title: Hijikata Toshizō

text: In the final conflict of the revolution, on June 20 (lunar calendar May 11), 1869, Hijikata was killed near the Ippongi Kanmon (一本木関門) by a bullet that shattered his lower back while leading his troops on horseback. His body was later claimed by Koshiba Chōnosuke and others.


title: Hijikata Toshizō

text: Three days later on June 23 (lunar calendar May 14), 1869, a group of surviving Shinsengumi members under the last commander Sōma Kazue surrendered at Benten Daiba. A week after Hijikata's death, the Goryōkaku fortress was taken and all military forces of the Ezo Republic surrendered to the Meiji government on June 27, 1869, marking the end of Boshin War.


title: Hijikata Toshizō

text: It is unknown where Hijikata was buried but it is believed that his body was laid to rest either at Goryōkaku, Hekketsuhi or Ganjoji.


title: Hijikata Toshizō

text: The first grave memorial of Hijikata was at Wakamatsu-chō, Hakodate, where he was killed, near the reconstructed Ippongi Kanmon in the present day compound of the Hakodate Welfare Centre.


title: Hijikata Toshizō

text: Other grave memorials were located at Shōmyōji (Hakodate, Hokkaido), Tenneji (Aizuwakamatsu), Jutokuji (Kita, Tokyo), Entsūji (Kita, Tokyo), etc.


title: Hijikata Toshizō

text: A monument known as Hekketsuhi, was erected at Hakodate in memory of about 800 people, including Hijikata, who died during the Boshin War.


title: Hijikata Toshizō

text: In 1875, Nagakura Shinpachi, with the help of Matsumoto Ryōjun and several of his surviving former Shinsengumi comrades including Saitō Hajime among others, erected the monument known as the "Grave of Shinsengumi" for Kondō Isami, Hijikata Toshizō, and the fallen comrades of the Shinsengumi at Jutoku-ji temple boundary in Itabashi, near Itabashi Station in Tokyo.


title: Hijikata Toshizō

text: The Shinsengumi have become a popular subject for films, television, and manga and anime, ranging from historical drama to comedy and romance. As a leader of the group, Hijikata is usually a prominent character in such productions.


title: Hijikata Toshizō

text: The novel Moeyo Ken, written by Ryōtarō Shiba, is a dramatization of Hijikata's life. The novel was adapted into a film in 1966 and a television series in 1970 where Hijikata was played by Asahi Kurizuka. Adapted from the same novel in the 2021 film "", Hijikata was played by Junichi Okada, a member of Japanese boy band V6.


title: Hijikata Toshizō

text: Hijikata is depicted in the 1999 film "Gohatto" ("Taboo") (played by Takeshi Kitano) and the 2013 NHK Taiga drama "Yae no Sakura" (played by Jun Murakami). He was also played by Koji Yamamoto in both the 2004 NHK Taiga drama series "Shinsengumi!" (including the single-episode sequel "Shinsengumi!: Hijikata Toshizo Saigo no Ichinichi") and 2015 Taiga drama series "Asa ga Kita". He is the protagonist in Morita Kenji's manga "Getsumei Seiki", and in Mibu Robin's "Baragaki" ("Red Demon").


title: Hijikata Toshizō

text: He is also featured in a number of other anime and manga series, including "Gintama" (an inspired character named Hijikata Tōshi"rō" 土方 十四郎), "Peacemaker Kurogane", "Intrigue in the Bakumatsu - Irohanihoheto", "Ghost Slayers Ayashi" (as a child, with a brief glimpse of his future death); "Kaze Hikaru", "Shura no Toki", "Hell Girl", "Soar High! Isami" (inspired character: Toshi Tsukikage) and the popular otome game/anime series "." Hijikata is also a supporting character in "Shin Teito Monogatari", the prequel to the bestselling historical fantasy novel "Teito Monogatari" (Hiroshi Aramata). In the manga and anime, "Drifters", Hijikata serves as one of the antagonists, who holds hatred to the protagonist, Shimazu Toyohisa, because he is an ancestor of the Shimazu clan he fought. He is also a main character in the manga "Golden Kamuy", having been secretly imprisoned in Abashiri Prison instead of killed.


title: Hijikata Toshizō

text: Hijikata is one of the main characters in the 2014 video game "Ryū ga Gotoku Ishin!", voiced by Nakamura Shidō II. He has the visual likeness of previous series antagonist Yoshitaka Mine.


title: Hijikata Toshizō

text: Hijikata also appears in the mobile game "Fate/Grand Order" as a limited 5-Star Berserker-class Servant. He debuted during the GUDAGUDA 2: Meiji Restoration event, and his Noble Phantasm is known as Shinsengumi, which gets stronger as his HP dwindles.


title: The Legend of Korra (comics)

text: The Legend of Korra comics are a continuation of the Nickelodeon animated television series "The Legend of Korra", created by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko. It is set after the series finale, and follows Avatar Korra and Asami Sato on their relationship. The comics are published by Dark Horse Comics, alongside "".


title: The Legend of Korra (comics)

text: A continuation for "The Legend of Korra", the story for the comic books were set after the television series.


title: The Legend of Korra (comics)

text: Material of the original graphic novels were collected in an oversized library edition featuring notes from the creators and a sketchbook section.


title: Switch (Better Call Saul)

text: "Switch" is the second season premiere of the AMC television series "Better Call Saul", the spinoff series of "Breaking Bad". The episode aired on February 15, 2016 on AMC in the United States. Outside of the United States, the episode premiered on streaming service Netflix in several countries.


title: Switch (Better Call Saul)

text: In a flash-forward that follows the events of "Breaking Bad", "Gene" manages a Cinnabon store in Omaha, Nebraska. When closing for the night, he accidentally locks himself in the mall's dumpster room. He contemplates using an emergency exit but does not because the alarm on the door would notify the police. A janitor lets him out nearly three hours later, but Gene carved "S.G. WAS HERE" into the wall with a screw while he waited.


title: Switch (Better Call Saul)

text: Jimmy McGill declines Davis & Main's employment offer and goes on vacation at a luxury hotel under an assumed name. Kim Wexler confronts him but Jimmy is content since his reason for becoming a lawyer was to impress Chuck McGill, who is not supportive. Jimmy convinces Kim to help him con Ken, an obnoxious businessman, into paying their expensive tab at a tequila bar. Thrilled by the experience, Kim keeps the elaborate bottle stopper as a souvenir and spends the night with Jimmy, but says she does not want to participate in this behavior all the time. Jimmy takes the job with Davis & Main and finds that benefits include an expensive company car as well as the cocobolo desk he always wanted. Jimmy notices a wall switch in his new office which has a note posted on it indicating that it should never be turned off. He turns it off and waits a moment to see what happens. When nothing does, he turns it back on.


title: Switch (Better Call Saul)

text: Mike Ehrmantraut refuses another job with Daniel Wormald ("Pryce"), who has spent some of his money on a flashy and expensive new Hummer that Mike believes will draw too much attention. Daniel fires Mike because he believes he no longer needs a bodyguard, ignoring Mike's warnings that it is not wise to deal with Nacho alone. Nacho takes advantage of Mike's absence to obtain Daniel's address and real name from the papers in the Hummer's glove compartment.


title: Switch (Better Call Saul)

text: Daniel's house is ransacked and he calls the police, upset that his valuable baseball card collection has been stolen. The responding officers are suspicious about the nature of the burglary because valuable items including Daniel's computer and TV were left untouched. They are also suspicious of his Hummer. When they search inside his house, the officers find a hidden wall compartment behind his couch, apparently located and emptied by the burglar.


title: Switch (Better Call Saul)

text: This episode was written and directed by executive producer Thomas Schnauz, who also wrote the episodes "Nacho" and "Pimento" of the previous season. Just like "Switch", "Pimento" was also directed by Schnauz. Despite being credited, Michael McKean as Chuck McGill does not appear. Kyle Bornheimer, who plays Ken, reprises his guest role from the first-season "Breaking Bad" episode "Cancer Man".


title: Switch (Better Call Saul)

text: Including Live+3 viewership, the premiere was watched by 4.708 million viewers and attained an 18-49 rating of 2.1.


title: Switch (Better Call Saul)

text: The episode received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the episode has a 93% rating with an average score of 8.4 out of 10 based on 14 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads, Switch' succeeds in taking its sweet time while laying nuanced groundwork for the anticipated transition from Jimmy into Saul."


title: Switch (Better Call Saul)

text: Terri Schwartz of "IGN" gave the episode an 8.5 rating, concluding, Switch' marks a solid return for "Better Call Saul" as we begin to see the 'how' of Jimmy's transition into Saul Goodman be explored." "The Telegraph" note how "it was obviously a hoot to resume acquaintances with Jimmy, Kim and Mike". "The A.V. Club" gave the episode a B+.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The City of Leadville is a statutory city that is the county seat, the most populous community, and the only incorporated municipality in Lake County, Colorado, United States. The city population was 2,602 at the 2010 census and an estimated 2,762 in 2018. It is situated at an elevation of . Leadville is the highest incorporated city in the United States and it is surrounded by two of the tallest 14,000 foot peaks in the state.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Leadville is a former silver mining town that lies among the headwaters of the Arkansas River within the Rocky Mountains. The Leadville Historic District, designated a National Historic Landmark in 1961, contains many historic structures and sites of Leadville's mining era. In the late 19th century, Leadville was the second most populous city in Colorado, after Denver.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The Leadville area was first settled in 1859 when placer gold was discovered in California Gulch during the Pikes Peak Gold Rush. Prospectors panned for gold in the stream that ran through California Gulch in what became the town of Oro City ("oro" is the Spanish word for gold). Horace Tabor, who became known as the "Leadville Silver King", and his wife Augusta were among the first prospectors to arrive in Oro City. His wife made money as postmistress, banker, cook, and laundress while Tabor was a prospector.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The early miners had noted that mining for placer gold was hampered by heavy black sand in the sluice boxes, and in 1874 it was discovered that the heavy sand that impeded gold recovery was the lead mineral cerussite, which has a high silver content. Prospectors traced the cerussite to its source, present day Leadville, and by 1876 had discovered several silver-lead lode deposits. As the gold has been tapped out of the gulch and attention was averted to nearby Leadville, a mile or two away, Oro City became a ghost town.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Leadville was founded in 1877 by mine owners Horace Tabor and August Meyer at the start of the Colorado Silver Boom. The town was built on desolate flat land below the tree line. The first miners lived in a rough tented camp near the silver deposits in California Gulch. Initially, the settlement was called "Slabtown", but when the residents petitioned for a post office, the name "Leadville" was chosen. By 1880, Tabor and Meyer's new town had gas lighting, water mains, of streets, five churches, three hospitals, six banks, and a school for 1,100 students. Many business buildings were constructed with bricks hauled in by wagons.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: In early 1878, Meyer, along with Leadville's pioneer smelter entrepreneur, Edwin Harrison, after whom the famed Harrison Avenue is named, and Tabor established a post office in Leadville, with Henderson as postmaster. The post office and the telegraph office both prospered.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The town's first newspaper was "The Reveille", a Republican weekly, in 1878. Three months later, a competing Democratic weekly, "The Eclipse", emerged. "The Chronicle" was the town's first daily and first newspaper in America to employ a full-time female reporter. Like the "Rocky Mountain News", "The Chronicle" took the lead in outing criminals and thieves, in an attempt to clean up the town's shady business culture. Despite violent threats, the "Chronicle" survived without major incident.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: William Nye opened the first saloon in 1877, and it was followed by many others. The same year the Coliseum Novelty was the first theater to open. It offered sleeping rooms upstairs for a nightly rate and provided a variety of entertainments: dancing girls, dogfights, cockfighting, wrestling and boxing matches, and rooms for gambling. In June 1881, it burned to the ground. Ben Wood, who arrived in Leadville in 1878, opened the first legitimate theater, Wood's Opera House, with a thousand seats. It was a first-class theater, where gentleman removed their hats and did not smoke or drink in the presence of a lady. Less than a year later, Wood opened the Windsor Hotel. His opera house was regarded as the largest and best theater constructed in the West, an honor it held until the opening of the Tabor Opera House. Horace Tabor's Opera House was the most costly structure in Colorado at the time. Building materials were brought by wagons from Denver. The massive three-story opera house, constructed of stone, brick, and iron, opened on November 20, 1879. Tabor, originally from Vermont, became the town's first mayor. After striking it rich, he had an estimated net worth of 10 million dollars and was known for his extravagant lifestyle.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: In 1883, Horace Tabor divorced his wife of 25 years and married Baby Doe McCourt, who was half his age. Tabor was by then a US senator, and the divorce and marriage caused a scandal in Colorado and beyond. For several years, the couple lived a lavish lifestyle in a Denver mansion, but Tabor, one of the wealthiest men in Colorado, lost his fortune when the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act caused the Panic of 1893. He died destitute but remained convinced that the price of silver would rebound. According to legend, he told Baby Doe to "hold on the Matchless mine... it will make millions again when silver comes back." She returned to Leadville with her daughters, Silver Dollar and Lily, where she spent the rest of her life believing Tabor's prediction. At one time the "best dressed woman in the West", she lived in a cabin at the Matchless Mine for the last three decades of her life. After a snowstorm in March 1935, she was found frozen in her cabin, aged about 81 years.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Mining in the Leadville area began in 1859 when prospectors discovered gold at the mouth of California Gulch. By 1872, placer mining in California Gulch yielded more than $2,500,000, roughly . In 1876, black sand, once considered bothersome to placer gold miners, was discovered to contain lead carbonates, leading to a rush of miners to the area and the founding of the town in 1877. By 1880, Leadville was one of the world's largest and richest silver camps, with a population of more than 15,000. Income from more than thirty mines and ten large smelting works produced gold, silver, and lead amounting to $15,000,000 annually.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: According to one historian of the era, "The outpouring of the precious metal from Leadville transformed the struggling Centennial State into a veritable autocrat in the colony of states. As if by magic the rough frontier town of Denver became a metropolis; stately buildings arose on the site of shanties; crystal streams flowed through the arid plains and the desert blossomed and became fruitful. Poverty gave way to the annoyance of wealth and the fame of silver state spread throughout the world."


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Swindles were not uncommon in the mining community. When the Little Pittsburg mine was exhausted of its rich ore body, its managers sold their shares while concealing the mine's actual condition from the other stockholders. "Chicken Bill" Lovell dumped a wheelbarrow load of silver-rich ore into a barren pit on his Chrysolite claim in order to sell it to Horace Tabor for a large price. Tabor had the last laugh when his miners dug a few feet farther and discovered a rich ore body. Some time later the manager of the Chrysolite mine fooled an outside mining engineer into overestimating the mine's ore reserves.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The city's fortunes declined with the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in 1893, although afterwards there was another small gold boom. Mining companies came to rely increasingly on income from the lead and zinc. The district is credited with producing over 2.9 million troy ounces of gold, 240 million troy ounces of silver, 1 million short tons of lead, 785 thousand short tons of zinc, and 53 thousand short tons of copper.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: A bitter strike by Leadville's hard rock miners in 1896–97 led to bloodshed, at least five deaths, and the burning of the Coronado Mine. In a letter to a London business contact, mine owner Eben Smith wrote, "The strikers got the worst of it in the raid on the Coronado and Emmet [mines], there were 10 or 12 killed; we do not know how many, and a great number wounded; they take care of their wounded the same as the Indians but every now and then a fellow turns up that the rats have been eating or who has gone to decay that we know must have been shot ..."


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: World War II caused an increase in the demand for molybdenum, used to harden steel. It was mined at the nearby Climax mine, which at one time produced 75 percent of the world's output. By 1980, the Climax Mine was the largest underground mine in the world. Taxes paid by the mine provided Leadville with good schools and libraries and provided employment for many residents. When the market dropped in 1981, Leadville's economy suffered and many people lost their jobs. With little industry other than the tourist trade, most of the former miners left, and the standard of living declined. Climax reopened in 2008 and started production in 2010. It currently is the most efficient mine producing molybdenum in Colorado and is estimated to have a production life of thirty years.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The many years of mining left behind substantial contamination of the soil and water and the Environmental Protection Agency designated some former mines Superfund sites, such as California Gulch. As of 2019, the EPA reports: "A vast majority of the cleanup at the site has been completed, so current risk of exposure is low. Pregnant women, nursing mothers and young children are still encouraged to have their blood-lead levels checked."


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: As the population boomed, by 1878, Leadville had the reputation as one of the most lawless towns in the West. The first city marshal was run out of town a few days after he was appointed, and his replacement was shot dead within a month by one of his deputies. Fearing the town would be lost to the lawless element, Mayor Horace Tabor sent for Mart Duggan, who was living in Denver, as a replacement. Duggan is little-known today, but was well known at the time as a fearless gunfighter. Using strong-arm and lawless tactics, during his two stints as marshal, Duggan brought order to Leadville by 1880 when he stepped down. He was shot and killed in 1888 by an unknown assailant, most likely an enemy he had made when he was a Leadville marshal. Historian Robert Dearment writes, "Mart Duggan was a quick-shooting, hard-drinking, brawling tough Irish man, but he was exactly the kind of man a tough, hard-drinking, quick-shooting camp like Leadville needed in its earliest days. His name is all but forgotten today, but the name "Matt Dillon" is recognized around the world. Such are the vagaries of life."


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Alice Ivers, better known as Poker Alice, was a card player and dealer of the Old West who learned her trade in Leadville. Born in Devonshire, her family moved to America when she was a small girl. They first settled in Virginia, where she attended an elite girls' boarding school. When she was a teenager, her family moved to Leadville when the silver boom drew hundreds of new residents to the area. At the age of twenty she married a mining engineer who, like many of the men at that time, frequented the numerous gambling halls in Leadville. Alice went along, at first just observing, but eventually she began to sit in on the games as well. After a few years of marriage her husband was killed in a mining accident and she turned to cards to support herself. Alice was attractive, dressed in the latest fashions, and was in great demand as a dealer. Eventually Alice left Leadville to travel the gambling circuit, as was common of the male gamblers of that time. She continued to dress in the latest fashions but took to smoking cigars. Well known throughout the West, gambling halls welcomed her because she was good for business. Alice said that she won more than $250,000 by gambling during her lifetime.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Texas Jack Omohundro, Confederate scout, cowboy and stage actor with "Buffalo Bill" Cody's travelling revue, died of pneumonia a month before his 34th birthday in summer 1880 in Leadville, where he was living on a small estate with his wife, ballerina Giuseppina Morlacchi.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Around 1883, shortly after the gun fight at the O.K. Corral, Doc Holliday moved to Leadville, where he dealt faro. On August 19, 1884, he shot ex-Leadville policeman Billy Allen, who had threatened him for failing to pay a $5 debt. Despite overwhelming evidence implicating him, a jury found Holliday not guilty of the shooting or attempted murder.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Margaret "Molly" Brown, who became known as "The Unsinkable Molly Brown", moved to Leadville when she was 18. In 1886 she married a mining engineer who was twelve years older, James Joseph Brown. The Brown family acquired great wealth in 1893 when Brown was instrumental in the discovery of a substantial gold ore seam at the Little Jonny Mine.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The mine was owned by his employers, the Ibex Mining Company. Margaret Brown became famous because of her survival of the 1912 sinking of the RMS "Titanic", after exhorting the crew of to return to look for survivors. A 1960 Broadway musical based on her life was produced, along with a 1964 film adaptation of the musical, both titled "The Unsinkable Molly Brown". Her home in Denver has been preserved as the Molly Brown House Museum.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Meyer Guggenheim of the Guggenheim family started out in Leadville in mining and smelting. The family went on to possess one of the largest fortunes in the world. Family members have become known for their philanthropy in diverse areas such as modern art and aviation, including several Guggenheim Museums.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Oscar Wilde appeared at the Tabor Opera House during his 1882 American Aesthetic Movement lecture tour. The reviews were mixed, and the press satirized Wilde in cartoons as an English dandy decorated with sunflowers and lilies, the floral emblems of the Aesthetic Movement. A Kansas newspaper described the event:


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Oscar Wilde's visit to Leadville excited a great deal of interest and curiosity. The Tabor-opera house where he lectured was packed full. It was rumored that an attempt would be made by a number of young men to ridicule him by coming to the lecture in exaggerated costume with enormous sunflowers and lilies and to introduce a number of characters in the costume of the Western "bad men". Probably, however, better counsel prevailed and no disturbance took place.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Mayor David H. Dougan invited Wilde to tour the Matchless Mine and name its new lode "The Oscar". Wilde later recounted a visit to a local saloon, "where I saw the only rational method of art criticism I have ever come across. Over the piano was printed a notice – 'Please do not shoot the pianist. He is doing his best.'"


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The town has made major efforts to improve its economy by encouraging tourism and emphasizing its history and opportunities for outdoor recreation. The National Mining Museum and Hall of Fame opened in 1987 with a federal charter. The town's altitude and rugged terrain contributes to a number of challenging racing events, such as the Leadville Trail 100 series of races. It is often used as a base for altitude training and hosts a number of other events for runners and mountain bicyclists.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: At an elevation of , Leadville lies close to timberline, which in Colorado is from . The surrounding peaks are all well above 12,000 feet, and are thus bare of trees. Leadville has the highest elevation of any city in the United States.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Leadville lies in a valley at the headwaters of the Arkansas River which flows through the southern Rocky Mountains and eventually empties into the Mississippi River. It is situated between two mountain ranges, the Mosquito Range to the east and the Sawatch Range to the west, both of which include several nearby peaks with elevations above , the so-called fourteeners. Mount Elbert, southwest of Leadville, is the highest summit of the Rocky Mountains of North America and the highest point in the Colorado and the entire Mississippi River drainage basin. An ultra-prominent fourteener, Mount Elbert is the highest summit of the Sawatch Range and the second-highest summit in the contiguous United States after Mount Whitney in California. Mount Massive, west-southwest of Leadville, at is the second highest summit in the Rocky Mountains and state of Colorado, and the third highest in the contiguous United States.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Turquoise Lake lies on the western outskirts of Leadville. The surface available for recreation includes . Turquoise Lake is a feature of the Fryingpan-Arkansas Project. Recreation is managed by the Forest Service for the Bureau of Reclamation as part of San Isabel National Forest.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city of Leadville has an area of , all land. The lower part of California Gulch runs past the southern edge of the city, flowing west to the Arkansas River.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Leadville has an alpine subarctic climate (Dfc) with cold winters and mild summers, bordering on a cold semi-arid climate (Bsk). The average January temperatures are a maximum of and a minimum of . The average July temperatures are a maximum of and a minimum of . There are an average of 271.7 mornings annually with freezing temperatures, which can occur in any month of the year. The record high temperature was on July 18, 2003. The record low temperature was on February 1, 1985.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Average annual precipitation is . The wettest calendar year was 2014 with and the driest 1994 with . The most precipitation in one month was in January 1996. The most precipitation in 24 hours was on February 13, 1986. Average annual snowfall is . The most snowfall in one year was in 1996. The most snowfall in one month was in April 1995.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 2,821 people, 1,253 households, and 675 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 1,514 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 83.52% White, 0.14% African American, 1.28% Native American, 0.32% Asian, 0.11% Pacific Islander, 12.34% from other races, and 2.30% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 25.45% of the population.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: There were 1,253 households, out of which 24.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.7% were married couples living together, 8.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.1% were non-families. 35.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.91.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.1% under the age of 18, 12.1% from 18 to 24, 34.4% from 25 to 44, 22.0% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 109.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 107.8 males.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The median income for a household in the city was $36,714, and the median income for a family was $44,444. Males had a median income of $28,125 versus $23,512 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,607. About 9.1% of families and 13.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.5% of those under age 18 and 7.5% of those age 65 or over.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The Leadville Historic District was designated a National Historic Landmark District in 1961. The district encompasses 67 mines east of the city up to the elevation, and a defined portion of the village area, with specific exclusions for various buildings. The principal historic buildings are the Tabor Grand Hotel, St George's Church, Temple Israel, the Annunciation Church, Tabor Opera House, City Hall, Healy House, Dexter Cabin, Engelbach House, and Tabor House, as well as mining structures and small homes.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The National Mining Hall of Fame on West 9th Street is dedicated to commemorating the work of miners and people that work with natural resources. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Major exhibits include an elaborate model railroad, a walk-through replica of an underground hardrock mine, the Gold Rush Room with specimens of native gold, a large collection of mineral specimens, and a mining art gallery. The site also includes the Matchless Mine and cabin, former home of Baby Doe Tabor.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Some historic sites are linked by the Mineral Belt National Recreation Trail, an all-season biking/walking trail that loops around Leadville and through its historic mining district. In part it follows old mining-camp railbeds. Interpretative kiosks recount the history and a photograph of what was on that particular site more than a century ago. The trail is well-marked with interpretive signs and altitude and mileage markers.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Camp Hale is located north of Leadville in the Eagle River valley north of Tennessee Pass. It was a U.S. Army ski warfare training facility constructed in 1942 for what became the 10th Mountain Division. Some of the nation's finest skiers were employed as instructors. Soldiers were trained in mountain climbing, Alpine and Nordic skiing, and cold-weather survival, as well as various weapons and ordnance. When it was in full operation, approximately 15,000 soldiers were housed there. As the only source of recreation for the trainees, Leadville was persuaded to change its moral character, perceived "to be on a rather low plane" at the time. Today Camp Hale is designated as a National Historic Site offering a self-guiding tour with interpretive signs at ten stops and a larger interpretive site at the main entrance.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Boom Days, held on the first full weekend of August, is a tribute to the city's mining past. The event has been honored by Congress as a Local Legacy Event. The festivities held over three days include mining competitions and burro racing, motorcycle games, a rod and gun show, live music, a craft fair and parade. The annual skijoring event and Crystal Carnival take place in March. This is a horse-drawn skiing for the family since the 1960s. The town has frequent, sometimes small parades held in the downtown area, such as the quirky St Patrick's Day Practice Parade.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The Leadville Trail 100, an ultramarathon, takes place each August on an out-and-back course on trails around Turquoise Lake, over Hagerman Pass, the Colorado Trail, through Twin Lakes, across the Arkansas River, up and over Hope Pass, to the ghost town of Winfield. It then returns along the same course.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The Mineral Belt Trail is an , two-way non-motorized paved trail around the city. Five access points offer opportunities to walk shorter sections: Ice Palace Park, Lake County Middle School, Dutch Henry Hill, California Gulch, and the East 5th Street Bridge. Mineral Belt is completely ADA-accessible for wheelchairs and strollers, cyclists, runners and in-line skaters.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The "Route of the Silver Kings" is a driving tour of the historic mining district. The tour passes mines, power plants, ghost towns and mining camps.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Situated within the San Isabel National Forest and surrounded by three wilderness areas, Leadville is popular with hikers and campers. The Mount Massive Wilderness and Buffalo Peaks Wilderness are within of the city, and the Collegiate Peaks Wilderness is within .


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Turquoise Lake lies on the western outskirts of Leadville. Recreation facilities consist of eight campgrounds and two boat-launching ramps. The surface available for recreation includes . Primary recreation activities include camping and fishing. Fish species include mackinaw trout, rainbow trout, and brook trout. The facilities are closed in winter due to ice and snow, but they remain a popular area for ice fishing. Turquoise Lake is part of the Fryingpan-Arkansas Project. Recreation is managed by the Forest Service for the Bureau of Reclamation as part of the San Isabel National Forest.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: The Top of the Rockies Byway, designated a National Scenic Byway in 1998, is a highway that travels starting in Aspen and traveling through Leadville to either Minturn or Copper Mountain. Seldom dropping below , it drives over three mountain passes that are above , and there are views of six mountains of over . The Top of the Rockies Byway runs through three national forests: Pike, Arapaho, and White River. The Camp Hale Memorial is located along the byway, where soldiers trained on skis to fight in the Apennine Mountains of Italy during World War II. The road passes through the Arkansas Headwaters Recreation Area and Arkansas River Headwaters State Park.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Mosquito Pass is located east of Leadville. It can be traversed only on foot, an off-road motorcycle, or with a proper four-wheel drive vehicle. It is typically passable only during the summer months.


title: Leadville, Colorado

text: Leadville is served by Lake County Airport. However, there is no scheduled airline service available from this airport. The closest airports to provide scheduled services are Eagle County Regional Airport and Aspen/Pitkin County Airport, both away.


title: Kick 2

text: Kick 2 is a 2015 Indian Telugu-language action comedy film directed by Surender Reddy from a story written by Vakkantham Vamsi. It is produced by Nandamuri Kalyan Ram under the banner of N.T.R. Arts. A sequel to the 2009 film "Kick," the film stars Ravi Teja, Rakul Preet Singh, and Ravi Kishan. Teja reprises his role from the sequel, while also playing double role as a father and son. Kabir Duhan Singh, Ashish Vidyarthi, Brahmanandam, Shaam and Rajpal Yadav appear in supporting roles, with music composed by S. Thaman.


title: Kick 2

text: The film was officially launched on 20 August 2014, and the principal photography began on the same day. The audio soundtrack of the movie was composed by S. Thaman and was released on 9 May 2015. The film was released worldwide on 21 August 2015. The film performed poorly at the box office, grossing on a budget of . The box office results were below average.


title: Kick 2

text: The film opens with Kalyan Krishna arriving in Virginia to meet Kalyan, who has now married Naina and settled there. Kalyan tells Kalyan Krishna about the former’s son Robin Hood, who is completely contrasted in character as opposed to his father. Always looking for comfort in every aspect of life, Robin soon moves to Hyderabad to recover a plot of land belonging to his family that was grabbed by Settlement Durga. After challenging Durga that he will recover his land, Robin moves into the house of Pandit Ravi Teja, an astrologer who was behind Durga’s action of grabbing the land. Robin begins to make Pandit’s life miserable. An aspiring writer, Chaitra, is also smitten by Robin, and is rejected by her, who however poses the condition that should he fall in love with her anytime before he leaves for Virginia, he would stay back with her.


title: Kick 2

text: Meanwhile, a group of villagers from Vilaspur, a small town ruled by a ruthless landlord, Solomon Singh Thakur, are sent to follow Robin, who is believed to be the godsend who will save the village from the Thakur. Robin is successful in recovering his land, and minutes before his departure, realizes that he has caught feelings for Chitra. He attempts to meet her but witnesses her get kidnapped by the villagers. A diary of hers reveals that she belonged to Vilaspur, prompting Robin to travel there to meet her. On arrival, the villagers stage a drama to ensure that Robin stays in Vilaspur for as long as possible and gets into a tussle with the Thakur. However, the attempts of the village is often belittled by one of the villagers, Venkataratnam, himself.


title: Kick 2

text: Thakur’s son, Munna arrives at Vilaspur, and in a state of intoxication kills a young girl, who was the daughter of one of the villagers. This is all hushed up in front of Robin to keep the drama going. Eventually, a misunderstanding comes up during a festival, leading to a duel between Munna and Robin. The former ends up in a coma, but is recovered by Robin himself, who challenges Thakur to get Munna to fight him a second time. Munna and Robin meet yet again, and Munna ends defeated once more. When he shows fright to face Robin a third time, Thakur kills his own son.


title: Kick 2

text: The entire village is taken hostage by the Thakur, which has been deserted by Robin, who has found out that the villagers were conning him. However, a change of heart at the railway station because of Venkataratnam causes Robin to come back for the villagers and face Thakur. In a turn of events, Thakur’s army is revealed to have turned against him for Robin, and in a final duel, Robin injures and subdues the Thakur, leaving his fate to the villagers. The latter is tied to a pole and is set on fire (a practice Thakur had commonly used on the villagers) and burnt alive. The film ends with Robin and Chaitra reuniting, and the announcement of a sequel, "Kick 3".


title: Kick 2

text: After completing work on "Race Gurram" (2014), Surender Reddy wanted to make an experimental film which he later kept on hold and announced the sequel of "Kick" (2009), bankrolled by actor Nandamuri Kalyan Ram under the banner N.T.R. Arts, in late March 2014 when the script work was in its final stages. Reddy wanted its protagonist Ravi Teja to complete his work on "Power" (2014) before joining the shoot of the sequel, adding that this film, though a namesake sequel to "Kick", would show Ravi Teja carrying some continuity from the prequel.


title: Kick 2

text: Vakkantham Vamsi, who wrote the script of the prequel, was confirmed to provide this film's story. Kalyan Ram tentatively titled the film as "Kick 2" in late May 2014 with an intention of changing it after a month or so to avoid confusions if any. The film was launched officially on 20 August 2014 at Hyderabad with N. T. Rama Rao Jr. and Allu Arjun in attendance as the chief guests. Later, Ravi Teja revealed that the film's story will be the one of the son of the prequel's lead pair, adding that the sequel is just an extension of the prequel.


title: Kick 2

text: Surender Reddy wanted to select Tamannaah as the female lead. However, because of lack of dates, she rejected the offer as her dates were available only in August 2014. Later it was speculated that a new actress would be paired with Ravi Teja. The search for the lead actress was still going on after the film's launch. Rakul Preet Singh was confirmed as the heroine on 11 September 2014. It was reported that Ravi Teja would be seen playing a dual role as a father and son. Vikram Singh was selected as the antagonist. Sudeep was reported to be a part of the film who confirmed that Surender Reddy met him months ago for the same. Rajpal Yadav confirmed his inclusion on 10 November 2014 marking his Telugu debut. Rakul Preet Singh was reported to walk out from the project though Surender Reddy confirmed it to be a rumor later. Rakul Preet confirmed that she would be seen in two avatars - one being a city bred girl and the other being a Village belle. She clarified that she would not be seen in a dual role adding that she cannot reveal anything beyond that. Ravi Kishan was selected for a negative role, marking his second film in Tollywood industry with, director Surender Reddy again after Race Gurram. Vikram Singh who was cast as villain opted out of this project citing date issues. He said that he was upset going out of this movie and wished good luck for the film. Then, Chennai Express fame, Nikitin Dheer was considered for another villain role. Mumbai based model Kabir Duhan Singh was also signed in for another villain role who acts as a son to Ravi Kishan in the movie. Nora Fatehi has been signed to do a special song in the film.


title: Kick 2

text: Top comedian Brahmanandam was reported to play an important role in the film. In late June 2015, it was known that Ravi Teja insisted director to take Sanjai Mishra into the film, marking his Telugu debut.


title: Kick 2

text: It was reported that the filming would start in June 2014. The principal photography started on 20 August 2014. Later, Telugu Film Industry Employees Federation served a strike notice to the Andhra Pradesh Film Chamber of Commerce demanding a 100% raise in their wages. The secretary of the Chamber held talks with them and it was reported that if they fail, the shootings of many films including this film would be halted. The filming continued after the strike was called off and few scenes on Ravi Teja and Rajpal Yadav were shot in Hyderabad in late November 2014. A Rajasthan village set costing 20 million was erected near Rajendra Nagar in the outskirts of Hyderabad on which 2 million was spent daily for shooting. The film was shot continuously for 66 hours in Hyderabad. By January 2015, 70% shooting was completed, said by director Surender Reddy in an interview to a leading daily newspaper "Deccan Chronicle". The film was later shot extensively in Rajasthan and the film's climax was shot in Jaisalmer in late January 2015. Filming continued at Hampi in late January 2015 where a big schedule was planned there to shoot key scenes on whose completion, 90% of the filming would be completed. After completion of Hampi schedule filming began in Hyderabad


title: Kick 2

text: Leading actor of this movie, Ravi Teja sheds 6 kg for a special role in this film. By shooting talkie part in February and March, shooting of two songs was started in Switzerland on 22 March 2015. This schedule was up to 31 March 2015. And by shooting another last song from 3 April 2015 in Annapurna Studios the shoot of talkie part including all the songs was completed.


title: Kick 2

text: S. Thaman was selected as the film's music director and he began working on this film on 3 June 2014. The audio track list was released on 4 May 2015. New poster of the movie was released on 7 May 2015 announcing the audio date as 9 May 2015. The audio launch event took place at City Convention Center while actor N. T. Rama Rao Jr., younger brother of producer Nandamuri Kalyan Ram attended as chief guest and handed over the first audio CD to Ravi Teja.


title: Kick 2

text: It was reported that Thaman's background score (BGM) was mixed in Dolby Atmos. On 25 June 2015, Thaman wrapped up the tracking of the songs and was known that the background score (BGM) would be one of the highlights of the film.


title: Kick 2

text: The film was scheduled for a worldwide release on 7 May 2015. Later the makers announced the worldwide release date as 28 May 2015. But, as there was a delay in the film's post production, the release date has been pushed ahead. At the audio launch event, the film's worldwide release date was announced as 22 May 2015.


title: Kick 2

text: But due to delay in VFX department, the worldwide release date was pushed to July 2015. and director Surender Reddy was supervising all this post-production works continuously. Reports emerged in mid June 2015 that the movie will have its worldwide release date as 14 August 2015 though there was no official announcement. In late July 2015 the makers finally confirmed the worldwide release date as 21 August 2015.


title: Kick 2

text: The film's overseas theatrical rights were sold to Classics Entertainments for an undisclosed high price in April 2015. European Telugu Colors bagged the distribution rights across Europe associating with Classics Entertainments.


title: Kick 2

text: "The Times of India" gave the film a rating of three out of five stars and wrote that "The first half of the film is enjoyable due to being high on emotions, laced with elements of fun, however, the pace slows in second half and so does the entertainment quotient". "The Hindu" wrote that "For those who like the Kick format, there’s an excess of everything". "Deccan Chronicle" gave the film a rating of three out of five stars and stated that "Kick 2 offers some entertainment here and there. It’s a typical Ravi Teja film with his mass dialogues and action, which attracts the front benchers". "Sify" gave the film a rating of two-and-three-quarter out of five and noted that "In one line, Kick 2 does not have the required kick nor does it provide any comfort to the audiences as it is long".


title: Kick 2

text: The film performed poorly at the box office, grossing worldwide, with 2.04 crore (US$307,000) of that from the United States.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: The Chrysler B and RB engines are a series of big-block V8 gasoline engines introduced in 1958 to replace the (first generation Hemi) engines. The B and RB engines are often referred to as "wedge" engines because they use wedge-shaped combustion chambers; this differentiates them from Chrysler's big block engines that are typically referred to as "Hemi" or "426 Hemi" due to their hemispherical shaped combustion chambers.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: Design features of the B and RB engines include 17 capscrews per cylinder head, a cylinder block that extends below the crankshaft centerline, an intake manifold not exposed to crankcase oil on the underside, stamped-steel shaft-mounted rocker arms (race versions used forged steel rockers), and a front-mounted external oil pump driven by the camshaft.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: The 'B' series wedge engine was introduced in 1958 with and versions. The 361 would continue in production until the end of the series, albeit only for truck installation. The RB ("raised B") arrived one year after the launch of the B series engines, in and displacements. Unlike the previous B-engines, which had a stroke, the RB engines had a stroke.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: The last 'B-RB' wedge-headed engine was produced in August 1978, ending the era of Chrysler "big-block" engines.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: All Low Block B-series engines have a stroke, a deck height and connecting rods, resulting in a 1.88:1 rod ratio.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: The B engine was, along with the 361, the first production B engine, first available in 1958. It had a bore of . The 350 is classified as a big block engine. All parts except for the pistons are fully compatible with the 361.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: The 361 cu in B engine also introduced in 1958 was essentially the same as the 350 except with a larger bore, for an actual displacement of . In 1962, the Dodge Polara 500 came standard with a version of the 361 that had a four-barrel carburetor, dual-point distributor, and dual exhausts. Plymouth called their versions of the early B engine the "Commando", variants of which included the "Golden Commando" and "Sonoramic Commando". It produced . DeSoto's B engine was named "Turboflash" and produced . The Dodge standard version was a 2-barrel with called the "Super Red Ram" with an optional variant that was called the "D500" and produced .


title: Chrysler B engine

text: The 361 would last until the end of the series, albeit for trucks only. In its early years, the 305-horsepower 361 was optional on many vehicles, and standard on, among others, the Dodge 880. The 361 had a fuel injected version in 1958 only. Very few of the fuel injected B engines were made and only a handful remain, since most were brought back to the dealer to be fitted with carburetors.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: The 383 cu in B engine — not to be confused with the RB version — was essentially a larger bore version of the 350 and 361, using a bore for a displacement. This venerable engine was introduced in 1959. Dodge's version, the "D500" had a cross-ram induction manifold and dual four-barrel carburetors as options. In some Dodge applications, this engine was labeled as the "Magnum", while the Plymouth version was called the "Golden Commando". Both came with a dual point distributor in high-performance versions.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: The 383 became the standard model Mopar performance engine for the next decade. The big bore allowed for larger, , intake valves, and the relatively short stroke helped it to be a free-revving and free-breathing engine.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: Producing a maximum of (gross) and of torque for the 1960 model year, the 383 beat the 392 Hemi that had reached . The 1960 383 engines featured the same basic ram induction system as the Chrysler 300F's 413 RB engines (named "Sonoramic Commando" when sold in Plymouth form). The later 383 Magnum (starting in 1968) used the 440 Magnum heads, camshaft, and exhaust manifolds. This engine was advertised at .


title: Chrysler B engine

text: The B engine was introduced in 1972 to replace the venerable 383, and were power-rated via the net (installed) method. Chrysler increased the bore size of the 383 to create the 400. Its bore of was the largest used in any production Chrysler V8 at the date of its introduction. All parts except for the pistons were interchangeable between the 383 and 400.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: Crankshafts were of cast iron composition. Three versions of this engine were available: a two-barrel/single exhaust version producing at 4,400 rpm with of torque at 2,400 rpm, a four-barrel/single exhaust version producing at 4,400 rpm, and a high performance four-barrel/dual exhaust version rated at at 4,800 rpm, of torque at 3,200 rpm. All three versions used the same 8.2:1 compression ratio. The 400 was used in car, truck, and motorhome chassis. Horsepower and torque ratings gradually declined through the years due to the addition of more federally mandated emissions controls, until all Chrysler passenger vehicle big-block production ceased in 1978. For its last year of production, it only produced (although a heavy-duty version was also available).


title: Chrysler B engine

text: Due to its large factory bore size, short (compared to RB engines) deck height, and bottom end strength that is greater than any other production B or RB engine due to extra material added around the main bearing caps, 400 B engine blocks have become a popular choice for high-performance engine build ups.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: The "RB" engines, produced from 1959 to 1979, are raised-block (taller) versions of the B engines. All RB engines have a stroke, with the bore being the defining factor in engine size. All RB wedge engines share a deck height of , and were fitted with long connecting rods, resulting in a 1.80:1 rod ratio. Bore center distance is . All RBs are oversquare.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: Not to be confused with the 383 "B" engine, the 383 "RB" had a bore combined with the long stroke of , for a displacement of . It was only available in 1959 and 1960 on the US-built Chrysler Windsors and Saratogas; one of Trenton Engine's lines had been converted to the new RB engine (to make the 413), and demand for the 383 B engine was too high for the remaining line. The solution was to create a 383 RB to fill the gap until the plant figured out how to quickly switch from one block to the other.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: The RB was used from 1959 to 1965 in cars. It was also used in medium and heavy trucks including truck-tractors such as the C-1000, up until 1979. It has a bore of 4.1875 inches. During that period, it powered almost all Chrysler New Yorker and all Imperial models, and was also available on the lesser Chryslers, Dodge Polara, Dodge Monaco, and Plymouth Fury as an alternative to the B-block 383 and the A-block 318. It was also fitted to some European cars such as the later Facel Vega Facel II.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: In the 1959 Chrysler 300E the 413 wedge was fitted with inline dual four-barrel carburetors; it was factory-rated at at 5,000 rpm and at 3,600 rpm. In 1960, a long-tube ram induction system was made standard on the Chrysler 300. It continued as standard on the 1961 300-G, and remained on the option sheets for Chrysler 300s through 1964. In 1962, a special version known as the "Max Wedge" was made available for drag racing and street use; this version produced at 5,000 rpm.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: Not to be confused with the 426 Hemi, the RB was a wedge-head RB block with a bore. The 426 Wedge served as Chrysler's main performance engine until the introduction of the 426 Hemi. It was initially offered as the "non-catalogued" option S42 in Chryslers (the number of such produced is uncertain), offered with via a single 4-barrel carburetor (11.0:1 or 12.0:1 compression ratio, respectively), or via ram-inducted dual 4-barrel carburetors (with the same compression ratios). For 1963, horsepower ratings would slightly increase (see below), and it became optional in B-bodied Dodges and Plymouths. After 1963, it would be used only in Dodges and Plymouths.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: The Max Wedge was a race-only version of the 426 Wedge engine offered from the factory. Known as the Super Stock Plymouth and Ramcharger Dodge, the Max Wedge featured high-flow cylinder heads developed through state-of-the-art (at the time) airflow testing. They had 1⅞-inch exhaust valves, which required the cylinder bores to be notched for clearance. The blocks were a special severe-duty casting with larger oil-feed passages than other RB engines, and the blocks were stress-relieved by the factory. Induction came by means of a cross-ram intake manifold tuned for peak power above 4000 rpm and two Carter AFB-3447SA 4-barrel carburetors. The Max Wedge also included high-flow cast-iron exhaust manifolds that, on the later versions, resembled steel tube headers. The Max Wedge was factory rated at (depending on compression), and at 4400 rpm.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: Before the end of the 1963 model year, Chrysler introduced the Stage II Max Wedge with improved combustion chamber design and an improved camshaft. The last performance year for the Max Wedge came in 1964 with the Stage III. The factory-advertised power rating never changed despite the Stage II and III improvements.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: A "426 Street Wedge" block was also available in 1964 and 1965. It bears little relation to the Max Wedge except for basic architecture and dimensions. The Street Wedge was available only in B-body cars (Plymouth and Dodge) and light-duty Dodge D Series trucks. It was an increased-bore version of the standard New Yorker 413 single 4-barrel engine.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: The RB was produced from 1965 until 1978, making it the last version of the Chrysler RB block. It had a light wall construction, precision cast-iron block, with iron heads and a bore of , for an overall displacement of .


title: Chrysler B engine

text: From 1967 to 1971, the high-performance version was rated at ( in 1971) at 4,600 rpm and at 3,200 rpm of torque with a single 4-barrel carburetor, and from 1969 to 1971, the highest-output version had an intake setup with 3X2-barrel Holley carburetors ("440 Six Pack" for Dodge, "440 6-BBL" for Plymouth) producing at 4,700 rpm ( in '71) and at 3,200 rpm of torque.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: In 1972, changes were made to the horsepower ratings of vehicle engines from gross (engine only, without air cleaner, exhaust system, alternator, or other power-consuming components) to net (with alternator, air cleaner, mufflers, and other vehicle equipment installed). The new rating system produced lower, more realistic numbers for any given engine. At the same time, emissions regulations were demanding cleaner exhaust. Engines including the 440 were made with reduced compression, modified cam timing, and other tuning measures to comply with the newly tightened emissions regulations. The 1972 440 produced (gross) at 4400 rpm; the new net rating was —which very closely coincided with period German DIN ratings and TÜV measurements.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: The high-output 440 (4-barrel/mild cam/dual exhausts) was marketed as the "Magnum" in Dodges, the "Super Commando" in Plymouths, and the "TNT" in Chryslers. From 1972 to 1974 the engine (detuned to run on lead-free gas) was rated at net, and dropped in hp each year until 1978, when it was rated at (in police specification) and limited to Chrysler New Yorkers, Chrysler Newports, Dodge Monaco Police Pursuits, and Plymouth Fury Police Pursuits. It was also available in marine and heavy-duty commercial applications until that year.


title: Chrysler B engine

text: Chrysler also offers complete new 'crate' engines through its Mopar parts division in various displacements, these engines are built from entirely new parts.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Abraham Fortas (June 19, 1910 – April 5, 1982) was an American lawyer and jurist who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1965 to 1969. Born and raised in Memphis, Tennessee, Fortas graduated from Rhodes College and Yale Law School. He later became a law professor at Yale Law School and then an advisor for the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Fortas worked at the Department of the Interior under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and was appointed by President Harry S. Truman to delegations that helped set up the United Nations in 1945.


title: Abe Fortas

text: In 1948, Fortas represented Lyndon B. Johnson in the hotly contested Democratic senatorial second primary electoral dispute, and he formed close ties with the president-to-be. Fortas also represented Clarence Earl Gideon before the U.S. Supreme Court, in a landmark case involving the right to counsel. Nominated by Johnson to the Supreme Court in 1965, Fortas was confirmed by the Senate, and maintained a close working relationship with the president. As a Justice, Fortas wrote several notable majority opinions including "Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District".


title: Abe Fortas

text: In 1968, Johnson tried to elevate Fortas to the position of chief justice of the Supreme Court, but that nomination faced a filibuster and was withdrawn. Fortas later resigned from the Court after a controversy involving his acceptance of $20,000 from financier Louis Wolfson while Wolfson was being investigated for insider trading. The Justice Department including future Chief Justice William Rehnquist investigated Fortas at the behest of President Richard Nixon who saw the idea of removing Fortas as a chance to move the Court in a more conservative direction, and Attorney General John N. Mitchell pressured Fortas into resigning. After retirement, Fortas returned to private practice, sometimes appearing before the justices with whom he had served.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas was born the youngest of five children to Orthodox Jewish immigrants Woolfe Fortas and Rachel "Ray" Berzansky Fortas in Memphis, Tennessee. Woolfe was born in Russia, and Rachel was born in Lithuania. Woolfe was a cabinetmaker, and the couple operated a store together. Fortas acquired a lifelong love for music from his father, who encouraged his playing the violin, and was known in Memphis as "Fiddlin' Abe Fortas". Fortas learned to play the violin from local Catholic nuns at the St. Patrick's School next to his house and then studied chamber music with the leader of a local trio. Fortas attended South Side High School where, at the age of sixteen, he graduated second in his class in 1926. After graduating from high school, Fortas won a scholarship to attend Southwestern at Memphis, a liberal arts college now called Rhodes College. At first, Fortas considered studying music, before settling on English and political science and graduated first in his class in 1930.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas earned scholarships from both Harvard Law School and Yale Law School but ultimately decided to attend Yale, becoming the youngest law student there at 20 years old. He became editor-in-chief of the "Yale Law Journal "and graduated "cum laude" and second in the class of 1933. One of his professors, William O. Douglas, was impressed with Fortas, and Douglas arranged for Fortas to stay at Yale to become an assistant professor of law.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Shortly thereafter, Douglas took on a series of government positions, including with the Agricultural Adjustment Administration and the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) in Washington, D.C. In 1937, he was made assistant director of the public utilities division at the SEC. Throughout this period, Fortas commuted between New Haven and Washington in order to fulfill his responsibilities to Yale and the government.


title: Abe Fortas

text: In 1935, Fortas married Carolyn E. Agger, who became a successful tax lawyer. They had no children, and after his appointment to the Supreme Court of the United States, they lived at 3210 R Street NW in the Georgetown section of Washington, D.C.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas was an amateur musician who played the violin in a quartet, called the "N Street Strictly-no-refunds String Quartet" on Sunday evenings. It often included prominent musicians passing through town, such as Isaac Stern. Fortas was a good friend of the first democratically elected Governor of Puerto Rico, Luis Muñoz Marín, calling him "a spectacularly great figure". Fortas visited the island often, frequently lobbied for the island's interests in Congress, participated in drafting the Constitution of Puerto Rico, and gave legal advice to Marín's administration whenever requested.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Leaving Yale in 1939, Fortas served as general counsel of the Public Works Administration and then as Undersecretary of the Interior in Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration. While he was working at the U.S. Department of the Interior, the Secretary of the Interior, Harold L. Ickes, introduced him to a young congressman from Texas, Lyndon B. Johnson.


title: Abe Fortas

text: In 1945, Fortas was granted a leave of absence from the Department of Interior to join the Armed Forces of the United States. According to his official biography, within a month, Fortas was discharged because of an arrested case of ocular tuberculosis. Later in 1945, he was appointed by President Harry S. Truman as an advisor to the U.S. delegation during the organizational meeting of the United Nations (UN) in San Francisco, and at the 1946 General Assembly meeting in London.


title: Abe Fortas

text: In 1946, after leaving government service, Fortas founded a law firm, Arnold & Fortas, with Thurman Arnold. Former Federal Communications Commission commissioner Paul A. Porter joined the firm in 1947, and after the appointment of Fortas to the Supreme Court, the firm was renamed Arnold & Porter. For many years, it has been one of Washington's most influential law firms, and today is among the largest law firms in the world.


title: Abe Fortas

text: In the 1948 United States Senate election in Texas, Lyndon Johnson ran for the Democratic nomination for one of the two seats in the U.S. Senate from Texas. Johnson won the Democratic primary by only 87 votes. His opponent, former Governor of Texas Coke R. Stevenson, persuaded a federal judge to issue an order taking Johnson's name off the general election ballot while the primary results were being contested. There were serious allegations of corruption in the voting process, including 200 votes for Johnson that had been cast in alphabetical order. Johnson asked Fortas for help, and Fortas persuaded Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black to overturn the ruling. Johnson then won the general election and became a U.S. Senator.


title: Abe Fortas

text: During the Red Scare of the late 1940s and early 1950s, Fortas came to widespread notice as the defense attorney for Owen Lattimore. In 1950, Fortas often clashed with Senator Joseph McCarthy when representing Lattimore before the Tydings Committee, and also before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas initially opposed the creation of a presidential commission to investigate the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. When it became clear that multiple investigations were gearing up simultaneously at the city, state, and federal levels, Fortas changed his mind and advised Johnson to establish the Warren Commission.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas was known in Washington circles to have a serious interest in psychiatry, still a controversial subject at the time. In 1953, this expertise led to his appointment to represent the indigent Monte W. Durham, whose insanity defense had been rejected at trial two years earlier, before a U.S. Court of Appeals.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Durham's defense had been denied because the District Court had applied the M'Naghten Rules, requiring that the defense prove the accused did not know the difference between right and wrong for an insanity plea to be accepted. Adopted by the British House of Lords in 1843, generations before the origins of modern psychiatry, this test was still in common use in American courts over a century later.


title: Abe Fortas

text: The effect of this standard was to exclude psychiatric and psychological testimony almost entirely from the legal process. In a critical turning point for American criminal law, the Court of Appeals accepted Fortas's call to abandon the M'Naghten Rule and to allow for testimony and evidence regarding the defendant's mental state.


title: Abe Fortas

text: In 1963, Fortas represented Clarence Earl Gideon in his appeal before the Supreme Court. Gideon, had been convicted by a Florida court of breaking into a pool hall. He could not afford a lawyer, and none was provided for him when he asked for one at trial. In its landmark ruling in "Gideon v. Wainwright", the Supreme Court held for Gideon, ruling that state courts are required under the Sixth Amendment to provide counsel in criminal cases for defendants unable to afford their own. Fortas's former Yale Law School professor, longtime friend and future Supreme Court colleague, William O. Douglas praised his argument as "probably the best single legal argument" in his 36 years on the court.


title: Abe Fortas

text: On July 28, 1965, President Johnson nominated Fortas as an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court, to succeed Arthur Goldberg, who had resigned to become the U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations following the death of Adlai Stevenson. Johnson persuaded Goldberg to leave the Court for the U.N. in part because he wanted Fortas on the Court. Johnson thought that some of his "Great Society" reforms could be ruled unconstitutional by the Court and felt that Fortas would let him know if that was to happen. The nomination was given a favorable recommendation by the Senate Judiciary Committee two weeks later, following a one-day public hearing. He was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on August 11, 1965, and took the judicial oath of office on October 4, 1965. His appointment ensured the continuation of the Warren Court's liberal majority.


title: Abe Fortas

text: The seat Fortas occupied on the Court had come to be informally known as the "Jewish seat," as his three immediate predecessors—Goldberg, plus Felix Frankfurter and Benjamin Cardozo before him—were also Jewish.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas continued to serve as an adviser to Johnson after becoming an associate justice. He attended White House staff meetings, advising the president on judicial nominations and discussed private Supreme Court deliberations with him. In 1966, he substantially edited an initial version of Johnson's State of the Union Address.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas's law clerks included former Under Secretary of Defense for Policy Walter B. Slocombe and Martha A. Field, a scholar of constitutional law, family law, and bioethics.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas had mostly good working relations with his fellow justices although they worried that he talked to President Johnson too much. Fortas clashed with his fellow Associate Justice Hugo Black during much of his time on the Court. The two had been friends since the 1930s, and Black helped Fortas's wife Agger consent to his appointment to the Supreme Court. However, once both men were on the Court, they disagreed about the manner in which the Constitution should be interpreted and found themselves on opposing sides in the Court's opinions most of the time. In 1968, a Warren clerk called their feud "one of the most basic animosities of the Court".


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas's best relationship was with William O. Douglas, his former law professor at Yale. Fortas was also close to Associate Justice William J. Brennan and Chief Justice Earl Warren. Brennan's offices were in the chambers next to those of Fortas. Fortas's wife recalled that Fortas "loved Warren".


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas called John Marshall Harlan II "one of my dearest friends, although we usually are on opposite sides of the issues here."


title: Abe Fortas

text: In 1967, Fortas and Douglas dissented in the 5–4 decision "Fortson v. Morris", which cleared the path for the Georgia State Legislature to choose the Governor of Georgia in the deadlocked Georgia gubernatorial election of 1966 between the Democrat Lester Maddox and the Republican Howard Callaway. Fortas said that the State Constitution of 1824, allowing the legislature to choose the governor if no one wins a majority in the general election, was at odds with the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: In this case, Maddox trailed Callaway by about 3,000 votes.


title: Abe Fortas

text: On the other hand, Justice Black took the strict constructionist view that the U.S. Constitution does not dictate how a state must choose its governor:


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas was critical of justices (he specifically cited Thurgood Marshall) who frequently broke into attorneys' arguments to ask questions. As an attorney arguing before the Court, he had resented intrusions by the justices and so as a justice himself, he felt it best to let the lawyers give their arguments uninterrupted.


title: Abe Fortas

text: During his time on the Court, Fortas led a revolution in US juvenile justice, broadly extending the Court's logic on due process rights and procedure to legal minors and overturning the existing paradigm of "parens patriae" in which the state had usurped the parental role. Writing the majority decision in "Kent v. United States" (1966), the first Supreme Court case that evaluated a juvenile court procedure, Fortas suggested that the existing system might be "the worst of both worlds."


title: Abe Fortas

text: At that time, the state was held to have a paternal interest in the child rather than a prosecutorial one, a concept that dispensed with the obligation to provide a child accused of a crime with the opportunity to make a defense. Still, courts were empowered to decide, in the interests of the child, to have the child incarcerated for lengthy periods or otherwise severely punished.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas elaborated on his critique the following year in the case of "In re Gault" (1967). The case concerned a 15-year-old who had been sentenced to almost six years (until his 21st birthday) in the Arizona State Industrial School for making an obscene phone call to his neighbor. Had he been an adult, the maximum punishment he could have received was a $50.00 fine or two months in jail.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas used the case to launch a ferocious attack on the juvenile justice system and "parens patriae". His majority opinion was a landmark, extending the Fourteenth Amendment's guarantees of right to sufficient notice, right to counsel, right to confrontation of witnesses, and right against self-incrimination to certain juvenile proceedings.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Two years later, Fortas wrote another landmark in children's rights with the decision in the case of "Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District", involving two high school students and one junior high school student who had been suspended for wearing black armbands to school to protest the Vietnam War. Extending First Amendment rights to school students for the first time, Fortas wrote that neither "students or teachers shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate".


title: Abe Fortas

text: In 1968, Fortas persuaded the court to accept the appeal of Little Rock Central High School teacher Sue Epperson who had challenged Arkansas' anti-evolution law with the support of the state teachers union. Epperson had won the case, but the Arkansas Supreme Court had overturned the ruling.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Although the Court agreed quickly after hearing the case that the Arkansas ruling should be reversed, there was no consensus as to why, most Justices favoring fairly narrow grounds. Fortas was the architect and the author of the broader landmark majority opinion in "Epperson v. Arkansas" that emerged, banning religiously based creation narratives from public school science curricula.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas believed in an expanded executive branch and a less powerful legislative branch. He wrote: "The enormous growth of presidential power from Franklin D. Roosevelt to Lyndon Johnson was a necessary and an inevitable adaptation of our constitutional system to national needs."


title: Abe Fortas

text: On June 26, 1968, Johnson nominated Fortas as Chief Justice of the United States, to succeed Earl Warren, who had submitted his resignation effective with the confirmation of a successor. Anticipating that conservative members of the Senate would have concerns about Fortas's liberal opinions, Johnson simultaneously announced that he would fill the vacancy created by Fortas's elevation with United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit Judge Homer Thornberry of Texas. The propriety of the coordinated resignation-nomination on the eve of the November presidential election was called into question by Republican candidate Richard Nixon and the media. By the time the Judiciary Committee opened hearings on the nomination on July 11, bi-partisan opposition to the nomination (among Republicans and Southern Democrats) had become well organized. Fortas was the first sitting associate justice, nominated for chief justice, ever to appear before the Senate. He underwent four days of questioning about his legal career, judicial philosophy, and his relationship with President Johnson. Judiciary Committee chairman James Eastland told Johnson he "had never seen so much feeling against a man as against Fortas".


title: Abe Fortas

text: Antisemitism likely played a role in the confirmation battle. Afterward, Eastland reportedly said "After [Thurgood] Marshall, I could not go back to Mississippi if a Jewish chief justice swore in the next president." The National Socialist White People's Party undertook a phone campaign that summer condemning Fortas as a "despicable Jew with a 'red' record that smells to high heaven." Such attacks were soundly condemned by most senators. Even so, the White House began alerting the press to growing antisemitic opposition against Fortas, and used the issue to garner support for him among the senators. Fortas himself called the effort to defeat his nomination, "anti-Negro, anti-liberal, anti-civil rights, [and] anti-Semitic."


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas's acceptance of $15,000 for nine speaking engagements at American University's Washington College of Law became a source of controversy. The money had come not from the university but from private sources that represented business interests connected to 40 companies; Senator Strom Thurmond raised the idea that cases involving these companies might come to the Court, and Fortas might not be objective. While the fee was legal, the size of the fee raised much concern about the Court's insulation from private interests, especially as it was funded by former clients and partners of Fortas. The $15,000 represented more than 40 percent of a Supreme Court justice's salary at the time, and was seven times what any other American University seminar leader had ever been paid.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Thurmond also hammered at the issue of pornography. He condemned Fortas for voting with the majority to overturn obscenity laws dealing with pornographic films. Thurmond obtained some of the films in question and played them in the Senate building while the hearings were out of session. These showings became the known as "Fortas Film Festival", and the association of Fortas with some of the films' strip-teases and especially the rape or homosexual sex depicted in one called "Flaming Creatures" was effective in tarnishing Fortas's image and disheartening his supporters.


title: Abe Fortas

text: It was not until September 17, that the Judiciary Committee took a final vote on the nomination, reporting it favorably by an 11 to 6 vote to the full Senate. Thurmond promised to filibuster, and when the senate debate began on September 25, Fortas's opponents restated every criticism they had directed against Fortas, especially with regard to the issue of obscenity. Johnson remained resolute in his support for his nominee, saying to an aide: "We won't withdraw the nomination. I won't do that to Abe."


title: Abe Fortas

text: The debate lasted for four days until a cloture motion to end the debate was made. The 45–43 vote in favor of cloture demonstrated that the nomination was in trouble. It was 14 votes short of the two-thirds majority (59 votes) needed to cut off debate and force a vote on the nomination. (35 Democrats and 10 Republicans voted to end debate, while 24 Republicans and 19 Democrats voted to continue it.) Although the vote suggested to Fortas's supporters that a slim majority favored confirmation, it effectively derailed the nomination. In light of the slim prospect for a positive outcome, Johnson withdrew the nomination.


title: Abe Fortas

text: News accounts at the time consistently described the Senate floor debate as a filibuster intended to prevent the nomination from reaching the floor, where a simple-majority vote would have been enough for confirmation. Republican Senator John Cornyn asserted in 2003, however, that several senators who opposed Fortas asserted at the time they were not conducting a perpetual filibuster and were not trying to prevent a final up-or-down vote from occurring. Public debate occasionally still occurs over whether Fortas would have been confirmed in a simple majority vote. The Fortas vote is seen as an early precedent for later filibusters of judicial nominees.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Richard Nixon won the 1968 presidential election, and Johnson did not make another nomination before his term as president ended on January 20, 1969. Earl Warren was succeeded as chief justice by Warren Burger, who was sworn into office on June 23, 1969.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas remained an associate justice, but in 1969, a new scandal arose. Fortas had accepted a US$20,000 () retainer from the family foundation of Wall Street financier Louis Wolfson, a friend and former client, in January 1966. In return for unspecified advice, it was to pay Fortas $20,000 a year for the rest of Fortas's life (and then pay his widow for the rest of her life). However, in order to avoid apparent impropriety, Fortas returned the money the same year and received no further payments. Fortas was not unique in receiving this type of funding and other Justices had similar arrangements. William O. Douglas, Fortas's mentor, likewise received funding from casino magnate Albert Parvin through his own foundation. The American Bar Association revamped its rules as a result of the Wolfson affair, revising circumstances under which judges should not accept outside income.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Wolfson was under investigation for securities violations at the time, and it was alleged that he expected that his arrangement with Fortas would help him stave off criminal charges or help him secure a presidential pardon. He asked Fortas to help him secure a pardon from Johnson, which Fortas claimed that he did not do. Fortas recused himself from Wolfson's case when it came before the Court.


title: Abe Fortas

text: In May 1969, "Life" magazine chronicled Fortas's tangled relations with Wolfson. The revelation engendered calls for Fortas to be impeached, and motivated Richard Nixon, who knew that Fortas's resignation would enable the appointment of a more conservative Justice, ordered the Justice Department to investigate Fortas. Nixon was unsure if an investigation or prosecution was legal, but was convinced by then-Assistant Attorney General and future Chief Justice William Rehnquist that it would be. Chief Justice Earl Warren (who, like the other Justices, was unaware of Nixon's actions) urged Fortas to resign to protect the reputation of the Court and avoid impeachment proceedings, as did Justice Hugo Black. However, when Fortas said it would "kill" his wife, Black changed his mind, realized that Nixon wanted Fortas off the Court for political reasons, and urged Fortas not to resign. Nonetheless, Fortas ultimately decided resignation would be best for him and for his wife's legal career after Attorney General John N. Mitchell threatened to prosecute him, and potentially investigate his wife for tax evasion. On the subject of his resignation, William J. Brennan later said, "We were just stunned." Fortas later said he "resigned to save Douglas," another justice who was being investigated for a similar scandal at the same time. Fortas resigned from the Court on May 14, 1969. When the Justice Department heard the news, the Attorney General's office celebrated, and Nixon called to congratulate them.


title: Abe Fortas

text: In 1970, Louis Wolfson surreptitiously taped a private telephone call with Fortas. The transcript of this call was disclosed by Wolfson's lawyer, Bernard Fensterwald, to "Washington Post" reporter Bob Woodward in 1977. "The Washington Post" subsequently published several excerpts from the transcript, including language suggesting that Fortas might indeed have spoken with President Johnson about a pardon for Wolfson, but there is no evidence that it was a "quid pro quo" rather than a voluntary intervention for a friend. Wolfson was convicted of violating federal securities laws later that year and spent time in prison.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas's seat on the Supreme Court was vacant until June 1970, when Harry Blackmun was sworn into office. This was Nixon's third attempt to fill the vacancy. His earlier failed nominations were of Clement Haynsworth in September 1969 and G. Harrold Carswell in February 1970.


title: Abe Fortas

text: Rebuffed in the wake of his fall by the powerful Washington law firm he had founded, Fortas founded another firm, Fortas and Koven, and maintained a successful law practice until his death in 1982. However, his wife, Carolyn Agger, stayed at Fortas's original firm, in part due to the fact that Fortas had resigned in order to protect her job there. In the year following his resignation, he turned down an offer to publish his memoirs.


title: Abe Fortas

text: At Fortas & Koven, Fortas also kept two notable non-paying clients: preeminent cellist/composer Pablo Casals and Lyndon Johnson. Johnson and Fortas remained great friends, with the latter often visiting the former president at his ranch near Stonewall, Texas, until his death in 1973. Fortas was asked to donate his papers to Johnson's presidential library by Lady Bird Johnson, but he replied that his correspondence with Johnson had always been kept in strictest confidence. According to his law partner Howard Koven, Fortas once consulted with Martin Scorsese on the legality of language Scorsese wanted to use in a movie.


title: Abe Fortas

text: A portrait of him was placed in Yale Law School while he was still alive, underwritten by an anonymous donor. Fortas served as a longtime member of the board of directors of Carnegie Hall, including while he was on the Supreme Court. He also served on the board of the Kennedy Center since its opening in 1964.


title: Abe Fortas

text: In the course of his return to private practice, Fortas sometimes appeared before his former colleagues at the Supreme Court. On the first occasion he did so, his successor, Harry Blackmun, recalled that his eyes met Fortas's: "[Fortas] kind of nodded ... I wondered what was going through his mind". When Blackmun later questioned Fortas if he remembered the encounter, Fortas said he would "never forget it". Blackmun thought Fortas's attitude toward the new justice was remarkable, not showing "an ounce of antagonism or resentment."


title: Abe Fortas

text: Fortas died from a ruptured aorta on April 5, 1982. His memorial service was held at the Kennedy Center with Isaac Stern and Lady Bird Johnson in attendance.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is an immune disorder characterized by recurrent infections and low antibody levels, specifically in immunoglobulin (Ig) types IgG, IgM and IgA. Symptoms generally include high susceptibility to foreign invaders, chronic lung disease, and inflammation and infection of the gastrointestinal tract. CVID affects males and females equally. The condition can be found in children or teens but is generally not diagnosed or recognized until adulthood. The average age of diagnosis is between 20 and 50. However, symptoms vary greatly between people. "Variable" refers to the heterogeneous clinical manifestations of this disorder, which include recurrent bacterial infections, increased risk for autoimmune disease and lymphoma, as well as gastrointestinal disease. CVID is a lifelong disease.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: The symptoms of CVID vary between those affected. Its main features are hypogammaglobulinemia and recurrent infections. Hypogammaglobulinemia manifests as a significant decrease in the levels of IgG antibodies, usually alongside IgA antibodies; IgM antibody levels are also decreased in about half of those affected. Infections are a direct result of the low antibody levels in the circulation, which do not adequately protect them against pathogens. The microorganisms that most frequently cause infections in CVID are bacteria "Haemophilus influenzae", "Streptococcus pneumoniae", and "Staphylococcus aureus". Pathogens less often isolated from those affected include "Neisseria meningitidis", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", and "Giardia lamblia". Infections mostly affect the respiratory tract (nose, sinuses, bronchi, lungs) and the ears; they can also occur at other sites, such as the eyes, skin, and gastrointestinal tract. These infections respond to antibiotics but can recur upon discontinuation of antibiotics. Bronchiectasis can develop when severe recurrent pulmonary infections are left untreated.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: As with any antibody deficiency, the most common types of infections and illnesses involve the ears, sinuses, nose, and lungs. Common infections include:


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: Gastrovascular infections or inflammation are very common for those with CVID. Signs of a gastrovascular infection include abdominal pain, nausea, bloating, vomiting, diarrhea, and weight loss. Many individuals with CVID have an impaired ability to absorb nutrients, including vitamins, proteins, minerals, fats, and sugar within the digestive tract.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: Due to changes in development in B cells, some individuals with CVID have accumulations of lymphocytes in lymphoid tissues. This can cause mild to severely swollen lymph nodes or inflammation of the spleen. In addition, a certain percentage of individuals with CVID are more susceptible to developing certain forms of cancer, more so than those without the condition. The two most common cancers in common variable immunodeficiency patients include lymphoma and certain stomach cancers. The risk for these given cancers is almost fifty times greater in common variable immunodeficiency patients than those without.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: People with common variable immunodeficiency have trouble fighting off infections due to the lack of antibodies produced which normally resist invading microbes. Due to impaired antibody development vaccines are not effective. Recurring bacterial infections are generally found in the upper and lower areas of the respiratory tract. Many who have a recurring lung infection, report developing, chronic lung diseases, and potentially life-threatening complications later in life.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: The cause of CVID is poorly understood. A likely cause are Deletions in genes that encode cell surface proteins and cytokine receptors, such as CD19, CD20, CD21, and CD80. Additionally, the disease is defined by T cell defects, namely reduced proliferative capacity. The condition is hard to diagnose, taking on average 6–7 years after onset. CVID is a primary immunodeficiency. The underlying causes of CVID are largely obscure. Genetic mutations can be identified as the cause of disease in about 10% of people, while familial inheritance accounts for 10–25% of cases. Rather than arising from a single genetic mutation, CVID seems to result from variety of mutations that all contribute to a failure in antibody production.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: Mutations in the genes encoding ICOS, TACI, CD19, CD20, CD21, CD80 and BAFFR have been identified as causative of CVID. Susceptibility to CVID may also be linked to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) of the genome, particularly to DR-DQ haplotypes. A mutation in the NFKB2 gene has recently been shown to cause CVID-like symptoms in a murine model. The frequency of this NFKB2 mutation in the CVID population is, however, yet to be established.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: According to a European registry study, the mean age at onset of symptoms was 26.3 years old. As per the criteria laid out by ESID (European Society for Immunodeficiencies) and PAGID (Pan-American Group for Immunodeficiency), CVID is diagnosed if:


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: Diagnosis is chiefly by exclusion, i.e. alternative causes of hypogammaglobulinemia, such as X-linked agammaglobulinemia, must be excluded before a diagnosis of CVID can be made.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: Diagnosis is difficult because of the diversity of phenotypes seen in people with CVID. For example, serum immunoglobulin levels in people with CVID vary greatly. Generally, people can be grouped as follows: no immunoglobulin production, immunoglobulin (Ig) M production only, or both normal IgM and IgG production. Additionally, B cell numbers are also highly variable. 12% of people have no detectable B cells, 12% have reduced B cells, and 54% are within the normal range. In general, people with CVID display higher frequencies of naive B cells and lower frequencies of class-switched memory B cells. Frequencies of other B cell populations, such as IgD memory B cells, transitional B cells, and CD21 B cells, are also affected, and are associated with specific disease features. Although CVID is often thought of as a serum immunoglobulin and B cell-mediated disease, T cells can display abnormal behavior. Affected individuals typically present with low frequencies of CD4, a T-cell marker, and decreased circulation of regulatory T cells and iNKT cell. Notably, approximately 10% of people display CD4 T cell counts lower than 200 cells/mm; this particular phenotype of CVID has been named LOCID (Late Onset Combined Immunodeficiency), and has a poorer prognosis than classical CVID.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: The following types of CVID have been identified, and correspond to mutations in different gene segments.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: Treatment options are limited, and usually include lifelong immunoglobulin replacement therapy. This therapy is thought to help reduce bacterial infections. This treatment alone is not wholly effective, and many people still experience other symptoms such as lung disease and noninfectious inflammatory symptoms. This treatment replenishes Ig subtypes that the person lacks and is given at frequent intervals for life, and is thought to help reduce bacterial infections and boost immune function. Before therapy begins, plasma donations are tested for known blood-borne pathogens, then pooled and processed to obtain concentrated IgG samples. Infusions can be administered in three different forms: intravenously (IVIg), subcutaneously (SCIg), and intramuscularly (IMIg).


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: The administration of intravenous immunoglobulins requires the insertion of a cannula or needle in a vein, usually in the arms or hands. Because highly concentrated product is used, IVIg infusions take place every 3 to 4 weeks. Subcutaneous infusions slowly release the Ig serum underneath the skin, again through a needle, and takes place every week. Intramuscular infusions are no longer widely used, as they can be painful and are more likely to cause reactions.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: In addition to Ig replacement therapy, treatment may also involve immune suppressants, to control autoimmune symptoms of the disease, and high dose steroids like corticosteroids. In some cases, antibiotics are used to fight chronic lung disease resulting from CVID. The outlook for people varies greatly depending on their level of lung and other organ damage prior to diagnosis and treatment.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: CVID has an estimated prevalence of about 1:50,000 in Caucasians. The disease seems to be less prevalent amongst Asians and African-Americans. Males and females are equally affected; however, among children, boys predominate. A recent study of people in Europe with primary immunodeficiencies found that 30% had CVID, as opposed to a different immunodeficiency. 10–25% of people inherited the disease, typically through autosomal-dominant inheritance. Given the rarity of the disease, it is not yet possible to generalize on disease prevalence among ethnic and racial groups. CVID shortens the life-span; but no study currently has a median age recorded. One study suggests the median age of death for men and women is 42 and 44 years old, respectively, but most patients involved in the study are still alive. Those people with accompanying disorders had the worst prognosis (50% survival 33 years after diagnosis) and those people with only CVID-caused frequent infections had the longest survival rates, with another study stating a life expectancy almost equalling that of the general UK population. Additionally, people with CVID with one or more noninfectious complications have an 11 times higher risk of death as compared to people with only infections.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: Immunodeficiencies comprise many diseases and are genetic defects affecting the immune system. There are roughly 150 immunodeficiencies spanning over 120 genetic defects.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: Charles Janeway Sr. is generally credited with the first description of a case of CVID in 1953. The case involved a 39-year-old who had recurrent infections, bronchiectasis, and meningitis. CVID has since emerged as the predominant class of primary antibody deficiencies. It is thought to affect between 1 in 25,000 to 1 in 50,000 people worldwide. Though described in 1953, there was no standard definition for CVID until the 1990s, which caused widespread confusion during diagnosis. During the 1990s, the European Society for Immunodeficiency (ESID) and Pan-American Group for Immunodeficiency (PAGID) developed diagnostic criteria, including minimum age of diagnosis and the need to exclude other conditions, to describe the disease. These criteria were published in 1999 and since that time, some aspects, like increasing the minimum age, have been changed.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: Current research is aimed at studying large cohorts of people with CVID in an attempt to better understand age of onset, as well as mechanism, genetic factors, and progression of the disease.


title: Common variable immunodeficiency

text: Funding for research in the US is provided by the National Institutes of Health. Key research in the UK was previously funded by the Primary Immunodeficiency Association (PiA) until its closure in January 2012, and funding is raised through the annual Jeans for Genes campaign. Current efforts are aimed at studying the following: