title: Prajadhipok

text: In 1926 Prajadhipok wrote a lengthy memorandum to his American adviser Francis B. Sayre titled "Problems of Siam" in which he set forth nine questions he felt were the most serious facing the nation. The third question asked whether Siam should have a parliamentary system, which Prajadhipok doubted. The fourth question asked whether Siam was ready for representative government, to which Prajadhipok answered "my personal opinion is an emphatic NO". However, the king did see a possibility to introduce reform at the local level as the "next step in our educational move towards democracy". In 1926 he began moves to develop the concept of "prachaphiban", or "municipality", which had emerged late in the fifth reign as a law regarding public health and sanitation. Information was obtained regarding local self-government in surrounding countries, and proposals to allow certain municipalities to raise local taxes and manage their own budgets were drawn up. The fact that the public was not sufficiently educated to make the scheme work militated against the success of this administrative venture. Nevertheless, the idea of teaching the Siamese the concept of democracy through a measure of decentralisation of power in municipalities had become, in Prajadhipok's mind, fundamental to future policy-making. However, Yasukichi Yatabe, Japanese minister to Siam, criticized the king's way and that it would not be accomplished in a hundred years' time.


title: Prajadhipok

text: In September 1931 Britain abandoned the gold standard and devalued sterling by 30 percent. This created a crisis for Siam since most of its foreign exchange was held in sterling. The Minister of Finance kept Siam on the gold standard by linking the currency to the US dollar, but debate about this policy raged within the government into 1932. One impact of this policy was that Siam's rice exports became more expensive than competitor exporters, negatively impacting revenue.


title: Prajadhipok

text: In mid-October 1931 the king returned from a trip to Canada and the US and ordered Prince Devawongse Varoprakar, the Minister of Foreign Affairs to prepare a constitution. The task of drafting this document was given to the American Raymond B. Stevens and Phaya Sri Wisarn Waja. In March the following year they submitted an "Outline of Changes in the Form of Government" together with their comments. Prajadhipok originally planned to announce the new constitution to the nation of 6 April at the opening of the Memorial Bridge to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the Chakri dynasty. These proposals met strong opposition from Prince Damrong and other royal members of the Supreme Council and despite his own misgivings that to not proceed would result in a coup against his government, the king ultimately did not make the planned announcement.


title: Prajadhipok

text: On 20 January 1932, with the country deep in depression, the king convened a "round table" meeting to discuss the many competing arguments and to agree on how to tackle the crisis. From this meeting it was agreed to make large cuts in government spending and implement a retrenchment programme. Two weeks later on 5 February the king addressed a group of military officers and spoke at length about the economic situation. In this speech he remarked "I myself know nothing at all about managing finances, and all I can do is listen to the opinions of others and choose the best...If I have made a mistake, I believe I really deserve to be excused by the people of Siam". No previous monarch had ever spoken so honestly. The speech was widely reported and many interpreted his words not as a frank appeal for understanding and cooperation, but as a sign of weakness and proof that the system of rule of fallible autocrats should be abolished.


title: Prajadhipok

text: A small group of soldiers and civil servants began secretly plotting to overthrow absolute monarchy and bring a constitutional government to the kingdom. Their efforts culminated in an almost bloodless "revolution" on the morning of 24 June 1932 by the self-proclaimed Khana Ratsadon ("People's Party"; คณะราษฎร). While Prajadhipok was away at Klai Kangwon Palace in Hua Hin, the plotters took control of the Ananda Samakhom Throne Hall in Bangkok and arrested key officials (mainly princes and relatives of the king). The People's Party demanded Prajadhipok become a constitutional monarch and grant Thai people a constitution. In the event of a negative response, they reserved the right to declare Siam a republic. The king immediately accepted the People's Party's request and the first "permanent" constitution of Siam was promulgated on 10 December.


title: Prajadhipok

text: Prajadhipok returned to Bangkok on 26 June and received the coup plotters in a royal audience. As they entered the room, Prajadhipok greeted them, saying "I rise in honour of the Khana Ratsadorn." It was a significant gesture because, according to previous royal rituals, monarchs were to remain seated while their subjects made obeisance, this showed that Prajadhipok was acknowledging the changed circumstances.


title: Prajadhipok

text: In the early stages of the constitutional monarchy, the King and the royalists seemed to be able to compromise with Khana Ratsadon. The constitutional bill which was drafted by Pridi Banomyong and intended to be a permanent one was made temporary. The new constitution restored some of the monarch's lost power and status. Among them were introduction of unelected half of the House of Representatives and royal veto power. The country's first prime minister Phraya Manopakorn Nititada was a conservative and royalist nobleman.


title: Prajadhipok

text: The compromise broke down quickly. He did not contest when his interpretation of Pridi's economic plan, which also aim on land reform and seizure of royal land, was released with his signature. The king played a role in the coup d'état of April 1933 where the House was ordered to close by the Prime Minister. He signed an order to execute Khana Ratsadon leaders. But Khana Ratsadon's military wing leader Phraya Phahol Phonphayuhasena ousted the government and restored its power.


title: Prajadhipok

text: He played an active role in an anti-revolutionary network, which also aimed to assassinate Khana Ratsadon's leaders.


title: Prajadhipok

text: In October 1933, the maverick Prince Boworadej, a former minister of defence, led an armed revolt against the government. In the Boworadet Rebellion, he mobilised several provincial garrisons and marched on Bangkok, occupying the Don Muang aerodrome. Prince Boworadej accused the government of being disrespectful to the monarch and of promoting communism, and demanded that government leaders resign. However, the rebellion ultimately failed.


title: Prajadhipok

text: The king did not directly support the rebellion, but there was a cheque from the treasury to Boworadej. The insurrection diminished the king's prestige. When the revolt began, Prajadhipok immediately informed the government that he regretted the strife and civil disturbances. The royal couple then took refuge at Songkhla, in the far south. The king's withdrawal from the scene was interpreted by the Khana Ratsadorn as a failure to do his duty. By not throwing his full support behind government forces, he had undermined their trust in him.


title: Prajadhipok

text: In 1934 the Assembly voted to amend civil and military penal codes. The king vetoed the changes to the separation between personal and royal assets as he did not want to pay tax, and protested an amendment to diminish the king's consideration of death sentence over the courts. After many losses to Khana Ratsadon, the king seemed to change his stance and expressed support for democracy and blamed Khana Ratsadon for being anti-democratic. However, Phibul later discussed in the House that unelected parliamentary members were the king's wish, and another House member criticized the king for being unbearable.


title: Prajadhipok

text: Prajadhipok, whose relations with the Khana Ratsadon had been deteriorating for some time, went on a tour of Europe before visiting England for medical treatment. He continued to correspond with the government regarding the conditions under which he would continue to serve. He tried to retain some of the royal powers, such as power to veto law with no possible override. Other disagreements were on royal assets and royal benefits. After the government did not comply, on 14 October Prajadhipok announced his intention to abdicate unless his requests were met.


title: Prajadhipok

text: The People's Party rejected the ultimatum, and on 2 March 1935, Prajadhipok abdicated, to be replaced by Ananda Mahidol. Prajadhipok issued a brief statement criticising the regime that included the following phrases, since often quoted by critics of Thailand's slow political development.


title: Prajadhipok

text: Reaction to the abdication was muted. Stowe wrote that the absolutism of the monarchy had been replaced by that of the People's Party, with the military looming in the wings as the ultimate arbiter of power.


title: Prajadhipok

text: Prajadhipok spent the rest of his life with Queen Rambhai Barni in England. At the time of abdication, the couple lived at Knowle House, in Surrey, just outside London. However, this house was not suitable considering his health, so they moved to a smaller house in Virginia Water (still in Surrey), but with more space. The house was named "Hangmoor", but wishing to give it a more pleasant name, he called it "Glen Pammant", an anagram of an old Thai phrase "tam pleng nam". They remained there for two years. They moved again to Vane Court, the oldest house in the village of Biddenden in Kent. He led a peaceful life there, gardening in the morning and writing his autobiography in the afternoon.


title: Prajadhipok

text: In 1938 the royal couple moved to Compton House, in the village of Wentworth in Virginia Water, Surrey.


title: Prajadhipok

text: Due to bombing by the German Luftwaffe in 1940, the couple again moved, first to a small house in Devon, and then to Lake Vyrnwy Hotel in Powys, Wales, where the former king suffered a heart attack.


title: Prajadhipok

text: The couple returned to Compton House, as he expressed his preference to die there. King Prajadhipok died from heart failure on 30 May 1941.


title: Prajadhipok

text: His cremation was held at the Golders Green Crematorium in north London. It was a simple affair attended by just Queen Ramphai and a handful of close relatives. Queen Ramphaiphanni stayed at Compton House for a further eight years before she returned to Thailand in 1949, bringing the king's ashes back with her.


title: Prajadhipok

text: Historian David K. Wyatt writes that Prajadhipok was "a hard-working, effective executor" who was "intellectually equal to the demands of his office", and whose main failing was to underestimate the Bangkok elite's growing nationalism, and that "[a]s late as his death in exile, many would have agreed with his judgement that a move towards democracy in 1932 was premature." The idea that the 1932 revolution was premature is echoed in a common royalist sentiment that proliferated as the Thai monarchy regained status over ensuing decades. In this view, Prajadhipok is credited as the "father of Thai democracy", who already intended to usher in democracy before the Khana Ratsadon prematurely carried out their revolution. Prajadhipok's abdication statement is often cited in support of this view. Later historians have challenged it as a myth, citing evidence that Prajadhipok's political maneuvers leading up to his abdication had more to do with preserving the power and status of the declining monarchy than challenging the Khana Ratsadon's actual failures to uphold democratic ideals.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: The Tinkerer (Phineas Mason) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is usually depicted as an adversary of the superhero Spider-Man and the father of Rick Mason. The character was created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko, and made his first appearance in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #2 (May 1963). The Tinkerer is generally depicted as a genius in engineering who is able to create gadgets and other devices from nothing more than spare parts left over from ordinary household appliances. While in his initial appearances he sought to personally eliminate Spider-Man, more recent storylines depict him under the employ of other supervillains, whom he supplies with his gadgets for their personal vendettas against Spider-Man or other heroes.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: Since his introduction in comics, the character has been adapted into several other forms of media, such as animated television series and video games. The Tinkerer made his live-action debut in the Marvel Cinematic Universe film "" (2017), portrayed by Michael Chernus.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: The Tinkerer is a character that was created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko, as part of the original publication of "The Amazing Spider-Man" and made his first initial appearance in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #2 (April 1963), opposing Spider-Man as a villain. It would, however, be several years before he would return, and made his second appearance in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #160 (September 1976), once again opposing Spider-Man in a losing effort. The Tinkerer would be mentioned in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #182 (July 1978). This was his first mention in the publication as a supporting side character to the other villains.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: Phineas Mason is a brilliant inventor and technician who designs advanced weaponry for criminals and sometimes undertakes crimes of his own. As the "Terrible Tinkerer", he runs an underground fix-it shop disguised as a radio repair shop. On at least one occasion, a potential customer gained the inventor's attention by presenting a transistor radio and telling Mason that "I've got a radio that just can't carry a tune". The Tinkerer's original scheme involved the employment of a team of petty has-been stuntmen and thugs. They specialized in placing bugs into radios and blackmailing state officials and politicians. The Tinkerer tried to present himself as an alien to confuse his pursuers by leaving behind a mask that looked like his face when he escaped from Spider-Man in a hovercraft shaped like a flying saucer.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: The Tinkerer's next encounter with Spider-Man resulted in deploying the Toy, a hi-tech robot that serves as an assistant and lackey. The Toy also helped the Tinkerer escape from his hideout when raided by the police. The Tinkerer is known to have created the suit for Mysterio, a man that once worked as one of his alien-suited servants. Much later, he was hired by the Kingpin to rebuild the Spider-Mobile to destroy Spider-Man. The Tinkerer redesigned Rocket Racer's rocket-powered skateboard, designed the armed wheel-shaped Big Wheel vehicle, repaired the Goldbug's bug-ship., and designed some technological hardware so that Joseph Rambo can become Binary Bug. He robbed loan companies by using remote-controlled toys until stopped by Spider-Man. The Tinkerer also provided Whirlwind with improved armor and weaponry, provided Diamondback with new throwing diamonds, built the Grim Reaper's scythe-like weapon to go over where his right hand was, provided Mac Gargan with a modified scorpion tail during the "Acts of Vengeance" storyline, and even fixed Grizzly's exo-skeleton harness and grizzly suit. He has worked for Hammerhead (who was mentioned to have made Hammerhead's exoskeleton), the Beetle (who Tinkerer helped to make a new Beetle armor), the Black Cat (who received special equipment from him that enhanced her agility, senses, and strength), the Jack O'Lantern, Owl (who made special equipment for him), the Ani-Men, Jester (who made a number of gimmicks for him), and the Constrictor.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: Since he is a small business operator who works alone (and arms criminals), the Terrible Tinkerer takes precautions to prevent being cheated. For instance, Killer Shrike commissioned the Tinkerer to improve weapon gauntlets. At delivery time, the criminal decided to use the weapons to threaten the inventor and avoid paying. The gauntlets backfired on Killer Shrike, wounding and immobilizing due to a failsafe the Tinkerer engineers into his products for such situations.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: Mason is forced to work for the Vulture (Adrian Toomes) interested in freeing Nitro from custody. This falls apart when the heroic mutants Rusty Collins and Skids chance upon the situation and defeat the villains. The Tinkerer is arrested off-panel.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: The Trapster later sued the Tinkerer for selling faulty equipment. The Trapster's character witnesses in the case against the Tinkerer include the Beetle, Blacklash, Blizzard, Boomerang, Jack O'Lantern, Mad Thinker, Porcupine, Ringer, Stilt-Man, Spymaster and Taskmaster. When Taskmaster accuses the other villains of not properly using the equipment that the Tinkerer provided, it resulted in an in-court brawl that was broken up by She-Hulk which leads to the villains getting arrested. When the Tinkerer and Mad Thinker ask She-Hulk who is superior, She-Hulk says to sort it out themselves and storms off.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: His son Rick Mason is a world-class mercenary for the American government and freelance operative. Despite the two being on opposite sides of the law, father and son remained on good terms and met frequently. The Tinkerer even aided Rick from time to time, and once provided his son with information about a coup in South America. After Rick was seemingly killed in action, the grief-stricken father decided to mend his ways while still maintaining links to supervillains to give information he could discreetly pass along.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: In the "Secret War" miniseries, Nick Fury discovered a link between the weaponry of most of the known technology-based villains in the Marvel Universe and the kingdom of Latveria. The Tinkerer was revealed to have received a vast portion of his funding and presumably the resources and technology from which he has developed most of his clients' arsenals over the years from Latveria. This was part of an ongoing "terrorist" initiative fostered by the kingdom's despotic leader Doctor Doom and minion Countess Luciana Von Bardas. S.H.I.E.L.D. agents discovered the Tinkerer's workshop by using Killer Shrike as a mole. When the agents converged on the workshop, the canny villain detected this. Killer Shrike was struck down by the Tinkerer's security systems, and the Tinkerer fled to Latveria rather than face justice. Early in the "Marvel Knights" imprint of Spider-Man, Eddie Brock sells the Venom symbiote through an auction put on by the Tinkerer.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: The Punisher finds and confronts the Tinkerer after a confrontation with the murderous Stilt-Man to which Tinkerer begs for death. Not only was his son dead, but his grandson perished in the Stamford, Connecticut explosion that heralded the Civil War's beginning. Without his beloved son or grandson, he was suicidal and continued his work in the hope that both superheroes and supervillains would wipe each other out. The Punisher stabs the Tinkerer in the back, likely leaving him paralyzed. Now reliant on a wheelchair, Mason has been contracted by Silas "Cyber" Burr to subject the resurrected villain's new body to the Adamantium-epidermal bonding process. Mason agrees to create a "pacemaker" for the ailing Cyber's heart condition, as well as three carbonadium bullets for Logan in exchange for the use of Logan's mysterious carbonadium synthesizer. Cyber awakens from the procedure to discover the deadly radioactive device permanently attached to the chest and that Logan has disappeared with the C-synth. Phineas is last seen in the enraged Cyber's clutches. Surviving his encounter with Cyber, he is seen attending the Survivors' Guild, a therapy group for survivors of the Punisher. He is later apprehended by Iron Man for ties to a super WMD black market.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: During the "Secret Invasion" storyline, he is freed from Prison 42 to help Human Torch, Thing, Franklin Richards and Valeria Richards return to the Earth dimension. It is mentioned that Mason had retired the Tinkerer identity but is imprisoned for breaking the Registration Act anyway. He is initially reluctant to help his old foes, but Franklin's and Valeria's resemblance to his own grandchildren causes him to relent. It was revealed Rick is in fact still alive, under deep cover, and in a conspiracy which resulted in Carol Danvers's apparent murder for Norman Osborn in exchange for his father's release and cleared record. The Tinkerer is later seen in jail where he repairs Hypno-Hustler's costume.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: Phil Urich later visits the Tinkerer to have the Hobgoblin's gear upgraded to evade the Superior Spider-Man (Doctor Octopus' mind in Spider-Man's body). It is shown that the Tinkerer has taken in Tiberius Stone as a secret apprentice as Stone gets revenge on the Hobgoblin by making it so that the Hobgoblin's tech fails.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: He fabricated the identity of his own brother Hophni Mason via a robotic suit. As Hophni, he acted a confidant of various superheroes (such as Ant-Man and Captain America), and both provided technology and an acquaintance to Teresa Parker. His façade is revealed to which he used his said disguise as a battlesuit which gets defeated by Spider-Man. However, it is revealed that Tinkerer is an ally to the Vedomi alien race of sentient A.I.s. After escaping from custody, the Tinkerer (equipped with the Vedomi's battlesuit) battles Spider-Man. Spider-Man realized the Tinkerer was sorrowful and resentful towards humanity and help change his point of view and stay with the Vedomi to help guide positively.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: The Tinkerer has a genius intellect, with extensive knowledge in a wide variety of scientific disciplines. He has a high degree of expertise in the design and manufacture of inventive weapons and devices derived from pre-existing technologies. The Tinkerer has invented a wide variety of scientific and technological devices, and often has access to these devices as needed. The Tinkerer's advanced age limits his physical abilities, and he possesses no superhuman abilities.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: During the "Secret Wars" storyline in the pages of "", a version of Tinkerer resides in the Battleworld domain of The Regency. When Regent defeated every superhero, Tinkerer gave up a life of crime and started a fix-it shop. When Spider-Man came to him for Inhibitor Chips (to conceal the superhuman signatures of himself and his daughter Annie), Tinkerer stalled until the Sinister Six could arrive, although Spider-Man managed to steal the Inhibitor Chips and escape.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: On Earth-807127, Tinkerer was mentioned by Pappy Banner where he built an Adamantium suit of armor that ran on gamma energy. By the time Banner's head was placed on the Adamantium armor so that he can take revenge on Old Man Logan for the defeat that cost Pappy Banner his body, he admitted that he ate Tinkerer after the Adamantium armor was complete.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: The Ultimate Marvel incarnation of Phineas Mason is a scientific prodigy at Nursery Two, one of the think tanks of young geniuses sponsored by the U.S. government. The Mole Man kidnapped Mason and his fellow students with the intention of using them to seed a new underground civilization in Subterranea. With the Fantastic Four's help, the Nursery Two students defeated Mole Man. Rather than return to their lives above ground, Mason and his teammates opted to stay behind and start a civilization on their own terms.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: The Ultimate Marvel equivalent of Tinkerer is Elijah Stern, an original character created by Brian Michael Bendis and Mark Bagley, and designed to resemble Paul Giamatti. This iteration's alias key indicator is stating that he merely "tinkers". The Tinkerer vindictively hires Killer Shrike, Omega Red and the Vulture (Blackie Drago) to torment his former Donald Roxxon for being fired by the Roxxon Corporation after discovering a way to use vibranium as a power source. His plan gets foiled by the original Spider-Man and he is given a choice to work for Nick Fury or death when S.H.I.E.L.D. finds his hideout. Choosing to work for S.H.I.E.L.D., the Tinkerer commands his Spider-Slayer robots in going after the Carnage symbiote and Peter Parker.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: While repairing the Beetle's suit, the Tinkerer is approached to accommodate a group of villains with weapons against Spider-Man. As the Tinkerer is reluctant to take up the accomodations due to the Tinkerer stating that the Vulture hasn't paid him last time and the fact that he still blames the Vulture for bringing S.H.I.E.L.D. to his door, the Green Goblin "motivates" him to help. The Tinkerer does so by providing the Vulture's suit stating that nobody can fit it. Kraven the Hunter helps himself to some blasters and knives stating that he is starting a tab.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: The Prowler (Aaron Davis) later breaks into his workshop, getting interrogated before being killed in cold blood once his killer realized things about the new Spider-Man.


title: Tinkerer (Marvel Comics)

text: Phineas Mason appears in the Marvel Cinematic Universe film "" (2017), portrayed by Michael Chernus. Depicted around Elijah Stern's age, this version is a weapons maker and was part of a salvage company alongside Adrian Toomes, Herman Schultz and Jackson Brice. When the salvaging company went out of business due to the Department of Damage Control, Mason helps Toomes steal leftover technology from the Avengers' battles and build advanced weapons out of it, such as Toomes' flight suit and modified versions of Crossbones's vibro-blast emitting gauntlets. While his associates are defeated by Spider-Man and arrested by the authorities, Mason's fate is left unknown.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: The Prime Minister of Nepal () is the head of government of Nepal. The Prime Minister is the head of the Council of Ministers of Nepal and the chief adviser to the President of Nepal.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: The federal cabinet headed by the prime minister is appointed by the president to assist the latter in the administration of the affairs of the executive. The prime minister has to enjoy the confidence of a majority in the Pratinidhi Sabha and shall resign if they are unable to prove majority when instructed by the president.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: The residence of the prime minister of Nepal is in Baluwatar, Kathmandu. The seat of the prime minister is Singha Darbar since the time of Chandra Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana. The basic monthly salary of the prime minister of Nepal is NPR 77,280.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: The current prime minister is Sher Bahadur Deuba from Nepali Congress since 13 July 2021. He was appointed after the Supreme Court of Nepal issued the order to reinstate the dissolved parliament and make the former the Prime Minister.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: The position of prime minister of Nepal () in modern form was called by different names at different times of Nepalese history. At the time of the Shah dynasty, either Chautariya, Kaji or Mulkajis (Chief Kajis) served the function of prime ministers Abhiman Singh Basnyat was first Mulkaji appointed by Bahadur Shah at 1785-1794 after that his nephew Kirtiman Singh Basnyat was appointed as Mulkaji from 1794 – 1801 September after that his younger brother Bakhtawar Singh Basnyat was appointed as Mulkaji in 1801-1803 and after that Damodar Pandey became Mulkaji till February 1803 – March 1804. In 1804 the position of Mukhtiyar was created by Rana Bahadur Shah which carried executive powers of nation. "Mukhtiyar" is formed from two words: "Mukhya" and "Akhtiyar". "Mukhya" means Chief and "Akhtiyar" means Authority. Altogether it means the "executive head of the state". "Mukhtiyar" held the position of executive head till adoption of title of prime minister in 1843 A.D. The first Mukhtiyar to title himself as prime minister, as per the British convention, was the last "Mukhtiyar" Mathabar Singh Thapa. Mathabar Singh became Mukhtiyar as well as prime minister and Commander-In-Chief of the Nepalese army in November 1843 by the declaration of second queen of Rajendra, Queen Rajya Laxmi Devi. During the Rana dynasty, the position of Prime Minister was hereditary and the officeholder held additional titles — Maharaja of Lambjang and Kaski, Supreme Commander-in-Chief of Nepal and Grand Master of the Royal Orders of Nepal.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: "Mukhtiyar" Bhimsen Thapa was the first person to be referred to as Prime Minister by the British. Similarly, historian Chittaranjan Nepali writes that the first institution to hold all state powers was the position of "Mukhtiyar" which was established after King Rana Bahadur Shah returned to Nepal from Varanasi. However, historians believe that Kaji Damodar Pande was the first person to hold power as a Prime Minister as the modern system of administration originated in Nepal with the emergence of Damodar Pande. Damodar Pande was the most influential Kaji since the fall of regent Chautariya Bahadur Shah of Nepal from central power in April 1794 by his newly active nephew, King Rana Bahadur Shah.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: During the minority of the King Girvan Yuddha, Damodar Pande took over the administration as Mulkaji, or prime minister (1799–1804), with complete control over administration and the power to conduct foreign affairs. He set a significant precedent for later Nepalese history, which has seen a recurring struggle for effective power between king and prime minister. The main policy of Damodar Pande was to protect the young king by keeping his unpredictable father in Banaras and to play off against each other the schemes of the retired king's wives. By 1804 this policy had failed. The former king engineered his return and took over as mukhtiyar.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: The character of government in the Kingdom of Nepal was driven from consultative state organ of the previous Gorkha hill principality, known as Bharadar. These Bharadars were drawn from high caste and politically influential families. For instance; Thar Ghar in previous Gorkha hill principality. The nobility of Gorkha was mainly based from Chhetri families and they had a strong presence in civil administration affairs. All of the Prime Minister of Nepal between 1768 and 1950 were Chhetris with the exception of Ranga Nath Poudyal, being a Brahmin. Bharadars formed a consultative body in the kingdom for the most important functions of the state as counsellors, ministers and Diplomats. There was no single successful coalition government as court politics were driven from large factional rivalries, consecutive conspiracies and ostracization of opponent Bharadar families through assassination rather than legal expulsion. Another reason was the minority of the reigning King between 1777 and 1847 that led to establishment of anarchial rule. The government was stated to have controlled by regents, Mukhtiyars and alliance of political faction with strong fundamental support. At the end of the 18th century, the central politics was regularly dominated by two notable political factions; Thapas and Pandes. Per historians and contemporary writer Francis Hamilton, the government of Nepal comprised


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: In 1794, King Rana Bahadur Shah came of age and his first act was to re-constitute the government such that his uncle, Prince Bahadur Shah of Nepal, had no official part to play. Rana Bahadur appointed Kirtiman Singh Basnyat as Chief ("Mul") Kaji among the newly appointed four kajis though Damodar Pande was the most influential Kaji. Kirtiman had succeeded Abhiman Singh Basnyat as Chief Kaji while Prince Bahadur Shah was succeeded as Chief ("Mul") Chautariya by Prince Ranodyot Shah, then heir apparent of King Rana Bahadur Shah. Kajis had held the administrative and executive powers of the nation after the fall of Chief Chautariya Prince Bahadur Shah in 1794. Later, Kirtiman Singh was secretly assassinated on 28 September 1801, by the supporters of Raj Rajeshwari Devi and his brother Bakhtawar Singh Basnyat, was then given the post of Chief ("Mul") Kaji. During Bakhtawar's tenure as the "Mul Kaji", on 28 October 1801, the Treaty of Commerce and Alliance was signed between Nepal and East India Company. Queen Rajrajeshwari was restored as regent of Nepal on 17 December 1802. On subsequent February, Damodar Pande was appointed by Queen Rajrajeshwari as Mulkaji (Chief Kaji) as a reward for establishing her regency.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: Damodar Pande was the most influential Kaji since the fall of regent Chautariya Bahadur Shah of Nepal from central power in April 1794 by his newly active nephew, King Rana Bahadur Shah. By 1797, his relationship with his uncle, who was living a retired life, and who wanted to seek refuge in China on the pretext of meeting the new emperor, had deteriorated to the extent that he ordered his imprisonment on 19 February 1797 and his subsequent murder on 23 June 1797. Similarly, in mid-1795, he became infatuated with a Maithil Brahmin widow, Kantavati Jha, and married her on the oath of making their illegitimate half-caste son (as per the Hindu law of that time) the heir apparent, by excluding the legitimate heir Prince Ranodyot Shah who was born from his previous marriage with a high caste Chhetri, Queen Subarna Prabha Devi. Such acts earned Rana Bahadur notoriety both among courtiers and common people, especially among Brahmins. After the inevitable death of Kantavati, Rana Bahadur suffered a mental breakdown during which he lashed out by desecrating temples and cruelly punishing the attendant physicians and astrologers. He then renounced his ascetic life and attempted to re-assert his royal authority. This led to a direct conflict with almost all the courtiers who had pledged a holy oath of allegiance to the legitimate king Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah. This conflict eventually led to the establishment of a dual government and to an imminent civil war, with Damodar Pande leading the military force against the dissenting ex-king and his group. Since most of the military officers had sided with Damodar Pande, Rana Bahadur realized that his authority could not be re-established, and he was forced to flee to the British-controlled city of Varanasi in May 1800.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: As soon as they received the news, Rana Bahadur and his group proceeded towards Kathmandu. Some troops were sent by Kathmandu Durbar to check their progress, but the troops changed their allegiance when they came face to face with the ex-King. Damodar Pande and his men were arrested at Thankot where they were waiting to greet the ex-King with state honors and take him into isolation. After Rana Bahadur's reinstatement to power, he started to extract vengeance on those who had tried to keep him in exile. He exiled Rajrajeshwari to Helambu, where she became a Buddhist nun, on the charge of siding with Damodar Pande and colluding with the British. Damodar Pande, along with his two eldest sons, who were completely innocent, was executed on 13 March 1804; similarly some members of his faction were tortured and executed without any due trial, while many others managed to escape to India. Rana Bahadur also punished those who did not help him while in exile. Among them was Prithvi Pal Sen, the king of Palpa, who was tricked into imprisonment, while his kingdom forcefully annexed. Subarnaprabha and her supporters were released and given a general pardon. Those who had helped Rana Bahadur to return to Kathmandu were lavished with rank, land, and wealth. Bhimsen Thapa was made a second "kaji"; Ranajit Pande, who was the father-in-law of Bhimsen's brother, was made the "Mulkaji"; Sher Bahadur Shah, Rana Bahadur's half-brother, was made the "Mul Chautariya"; while Rangnath Paudel was made the "Raj Guru" (royal spiritual preceptor).


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: After almost two-year, all of a sudden Rana Bahadur was made "Mukhtiyar" (chief authority) and Bhimsen tried to implement his schemes through Rana Bahadur. Bhimsen had also secretly learned of a plot to oust Rana Bahadur. Tribhuvan Khawas (Pradhan), a member of Sher Bahadur's faction, was imprisoned on the re-opened charges of conspiracy with the British that led to the Knox's mission, but for which pardon had already been doled out, and was ordered to be executed. Tribhuvan Khawas decided to reveal everyone that was involved in the dialogue with the British. Among those implicated was Sher Bahadur Shah. On the night of 25 April 1806, Rana Bahadur held a meeting at Tribhuvan Khawas's house with rest of the courtiers, during which he taunted and threatened to execute Sher Bahadur. At around 10 pm, Sher Bahadur in desperation drew a sword and killed Rana Bahadur Shah before being cut down by nearby courtiers, Bam Shah and Bal Narsingh Kunwar, also allies of Bhimsen. The assassination of Rana Bahadur Shah triggered a great massacre in Bhandarkhal (a royal garden east of Kathmandu Durbar) and at the bank of Bishnumati river. That very night member of Sher Bahadur's faction – Bidur Shah, Tribhuvan Khawas, and Narsingh Gurung – and even King Prithvipal Sen of Palpa, who was under house arrest in Patan Durbar, were swiftly rounded up and killed in Bhandarkhal. Bhimsen managed to kill everyone who did not agree with him or anyone who could potentially become a problem for him in the future. In this massacre that lasted for about two weeks, a total of ninety-three people (16 women and 77 men) lost their lives.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: Almost one and half months before the massacre, upon Bhimsen's insistence, Rana Bahadur, then 31 years old, had married a 14-year-old girl named Tripurasundari on 7 March 1806, making her his fifth legitimate wife. Taking advantage of the political chaos, Bhimsen became the "Mukhtiyar" (1806–37), and Tripurasundari was given the title Lalita Tripurasundari and declared regent and Queen Mother (1806–32) of Girvan Yuddha Shah, who was himself 9 years old. Thus, Bhimsen became the first person outside the royal household to hold the position of the "Mukhtiyar". All the other wives (except Subarnaprabha) and concubines of Rana Bahadur, along with their handmaidens, were forced to commit sati. Bhimsen obtained a royal mandate from Tripurasundari, given in the name of King Girvan, commanding all other courtiers to be obedient to him. Bhimsen further consolidated his power by disenfranchising the old courtiers from the central power by placing them as administrators of far-flung provinces of the country. The courtiers were instead replaced by his close relatives, who were mere yes-men. On the spot where Rana Bahadur Shah drew his last breath, Bhimsen later built a commemorative Shiva temple by the name Rana-Mukteshwar.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: Bhimsen Thapa ruled for 31 years as Mukhtiyar and implemented large number of reforms in agriculture, forestry, trade and commerce, judiciary, military, communications, transportations, slavery, human trafficking and other social evils in his premiership. During Bhimsen Thapa's prime ministership, the Gurkha Empire had reached its greatest expanse from Sutlej river in the west to the Teesta river in the east. However, Nepal entered into a disastrous Anglo-Nepalese War with the East India Company lasting from 1814 to 1816, which was concluded with the Treaty of Sugauli, by which Nepal lost almost one-third of its land. It also led to the establishment of a permanent British Residency. The death of King Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah in 1816 before his maturity, and the immature age of his heir, King Rajendra Bikram Shah, coupled with the support from Queen Tripurasundari (the junior queen of Rana Bahadur Shah), allowed him to continue to remain in power even after Nepal's defeat in the Anglo-Nepalese War.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: Only a handful of Nepalese prime ministers have carried a democratic mandate. The first elected prime minister was B. P. Koirala, in 1959. After he was deposed and imprisoned in 1960, King Mahendra established the Panchayat system and the country did not have a democratic government until 1990.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: The monarchy was abolished on 28 May 2008 by the 1st Constituent Assembly, and the country was declared a federal democratic republic.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: The Prime Minister has a more enhanced constitutional role than his counterparts in other parliamentary democracies. This is because Section 75 of the Constitution explicitly vests the executive power of the federal government in the Council of Ministers–of which the Prime Minister is the leader–not the president. In most other parliamentary republics, the president is at least the nominal chief executive, while being bound by convention to act on the advice of the cabinet. Per Section 76, the prime minister is the chairman of the Council of Ministers and thus exercises executive power collectively with the Council of Ministers.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: Under Section 76, part 7 of the Constitution, the president is required to appoint the leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives as prime minister. If no party has a majority, the president is required to appoint an MP who has the support of a coalition of parties who between them have a majority in the chamber–in practice, the leader of the senior partner in such a coalition. If no majority coalition can be formed within 30 days of the final result of a parliamentary election, the president is required to appoint the leader of the largest party in the chamber. In the latter cases, the person appointed as prime minister must win a confidence vote within 30 days. However, if a confidence vote is unsuccessful, the president must appoint an MP who can demonstrate command the confidence of the House. In the event that no member can command the confidence of the House within 55 days of the announcement of the final results of the election, new elections must be held within six months.


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: The vacation process of the prime minister as per Section 77 (1) of 2015 Constitution of Nepal is as follows:


title: Prime Minister of Nepal

text: Furthermore, the Section 77 (3) states: If the prime minister ceases to hold the office according to clause (1), the same council of ministers shall continue to work until another council of ministers is constituted, provided that, in the case of the death of the prime minister, the senior most minister shall continue to act as Prime Minister until a new prime minister is appointed.


title: Crossroads School (Santa Monica, California)

text: Crossroads School for Arts & Sciences is a private, K–12, independent, college preparatory school in Santa Monica, California, United States. The school is a former member of the G20 Schools Group.


text: The school was founded in 1971 as a secular institution affiliated with St. Augustine By-the-Sea Episcopal Church in Santa Monica. Although the founders, and many of the school's original students, came from the former St. Augustine By-the-Sea Episcopal Day School in Santa Monica, Crossroads School has always been a secular institution. Crossroads started with three rooms in a Baptist church offering grades seven and eight, and an initial enrollment of just over 30 students. The name Crossroads was suggested by Robert Frost's poem, "The Road Not Taken", in which Frost writes:


text: As St. Augustine's grew to junior and senior high school, the founders started Crossroads with a separate board of directors and separate campus, which eventually merged in the 1980s under the name Crossroads.


text: The 2004 book "Hollywood Interrupted", by Andrew Breitbart and Mark Ebner, dedicated a large section to Crossroads; it depicted the school (and the celebrities who send their children there) in a negative light, focusing mainly on a handful of high-profile parents and "drug problems" stemming from the 1980s. The school was also featured in a May 2005 issue of "Vanity Fair"; like Breitbart's book, it also focused on the school's celebrity clientele.


title: Earl Hebner

text: Earl William Hebner (born May 17, 1949) is an American retired professional wrestling referee who last officiated for All Elite Wrestling (AEW). He is best known for his time as senior referee for the World Wrestling Federation (now WWE) from 1988 to 2005. Hebner (along with his identical twin brother, Dave) played a prominent role in the inaugural "The Main Event" card in 1988, in which André the Giant controversially defeated Hulk Hogan for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship, as well as the infamous "Montreal Screwjob" during the main event of the 1997 Survivor Series. He also participated in a number of storylines, including feuds involving The McMahon-Helmsley Faction and The Alliance. Hebner was also the senior referee for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) from 2005 to 2017, and was inducted into the TNA Hall of Fame in 2015.


title: Earl Hebner

text: In 2019, Earl Hebner joined All Elite Wrestling, where he was used primarily for main event and title matches.


title: Earl Hebner

text: Hebner officiated matches for Jim Crockett Promotions during much of the 1980s. He was the referee during the famous "I Quit" match at Starrcade 1985 between Tully Blanchard and Magnum T. A. He can be seen at ringside during the first ever WarGames match at the 1987 Great American Bash as well as the final match of the Bunkhouse Stampede tournament in January 1988.


title: Earl Hebner

text: Just days after that match, Hebner debuted in the World Wrestling Federation as a referee during a WWF World Heavyweight Championship match pitting champion Hulk Hogan against challenger André the Giant, which aired live on February 5, 1988, on NBC's "The Main Event". In the storyline, Hebner's identical twin brother Dave Hebner was the assigned official, but unbeknownst to Hogan, André's manager Ted DiBiase had bribed the then-unknown Earl Hebner to steal the victory and the championship (Earl and Dave are identical twins, so this was easy to pull off). Earl then counted André's pin against Hogan, even though Hogan's shoulders were clearly off the mat. As André and DiBiase were celebrating (with André quickly "selling" his title to an overjoyed DiBiase), Dave (whom DiBiase had locked in a closet prior to the match) ran to the ring and confronted Earl. The two brothers argued, and then they fought each other in the middle of the ring. Hulk Hogan, figuring out that Dave's "evil twin" had jobbed him out, picked Earl up and gorilla press slammed him over the ropes and onto the aisleway (missing DiBiase). It was part of the storyline for Hogan to lose the title in order for him to start filming on "No Holds Barred".


title: Earl Hebner

text: This match helped set up a 14-man elimination tournament at WrestleMania IV, since WWF President Jack Tunney declared the title "vacant" a week after "The Main Event" match as the WWF World Heavyweight Championship "cannot be bought or sold," where the winner would win the WWF World Heavyweight Championship. Vince McMahon paid both Hebners a bonus of $2,500 for participating in the angle.


title: Earl Hebner

text: Meanwhile, the WWF continued to build heat for Earl Hebner through a kayfabe "investigative report" published in the promotion's flagship publication, "WWF Magazine". The article claimed, through a fictional backstory, that Dave had "been plagued by the misdeeds of his brother Earl" throughout their childhoods, citing such examples as Earl's cheating in school and, while posing as Dave, doing such things as bullying fellow students and abandoning Dave's pretty girlfriend on a sidewalk in a slum district at night. The report continued by noting that, despite Dave's appeal of the controversial ending to the Hogan-Andre match at "The Main Event", Tunney had to uphold the decision since Earl was a licensed referee in Indiana (the match took place in Indianapolis); and that, as a result of Earl's cooperation, he became a "very rich" man thanks to a payoff by DiBiase.


title: Earl Hebner

text: However, the "evil twin" referee storyline was quickly dropped when Dave was apparently injured in the aftermath of the Hogan-Andre "Main Event" match; in a 2001 interview with the "WWF RAW Magazine", Dave claimed to have suffered broken ribs as a result of Earl kicking him as part of the angle, forcing Dave out of action until after WrestleMania IV. The storyline was then shifted to have Earl come clean, and he was the referee when "Macho Man" Randy Savage won the Tournament final at WrestleMania IV against "Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship.


title: Earl Hebner

text: The most infamous event in Hebner's career—and possibly in the history of professional wrestling in North America—came during the main event of the 1997 Survivor Series in what has since been dubbed the "Montreal Screwjob". During a match for the WWF Championship between then-champion Bret Hart and challenger Shawn Michaels, Hebner signaled for the timekeeper to ring the bell (signifying the end of the match) while Michaels had Hart in a Sharpshooter hold—Hart's long-established signature move—even though Hart visibly had not submitted. Michaels had thus "won" the WWF Championship. This was not the match ending that Hart had asked for. Hebner had, at the behest of Vince McMahon, "screwed" Hart out of the title. The reason for the "screwjob" was that Hart, who would be leaving the company one month later to join rival promotion World Championship Wrestling (WCW), was unwilling to lose the title to Michaels in Canada. Though Hart said that he was willing to vacate the title the next night on "Raw", McMahon feared that Hart would leave the company with the title, take the belt to WCW, and disrespect it as Madusa had done in 1995 with the WWF Women's Championship, throwing the belt into a garbage can during a live "Nitro" show. He therefore decided to remove the title from Hart forcibly, by instructing Hebner (who had previously promised Hart "on his children's lives" that he would not betray him) to signal an end to the bout when Michaels had Hart in a submission hold. The fallout of the screwjob led to a large degree of antagonism towards Hebner, McMahon, and Michaels, especially in Canada, where fans often chant "You screwed Bret!" at the offending parties. In the same vein, Earl's son Brian Hebner, a former WWE referee on the SmackDown! brand and current Impact Wrestling referee, received chants of "Your dad screwed Bret!" at shows in Canada. However, on "Right After Wrestling", hosted by Arda Ocal and Jimmy Korderas, Earl stated that he has since spoken with Bret and they have buried the hatchet, in regards to the Montreal Screwjob.


title: Earl Hebner

text: Hebner was involved in several storylines. He spearheaded the (kayfabe) referee's strike in 1999, resulting in referees being given the authority to defend themselves if physically provoked by wrestlers. In early 2000, he cost Triple H his WWF Championship by quick-counting during a match between Triple H and Chris Jericho following weeks of abuse by Triple H. Triple H eventually forced Hebner to reverse the decision, promising never to lay his hands on Hebner as long as Hebner was a WWF employee. After Hebner took the title from Jericho and gave it back to Triple H, Triple H "fired" Hebner and promptly Pedigreed him and beat him unconscious. Hebner was reinstated by Linda McMahon thirteen days later, replacing corrupt guest referee Shane McMahon during a title match between Triple H and The Rock at Backlash and counting the fall when The Rock covered Triple H for the pin. Hebner was also the first referee to be a playable character in a wrestling video game as he was included in the roster of WWF No Mercy. During the Invasion angle in late 2001, Hebner became involved in a feud involving WCW referee Nick Patrick. Patrick was a biased referee who often helped The Alliance achieve victories over their WWF opponents. Hebner defeated Patrick in a match at WWF Invasion.


title: Earl Hebner

text: On July 18, 2005, WWE announced that Hebner was fired from WWE for selling WWE merchandise without permission. Hebner's identical twin brother Dave was released from WWE as well on July 19 in connection with these events. These activities would have been conducted from a store that Earl Hebner had partial ownership in, the St. Louis based Pro Shirt Shop. To avoid negative publicity, the controlling owner of the Pro Shirt Shop, Nick Ridenour, bought out Hebner's share in the company and released a press statement which claimed that the company only received merchandise from licensed distributors.


title: Earl Hebner

text: Seven months after his departure from WWE, Hebner debuted for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) at the Against All Odds pay-per-view on February 12, 2006. He officiated the main event, which saw Canadian born Christian Cage defeat Jeff Jarrett for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship. During the match, commentators Mike Tenay and Don West alluded to the Montréal Screwjob on several occasions, urging Hebner not to call for the bell when Jarrett placed Cage in a sharpshooter. Despite the concerns of the commentators, Hebner was an impartial referee. However, he once again caused controversy based on his actions at the TNA Slammiversary 2006 pay-per-view. During the King of the Mountain match, he assisted Jeff Jarrett in winning the match by pushing a ladder over with Sting and then-champion Christian Cage on it. This led to the new head of management Jim Cornette taking the belt from Jarrett as the show ended, leaving the status of the belt in question as to who would be the champion. On the June 22 episode of "TNA Impact!", Cornette vacated the title. On the June 30 episode, he awarded the title to Jarrett, but fired (kayfabe) Hebner. Hebner was then reinstated by Cornette due to Jarrett's polygraph test saying that Hebner was not involved. Hebner was punched in the face by Jeff Jarrett and was (kayfabe) injured. At No Surrender he replaced original referee Slick Johnson for the TNA Knockout Tag Team Championship match because of what happened at Victory Road.


title: Earl Hebner

text: TNA Wrestling had their own version of the Montreal Screwjob, in this case, it was a TNA World Heavyweight Championship match on the January 21, 2010 episode of TNA Impact! between Kurt Angle and defending champion A.J. Styles. Previously to this match, Angle and Styles had fought at the TNA pay-per-view Genesis, which was also for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship except the stipulation was that if Angle were to lose, he would never get another shot at the title in 2010. In this match, Ric Flair interfered causing Styles to retain his title. Hulk Hogan, now running TNA with Eric Bischoff somewhat controversially to some fans, said that due to Flair's interference in the match at Genesis, Angle would get another match at the title on Impact! and if Flair were to interfere, Styles would be stripped of the title and the title would be awarded to Angle. During the match, Angle put his signature move, the Ankle Lock on Styles, but Styles reversed it and used the Ankle Lock on Angle which resulted in the "Screwjob" when referee Earl Hebner called for the bell although Angle did not submit, similar to The Montreal Screwjob. On the January 28 episode of "Impact!" Earl confessed to screwing Bret Hart and Kurt Angle for the money. Hulk Hogan then suspended him indefinitely. On the March 8 Monday night edition of "Impact!" Hogan decided to give Hebner a second chance and had him referee the main event of the evening, a tag team match, where Hogan and Abyss faced A.J. Styles and Ric Flair.


title: Earl Hebner

text: In May 2012, Hebner signed a contract extension with TNA, which would keep him with the promotion through 2013. In July 2012, Hebner started a romance storyline with Madison Rayne, as part of which, he started helping her win matches, including one for the TNA Women's Knockout Championship on August 12 at Hardcore Justice. In response to this situation, Knockouts Executive Brooke Hogan announced that Hebner would no longer referee the Knockouts matches. On April 17, 2014, Hebner was reinstated as Knockouts referee, when Madison Rayne defeated Velvet Sky in a Street Fight. On June 19, 2014, Hebner was involved in the TNA World Heavyweight Championship bout between Kenny King and Eric Young, but after King's loss, MVP fired Hebner and made him get rid of his uniform, to the disgust of his son, Brian, but was reinstated by the new Executive Chief of Wrestling Operations, Kurt Angle after MVP was relieved of his duties by Board of Directors.


title: Earl Hebner

text: On September 14, 2015, it was announced that Hebner would be inducted into the TNA Hall of Fame class of 2015. On November 3, 2017, it was reported both Hebner and his son, Brian, had parted ways with Impact Wrestling.


title: Earl Hebner

text: On July 7, 2018, Hebner refereed what was advertised as his final event at Ring Wars Carolina, which also saw the refereeing debut of his daughter, Katie.


title: Earl Hebner

text: On September 1, 2018 Hebner refereed All In, and was part of the match between Nick Aldis and Cody Rhodes for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship.


title: Earl Hebner

text: Hebner refereed NWA 70th Anniversary Show in Nashville, Tennessee, and was part of the main event match between Nick Aldis and Cody Rhodes for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship.


title: Earl Hebner

text: On February 16, 2019, Hebner refereed at All Star Wrestling's Justice in the main event between Sharp Dressed Man Lawrence and the debuting Brian Snyder in Lewisburg, Tennessee. Near the end of the match, Snyder put Lawrence in the crossface, Lawrence's finishing hold, as Hebner called for the bell, even though Lawrence never gave up. The finish was very similar to the Montreal Screwjob.


title: Earl Hebner

text: In 2019, Hebner, along with a number of other referees, joined All Elite Wrestling. He officiated a limited number of AEW events, primarily AEW pay-per-views and selected episodes of "AEW Dynamite". Hebner then went on a one-year officiating hiatus that ended in 2022 when he returned to Impact Wrestling.


title: Earl Hebner

text: Hebner made his return to IMPACT Wrestling after 5 years away from the company at Slammiversary to count the 1-2-3 to give the Impact Originals the win against Honor No More.


title: Earl Hebner

text: Hebner was married twice, he was first married to Carol Ann Kettner from 1969 to 1977. He later married Susan Ann Green, the marriage lasted from 1978 to 2000.


title: Earl Hebner

text: Hebner's son Brian Hebner is also a professional wrestling referee, while his daughter Katie made a cameo appearance with TNA in 2008 as "Katie Kim", the sister of Gail Kim. Hebner's identical twin brother, Dave, was also a wrestling referee as well as a promoter. Dave died on June 17, 2022 from Parkinson's Disease.


title: Earl Hebner

text: Hebner played himself in the episode "Sixteen Candles and Four-Hundred Pound Men" of "Boy Meets World". Stock footage of one of his WWF matches was also featured in the motion picture "Encino Man".


title: Earl Hebner

text: In July 2016, Hebner was named part of a class action lawsuit filed against WWE which alleged that performers incurred "long term neurological injuries" and that the company "routinely failed to care" for them and "fraudulently misrepresented and concealed" the nature and extent of those injuries. The suit was litigated by attorney Konstantine Kyros, who has been involved in a number of other lawsuits against WWE, primarily over chronic traumatic encephalopathy, an issue that has risen to the forefront of sports-related injuries, especially after the Chris Benoit double-murder and suicide. In September 2018, US District Judge Vanessa Lynne Bryant dismissed the lawsuit.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: Ruth Williams Khama, Lady Khama (9 December 1923 – 22 May 2002) was the wife of Botswana's first president Sir Seretse Khama, the Paramount Chief of its Bamangwato tribe. She served as the inaugural First Lady of Botswana from 1966 to 1980.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: Lady Khama was born Ruth Williams in Meadowcourt Road, Blackheath in South London, the daughter of George and Dorothy Williams. Her father had served as a captain in the British Army in India, and later worked in the tea trade. She had a sister, Muriel Williams-Sanderson, with whom she remained close.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: She was educated at Eltham Hill Grammar School and then served as a WAAF ambulance driver at various airfields in the south of England during the Second World War. After the war, she worked as a clerk for Cuthbert Heath, a firm of underwriters at Lloyd's of London.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: In June 1947, at a dance at Nutford House organised by the London Missionary Society, her sister introduced her to Prince Seretse Khama. He was the son of the "Kgosi" (a Bamangwato title that translates as king, though the British preferred the term paramount chief), Sekgoma II of the Bamangwato people and was studying law at Inner Temple in London after a year at Balliol College, Oxford. The couple were both fans of jazz music, particularly The Ink Spots, and quickly fell in love. Seretse Khama was the first black man she had ever spoken to. A 1952 report described Ruth as a "woman of strong character".


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: Their plans to marry caused controversy with elders in Bechuanaland and the government of South Africa, which had recently instituted the system of racial segregation known as apartheid.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: Britain was developing an atomic bomb which was felt necessary to maintain Britain's claim to be a great power and it was felt crucial that the supplies of uranium come from within the Commonwealth; South Africa happened to be endowed with much uranium which could be mined cheaply via open pit mining out on the "veld" by black South African miners who were paid wages considerably lower than the white miners. Uranium could also be obtained elsewhere in the Commonwealth such as from Canada, but the Canadian uranium was mined via deep shaft mining in the far north by well paid miners, making the Canadian uranium far more expensive than the South African uranium. Thus for reasons of cost, the British government much preferred to buy South African uranium for its atomic bomb program.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: The South African government made it very clear that its willingness to supply uranium for the British nuclear program was contingent upon stopping the marriage. The British government intervened to stop the marriage. Both Ruth and Seretse were Anglicans who wanted to be married within the Church of England, but neither could find a priest willing to marry them. The Bishop of London, William Wand, said he would permit a church wedding only if the government agreed.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: The couple married at Kensington Register Office on 29 September 1948. The marriage attracted much media attention as the Canadian journalist Mackenzie Porter wrote in 1952: "The Press treated their marriage as front-page news. Here, flouting all the dangers he knew to be implicit in [inter-racial marriage], was the scion of the ancient and illustrious House of Khama...And here, seeking to be an African queen, was an English working girl who had been reared to expect nothing more exotic than a semi-detached house in one of London’s great dormitories and a husband who every morning would don his bowler hat, seize his umbrella and catch a red double-decker bus to the city." Daniel Malan, then the Prime Minister of South Africa, described their marriage as "nauseating". Julius Nyerere, then a student teacher and later President of Tanzania, said it was "one of the great love stories of the world".


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: The couple returned to Bechuanaland, a British protectorate, where Seretse's uncle Tshekedi Khama was regent. For the Bamangwato people, the wife of the king was regarded as the mother of the entire Bamangwato people, and for Prince Tshekedi it was simply inconceivable that a white woman could play this role. Prince Tshekedi lobbied the British Colonial Office to either force Seretse to renounce his wife or renounce his claim to the throne.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: In the 1948 South African elections, the Afrikaner nationalist National Party that had strong republican and anti-British tendencies was victorious, and the fear that Prime Minister Malan might declare South Africa a republic led successive British governments to seek to appease Malan, who made it very clear that he disapproved of the Khamas' marriage. Malan banned both Khamas from South Africa. A Cape Town newspaper called Ruth "a foolish ignorant girl." The presence of the "White Queen" as South African newspapers called Ruth was seen as a threat to "apartheid" and several South African newspapers advocated invading Bechuanaland if the "White Queen" was permitted to stay.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: Ruth's arrival in Bechuanaland in August 1949 coincided with the best rainy season in decades, which was taken as a good omen by the Bamangwato, who dubbed her the "Rain Queen". Ruth took part in a Bamangwato ceremony where a large group of women circled around her, singing songs while carrying buckets of water or corn before kneeling down to offer her the water and corn while proclaiming "You are the mother of us all!" Due to the adverse publicity, Ruth Khama disliked speaking to journalists, whom she shunned. Many of the newspaper stories portrayed her and her husband in an unflattering light, which greatly hurt her; a particular bugbear of hers was to pick out the inaccuracies in newspaper stories such as the claim that her husband's grades at the Inner Temple declined after he started dating her.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: In addition, she was upset about stories in the British and American press written by journalists who had never been to Bechuanaland that portrayed it as either a wet place covered by jungles as typical of central Africa or as a savanna typical of East Africa (Bechuanaland had a hot, dry climate and much of the protectorate was covered by the Kalahari desert). One of the few journalists whom she did speak to was the American journalist Margaret Bourke-White, who was able to gain her trust and did a photo-essay on her for "Life".


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: Bourke-White became a close friend of hers and did much to keep up her spirits. Knowing that Ruth Khama was a great ailurophile, Bourke-White gave her the gift of two kittens, whom Seretse named Pride and Prejudice after his wife's favourite novel.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: After receiving popular support in Bechuanaland, Seretse was called to London in March 1950 for discussions with British officials. Ruth advised her husband not to go to London, later saying: "I had a premonition they were going to keep him there". At the time, she was pregnant, and in case her child was a boy, she wanted to give birth in Bechuanaland as under Bamangwato custom a future king must be born on their soil.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: As she suspected, it was a trick. He was prevented from returning home and told he had to remain in exile. The British government, which wished to stay in the good graces of the South African government, offered Seretse £1,000 if he would agree to renounce his claim to the throne; when he refused, he was told he was banished from Bechuanaland for the next five years. In a telegram to his wife, he wrote: "Tribe and myself tricked by British government. Am banned from whole protectorate. Love Seretse". As Ruth did not speak Setswana and most of the whites of Bechuanaland shunned her, after she was separated from her husband, she was very lonely with her principal companions being her two cats and her infant daughter.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: The outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950 increased the importance of South African uranium as it was a major fear of the Attlee government that the United States would become more interested in Asia at the expense of Europe, which it was felt would weaken the American "nuclear umbrella". The Attlee government believed that there was a serious possibility that Joseph Stalin had ordered the North Korean invasion of South Korea with the aim of embroiling the United States in Asia in order to launch a Soviet invasion of Western Europe. As such, it was felt to be of paramount importance that Britain have its own nuclear weapons as soon as possible, which in turn increased the importance of South African uranium.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: Under British law, inter-racial marriages were legal, and the attempt to in effect apply the South African law against inter-racial marriage to a British protectorate by exiling the Khamas was highly controversial, as it was clear at the time that it was South African pressure that was decisive. In South Africa, the Afrikaner nationalist newspaper "Die Transvaaler" stated in an editorial: "While trying to prop up with words the whitewashed façade of liberalism, the British government has in practice had to concede to the demands of "apartheid"". In a leader (editorial), "The Times" stated: "They will not easily persuade public opinion, which has righteously been aroused, that the divergence in racial attitude between the Union [of South Africa] and the British territories can best be met by appeasement at cost of personal injustice. They will have a heavy task to prove that Seretse's exclusion will not do much more damage than his recognition". British public opinion was very much on the side of the Khamas and against the government.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: During this time, a reconciliation with her father took place as he accepted her decision to marry a black man. Ruth joined Seretse in England and the married couple lived as exiles from 1951, living in Croydon.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: Winston Churchill, as the leader of the Official Opposition, had criticised the ban on Seretse Khama placed by the Attlee government, calling it "a very disreputable transaction", but when he won the 1951 election, rather than lifting the ban, he extended it for life, claiming that Seretse's return would be a danger to public order; despite his claims, riots broke out in Bechuanaland when it was learned that the Khamas would not be permitted to return. In a vote in the House of Commons in 1951, 308 MPs voted to keep the Khamas exiled while 286 MPs voted to allow them to return. Notably, Prime Minister Churchill who championed the cause of the Khamas as the leader of the opposition said nothing during the vote. During his exile, Prince Seretse suffered from bouts of depression and in 1952 Ruth told Porter: "Sometimes he just sits in front of the fire warming his hands and brooding. He suffers from lumbago because of the climate. Much as I love him—more than the day we were married—I cannot move him when he gets into one of his black moods. There is absolutely nothing that will snap him out of it."


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: Popular support and protest continued in Bechuanaland. The couple were permitted to return in 1956 after the Bamangwato people sent a telegram to Queen Elizabeth II. Seretse renounced his throne and became a cattle farmer in Serowe. Seretse founded the nationalist Bechuanaland Democratic Party and won the 1965 general election. As prime minister of Bechuanaland, he pushed for independence, which was granted in 1966. Seretse Khama became the first president of independent Botswana and he became a Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire. Lady Khama was an influential, politically active First Lady during her husband's four consecutive terms as president from 1966 to 1980.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: Lady Khama and her husband had four children. Their first child Jacqueline was born in Bechuanaland in 1951, shortly after Seretse was exiled. Their first son Ian was born in England in 1953, and twins Anthony and Tshekedi were born in Bechuanaland in 1958 (Anthony was named after Tony Benn, then known as Anthony Wedgwood Benn, who supported their return from exile in the early 1950s).


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: She remained in Botswana after her husband's death in office in 1980, receiving recognition as ""Mohumagadi Mma Kgosi"" (mother of the king, or queen mother). Despite the national controversy surrounding their union in the 1940s and 1950s, the couple were inseparable until his death from cancer in 1980.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: After her husband's death, she lived on a large farm in Botswana, dedicating her time and efforts to charitable causes and spending time with her children and grandchildren.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: Two of their sons, Ian and Tshekedi, have become prominent politicians in Botswana. Ian Khama was elected as the President of Botswana in 2008.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: Lady Khama died of throat cancer in Gaborone in 2002 at the age of 78, survived by her four children. She was buried in Botswana next to her husband.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: A film, "A Marriage of Inconvenience", based on the Michael Dutfield book with same name, was made in 1990 about the Khamas. In 2006, a book was published entitled "Colour Bar: The Triumph of Seretse Khama and His Nation", written by historian Susan Williams, about the Khamas' relationship and struggles. Another film, "A United Kingdom", based on the Williams book and directed by Amma Asante, was made in 2016. In "A United Kingdom", Lady Khama is portrayed by Rosamund Pike.


title: Ruth Williams Khama

text: In addition to this, it has been suggested that the experiences of the Khamas, as well as the somewhat contemporary case of 1950s debutante Peggy Cripps' marriage to the African anti-colonialist Nana Joe Appiah, influenced the writing of the Oscar-winning feature film, "Guess Who's Coming to Dinner" (1967).


title: Alex Vincent (actor)

text: Alexander Vincent LoScialpo (born April 29, 1981) is an American actor, writer and sound engineer. He is known for his role as Andy Barclay in the "Child's Play" franchise, having played the character in "Child's Play" (1988), "Child's Play 2" (1990), "Curse of Chucky" (2013), "Cult of Chucky" (2017) and again for the Syfy/USA Network television series "Chucky" in 2021.


title: Alex Vincent (actor)

text: At the age of 5, his desire to start acting happened when he saw his neighbor on television, he went to her agent and scored in several commercials. In 1988, he landed the role of Andy Barclay in "Child's Play" after competing against hundreds in NYC and LA, and ultimately 2 other kids his age. He got the role after refusing to swear in front of his mother while reading some lines. After playing it off like he forgot the lines, he impressed the producers and landed the role.


title: Alex Vincent (actor)

text: He is the owner and producer at AV Productions Recording Studio and Production Company in Clearwater, Florida.


title: Alex Vincent (actor)

text: He graduated from Hackensack High School in 1999. Vincent also attended Full Sail University in Winter Park, Florida.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus (; , "Hipparkhos";  BC) was a Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician. He is considered the founder of trigonometry, but is most famous for his incidental discovery of the precession of the equinoxes. Hipparchus was born in Nicaea, Bithynia, and probably died on the island of Rhodes, Greece. He is known to have been a working astronomer between 162 and 127 BC.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus is considered the greatest ancient astronomical observer and, by some, the greatest overall astronomer of antiquity. He was the first whose quantitative and accurate models for the motion of the Sun and Moon survive. For this he certainly made use of the observations and perhaps the mathematical techniques accumulated over centuries by the Babylonians and by Meton of Athens (fifth century BC), Timocharis, Aristyllus, Aristarchus of Samos, and Eratosthenes, among others.


title: Hipparchus

text: He developed trigonometry and constructed trigonometric tables, and he solved several problems of spherical trigonometry. With his solar and lunar theories and his trigonometry, he may have been the first to develop a reliable method to predict solar eclipses.


title: Hipparchus

text: His other reputed achievements include the discovery and measurement of Earth's precession, the compilation of the first known comprehensive star catalog from the western world, and possibly the invention of the astrolabe, as well as of the armillary sphere that he may have used in creating the star catalogue. Hipparchus is sometimes called the "father of astronomy", a title first conferred on him by Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus was born in Nicaea (Greek "Νίκαια"), in Bithynia. The exact dates of his life are not known, but Ptolemy attributes astronomical observations to him in the period from 147 to 127 BC, and some of these are stated as made in Rhodes; earlier observations since 162 BC might also have been made by him. His birth date ( BC) was calculated by Delambre based on clues in his work. Hipparchus must have lived some time after 127 BC because he analyzed and published his observations from that year. Hipparchus obtained information from Alexandria as well as Babylon, but it is not known when or if he visited these places. He is believed to have died on the island of Rhodes, where he seems to have spent most of his later life.


title: Hipparchus

text: In the second and third centuries, coins were made in his honour in Bithynia that bear his name and show him with a globe.


title: Hipparchus

text: Relatively little of Hipparchus's direct work survives into modern times. Although he wrote at least fourteen books, only his commentary on the popular astronomical poem by Aratus was preserved by later copyists. Most of what is known about Hipparchus comes from Strabo's "Geography" and Pliny's "Natural History" in the first century; Ptolemy's second-century "Almagest"; and additional references to him in the fourth century by Pappus and Theon of Alexandria in their commentaries on the "Almagest".


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus's only preserved work is "Τῶν Ἀράτου καὶ Εὐδόξου φαινομένων ἐξήγησις" ("Commentary on the Phaenomena of Eudoxus and Aratus"). This is a highly critical commentary in the form of two books on a popular poem by Aratus based on the work by Eudoxus. Hipparchus also made a list of his major works that apparently mentioned about fourteen books, but which is only known from references by later authors. His famous star catalog was incorporated into the one by Ptolemy and may be almost perfectly reconstructed by subtraction of two and two-thirds degrees from the longitudes of Ptolemy's stars. The first trigonometric table was apparently compiled by Hipparchus, who is consequently now known as "the father of trigonometry".


title: Hipparchus

text: Earlier Greek astronomers and mathematicians were influenced by Babylonian astronomy to some extent, for instance the period relations of the Metonic cycle and Saros cycle may have come from Babylonian sources (see "Babylonian astronomical diaries"). Hipparchus seems to have been the first to exploit Babylonian astronomical knowledge and techniques systematically. Eudoxus in the -4th century and Timocharis and Aristillus in the -3rd century already divided the ecliptic in 360 parts (our degrees, Greek: moira) of 60 arcminutes and Hipparchus continued this tradition. It was only in Hipparchus's time (-2nd century) when this division was introduced (probably by Hipparchus's contemporary Hypsikles) for all circles in mathematics. Eratosthenes (-3rd century), in contrast, used a simpler sexagesimal system dividing a circle into 60 parts. Hipparchus also adopted the Babylonian astronomical "cubit" unit (Akkadian "ammatu", Greek πῆχυς "pēchys") that was equivalent to 2° or 2.5° ('large cubit').


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus probably compiled a list of Babylonian astronomical observations; G. J. Toomer, a historian of astronomy, has suggested that Ptolemy's knowledge of eclipse records and other Babylonian observations in the "Almagest" came from a list made by Hipparchus. Hipparchus's use of Babylonian sources has always been known in a general way, because of Ptolemy's statements, but the only text by Hipparchus that survives does not provide sufficient information to decide whether Hipparchus's knowledge (such as his usage of the units cubit and finger, degrees and minutes, or the concept of hour stars) was based on Babylonian practice. However, Franz Xaver Kugler demonstrated that the synodic and anomalistic periods that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus had already been used in Babylonian ephemerides, specifically the collection of texts nowadays called "System B" (sometimes attributed to Kidinnu).


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus's long draconitic lunar period (5,458 months = 5,923 lunar nodal periods) also appears a few times in Babylonian records. But the only such tablet explicitly dated, is post-Hipparchus so the direction of transmission is not settled by the tablets.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus's draconitic lunar motion cannot be solved by the lunar-four arguments sometimes proposed to explain his anomalistic motion. A solution that has produced the exact ratio is rejected by most historians although it uses the only anciently attested method of determining such ratios, and it automatically delivers the ratio's four-digit numerator and denominator. Hipparchus initially used ("Almagest" 6.9) his 141 BC eclipse with a Babylonian eclipse of 720 BC to find the less accurate ratio 7,160 synodic months = 7,770 draconitic months, simplified by him to 716 = 777 through division by 10. (He similarly found from the 345-year cycle the ratio 4,267 synodic months = 4,573 anomalistic months and divided by 17 to obtain the standard ratio 251 synodic months = 269 anomalistic months.) If he sought a longer time base for this draconitic investigation he could use his same 141 BC eclipse with a moonrise 1245 BC eclipse from Babylon, an interval of 13,645 synodic months = draconitic months ≈ anomalistic months. Dividing by produces 5,458 synodic months = 5,923 precisely. The obvious main objection is that the early eclipse is unattested, although that is not surprising in itself, and there is no consensus on whether Babylonian observations were recorded this remotely. Though Hipparchus's tables formally went back only to 747 BC, 600 years before his era, the tables were good back to before the eclipse in question because as only recently noted, their use in reverse is no more difficult than forward.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus was recognized as the first mathematician known to have possessed a trigonometric table, which he needed when computing the eccentricity of the orbits of the Moon and Sun. He tabulated values for the chord function, which for a central angle in a circle gives the length of the straight line segment between the points where the angle intersects the circle. He computed this for a circle with a circumference of 21,600 units and a radius (rounded) of 3,438 units; this circle has a unit length of 1 arcminute along its perimeter. He tabulated the chords for angles with increments of 7.5°. In modern terms, the chord subtended by a central angle in a circle of given radius equals the radius times twice the sine of half of the angle, i.e.:


title: Hipparchus

text: The now-lost work in which Hipparchus is said to have developed his chord table, is called "Tōn en kuklōi eutheiōn" ("Of Lines Inside a Circle") in Theon of Alexandria's fourth-century commentary on section I.10 of the "Almagest". Some claim the table of Hipparchus may have survived in astronomical treatises in India, such as the "Surya Siddhanta". Trigonometry was a significant innovation, because it allowed Greek astronomers to solve any triangle, and made it possible to make quantitative astronomical models and predictions using their preferred geometric techniques.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus must have used a better approximation for π than the one from Archimedes of between (3.14085) and (3.14286). Perhaps he had the one later used by Ptolemy: 3;8,30 (sexagesimal)(3.1417) ("Almagest" VI.7), but it is not known whether he computed an improved value.


title: Hipparchus

text: Some scholars do not believe Āryabhaṭa's sine table has anything to do with Hipparchus's chord table. Others do not agree that Hipparchus even constructed a chord table. Bo C. Klintberg states, "With mathematical reconstructions and philosophical arguments I show that Toomer's 1973 paper never contained any conclusive evidence for his claims that Hipparchus had a 3438'-based chord table, and that the Indians used that table to compute their sine tables. Recalculating Toomer's reconstructions with a 3600' radius—i.e. the radius of the chord table in Ptolemy's Almagest, expressed in 'minutes' instead of 'degrees'—generates Hipparchan-like ratios similar to those produced by a 3438′ radius. Therefore, it is possible that the radius of Hipparchus's chord table was 3600′, and that the Indians independently constructed their 3438′-based sine table."


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus could have constructed his chord table using the Pythagorean theorem and a theorem known to Archimedes. He also might have developed and used the theorem called Ptolemy's theorem; this was proved by Ptolemy in his "Almagest" (I.10) (and later extended by Carnot).


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus was the first to show that the stereographic projection is conformal, and that it transforms circles on the sphere that do not pass through the center of projection to circles on the plane. This was the basis for the astrolabe.


title: Hipparchus

text: Besides geometry, Hipparchus also used arithmetic techniques developed by the Chaldeans. He was one of the first Greek mathematicians to do this and, in this way, expanded the techniques available to astronomers and geographers.


title: Hipparchus

text: There are several indications that Hipparchus knew spherical trigonometry, but the first surviving text discussing it is by Menelaus of Alexandria in the first century, who now, on that basis, commonly is credited with its discovery. (Previous to the finding of the proofs of Menelaus a century ago, Ptolemy was credited with the invention of spherical trigonometry.) Ptolemy later used spherical trigonometry to compute things such as the rising and setting points of the ecliptic, or to take account of the lunar parallax. If he did not use spherical trigonometry, Hipparchus may have used a globe for these tasks, reading values off coordinate grids drawn on it, or he may have made approximations from planar geometry, or perhaps used arithmetical approximations developed by the Chaldeans.


title: Hipparchus

text: Aubrey Diller has shown that the clima calculations that Strabo preserved from Hipparchus could have been performed by spherical trigonometry using the only accurate obliquity known to have been used by ancient astronomers, 23°40′. All thirteen clima figures agree with Diller's proposal. Further confirming his contention is the finding that the big errors in Hipparchus's longitude of Regulus and both longitudes of Spica, agree to a few minutes in all three instances with a theory that he took the wrong sign for his correction for parallax when using eclipses for determining stars' positions.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus also studied the motion of the Moon and confirmed the accurate values for two periods of its motion that Chaldean astronomers are widely presumed to have possessed before him, whatever their ultimate origin. The traditional value (from Babylonian System B) for the mean synodic month is 29 days; 31,50,8,20 (sexagesimal) = 29.5305941... days. Expressed as 29 days + 12 hours +  hours this value has been used later in the Hebrew calendar. The Chaldeans also knew that 251 synodic months ≈ 269 anomalistic months. Hipparchus used the multiple of this period by a factor of 17, because that interval is also an eclipse period, and is also close to an integer number of years (4,267 moons : 4,573 anomalistic periods : 4,630.53 nodal periods : 4,611.98 lunar orbits : 344.996 years : 344.982 solar orbits : 126,007.003 days : 126,351.985 rotations). What was so exceptional and useful about the cycle was that all 345-year-interval eclipse pairs occur slightly more than 126,007 days apart within a tight range of only approximately ± hour, guaranteeing (after division by 4,267) an estimate of the synodic month correct to one part in order of magnitude 10 million. The 345-year periodicity is why the ancients could conceive of a "mean" month and quantify it so accurately that it is correct, even today, to a fraction of a second of time.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus could confirm his computations by comparing eclipses from his own time (presumably 27 January 141 BC and 26 November 139 BC according to [Toomer 1980]), with eclipses from Babylonian records 345 years earlier ("Almagest" IV.2; [A.Jones, 2001]). Already al-Biruni ("Qanun" VII.2.II) and Copernicus ("de revolutionibus" IV.4) noted that the period of 4,267 moons is approximately five minutes longer than the value for the eclipse period that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus. However, the timing methods of the Babylonians had an error of no fewer than eight minutes. Modern scholars agree that Hipparchus rounded the eclipse period to the nearest hour, and used it to confirm the validity of the traditional values, rather than to try to derive an improved value from his own observations. From modern ephemerides and taking account of the change in the length of the day (see ΔT) we estimate that the error in the assumed length of the synodic month was less than 0.2 second in the fourth century BC and less than 0.1 second in Hipparchus's time.


title: Hipparchus

text: It had been known for a long time that the motion of the Moon is not uniform: its speed varies. This is called its "anomaly" and it repeats with its own period; the anomalistic month. The Chaldeans took account of this arithmetically, and used a table giving the daily motion of the Moon according to the date within a long period. However, the Greeks preferred to think in geometrical models of the sky. At the end of the third century BC, Apollonius of Perga had proposed two models for lunar and planetary motion:


title: Hipparchus

text: Apollonius demonstrated that these two models were in fact mathematically equivalent. However, all this was theory and had not been put to practice. Hipparchus is the first astronomer known to attempt to determine the relative proportions and actual sizes of these orbits. Hipparchus devised a geometrical method to find the parameters from three positions of the Moon at particular phases of its anomaly. In fact, he did this separately for the eccentric and the epicycle model. Ptolemy describes the details in the "Almagest" IV.11. Hipparchus used two sets of three lunar eclipse observations that he carefully selected to satisfy the requirements. The eccentric model he fitted to these eclipses from his Babylonian eclipse list: 22/23 December 383 BC, 18/19 June 382 BC, and 12/13 December 382 BC. The epicycle model he fitted to lunar eclipse observations made in Alexandria at 22 September 201 BC, 19 March 200 BC, and 11 September 200 BC.


title: Hipparchus

text: The somewhat weird numbers are due to the cumbersome unit he used in his chord table according to one group of historians, who explain their reconstruction's inability to agree with these four numbers as partly due to some sloppy rounding and calculation errors by Hipparchus, for which Ptolemy criticised him while also making rounding errors. A simpler alternate reconstruction agrees with all four numbers. Anyway, Hipparchus found inconsistent results; he later used the ratio of the epicycle model ( : ), which is too small (60 : 4;45 sexagesimal). Ptolemy established a ratio of 60 : . (The maximum angular deviation producible by this geometry is the arcsin of divided by 60, or approximately 5° 1', a figure that is sometimes therefore quoted as the equivalent of the Moon's equation of the center in the Hipparchan model.)


title: Hipparchus

text: Before Hipparchus, Meton, Euctemon, and their pupils at Athens had made a solstice observation (i.e., timed the moment of the summer solstice) on 27 June 432 BC (proleptic Julian calendar). Aristarchus of Samos is said to have done so in 280 BC, and Hipparchus also had an observation by Archimedes. As shown in a 1991


title: Hipparchus

text: paper, in 158 BC Hipparchus computed a very erroneous summer solstice from Callippus's calendar. He observed the summer solstice in 146 and 135 BC both accurate to a few hours, but observations of the moment of equinox were simpler, and he made twenty during his lifetime. Ptolemy gives an extensive discussion of Hipparchus's work on the length of the year in the "Almagest" III.1, and quotes many observations that Hipparchus made or used, spanning 162–128 BC. Analysis of Hipparchus's seventeen equinox observations made at Rhodes shows that the mean error in declination is positive seven arc minutes, nearly agreeing with the sum of refraction by air and Swerdlow's parallax. The random noise is two arc minutes or more nearly one arcminute if rounding is taken into account which approximately agrees with the sharpness of the eye. Ptolemy quotes an equinox timing by Hipparchus (at 24 March 146 BC at dawn) that differs by 5 hours from the observation made on Alexandria's large public equatorial ring that same day (at 1 hour before noon): Hipparchus may have visited Alexandria but he did not make his equinox observations there; presumably he was on Rhodes (at nearly the same geographical longitude). Ptolemy claims his solar observations were on a transit instrument set in the meridian.


title: Hipparchus

text: Recent expert translation and analysis by Anne Tihon of papyrus P. Fouad 267 A has confirmed the 1991 finding cited above that Hipparchus obtained a summer solstice in 158 BC. But the papyrus makes the date 26 June, over a day earlier than the 1991 paper's conclusion for 28 June. The earlier study's §M found that Hipparchus did not adopt 26 June solstices until 146 BC, when he founded the orbit of the Sun which Ptolemy later adopted. Dovetailing these data suggests Hipparchus extrapolated the 158 BC 26 June solstice from his 145 solstice 12 years later, a procedure that would cause only minuscule error. The papyrus also confirmed that Hipparchus had used Callippic solar motion in 158 BC, a new finding in 1991 but not attested directly until P. Fouad 267 A. Another table on the papyrus is perhaps for sidereal motion and a third table is for Metonic tropical motion, using a previously unknown year of — days. This was presumably found by dividing the 274 years from 432 to 158 BC, into the corresponding interval of 100,077 days and hours between Meton's sunrise and Hipparchus's sunset solstices.


title: Hipparchus

text: At the end of his career, Hipparchus wrote a book entitled "Peri eniausíou megéthous" ("On the Length of the Year") regarding his results. The established value for the tropical year, introduced by Callippus in or before 330 BC was days. Speculating a Babylonian origin for the Callippic year is difficult to defend, since Babylon did not observe solstices thus the only extant System B year length was based on Greek solstices (see below). Hipparchus's equinox observations gave varying results, but he points out (quoted in "Almagest" III.1(H195)) that the observation errors by him and his predecessors may have been as large as day. He used old solstice observations and determined a difference of approximately one day in approximately 300 years. So he set the length of the tropical year to − days (= 365.24666... days = 365 days 5 hours 55 min, which differs from the modern estimate of the value (including earth spin acceleration), in his time of approximately 365.2425 days, an error of approximately 6 min per year, an hour per decade, and ten hours per century.


title: Hipparchus

text: Between the solstice observation of Meton and his own, there were 297 years spanning 108,478 days. D. Rawlins noted that this implies a tropical year of 365.24579... days = 365 days;14,44,51 (sexagesimal; = 365 days + + + ) and that this exact year length has been found on one of the few Babylonian clay tablets which explicitly specifies the System B month. This is an indication that Hipparchus's work was known to Chaldeans.


title: Hipparchus

text: Another value for the year that is attributed to Hipparchus (by the astrologer Vettius Valens in the first century) is 365 + + days (= 365.25347... days = 365 days 6 hours 5 min), but this may be a corruption of another value attributed to a Babylonian source: 365 + + days (= 365.25694... days = 365 days 6 hours 10 min). It is not clear whether this would be a value for the sidereal year at his time or the modern estimate of approximately 365.2565 days, but the difference with Hipparchus's value for the tropical year is consistent with his rate of precession (see below).