySpace page and YouTube, it was unclear if it was removed from streaming services along with her other two singles. "Hustler Girl" garnered $1.5 million which topped the income she received from her Billboard hits "Shawty Get Loose" and Lip Gloss which earned her $1 million and $800,000. Her next collaboration to follow "Billionaire" would earn her $1.8 million.


title: Lil Mama

text: Lil Mama made appearances on every red carpet in every award show. She was featured on many remixes of award-winning songs, one most notable being Lil Wayne's "A Milli"; she was brought on stage at his concerts to perform the song. Lil Mama was even featured in the Grammy Award-nominated album "First Love" by artist Karina Pasian a close friend to Mama and veteran music artist. In 2009, she announced the title of her proposed sophomore album as "Voice Of The Young People: I Am That", after her single "What It Is" failed to chart. The song "What It Is" was the last single with a music video to be added to her album and was used to commercialize the album. When the song failed to chart, it flopped her album sales, putting her in hot water.


title: Lil Mama

text: On October 7, 2012, RCA Music Group announced it was disbanding J Records along with Arista Records and Jive Records. With the shutdown, Lil Mama (and all other artists previously signed to these three labels) would release future material on the RCA Records brand. However Lil Mama had left Jive Records before the transition to RCA; she stated in an interview that she was not in the right space to make music and decided to take a hiatus. "Voice Of The Young People: I Am That," the proposed second studio album would have had guest appearances including Soulja Boy, Khalil, Angel Haze, LoLa Monroe, Teyana Taylor, Trina, Keke Palmer, Nas, Chris Brown among others. Due to her leaving Jive, the album never saw a release and instead it along with the few singles recorded with Zomba Records were shelved. But she managed to release some the songs directly online for her fans which included "Scrawberry", "On & On & On", and "NY NY LA LA feat. Snoop Dogg". The other singles she planned to record with the featured artist were never recorded and were disbanded. From her leaving Jive, Lil Mama became an independent artist.


title: Lil Mama

text: On June 13, 2012, "America's Best Dance Crew" came to a series finale. Lil Mama had served as a judge for a total of seven seasons. The following year she released a single on her Myspace page called "As Bad As Me", which was later added to YouTube.


title: Lil Mama

text: In October 2013, Lil Mama starred as Lisa "Left Eye" Lopes in the VH1 TLC biographical film "", which aired on October 21, 2013, alongside Keke Palmer and Drew Sidora, who played Rozonda "Chilli" Thomas and Tionne "T-Boz" Watkins, respectively. The movie generated 4.5 million views in one night. This was her first acting debut and breakout role, in which she received positive feedback from Left Eye's fans. Lil Mama was the first to be cast and from both the success of the movie and the close relationship she formed with T-Boz and Chilli. The group TLC took a chance on Lil Mama, allowing her to substitute for the late Lisa Left-Eye Lopes. TLC took Lil Mama on tour, and Lil Mama carried out Left Eye's legacy by rapping her verses. Lil Mama's journey with TLC came to end after they performed at 2013 American Music Awards Lil Mama and TLC dedicated a performance of Waterfalls for the late Left Eye. After the tribute, Lil Mama and TLC parted ways, and Lil Mama went on to return to making music.


title: Lil Mama

text: In November 2014, Lil Mama and AV were featured on MC Lyte Lyte's album "Legend", and Lyte's first music video in years, "Ball". The music video was released on November 13, 2014. Lil Mama appeared in the video with both artists, providing rap verses, along with some of her signature dance moves. The same year she performed the song live with AV and Mc Lyte on "The Real".


title: Lil Mama

text: In May 2015, Lil Mama released the video for her song "Sausage" on WorldStarHipHop. The song was inspired by The Sausage movement on Vine, after Lil Mama heard two girls on a street corner following the trend. The video incorporates many themes including Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Voguing, Mary J. Blige, Caribbean love, and Community Fun. It immediately went viral, with more than 3 million views in its first week, topping the "Billboard" Music + Twitter charts, passing Maroon 5's "Sugar" and knocking out Jason Derulo's "Want to Want Me". It held itself steady in the top 20 well into June, with numerous dance studio and dance jams featuring choreography and routines on social media danced to the Sausage track.


title: Lil Mama

text: Lil Mama got a chance to perform the song live during half time of the 2015 BET Hip Hop Awards. The track was not made available for sale, being absent from both iTunes and Amazon.com due to copyright issues from the inspirations referenced and sampled (the track listed on the YouTube video is actually "Mona Lisa" by Slick Rick) the track was only available on the Lil Mama SoundCloud account only and her website. The video also opted out of advertising revenue on YouTube, with no ads appearing before the music video. The following year she released another single "Memes" as a response to memes made of her after her notorious interview on "The Breakfast Club". Lil Mama released "Take Me Back", a mixtape which featured "Sausage" and "Memes". The mixtape was later up for sale on her website and Soundcloud account, it featured seven songs including a cover and re-edition of Rihanna's "Work". The song received mixed reviews online both on YouTube and her website. People were not fond of her vocals on the hook, but adored her choreography. The last song to be added was "Too Fly", which caught less attraction after her website was taken down for unknown reasons. Too Fly was a video filmed in a club featuring her younger brother Arnstar as one of the dancers. She also produced her singing vocals on the hook. The song was also another copyright issue that couldn't be made for sale and solely released through her mixtape and her soundcloud page. The music video is a YouTube exclusive.


title: Lil Mama

text: After her acting debut, Lil Mama made what SOHH called an "Epic Comeback". Lil Mama was back on red carpets, Award Shows, Talk Shows, and magazine covers. In 2016 Lil Mama made an appearance on Hip Hop Squares as contestant; the episode was highlighted because of the controversy Tamar Braxton started with the host. That same year Lil Mama, alongside Dej Loaf, gave a tribute to Lil' Kim at the VH1 Hip Hop Honors, Kim thanked Mama later with a post of the tribute on her Instagram page.


title: Lil Mama

text: In June 2015, Mama was listed as a featured speaker at an event sponsored by BET and the Hip Hop Sisters Network. Titled "Women, Wealth and Relationships," the event also featured guest speakers MC Lyte, Shanice and Elise Neal, as well as main speaker and financial advisor specialist Lynn Richardson. The event, held on June 27, 2015, focuses on empowering black women both in their lives and financially, providing answers on such tough issues as men, money and family relationships.


title: Lil Mama

text: On August 28, 2017, Mama returned to acting, starring in the television movie "When Love Kills: The Falicia Blakely Story", based on a true story. It premiered to 1.6 million viewers, ranking as TV One's #1 original movie premiere of all time among all key demos. Lil Mama along with director Tasha Smith, and her co-stars Tami Roman and Lance Gross went on a tour to promote the movie and share Falicia Blakely's story.


title: Lil Mama

text: On April 17, 2018, Lil Mama became competitor on MTV's "" a competitive television mini-series in which celebrities would team up with pro-athlete champions against each other. There she met Drake Bell, and the two would later go on to collaborate on his track "Call Me When You're Lonely".


title: Lil Mama

text: On May 3, 2018, Lil Mama released a Single titled "Shoe Game". The Single was available everywhere online for Sale, Streaming, and digital Download. The Single was later followed by a music video directed by Walu, on the May 25, 2018. It Became a YouTube Exclusive, following a million and twenty thousand views within five months. Lil Mama went on to promote the single on TRL A.M. morning show in late September informing that this will lead to a future album. She was then followed up by Brynn Elliott after discussion of her old album and viewing of her greatest music videos which included "Lip Gloss", "Shawty Get Loose", and "G-Slide (Tour Bus)" .


title: Lil Mama

text: On September 9, 2018, Lil Mama was Presenter for the 2018 BET Special "Black Girls Rock!" she had the privilege to work with artists such as Queen Latifah, Janet Jackson, Mary J. Blige, etc. She presented the award to Shanay Thompson for her M.A.D. GIRLS Celebrated by Coca-Cola. On September 25, 2018,0" Entertainment Tonight" announced that Lil Mama would join the cast of The CW "All American" as a supporting character Chynna Q. this would be her first acting role since the "Falicia Blakely Story".


title: Lil Mama

text: On October 4, 2018, Lil Mama appeared on T.V. One's morning talk show "Sister Circle" to discuss her latest single "Shoe Game", and her being cast on "Growing Up Hip Hop: Atlanta". There she stated that she will be joining the cast as a regular due to her move to Atlanta to work on her upcoming album that Bow Wow will be assisting to co-produce and allow the show to document her journey as well as her experiences. On the Show she also got to discuss her acting career, as well as her taking vocal lessons from R&B Singer Kelly Price, her singing will debut on the intended album.


title: Lil Mama

text: On October 18, 2018, "Growing Up Hip Hop: Atlanta" premiered for the continuation of its second season. Lil Mama made her debut on the first episode alongside Kiyomi Leslie and Masika Kalysha as replacement for cast members who quit. Lil Mama stars alongside her mentor and new manager MC Lyte. On November 14, 2018, Lil Mama made her debut appearance on the CW's "All American" in its fifth episode. She introduced her character: An upcoming Hip Hop artist Chynna Q. The girlfriend of one of the protagonists of father; a wealthy and successful Mogul who is promoting her career.


title: Lil Mama

text: Lil Mama's mother, Tara Kirkland, died on December 15, 2007, following a four-year battle with breast cancer. Lil Mama's music video for "Shawty Get Loose" was dedicated to her memory; the single won her a Teen Choice Award. Tara also happened to be featured in the intro and closing of Lil Mama's music video for her hit single "Lip Gloss". Lil Mama had taken over guardianship over her younger siblings along with the help of her family and older brothers. She spoke about this at the MTV red carpet. Lil Mama has stated she and her mother had a close relationship and her mother relied on her for the help in raising her younger siblings.


title: Lil Mama

text: Lil Mama is the older sister of underground rapper and dancer Arnstar, who was a regular on Nick Cannon's "Wild 'n Out" series on MTV. He is also dancer in the New York City street dancing crew W.A.F.F.L.E. Their crew garnered more recognition after making their appearance on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" and received a cash reward from Ellen herself.


title: Lil Mama

text: At the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, Lil Mama came onstage while Jay-Z and Alicia Keys performed "Empire State of Mind". While Jay-Z was ending his final verse, Lil Mama left her seat in the audience, got onto the stage, and started bobbing her head to the beat. Jay-Z was surprised but continued to perform. Right before this moment, Beyonce had tried to hold her from going up. Jay-Z patted Lil Mama on the leg to fall back, jokingly telling her, "you T-Paining now," a reference to a similar incident two months earlier when T-Pain jumped on stage with Jay-Z at Summer Jam during his performance of "D.O.A.". At the end of the performance, Lil Mama came to foreground and posed alongside Jay-Z and Keys. She later clarified that she "would never ... try to disrespect Jay-Z or take a moment that someone has created it and try to relive it. I'm too original for that and I respect him too much for that." In October 2009, she appeared in cycle 13 of "America's Next Top Model" with Benny Ninja.


title: Lil Mama

text: On August 11, 2011, Lil Mama was a guest on "The Breakfast Club". While on the air, tensions rose between her and fellow DJ Charlamagne tha God as they exchanged jabs, with Charlamagne bringing up her VMA incident and the controversy between her and Nicki Minaj. Two more DJ's, Angela Yee and DJ Envy, chimed in, discussing her absence from music at the time. After some time, Lil Mama broke down in tears when her mother's passing was brought up. Lil Mama crying spawned numerous memes around the internet. Five years later Lil Mama returned to "the Breakfast Club" to explain why she cried, and the DJ's and Lil Mama exchanged apologies with one another.


title: Lil Mama

text: On March 10, 2016, Lil Mama was arrested for driving 38 mph in a 25 mph speed zone and not having her license. The incident took place in Harlem around 4am. Officers conducted an investigation and Lil Mama's driver's license was revoked. She went on to make a statement apologizing to her family, friends, and fans.


title: Lil Mama

text: Bow Wow set Lil Mama on blind date with his friend BT, a radio personality, in December, 2018, and caused controversy by allegedly saying that "Y'all going to be F**king in a week". This was aired on their show "", and Lil Mama posted on Instagram to address the episode, calling out Bow and his girlfriend.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat is a first-person shooter survival horror video game developed by GSC Game World for Microsoft Windows. It is the third game released in the "S.T.A.L.K.E.R." series of video games, following "" and "", with the game's narrative and events following the former. It was published in the CIS territories by GSC World Publishing in October 2009, before being released by Deep Silver and bitComposer Games in North America and the PAL region in February 2010.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: The game takes place inside the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Exclusion Zone in Ukraine, divided into three areas known as Zaton, Yanov (including Jupiter and Kopachy), and ghost city of Pripyat. Each of these is a large playable area. The majority of "Call of Pripyat"s gameplay focuses on a combination of both post-apocalyptic horror, as well as tactical role-playing action.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: Receiving damage will usually cause bleeding, which the player must take care of with medical supplies. Similarly, unmaintained weapons and some equipment will be damaged from continued use. The condition of an item is displayed as a gauge next to the entry in the player's inventory. If severely damaged or broken, a red HUD icon will denote this.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: The Zone features a limited economy, with traders and inhabitants exchanging goods and services for money and items. The game's trading system differs from the previous editions in that weapons and armor that have degraded past a certain point are unable to be sold until they are repaired, at which point the repair costs usually offset the sell price. Traders also sell information on missions and are keen to buy valuable documents.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: Bandits are members of the criminal underworld who came to the Zone for different reasons; to make money by selling artifacts, hide from the law or to trade in weapons. The Zone is full of Bandits, ranging from common thugs to serious criminals, most of whom are members of one gang or another. Although the Zone gangs frequently fight amongst themselves, the criminal element still poses a serious problem for normal Stalkers. Bandits are ruthless and generally hostile to anyone not in their gang. Though depicted in "" as a united, highly territorial faction, the Bandit population in "" consists mainly of roving groups.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: Upgrading has three tiers of improvement, with each one requiring a toolkit to allow for respective tier upgrade/modification. Basic tools will allow the player to access the first tier and fine tools will allow access to the second tier. The calibration tool kits are only found in Pripyat and will give access to the last tier. The upgrade system is similar to that of Clear Sky except that the negatives of upgrades are removed. Upgrading a certain element still makes alternative upgrade options unavailable.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: Various mutant creatures roam the Zone, most of which are hostile to Stalkers and will pursue and attack people who get too close. Artificial intelligence has been overhauled since the previous two games and now offers these creatures advanced and more realistic behavior. New mutants not present in "Shadow of Chernobyl" and "Clear Sky" include the Burer, a dwarf-like monster wearing a hooded cloak, with telekinetic powers; and the Chimera, a Cerberus-like cat with deadly strength.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: Several factions reside in the Zone: Loners, Bandits, Mercenaries, Scientists, Zombified Stalkers, Military, Monolith, Duty, and Freedom, the two latter ones being ideologically motivated; control and anarchy, respectively. Despite the Yanov station cease-fire, fights will occasionally break out outside designated Safe Zones. At some certain spots of Zaton and Jupiter groups of Mercenaries, both neutral and hostile to the player, appear. The player's relations to the factions are commonly neutral. However, Zombified Stalkers and Monoliths are hostile towards all characters.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: Each day at random times in the game, "emissions" will occur: The ground will shake, an indication of the Noosphere's damaged structure is unable to hold back any longer and is about to eject lethal amounts of cascading psychic energy. The player will be warned two minutes in advance of an upcoming blowout, and must find a predesignated shelter so as not to be exposed to the psychic fallout. The sky will turn red as the blowout passes through the player's region, killing everything outside of a shelter. The player can, however, survive outside of a shelter during a blowout if he consumes special drugs that temporarily shut down his nervous system, which will cause the player to be immune to the psychic activity, thereby passing out and waking up after the blowout. Blowouts can cause new artifacts to be spawned in the anomaly fields.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: Artifacts are found in or around anomalies. Players have to use special detectors to bring artifacts into the visible spectrum, as they are naturally invisible. Every time an Emission occurs, each anomaly field has a chance of creating a new artifact within its wake. These artifacts can be sold, be put into artifact slots that are incorporated into suits that the player can wear and are occasionally given as rewards for services rendered. Primarily, artifacts serve as a means to enhance the player's abilities, dependent on which artifact the player has put into his artifact slot. Most are modular and can be used in conjunction with other artifacts, or multiple artifacts of the same kind can be used to multiply their effects. Most of these artifacts emit harmful radiation, limiting their usage to short periods of time. Radiation-reducing artifacts can be used to counter this effect.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: In the free play mode, the player may traverse the zone and finish all of the missions that were not finished. The player is also able to obtain hidden artifacts and unlock achievements.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: The game takes place soon after the events of "". After Strelok disables the Brain Scorcher, multitudes of stalkers rush to the centre of the Zone, hoping to find rare artifacts and other rumoured treasures. The government of Ukraine takes advantage of this gold-rush and launches "Operation Fairway," a large scale helicopter special recon mission intended to scout the area by air in preparation for a full-scale military assault on the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. Despite thorough preparations, the mission goes horribly wrong, and all five STINGRAY helicopters crash. The player, Major Alexander Degtyarev, an experienced stalker and SBU agent, is sent into the Zone to investigate the crash sites on behalf of the Army.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: During the course of his investigation, Degtyarev learns that the helicopters were disabled in the air by powerful shocks of electricity. He also confirms via a helicopter black box that the military survivors have gone to an evacuation point somewhere in Pripyat. However, the city is sealed off due to The Zone's environment. The Major eventually finds an underground passageway to Pripyat and gathers a small team of stalkers to help him traverse this tunnel. After fighting through mutants and the mysterious Monolith faction, they reach the abandoned city and link up with the military survivors from the helicopter crashes.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: The player eventually meets the protagonist of "Shadow of Chernobyl", Strelok, and learns of the secrets behind the Zone, including how anomalies change position during and after each emission – explaining why the helicopters crashed in the first place.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: The game concludes with the survivors, Strelok, and the player evacuating the Zone while being attacked by hordes of enemies. Before boarding the rescue helicopters, the player is given the choice to leave the Zone forever or stay. If the player decides not to leave the Zone, then the game enters into free-play mode. During free-play mode, the player can freely explore areas and finish side-missions, while given the option to leave at any time through NPCs.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: The game's ending differs depending on the actions of the player during the game. How the player handles in-game missions, and whether certain NPCs are alive or not by the end of the game directly affect the ending sequence. Despite different endings, one thing that remains the same is the belief that the Zone is expanding, and might actually encompass Russia and the rest of Europe.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: "Call of Pripyat" utilizes the X-Ray Engine 1.6, allowing advanced modern graphical features through the use of DirectX 11 to be fully integrated; one outstanding feature being the inclusion of real-time GPU tessellation. Regions and maps feature photo realistic scenes of the region it is made to represent. There is also extensive support for older versions of DirectX, meaning that "Call of Pripyat" is also compatible with DirectX 9 through 11. The game is AMD Eyefinity validated.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: The game has a Limited Special Edition, released only in Germany, that features an A3-sized map of the Zone, 2 faction patches, a stalker bandanna and a "stalker" lighter, as well as the metal case in which the game is included. Also another Special Edition, released in the rest of Europe, that includes Art Cards, an A2-sized map of the Zone and the Soundtrack CD, was released. In North American territories, a Collector's Edition has been released, containing a smaller version of the Zone's map, a tech-tree poster and stickers. "Call of Pripyat i"s also available through multiple digital distribution outlets.


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: "Call of Pripyat" received "favorable" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. The game was lauded for its well optimized engine with relatively few bugs and glitches, for example, GameSpot said, "The most stable "S.T.A.L.K.E.R." game yet also happens to be the most atmospheric and compelling." Other reviews by websites previously opposed to new titles in the series have also given "Call of Pripyat" positive reviews. While Eurogamer rated the "S.T.A.L.K.E.R." franchise's previous installment ("Clear Sky") to be a significant disappointment, they gave more positive feedback in their review of the recent addition, saying "Only the slight sensation of datedness prevents this from scoring higher, and no doubt once the mods start flowing the value for money will get even better. But there's plenty here to keep the faithful feeling extremely optimistic about the prospect of a proper sequel. And there's still nothing out there quite like "STALKER"."


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: Though the reviews of the game's artificial intelligence system were positive, GameSpot did note that the combat AI at times seemed unfairly good, and that "Human enemies facing away from you have the uncanny ability to notice when you peek out a window behind them and are remarkably good shots in the dead of night, even without night vision scopes equipped." However, "[D]espite a bit of cheating, "Call of Pripyat" rarely feels unfair."


title: S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat

text: "Call of Pripyat" was entered in "PC Gamer"s Top 100 PC games of all time in 2011, ranked in 38th place.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: The Nixon White House tapes are audio recordings of conversations between U.S. President Richard Nixon and Nixon administration officials, Nixon family members, and White House staff, produced between 1971 and 1973.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: In February 1971, a sound-activated taping system was installed in the Oval Office, including in Nixon's Wilson desk, using Sony TC-800B open-reel tape recorders to capture audio transmitted by telephone taps and concealed microphones. The system was expanded to include other rooms within the White House and Camp David. The system was turned off on July 18, 1973, two days after it became public knowledge as a result of the U.S. Senate Watergate Committee hearings. Nixon was not the first president to record his White House conversations; President Franklin D. Roosevelt recorded Oval Office press conferences for a short period in 1940.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: The tapes' existence came to light during the Watergate scandal of 1973 and 1974, when the system was mentioned during the televised testimony of White House aide Alexander Butterfield before the U.S. Senate Watergate Committee. Nixon's refusal of a congressional subpoena to release the tapes was the basis for an article of impeachment against Nixon, and led to his subsequent resignation on August 9, 1974.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: On August 19, 2013, the Nixon Library and the National Archives and Records Administration released the final 340 hours of the tapes that cover the period from April 9 through July 12, 1973.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: Just prior to assuming office in January 1969, President Nixon learned that his predecessor, Lyndon B. Johnson, had installed a system to record his meetings and telephone calls. According to his Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman, Nixon ordered the system removed, but during the first two years of his presidency he came to the conclusion (after trying other means) that audio recordings were the only way to ensure a full and faithful account of conversations and decisions. At Nixon's request, Haldeman and his staff—including Deputy Assistant Alexander Butterfield—worked with the United States Secret Service to install a recording system.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: On February 16, 1971, a taping system was installed in two rooms in the White House, the Oval Office and the Cabinet Room. Three months later, microphones were added to President Nixon's private office in the Old Executive Office Building and the following year microphones were installed in the presidential lodge at Camp David. The system was installed and monitored by the Secret Service, and the tapes were stored in a room in the White House basement. Significant phone lines were tapped as well, including those in the Oval Office, Old Executive Office Building and the Lincoln Sitting Room, which was Nixon's favorite room in the White House. Telephone conversations were recorded by tapping the telephone lines from the White House switchboard and relaying the conversations to recorders in a closet in the basement of the residence. All audio equipment was sound-activated, except in the Cabinet Room. All locations in the White House were activated by the Executive Protective Service's "First Family Locator" system: when an officer notified the system that the president was in the Oval Office, the taping machinery switched on, ready to record when triggered by sound.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: By design, only very few individuals (apart from Nixon and Haldeman) knew of the existence of the taping system: Butterfield, Haldeman's assistant Lawrence Higby, and the Secret Service technicians who had installed it. The recordings were produced on as many as nine Sony TC-800B machines using very thin 0.5 mil (12.7 µm) tape at the slow speed of 15/16 inches (23 mm) per second.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: The tapes contain more than 3,000 hours of conversation. Hundreds of hours are of discussions on foreign policy, including planning for the 1972 Nixon visit to China and subsequent visit to the Soviet Union. Only 200 of the 3,500 hours contain references to Watergate and less than 5% of the recorded material has been transcribed or published.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: The existence of the White House taping system was first confirmed by Senate Committee staff member Donald Sanders, on July 13, 1973, in an interview with White House aide Alexander Butterfield. Three days later, it was made public during the televised testimony of Butterfield, when he was asked about the possibility of a White House taping system by Senate Counsel Fred Thompson.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: On July 16, 1973, Butterfield told the committee in a televised hearing that Nixon had ordered a taping system installed in the White House to automatically record all conversations. Special Counsel Archibald Cox, a former United States Solicitor General under President John F. Kennedy, asked District Court Judge John Sirica to subpoena nine relevant tapes to confirm the testimony of White House Counsel John Dean.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: President Nixon initially refused to release the tapes, putting two reasons forward: first, that the Constitutional principle of executive privilege extends to the tapes and citing the separation of powers and checks and balances within the Constitution, and second, claiming they were vital to national security. On October 19, 1973, he offered a compromise; Nixon proposed that Democratic U.S. Senator John C. Stennis review and summarize the tapes for accuracy and report his findings to the special prosecutor's office. Special prosecutor Archibald Cox refused the compromise and on Saturday, October 20, 1973, Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire Cox. Richardson refused and resigned instead, then Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus was asked to fire Cox but refused and was subsequently fired. Solicitor General and acting head of the Justice Department Robert Bork fired Cox. Nixon appointed Leon Jaworski special counsel on November 1, 1973.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: According to President Nixon's secretary Rose Mary Woods, on September 29, 1973, she was reviewing a tape of the June 20, 1972 recordings, when she made "a terrible mistake" during transcription. While playing the tape on a Uher 5000, she answered a phone call. Reaching for the Uher 5000 stop button, she said that she mistakenly hit the button next to it, the record button. For the duration of the phone call, about five minutes, she kept her foot on the device's pedal, causing a five-minute portion of the tape to be rerecorded. When she listened to the tape, the gap had grown to minutes. She later insisted that she was not responsible for the remaining 13 minutes of buzz.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: The contents missing from the recording remain unknown, though the gap occurs during a conversation between Nixon and H. R. Haldeman three days after the Watergate break-in. Nixon claimed not to know the topics discussed during the gap. Haldeman's notes from the meeting show that among the topics of discussion were the arrests at the Watergate Hotel. White House lawyers first heard of the gap on the evening of November 14, 1973, and Judge Sirica, who had issued the subpoenas for the tapes, was not told until November 21, after the president's attorneys had decided that there was "no innocent explanation" they could offer.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: Woods was asked to demonstrate the position in which she was sitting when the accident occurred. Seated at a desk, she reached far back over her left shoulder for a telephone as her foot applied pressure to the pedal controlling the transcription machine. Her posture during the demonstration, dubbed the "Rose Mary Stretch", caused many political commentators to question the validity of the explanation.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: In a grand-jury interview in 1975, Nixon said that he initially believed that only four minutes of the tape were missing. He said that when he later heard that 18 minutes were missing, "I practically blew my stack."


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: In his 2014 book "The Nixon Defense", Nixon's counsel John Dean suggests that the full collection of recordings now available "largely answer the questions regarding what was known by the White House about the reasons for the break-in and bugging at the Democratic National Committee headquarters, as well as what was erased during the infamous 18 minute and 30 second gap during the June 20, 1972, conversation and why."


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: A variety of suggestions have been made as to who could have erased the tape. Years later, White House Chief of Staff Alexander Haig speculated that the erasures may conceivably have been caused by Nixon himself. According to Haig, the president was "spectacularly inept" at understanding and operating mechanical devices, and in the course of reviewing the tape in question, he may have caused the erasures by fumbling with the recorder's controls, though Haig could not say whether the erasures had occurred inadvertently or intentionally. In 1973, Haig had speculated aloud that the erasure was caused by an unidentified "sinister force." Others have suggested that Haig was involved in deliberately erasing the tapes with Nixon's involvement, or that the erasure was conducted by a White House lawyer.<ref name="Cracking Watergate's Infamous 18 1/2 Minute Gap"></ref>


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: Nixon himself launched the first investigation into how the tapes were erased. He claimed that it was an intensive investigation but came up empty.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: On November 21, 1973, Sirica appointed a panel of persons nominated jointly by the White House and the Special Prosecution Force. The panel was supplied with the evidence tape, the seven tape recorders from the Oval Office and Executive Office Building and the two Uher 5000 recorders. One recorder, labeled as Exhibit 60, was marked "Secret Service" and the other, Exhibit 60B, was accompanied by a foot pedal. The panel determined that the buzz was of no consequence and that the gap was the result of an erasure performed on the Exhibit 60 recorder. The panel also determined that the recording consisted of at least five separate segments, possibly as many as nine, and that at least five segments required hand operation; that is, they could not have been performed using the foot pedal. The panel was subsequently asked by the court to consider alternative explanations that had emerged during the hearings. The final report, dated May 31, 1974, found that these other explanations did not contradict the original findings.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: The National Archives and Records Administration owns the tape and has tried several times to recover the missing minutes, most recently in 2003, but without success. The tapes are now preserved in a climate-controlled vault in case future technology allows for restoration of the missing audio. Corporate security expert Phil Mellinger undertook a project to restore Haldeman's handwritten notes describing the missing minutes, but that effort also failed to produce any new information.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: On April 11, 1974, the U.S. House Committee on the Judiciary subpoenaed the tapes of 42 White House conversations. Later that month, Nixon released more than 1,200 pages of edited transcripts of the subpoenaed tapes, but refused to surrender the actual tapes, claiming executive privilege once more. The Judiciary Committee rejected Nixon's edited transcripts, saying that they did not comply with the subpoena.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: Sirica, acting on a request from Jaworski, issued a subpoena for the tapes of 64 presidential conversations to use as evidence in the criminal cases against indicted former Nixon administration officials. Nixon refused, and Jaworski appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court to force Nixon to turn over the tapes. On July 24, 1974, the Supreme Court ordered Nixon to release the tapes. The 8–0 ruling (Justice William Rehnquist recused himself because he had worked for attorney general John N. Mitchell) in "United States v. Nixon" found that President Nixon was wrong in arguing that courts are compelled to honor, without question, any presidential claim of executive privilege.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: The White House released the subpoenaed tapes on August 5. One tape, later known as the "Smoking Gun" tape, documented the initial stages of the Watergate coverup. On it, Nixon and H. R. Haldeman are heard formulating a plan to block investigations by having the CIA falsely claim to the FBI that national security was involved. This demonstrated both that Nixon had been told of the White House connection to the Watergate burglaries soon after they took place, and that he had approved plans to thwart the investigation. In a statement accompanying the release of the tape, Nixon accepted blame for misleading the country about when he had been told of White House involvement, stating that he had a lapse of memory.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: Once the "Smoking Gun" transcript was made public, Nixon's political support practically vanished. The ten Republicans on the House Judiciary Committee who had voted against impeachment in committee announced that they would now vote for impeachment once the matter reached the House floor. He lacked substantial support in the Senate as well; Barry Goldwater and Hugh Scott estimated that no more than 15 senators were willing to even consider acquittal. Facing certain impeachment in the House of Representatives and equally certain conviction in the Senate, Nixon announced his resignation on the evening of Thursday, August 8, 1974, effective as of noon the next day.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: After Nixon's resignation, the federal government took control of all of his presidential records, including the tapes, under the Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act of 1974. From the time that the federal government seized his records until his death, Nixon was locked in frequent legal battles over control of the tapes. He argued that the 1974 act was unconstitutional because it violated the constitutional principles of separation of powers and executive privilege and infringed on his personal privacy rights and the First Amendment right of association.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: The legal disputes would continue for 25 years, past Nixon's death in 1994. He initially lost several cases, but the courts ruled in 1998 that some 820 hours and 42 million pages of documents were his personal private property that must be returned to his estate. However, as Nixon had been dead for four years at the time of the court ruling, it may have been a moot development after years of legal battles over the tapes.


title: Nixon White House tapes

text: On July 11, 2007, the National Archives was granted official control of the previously privately operated Richard Nixon Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California. The facility now houses the tapes and periodically releases additional tapes to the public that are available online and in the public domain.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: Res ipsa loquitur (Latin: ""the thing speaks for itself"") is a doctrine in the common law and Roman-Dutch law jurisdictions under which a court can infer negligence from the very nature of an accident or injury in the absence of direct evidence on how any defendant behaved in the context of tort litigation. Although specific criteria differ by jurisdiction, an action typically must satisfy the following elements of negligence: the existence of a duty of care, breach of appropriate standard of care, causation, and injury. In "res ipsa loquitur", the existence of the first three elements is inferred from the existence of injury that does not ordinarily occur without negligence.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: The term comes from Latin and is literally translated "the thing itself speaks", but the sense is well conveyed in the more common translation, "the thing speaks for itself". The earliest known use of the phrase was by Cicero in his defence speech "Pro Milone". The circumstances of the genesis of the phrase and application by Cicero in Roman legal trials has led to questions whether it reflects on the quality of "res ipsa loquitur" as a legal doctrine subsequent to 52 BC, some 1915 years before the English case "Byrne v Boadle" and the question whether Charles Edward Pollock might have taken direct inspiration from Cicero's application of the maxim in writing his judgment in that case.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: The second element is discussed further in the section below. The third element requires the absence of contributory negligence from the plaintiff. The fourth element emphasizes that defendant may defeat a "res ipsa loquitur" claim by producing evidence of a non-negligent scenario that would completely explain plaintiff's injury and negate all possible inferences that negligence could have occurred.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: The common law traditionally required "the instrumentality or agent which caused the accident was under the exclusive control of the defendant". See e.g., "Eaton v. Eaton", 575 A2d 858 (NJ 1990). However, in the United States the second and the third versions of the Restatement of Torts eliminated the strict requirement because it can be difficult to prove "exclusive control". Accordingly, the element has largely given way in modern American cases to a less rigid formulation: the evidence must eliminate, to a sufficient degree, other responsible causes (including the conduct of the plaintiff and third parties). For example, in New York State, the defendant's exclusivity of control must be such that the likelihood of injury was more likely than not, the result of the defendant's negligence. The likelihood of other possibilities does not need to be eliminated altogether but must be so reduced that the greater probability lies with the defendant.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: In some cases, a closed group of people may be held in breach of a duty of care under the rule of "res ipsa loquitur". In "Ybarra v. Spangard", a patient undergoing surgery experienced back complications as a result of the surgery, but it could not be determined the specific member of the surgical team who had breached the duty so it was held that they had all breached, as it was certain that at least one of them was the only person who was in exclusive control of the instrumentality of harm.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: In jurisdictions that employ this less rigid formulation of exclusive control, the element subsumes the element that the plaintiff did not contribute to his injury. In modern case law, contributory negligence is compared to the injury caused by the other. For example, if the negligence of the other is 95% of the cause of the plaintiff's injury, and the plaintiff is 5% responsible, the plaintiff's slight fault cannot negate the negligence of the other. The new type of split liability is commonly called "comparative negligence".


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: "Res ipsa loquitur" often arises in the "scalpel left behind" variety of case. For example, a person goes to a doctor with abdominal pains after having his appendix removed. X-rays show the patient has a metal object the size and shape of a scalpel in his abdomen. It requires no further explanation to show the surgeon who removed the appendix was negligent, as there is no legitimate reason for a doctor to leave a scalpel in a body at the end of an appendectomy.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: In Canada the doctrine of "res ipsa loquitur" has been largely overturned by the Supreme Court. In case of "Fontaine v. British Columbia (Official Administrator)" the Court rejected the use of "res ipsa loquitur" and instead proposed the rule that once the plaintiff has proven that the harm was under exclusive control of the defendant and that they were not contributorily negligent a tactical burden is placed on the defendant in which the judge has the discretion to infer negligence unless the defendant can produce evidence to the contrary.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: Some lawyers prefer to avoid the expression "res ipsa loquitur" (for example, Hobhouse LJ in "Radcliff v. Plymouth"). But other lawyers (and judges too) still find the expression a convenient one (for example, see the judgement of Mr Justice Bokhary, a Permanent Judge of the Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong, in "Sanfield Building Contractors Ltd v. Li Kai Cheong").


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: The expression "res ipsa loquitur" is not a doctrine but a "mode of inferential reasoning" and applies only to accidents of "unknown cause". "Res ipsa loquitur" comes into play where an accident of unknown cause is one that would not normally happen without negligence on the part of the defendant in control of the object or activity which injured the plaintiff or damaged his property. In such a situation the court is able to infer negligence on the defendant's part unless he offers an acceptable explanation consistent with his having taken reasonable care.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: The Irish courts have applied the doctrine. In "Hanrahan v. Merck, Sharp & Dohme (Ireland) Ltd." [1988] ILRM 629 the supreme court held that in cases of nuisance the burden of proof could be shifted to the defendant where it would be palpably unfair for the plaintiff to have to prove something beyond their reach. The facts concerned poisoning of farm animals downwind of a chemical plant.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: In "Rothwell v. The Motor Insurers Bureau of Ireland" [2003] 1 IR 268 the supreme court held the burden of proof would shift when the knowledge is exclusive to the defendant, but also where it is "especially within the range" of the defendant's capacity to probe the facts.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: In South African law (which is modelled on Roman Dutch law), there is no doctrine of "res ipsa loquitur", although the phrase is used regularly to mean the "facts speak for themselves". "Res ipsa loquitur" does not shift any burden of proof or onus from one party to the other. The phrase is merely a handy phrase used by lawyers.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: In English tort law, the effect of "res ipsa loquitur" is a strong inference in favour of the claimant that negligence has taken place. It does not however fully reverse the burden of proof ("Ng Chun Pui v. Li Chuen Tat", 1988).


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: The requirement of control is important in English law. This requirement was not satisfied in "Easson v. LNE Ry" [1944] 2 KB 421, where a small child fell off a train several miles after it had left the station. It was considered that the door of the train was not sufficiently under control of the railway company after the train started moving and could have been opened by somebody for whom the company was not responsible. This case was distinguished from the earlier "Gee v. Metropolitan Ry" where the plaintiff fell from the train immediately after it left the station, when the door through which he fell could still be considered to be fully controlled by the railway company.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: The requirement that the exact cause of the accident must be unknown is illustrated by the case of "Barkway v. South Wales Transport". In this case a bus veered across the road and it was known that the accident was caused by a flat tyre. In this case, the plaintiff could not be assisted by "res ipsa loquitur" and had to go on to prove that the flat tyre was caused by the transport company's negligence.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: The doctrine exists in the Scots law of "delict". The leading case is that of "Scott v London & Catherine Dock Co". This case laid down 3 requirements for the doctrine to apply:


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: In "Scott", the court held that sacks of sugar do not fall out of warehouses and crush passers-by without somebody having been negligent along the way, so the plaintiff did need not to show how it happened.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: Recent examples in Scotland are "McDyer v Celtic Football Club" and "McQueen v The Glasgow Garden Festival 1988 Ltd".


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: Most American courts recognize "res ipsa loquitur". The Restatement (Second) of Torts, § 328D describes a two-step process for establishing "res ipsa loquitur". The first step is whether the accident is the kind usually caused by negligence, and the second is whether or not the defendant had exclusive control over the instrumentality that caused the accident. If found, "res ipsa loquitur" creates an inference of negligence, although in most cases it does not necessarily result in a directed verdict. The Restatement (Third) of Torts, § 17, adopts a similar test, although it eschews the exclusive control element.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: The doctrine was not initially welcome in medical malpractice cases. In "Gray v. Wright", a seven-inch hemostat was left in Mrs. Gray during gallbladder surgery in June 1947, and despite her chronic complaints about stomach pain over the years, the device was not found until an X-ray in March 1953, when it was removed. Her $12,000 award was reversed by the Supreme Court of West Virginia because she was outside the statute of limitations when she filed and could not prove that the doctor concealed knowledge of his error. This "guilty knowledge" requirement disappeared over the years, and the "discovery rule" by which statutes of limitation run from the date of discovery of the wrongdoing rather than the date of the occurrence has become the rule in most states.


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: Forty years later, leaving a medical device in a patient was medical malpractice, provable without expert testimony, in almost every jurisdiction. Virginia has limited the rule. The Virginia Supreme Court stated in 1996: "Almost 60 years ago, this Court, discussing res ipsa loquitur, said: 'In Virginia the doctrine, if not entirely abolished, has been limited and restricted to a very material extent.' "City of Richmond v. Hood Rubber Products Co.", 168 Va. 11, 17, 190 S.E. 95, 98 (1937). ... It may be utilized only when the circumstances of the incident, without further proof, are such that, in the ordinary course of events, the incident could not have happened except on the theory of negligence."


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: A contention of "res ipsa loquitur" commonly is made in cases of commercial airplane accidents. It was part of the commentary in a train collision in California in 2008: "If two trains are in the same place at the same time, someone was negligent."


title: Res ipsa loquitur

text: In some states, the doctrine of "res ipsa loquitur" is also used as a method of proving the intent or "mens rea" element of the inchoate crime of attempt. Under the Model Penal Code, "the behavior in question is thought to corroborate the defendant's criminal purpose", for example:


title: Pulitzer Prize for Drama

text: The Pulitzer Prize for Drama is one of the seven American Pulitzer Prizes that are annually awarded for Letters, Drama, and Music. It is one of the original Pulitzers, for the program was inaugurated in 1917 with seven prizes, four of which were awarded that year. (No Drama prize was given, however, so that one was inaugurated in 1918, in a sense.) It recognizes a theatrical work staged in the U.S. during the preceding calendar year.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Drama

text: Until 2007, eligibility for the Drama Prize ran from March 1 to March 2 to reflect the Broadway "season" rather than the calendar year that governed most other Pulitzer Prizes.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Drama

text: The drama jury, which consists of one academic and four critics, attends plays in New York and in regional theaters. The Pulitzer board can overrule the jury's choice; in 1986, the board's opposition to the jury's choice of "" resulted in no award being given.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Drama

text: The 1951 prize was to go to Frank Loesser, Jo Swerling and Abe Burrows' musical "Guys and Dolls", but was vetoed by the Trustees of Columbia University due to Burrows' communist sympathies, and no award was given. In 1955 Joseph Pulitzer, Jr. pressured the prize jury into presenting the Prize to "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof", which the jury considered the weakest of the five shortlisted nominees ("amateurishly constructed... from the stylistic points of view annoyingly pretentious"), instead of Clifford Odets' "The Flowering Peach" (their preferred choice) or "The Bad Seed", their second choice. Edward Albee's "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?" was selected for the 1963 Pulitzer Prize for Drama by that award's committee. However, the committee's selection was overruled by the award's advisory board, the trustees of Columbia University, because of the play's then-controversial use of profanity and sexual themes. Had Albee been awarded, he would be tied with Eugene O'Neill for the most Pulitzer Prizes for Drama (four).


title: Pulitzer Prize for Drama

text: In its first 106 years to 2022, the Drama Pulitzer was awarded 91 times; none were given in 15 years and it was never split.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Drama

text: The most recipients of the prize in one year was five, when Michael Bennett, James Kirkwood, Jr., Nicholas Dante, Marvin Hamlisch, and Edward Kleban shared the 1976 prize for the musical "A Chorus Line".


title: Pulitzer Prize for Drama

text: Ten musicals have won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama, roughly one per decade from the 1930s to the 2020s¹. They are: George and Ira Gershwin's "Of Thee I Sing" (1932), Rodgers and Hammerstein's "South Pacific" (1950), Bock & Harnick's "Fiorello!" (1960), Frank Loesser's "How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying" (1962), Marvin Hamlisch, Edward Kleban, James Kirkwood, Jr., and Nicholas Dante's "A Chorus Line" (1976), Stephen Sondheim's and James Lapine's "Sunday in the Park with George" (1985), Jonathan Larson's "Rent" (1996), Brian Yorkey and Tom Kitt's "Next to Normal" (2010), Lin-Manuel Miranda's "Hamilton" (2016), and Michael R. Jackson's "A Strange Loop" (2020). Though it did not win for Drama, "Oklahoma!" was awarded a special Pulitzer Prize in 1944.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Drama

text: Of note, "South Pacific" won the 1950 Pulitzer for Drama but its source material, James Michener's Tales of the South Pacific, also won the 1948 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Drama

text: "Sunday in the Park with George" and "Next to Normal" are the only musicals that won the Pulitzer Prize and did not also win the Tony Award for Best Musical; the latter won the authors Tonys for Best Original Score and Best Orchestrations. "Of Thee I Sing" opened before the Tony Awards existed.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Drama

text: The award goes to the playwright, although production of the play is also taken into account. In the case of a musical being awarded the prize, the composer, lyricist and book writer are generally the recipients. An exception to this was the first Pulitzer ever awarded to a musical: when "Of Thee I Sing" won in 1932, book authors George S. Kaufman and Morrie Ryskind, as well as lyricist Ira Gershwin, were cited as the winners, while composer George Gershwin's contribution was overlooked by the committee. The reason given was that the Pulitzer Prize for Drama is a "dramatic" award, and not a "musical" one. However, by 1950 the Pulitzer committee included composer Richard Rodgers as a recipient when "South Pacific" won the award, in recognition of music as an integral and important part of the theatrical experience.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Drama

text: Additionally, since 1983, when the identity of finalists was first disclosed, five musicals have been finalists for the Pulitzer Prize for Drama. They are: Lee Breuer and Bob Telson's "The Gospel at Colonus" (1985); Lin-Manuel Miranda and Quiara Alegría Hudes' "In the Heights" (2009); Jeanine Tesori and Lisa Kron's "Fun Home" (2014); Taylor Mac's "A 24-Decade History of Popular Music" (2017); and David Henry Hwang and Jeanine Tesori's "Soft Power" (2020).


title: Pulitzer Prize for Drama

text: Lynn Nottage is the only female playwright to win the prize twice. She and August Wilson are the only playwrights of color to accomplish this feat.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Drama

text: Jon Robin Baitz, Gina Gionfriddo, John Guare, A.R. Gurney, Richard Greenberg, Tina Howe, Branden Jacobs-Jenkins, Stephen Karam, Sarah Ruhl and Jeanine Tesori have each been named finalists twice without winning. David Henry Hwang is the only person to have been named a finalist thrice without winning. Lin-Manuel Miranda and Jeanine Tesori are the only people to be named as a finalist twice for writing and composing a musical, with Miranda winning in 2016.


title: English Standard Version

text: The English Standard Version (ESV) is an English translation of the Bible. The ESV was published in 2001 by Crossway, having been "created by a team of more than 100 leading evangelical scholars and pastors." The ESV relies on recently published critical editions of the original Hebrew and Greek texts.


title: English Standard Version

text: Crossway claims that the ESV continues a legacy of precision and faithfulness in English translation of the original text. It describes the ESV as a translation that "emphasizes 'word-for-word' accuracy, literary excellence, and depth of meaning." It also describes the ESV as a translation that adheres to an "essentially literal" translation philosophy, taking into account "differences in grammar, syntax, and idiom between current literary English and the original languages."


title: English Standard Version

text: Since publication, the ESV has been endorsed by numerous evangelical pastors and theologians, including John Piper, R. C. Sproul, and Kevin DeYoung. As of July 2015, over 100 million printed copies of the translation had been distributed. By 2021, this figure had increased to 250 million.


title: English Standard Version

text: During the early 1990s, Crossway president Lane T. Dennis engaged in discussions with various Christian scholars and pastors regarding the need for a new literal translation of the Bible. In 1997, Dennis contacted the National Council of Churches (NCC) and proceeded to enter negotiations, alongside Trinity Evangelical Divinity School professor Wayne Grudem, to obtain rights to use the 1971 text edition of the Revised Standard Version (RSV) as the starting point for a new translation. In September 1998, an agreement was reached with the NCC for Crossway to use and modify the 1971 RSV text, thereby enabling the creation of a new translation. Crossway moved forward from this position by forming a translation committee and initiating work on the English Standard Version. Crossway officially published the ESV in 2001.


title: English Standard Version

text: In 1999, "World" reported of "feminists" noticing links between Crossway and the Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood (CBMW). CBMW had been involved in criticizing plans that were made by Zondervan's Committee on Bible Translation to include gender-neutral language in the New International Version. Grudem, who was president of CBMW at the time, responded by stating, "This [the ESV translation] is not a CBMW project."


title: English Standard Version

text: Chaired by Dennis and aided by over fifty biblical experts working as review scholars, the original ESV translation committee—consisting of fourteen members—features the following notable individuals:


title: English Standard Version

text: In 2008, Crossway published the "ESV Study Bible", which would go on to sell over 1 million copies. In 2009, the Evangelical Christian Publishers Association named the "ESV Study Bible" as Christian Book of the Year. This was the first time in the award's 30-year history to be given to a study Bible.


title: English Standard Version

text: At the 2008 annual meeting of the Evangelical Theological Society, Mark L. Strauss presented a paper titled "Why the English Standard Version should not become the Standard English Version: How to make a good translation much better." In the paper, Strauss criticizes the ESV for using dated language, among other perceived issues, such as using gender-neutral language inconsistently in translation. Regarding scholarly debate surrounding translation philosophy, ESV translator William D. Mounce responded to Strauss's criticism:


title: English Standard Version

text: Strauss invited Mounce to publicly engage in the translation philosophy debate through participation at the following annual meeting. In 2009, Mounce presented his response paper, titled "Can the ESV and TNIV Co-Exist in the Same Universe?" In the paper, Mounce describes various points regarding his view of the need for both formal and functional translations.


title: English Standard Version

text: In 2019, University of Oklahoma Sociology Associate Professor Samuel L. Perry published a journal article titled "The Bible as a Product of Cultural Power: The Case of Gender Ideology in the English Standard Version." In the paper, Perry attempts to demonstrate "how a more critical approach toward 'the Bible' can provide richer, more sophisticated sociological analyses of power and cultural reproduction within Christian traditions." Perry argues that Crossway's ESV translation committee made "intentional, systematic changes" into the ESV for the purpose of being able to "publish and mass-market a text more amenable to conservative, complementarian interpretations." Perry further argues that the ESV translation committee "have engaged in more covert means of cultural reproduction, not only disseminating "their interpretation" of the biblical text, but manipulating the "text itself"." The "ESV Study Bible" often details in its study notes why a complementarian interpretation of the original text may have been rendered in translation.


title: English Standard Version

text: In 2020, the Ireland-based Association of Catholic Priests criticized the ESV for its position on the use of gender-neutral language, perceiving the use of terms such as "mankind" and "brothers" to be "not just out of sync with modern usage but are culturally regarded as diminishing and disrespectful of women."


title: English Standard Version

text: In June 2021, Samuel L. Perry published a journal article titled "Whitewashing Evangelical Scripture: The Case of Slavery and Antisemitism in the English Standard Version." In the paper, Perry attempts to demonstrate how "the ESV editors, while modifying certain RSV renderings to establish transitivity for their text among complementarian/biblicist Christians, sought to establish intransitivity between the text and more pejorative social interpretations by progressively re-translating lexically ambiguous terms and introducing footnotes to obviate the Bible’s ostensible promotion of slavery and antisemitism." In turn, Perry was interviewed by "Salon" regarding the content of the paper. In July 2021, "Bible Study Magazine" editor Mark Ward published an article to his personal blog in response:


title: English Standard Version

text: The ESV is derived from the 1971 text edition of the Revised Standard Version. ESV translation committee member Wayne Grudem claims that approximately eight percent (or about 60,000 words) of the 1971 RSV text being used for the ESV was revised as of first publication in 2001. Grudem states that the committee removed "every trace of liberal influence that had caused such criticism from evangelicals when the RSV was first published in 1952." Although, Grudem also states that much of the 1971 RSV text left unchanged by the committee "is simply 'the best of the best' of the KJV tradition."


title: English Standard Version

text: Crossway claims that the ESV "retains theological terminology—words such as grace, faith, justification, sanctification, redemption, regeneration, reconciliation, propitiation—because of their central importance for Christian doctrine and also because the underlying Greek words were already becoming key words and technical terms among Christians in New Testament times." It also claims that the ESV lets the distinct writing styles of the various biblical writers come through the translated text.


title: English Standard Version

text: The ESV translation committee states that "the goal of the ESV is to render literally what is in the original." The committee expands on this position in claiming that, although the ESV avoids using gender-neutral language (for the purpose of preserving contextual meaning found in the original text), the translation does utilize gender-neutral language in specific cases. The committee further state that their objective was "transparency to the original text, allowing the reader to understand the original on its own terms rather than in the terms of our present-day Western culture."


title: English Standard Version

text: Crossway published the first revision of the ESV text in 2007 as "ESV Text Edition: 2007." The revision makes minor changes to the 2001 text.


title: English Standard Version

text: In 2009, Oxford University Press published the "English Standard Version Bible with Apocrypha". This edition includes the Apocrypha, placed at the back of the Bible, intended for "denominations that use those books in liturgical readings and for students who need them for historical purposes."


title: English Standard Version

text: Crossway published the second revision of the ESV text in 2011 as "ESV Text Edition: 2011." The revision changes fewer than 500 words in total throughout 275 verses from the 2007 text. The changes were made in each case to "correct grammar, improve consistency, or increase precision in meaning." A notable revision was made in Isaiah 53:5, changing "wounded for our transgressions" to "pierced for our transgressions" in the revised text.


title: English Standard Version

text: In 2013, Gideons International permanently transitioned from the New King James Version to the ESV as their translation of choice for free of charge distribution Bibles. In addition to being granted licensing for the ESV text (for the purpose of distribution), Crossway gave Gideons International permission to modify the text to use alternative readings based on the Textus Receptus. The Gideons edition uses over 50 alternative readings.


title: English Standard Version

text: Crossway published the third revision of the ESV text in 2016 as the "ESV Permanent Text Edition (2016)." The revision changes 52 words in total throughout 29 verses from the 2011 text. A notable revision was made in Genesis 3:16 to use a complementarian interpretation of the original text: switching "shall be toward" with "shall be contrary to" in the revised text. The previous rendering can be found in the footnotes (excluding any editions that specifically do not have footnotes, such as the "ESV Reader's Bible"). The "ESV Study Bible" details in its study notes the revised interpretation in relation to a parallel understanding of 3:16 with both 4:7 (which shares the Hebrew word "teshuqah"; this verse having also been updated in the 2016 text) and Ephesians 5:21–32.


title: English Standard Version

text: Coinciding with the release of the revision, Crossway announced that "the text of the ESV Bible will remain unchanged in all future editions printed and published by Crossway." However, in a statement from Lane T. Dennis the following month, the new policy was abandoned "to allow for ongoing periodic updating of the text to reflect the realities of biblical scholarship such as textual discoveries or changes in English over time." In the statement, Dennis responded to public discourse surrounding the policy: "We have become convinced that this decision was a mistake. We apologize for this and for any concern this has caused for readers of the ESV." The revision was subsequently republished as "ESV Text Edition: 2016."


title: English Standard Version

text: In 2018, the Conference of Catholic Bishops of India published the "English Standard Version Catholic Edition" (ESV-CE), which includes the deuterocanonical books in Catholic canonical order. With permission from Crossway, a team of Catholic scholars reviewed the text of the ESV in light of the Vatican's translation principles as set forth in "Liturgiam authenticam", making approved modifications where needed to adhere to Catholic teaching.


title: English Standard Version

text: In 2019, the Augustine Institute published the ESV-CE in North America as the "Augustine Bible". In October 2021, following these developments, the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge published its own version of the ESV-CE, newly typeset and with anglicized spelling, in multiple formats.


title: English Standard Version

text: In 2019, Anglican Liturgy Press published the ESV: Anglican Edition. This edition includes the Apocrypha, placed at the back of the Bible. Having been approved by the ESV translation committee, the Apocrypha text found in this edition is a minor revision of the 2009 text published by Oxford University Press. A notable revision was made in retranslating the Book of Tobit.


title: English Standard Version

text: The ESV has been used as the Bible text for a number of study Bible editions, including but not limited to:


title: English Standard Version

text: In 2006, the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod released the "Lutheran Service Book" (LSB), which uses the ESV as its primary Bible text. With permission from Crossway, the LSB occasionally uses an alternative reading of the ESV in accordance with the ESV's translation principles.


title: English Standard Version

text: In April 2020, the Catholic Church in India started using a new English lectionary which uses the ESV-CE as its Bible text (excluding the book of Psalms, which uses the Grail Psalms translation instead).


title: English Standard Version

text: In July 2020, the Bishops' Conference of Scotland approved the preparation of a new lectionary based on the ESV-CE. The Catholic Bishops' Conference of England and Wales also approved their own lectionary to be based on the ESV-CE.


title: Clarivate

text: Clarivate Plc is a British-American publicly traded analytics company that operates a collection of subscription-based services, in the areas of bibliometrics and scientometrics; business / market intelligence, and competitive profiling for pharmacy and biotech, patents, and regulatory compliance; trademark protection, and domain and brand protection. In the academy and the scientific community, Clarivate is known for being the company which calculates the impact factor, using data from its Web of Science product family, that also includes services/applications such as Publons, EndNote, EndNote Click, and ScholarOne. Its other product families are Cortellis, DRG, CPA Global, Derwent, MarkMonitor, CompuMark, and Darts-ip, and also the various ProQuest products and services.


title: Clarivate

text: Clarivate was formed in 2016, following the acquisition of Thomson Reuters' Intellectual Property and Science Business by Onex Corporation and Baring Private Equity Asia. Clarivate has been growing fast by numerous acquisitions: in the 5 years since its incorporation Clarivate bought over a dozen companies in the information service industry (see below). Despite raising anti-monopoly concerns, in some cases Clarivate acquired companies that were direct competitors of each other. Perhaps the most notable example of this was the purchase of ProQuest for $5.3 billion in December 2021, that was a competitor of the Web of Science (owned by Clarivate since 2017).


title: Clarivate

text: Clarivate reported its gross profit margin as 64% (in 2019) and its EBIDTA profit margin as 45% (in 2021), which places it in the range of entertainment software and tobacco industries, and ahead of pharmaceutical, oil/gas and cell phone industries. Clarivate has been criticized for its anti-competitive practices in a highly oligopolistic academic database market, for increasing the prices of the products it acquired, for the lack of further development and integration of the acquired products, for not developing its own products, for outsourcing jobs from the USA and UK to India, and for eliminating telephone support for many of the acquired products.


title: Clarivate

text: Clarivate (formerly Clarivate Analytics) was formerly the Intellectual Property and Science division of Thomson Reuters. Before 2008, it was known as Thomson Scientific. In 2016, Thomson Reuters struck a $3.55 billion deal in which they spun it off as an independent company, and sold it to private-equity firms Onex Corporation and Baring Private Equity Asia.


title: Clarivate

text: In May 2019, Clarivate merged with the Churchill Capital Corp SPAC to obtain a public listing on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) It currently trades with symbol NYSE:CLVT.


title: Clarivate

text: After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, on March 11, 2022, Clarivate, that has an office in Odessa, Ukraine announced that it would cease all commercial activity in Russia.


title: Clarivate

text: On July 11, 2022, Clarivate announced that Jerre Stead would retire from his role as Executive Chair and Chief Executive Officer to become Non-Executive Chair of the Board of Directors on September 1, 2022. Jonathan Gear, previously Chief Financial Officer of IHS Markit, joined Clarivate on July 11, 2022, as CEO-elect, and became Chief Executive Officer on September 1, 2022.


title: Clarivate

text: On September 1, 2022, Clarivate announced that Jerre Stead will retire from the Board on October 20, 2022, at which date Andrew Snyder, CEO of Cambridge Information Group and Vice Chairman of Clarivate, becomes the new Chair effective from that date. The Board has appointed Mr. Stead as Chairman Emeritus upon his Board retirement.


title: Clarivate

text: Among other WoS databases are BIOSIS and The Zoological Record, an electronic index of zoological literature that also serves as the unofficial register of scientific names in zoology.


title: Clarivate

text: Web of Science includes other products providing data, analytics, insights, workflow tools, and professional services to researchers, universities, research institutions, governments, private and public research funding organizations, publishers, and research-intensive corporations.


title: Clarivate

text: As Clarivate acquired ProQuest, various products of ProQuest are being operated under Clarivate, which encompasses products that ProQuest had taken on relatively recently, through acquisitions of its own—notably those of Innovative Interfaces: Vega, Sierra, Polaris, Millennium, and Virtua.


title: Clarivate

text: Cortellis comprises life science-related intelligence services used to inform decision making across the drug and device development lifecycle, including:


title: Clarivate

text: Other database products and services used for searching and analyzing patents; IP administration and prosecution support services to support the IP lifecycle include:


title: Clarivate

text: Information services used by brand and trademark professionals to evaluate new potential trademarks and monitor existing trademarks for infringement, including:


title: Clarivate

text: Clarivate publishes an annual Highly Cited Researchers list. The list compiles "the world's most influential researchers of the past decade, demonstrated by the production of multiple highly-cited papers that rank in the top 1% by citations for field and year in Web of Science." According to Clarivate, researchers are selected for their "exceptional performance" in one or more of 21 fields (those used in Clarivate Essential Science Indicators, or ESI) or across several fields. The 2019 list of Highly Cited Researchers was released on November 19, 2019.


title: Clarivate

text: The annual Top 100 Global Innovators report identifies the world's most innovative organizations. These businesses have successfully developed valuable patented inventions that also have strong commercialization potential based on market reach and impact on other downstream inventions. The 2020 Top 100 Global Innovators Report was released on February 19, 2020.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: Metallic hydrogen is a phase of hydrogen in which it behaves like an electrical conductor. This phase was predicted in 1935 on theoretical grounds by Eugene Wigner and Hillard Bell Huntington.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: At high pressure and temperatures, metallic hydrogen can exist as a partial liquid rather than a solid, and researchers think it might be present in large quantities in the hot and gravitationally compressed interiors of Jupiter and Saturn, as well as in some exoplanets.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: Though often placed at the top of the alkali metal column in the periodic table, hydrogen does not, under ordinary conditions, exhibit the properties of an alkali metal. Instead, it forms diatomic molecules, analogous to halogens and some nonmetals in the second period of the periodic table, such as nitrogen and oxygen. Diatomic hydrogen is a gas that, at atmospheric pressure, liquefies and solidifies only at very low temperature (20 degrees and 14 degrees above absolute zero, respectively). Eugene Wigner and Hillard Bell Huntington predicted that under an immense pressure of around , hydrogen would display metallic properties: instead of discrete molecules (which consist of two electrons bound between two protons), a bulk phase would form with a solid lattice of protons and the electrons delocalized throughout. Since then, producing metallic hydrogen in the laboratory has been described as "...the holy grail of high-pressure physics."


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: The initial prediction about the amount of pressure needed was eventually shown to be too low. Since the first work by Wigner and Huntington, the more modern theoretical calculations point toward higher but nonetheless potentially achievable metalization pressures of around .


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: Helium-4 is a liquid at normal pressure near absolute zero, a consequence of its high zero-point energy (ZPE). The ZPE of protons in a dense state is also high, and a decline in the ordering energy (relative to the ZPE) is expected at high pressures. Arguments have been advanced by Neil Ashcroft and others that there is a melting point maximum in compressed hydrogen, but also that there might be a range of densities, at pressures around 400 GPa, where hydrogen would be a liquid metal, even at low temperatures.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: Geng predicted that the ZPE of protons indeed lowers the melting temperature of hydrogen to a minimum of at pressures of .


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: Within this flat region there might be an elemental mesophase intermediate between the liquid and solid state, which could be metastably stabilized down to low temperature and enter a supersolid state.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: In 1968, Neil Ashcroft suggested that metallic hydrogen might be a superconductor, up to room temperature (). This hypothesis is based on an expected strong coupling between conduction electrons and lattice vibrations.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: This may have actually been confirmed as of early 2019; metallic hydrogen has been made at least twice in the laboratory, and a 250K Meissner effect has been tentatively observed but not independently verified by Silvera et al. and a team in France.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: Metastable metallic hydrogen may have potential as a highly efficient rocket propellant, with a theoretical specific impulse of up to 1700 seconds (for reference, the current most powerful chemical rocket propellants have an ISP less than 500), although a metastable form suitable for mass-production and conventional high-volume storage may not exist. Another significant issue is the heat of the reaction, which at over 6000 K is too high for any known engine materials to be used. This would necessitate diluting the metallic hydrogen with water or liquid hydrogen, a mixture that would still provide a significant performance boost from current propellants.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: Presently known "super" states of matter are superconductors, superfluid liquids and gases, and supersolids. Egor Babaev predicted that if hydrogen and deuterium have liquid metallic states, they might have quantum ordered states that cannot be classified as superconducting or superfluid in the usual sense. Instead, they might represent two possible novel types of quantum fluids: "superconducting superfluids" and "metallic superfluids". Such fluids were predicted to have highly unusual reactions to external magnetic fields and rotations, which might provide a means for experimental verification of Babaev's predictions. It has also been suggested that, under the influence of a magnetic field, hydrogen might exhibit phase transitions from superconductivity to superfluidity and vice versa.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: In 2009, Zurek "et al." predicted that the alloy would be a stable metal at only one quarter of the pressure required to metallize hydrogen, and that similar effects should hold for alloys of type LiH and possibly "other alkali high-hydride systems", i.e. alloys of type XH where X is an alkali metal.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: This was later verified in AcH and LaH with T approaching 270K leading to speculation that other compounds may even be stable at mere MPa pressures with room temperature superconductivity.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: In March 1996, a group of scientists at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory reported that they had serendipitously produced the first identifiably metallic hydrogen for about a microsecond at temperatures of thousands of kelvins, pressures of over , and densities of approximately . The team did not expect to produce metallic hydrogen, as it was not using solid hydrogen, thought to be necessary, and was working at temperatures above those specified by metallization theory. Previous studies in which solid hydrogen was compressed inside diamond anvils to pressures of up to , did not confirm detectable metallization. The team had sought simply to measure the less extreme electrical conductivity changes they expected. The researchers used a 1960s-era light-gas gun, originally employed in guided missile studies, to shoot an impactor plate into a sealed container containing a half-millimeter thick sample of liquid hydrogen. The liquid hydrogen was in contact with wires leading to a device measuring electrical resistance. The scientists found that, as pressure rose to , the electronic energy band gap, a measure of electrical resistance, fell to almost zero. The band gap of hydrogen in its uncompressed state is about , making it an insulator but, as the pressure increases significantly, the band gap gradually fell to . Because the thermal energy of the fluid (the temperature became about due to compression of the sample) was above , the hydrogen might be considered metallic.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: Many experiments are continuing in the production of metallic hydrogen in laboratory conditions at static compression and low temperature. Arthur Ruoff and Chandrabhas Narayana from Cornell University in 1998, and later Paul Loubeyre and René LeToullec from Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique, France in 2002, have shown that at pressures close to those at the center of the Earth () and temperatures of , hydrogen is still not a true alkali metal, because of the non-zero band gap. The quest to see metallic hydrogen in laboratory at low temperature and static compression continues. Studies are also ongoing on deuterium. Shahriar Badiei and Leif Holmlid from the University of Gothenburg have shown in 2004 that condensed metallic states made of excited hydrogen atoms (Rydberg matter) are effective promoters to metallic hydrogen.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: The theoretically predicted maximum of the melting curve (the prerequisite for the liquid metallic hydrogen) was discovered by Shanti Deemyad and Isaac F. Silvera by using pulsed laser heating. Hydrogen-rich molecular silane () was claimed to be metallized and become superconducting by M.I. Eremets "et al.". This claim is disputed, and their results have not been repeated.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: In 2011 Eremets and Troyan reported observing the liquid metallic state of hydrogen and deuterium at static pressures of . This claim was questioned by other researchers in 2012.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: In 2015, scientists at the Z Pulsed Power Facility announced the creation of metallic deuterium using dense liquid deuterium, an electrical insulator-to-conductor transition associated with an increase in optical reflectivity.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: On 5 October 2016, Ranga Dias and Isaac F. Silvera of Harvard University released claims of experimental evidence that solid metallic hydrogen had been synthesized in the laboratory at a pressure of around using a diamond anvil cell. This manuscript was available in October 2016, and a revised version was subsequently published in the journal "Science" in January 2017.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: Silvera stated that they did not repeat their experiment, since more tests could damage or destroy their existing sample, but assured the scientific community that more tests are coming. He also stated that the pressure would eventually be released, in order to find out whether the sample was metastable (i.e., whether it would persist in its metallic state even after the pressure was released).


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: Shortly after the claim was published in "Science", "Nature" news division published an article stating that some other physicists regarded the result with skepticism. Prominent members of the high pressure research community criticized the claimed results, questioning the claimed pressures or the presence of metallic hydrogen at the pressures claimed.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: In February 2017, it was reported that the sample of claimed metallic hydrogen was lost, after the diamond anvils it was contained between broke.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: In August 2017, Silvera and Dias issued an erratum to the "Science" article, regarding corrected reflectance values due to variations between the optical density of stressed natural diamonds and the synthetic diamonds used in their pre-compression diamond anvil cell.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: In June 2019 a team at the Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives (French Alternative Energies & Atomic Energy Commission) claimed to have created metallic hydrogen at around 425GPa using a toroidal profile diamond anvil cell produced using electron beam machining.


title: Metallic hydrogen

text: In August 2018, scientists announced new observations regarding the rapid transformation of fluid deuterium from an insulating to a metallic form below 2000 K. Remarkable agreement is found between the experimental data and the predictions based on Quantum Monte Carlo simulations, which is expected to be the most accurate method to date. This may help researchers better understand giant gas planets, such as Jupiter, Saturn and related exoplanets, since such planets are thought to contain a lot of liquid metallic hydrogen, which may be responsible for their observed powerful magnetic fields.


title: Tom Robbins

text: Thomas Eugene Robbins (born July 22, 1932) is a best-selling and prolific American novelist. His most notable works are "seriocomedies" (also known as "comedy drama"), such as "Even Cowgirls Get the Blues". Tom Robbins has lived in La Conner, Washington since 1970, where he has written nine best-selling books. His latest work, published in 2014, is "Tibetan Peach Pie", which is a self-declared "un-memoir". "Even Cowgirls Get The Blues" has been adapted into a movie that shares the same name by Gus Van Sant in 1993.


title: Tom Robbins

text: Robbins was born on July 22, 1932, in Blowing Rock, North Carolina, to George Thomas Robbins and Katherine Belle Robinson. Both of his grandfathers were Baptist preachers. The Robbins family resided in Blowing Rock before moving to Warsaw, Virginia, when the author was still a young boy. In adulthood, Robbins has described his young self as a "hillbilly".


title: Tom Robbins

text: Robbins attended Warsaw High School (class of 1949) and Hargrave Military Academy in Chatham, Virginia, where he won the Senior Essay Medal. The following year he enrolled at Washington and Lee University to major in journalism, leaving at the end of his sophomore year after being disciplined by his fraternity for bad behavior and failing to earn a letter in basketball.


title: Tom Robbins

text: In 1953, he enlisted in the Air Force after receiving his draft notice, spending a year as a meteorologist in Korea, followed by two years in the Special Weather Intelligence unit of the Strategic Air Command in Nebraska. He was discharged in 1957 and returned to Richmond, Virginia, where his poetry readings at the Rhinoceros Coffee House led to a reputation among the local bohemian scene.


title: Tom Robbins

text: In late 1957, Robbins enrolled at Richmond Professional Institute (RPI), a school of art, drama, and music, which later became Virginia Commonwealth University. He served as an editor and columnist for the college newspaper, "Proscript", from 1958 to 1959. He also worked nights on the sports desk of the daily "Richmond Times-Dispatch". After graduating with honors from RPI in 1959 and indulging in some hitchhiking, Robbins joined the staff of the "Times-Dispatch" as a copy editor.