title: Curie temperature

text: The angular momentum of an electron is either + or − due to it having a spin of , which gives a specific size of magnetic moment to the electron; the Bohr magneton. Electrons orbiting around the nucleus in a current loop create a magnetic field which depends on the Bohr magneton and magnetic quantum number. Therefore, the magnetic moments are related between angular and orbital momentum and affect each other. Angular momentum contributes twice as much to magnetic moments than orbital.


title: Curie temperature

text: For terbium which is a rare-earth metal and has a high orbital angular momentum the magnetic moment is strong enough to affect the order above its bulk temperatures. It is said to have a high anisotropy on the surface, that is it is highly directed in one orientation. It remains ferromagnetic on its surface above its Curie temperature (219K) while its bulk becomes antiferromagnetic and then at higher temperatures its surface remains antiferromagnetic above its bulk Néel Temperature (230K) before becoming completely disordered and paramagnetic with increasing temperature. The anisotropy in the bulk is different from its surface anisotropy just above these phase changes as the magnetic moments will be ordered differently or ordered in paramagnetic materials.


title: Curie temperature

text: Composite materials, that is, materials composed from other materials with different properties, can change the Curie temperature. For example, a composite which has silver in it can create spaces for oxygen molecules in bonding which decreases the Curie temperature as the crystal lattice will not be as compact.


title: Curie temperature

text: The alignment of magnetic moments in the composite material affects the Curie temperature. If the materials moments are parallel with each other the Curie temperature will increase and if perpendicular the Curie temperature will decrease as either more or less thermal energy will be needed to destroy the alignments.


title: Curie temperature

text: Preparing composite materials through different temperatures can result in different final compositions which will have different Curie temperatures. Doping a material can also affect its Curie temperature.


title: Curie temperature

text: The density of nanocomposite materials changes the Curie temperature. Nanocomposites are compact structures on a nano-scale. The structure is built up of high and low bulk Curie temperatures, however will only have one mean-field Curie temperature. A higher density of lower bulk temperatures results in a lower mean-field Curie temperature and a higher density of higher bulk temperature significantly increases the mean-field Curie temperature. In more than one dimension the Curie temperature begins to increase as the magnetic moments will need more thermal energy to overcome the ordered structure.


title: Curie temperature

text: The size of particles in a material's crystal lattice changes the Curie temperature. Due to the small size of particles (nanoparticles) the fluctuations of electron spins become more prominent, which results in the Curie temperature drastically decreasing when the size of particles decreases, as the fluctuations cause disorder. The size of a particle also affects the anisotropy causing alignment to become less stable and thus lead to disorder in magnetic moments.


title: Curie temperature

text: The extreme of this is superparamagnetism which only occurs in small ferromagnetic particles. In this phenomenon, fluctuations are very influential causing magnetic moments to change direction randomly and thus create disorder.


title: Curie temperature

text: The Curie temperature of nanoparticles is also affected by the crystal lattice structure: body-centred cubic (bcc), face-centred cubic (fcc) and a hexagonal structure (hcp) all have different Curie temperatures due to magnetic moments reacting to their neighbouring electron spins. fcc and hcp have tighter structures and as a results have higher Curie temperatures than bcc as the magnetic moments have stronger effects when closer together. This is known as the coordination number which is the number of nearest neighbouring particles in a structure. This indicates a lower coordination number at the surface of a material than the bulk which leads to the surface becoming less significant when the temperature is approaching the Curie temperature. In smaller systems the coordination number for the surface is more significant and the magnetic moments have a stronger effect on the system.


title: Curie temperature

text: Although fluctuations in particles can be minuscule, they are heavily dependent on the structure of crystal lattices as they react with their nearest neighbouring particles. Fluctuations are also affected by the exchange interaction as parallel facing magnetic moments are favoured and therefore have less disturbance and disorder, therefore a tighter structure influences a stronger magnetism and therefore a higher Curie temperature.


title: Curie temperature

text: Pressure changes a material's Curie temperature. Increasing pressure on the crystal lattice decreases the volume of the system. Pressure directly affects the kinetic energy in particles as movement increases causing the vibrations to disrupt the order of magnetic moments. This is similar to temperature as it also increases the kinetic energy of particles and destroys the order of magnetic moments and magnetism.


title: Curie temperature

text: Pressure also affects the density of states (DOS). Here the DOS decreases causing the number of electrons available to the system to decrease. This leads to the number of magnetic moments decreasing as they depend on electron spins. It would be expected because of this that the Curie temperature would decrease; however, it increases. This is the result of the exchange interaction. The exchange interaction favours the aligned parallel magnetic moments due to electrons being unable to occupy the same space in time and as this is increased due to the volume decreasing the Curie temperature increases with pressure. The Curie temperature is made up of a combination of dependencies on kinetic energy and the DOS.


title: Curie temperature

text: The concentration of particles also affects the Curie temperature when pressure is being applied and can result in a decrease in Curie temperature when the concentration is above a certain percent.


title: Curie temperature

text: Orbital ordering changes the Curie temperature of a material. Orbital ordering can be controlled through applied strains. This is a function that determines the wave of a single electron or paired electrons inside the material. Having control over the probability of where the electron will be allows the Curie temperature to be altered. For example, the delocalised electrons can be moved onto the same plane by applied strains within the crystal lattice.


title: Curie temperature

text: The Curie temperature is seen to increase greatly due to electrons being packed together in the same plane, they are forced to align due to the exchange interaction and thus increases the strength of the magnetic moments which prevents thermal disorder at lower temperatures.


title: Curie temperature

text: In analogy to ferromagnetic and paramagnetic materials, the term Curie temperature () is also applied to the temperature at which a ferroelectric material transitions to being paraelectric. Hence, is the temperature where ferroelectric materials lose their spontaneous polarisation as a first or second order phase change occurs. In case of a second order transition the Curie Weiss temperature which defines the maximum of the dielectric constant is equal to the Curie temperature. However, the Curie temperature can be 10 K higher than in case of a first order transition.


title: Curie temperature

text: Materials are only ferroelectric below their corresponding transition temperature . Ferroelectric materials are all pyroelectric and therefore have a spontaneous electric polarisation as the structures are unsymmetrical.


title: Curie temperature

text: Ferroelectric materials' polarization is subject to hysteresis (Figure 4); that is they are dependent on their past state as well as their current state. As an electric field is applied the dipoles are forced to align and polarisation is created, when the electric field is removed polarisation remains. The hysteresis loop depends on temperature and as a result as the temperature is increased and reaches the two curves become one curve as shown in the dielectric polarisation (Figure 5).


title: Curie temperature

text: A modified version of the Curie–Weiss law applies to the dielectric constant, also known as the relative permittivity:


title: Curie temperature

text: A heat-induced ferromagnetic-paramagnetic transition is used in magneto-optical storage media, for erasing and writing of new data. Famous examples include the Sony Minidisc format, as well as the now-obsolete CD-MO format. Curie point electro-magnets have been proposed and tested for actuation mechanisms in passive safety systems of fast breeder reactors, where control rods are dropped into the reactor core if the actuation mechanism heats up beyond the material's curie point. Other uses include temperature control in soldering irons, and stabilizing the magnetic field of tachometer generators against temperature variation.


title: Somali Democratic Republic

text: The Somali Democratic Republic (; , ; ) was the name that the socialist military government gave to Somalia under President Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, after seizing power in a coup d'état on 21 October 1969. The coup came a few days after a bodyguard assassinated Abdirashid Shermarke, the nation's second President. Barre's administration ruled Somalia for the next 21 years until Somalia collapsed into civil war in 1991.


title: Somali Democratic Republic

text: Alongside Barre, the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Ali Korshel. Kediye officially held the title of "Father of the Revolution", and Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC. The SRC subsequently arrested members of the former civilian government, banned political parties, dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.


title: Somali Democratic Republic

text: The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the Arab world, eventually joining the Arab League (AL) in 1974. That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of the African Union (AU).


title: Somali Democratic Republic

text: In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded itself and established in its place the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP), a one-party government based on scientific socialism and Islamic tenets. The SRSP was an attempt to reconcile the official state ideology with the official state religion. Emphasis was placed on the Muslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which the government argued formed the core of scientific socialism and its own accent on self-sufficiency, public participation and popular control, as well as direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged private investment on a limited scale, the administration's overall direction was proclaimed as socialist.


title: Somali Democratic Republic

text: In July 1977, the Ogaden War against Ethiopia broke out after Barre's government sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia. The war was part of a broader SNA effort to unite all Somali territories (Soomaaliweyn). In the first week of the conflict, the Somali National Army scored spectacular victories over the Ethiopian forces, surprising many American military observers who took on a position of neutrality during the war. Southern and central Ogaden were captured in the early stages of conflict and for most of the war, the Somali Army scored continuous victories on the Ethiopian Army and followed them as far as Sidamo. By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such as Jijiga and put heavy pressure on Dire Dawa, threatening the train route from the latter city to Djibouti. After the siege of Harar, a massive unprecedented Soviet intervention consisting of 20,000 Cuban forces and several thousand Soviet advisers came to the aid of Ethiopia's communist Derg regime. By 1978, a ceasefire was negotiated putting an end to the war. This shift in support by the Soviet Union motivated the Barre government to seek allies elsewhere. It eventually settled on the Soviet Union's Cold War arch-rival, the United States, which had been courting the Somali government for some time. All in all, Somalia's initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.


title: Somali Democratic Republic

text: After the unsuccessful Ogaden campaign, Barre's administration began arresting government and military officials under suspicion of participation in the abortive 1978 coup d'état. Most of the people who had allegedly helped plot the putsch were summarily executed. However, several officials managed to escape abroad and started to form the first of various dissident groups dedicated to ousting Barre's regime by force.


title: Somali Democratic Republic

text: A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party politburo continued to rule. In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place. By that time, Barre's government had become increasingly unpopular. Many Somalis had become disillusioned with life under military dictatorship. The regime was weakened further in the 1980s as the Cold War drew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished.


title: Somali Democratic Republic

text: The government became increasingly totalitarian, culminating in the Isaaq genocide (1987-1988), largely destroying several major cities and targeting members of the Isaaq clan. Estimates of civilian deaths range from 50,000 to 100,000 up to over 200,000. Such tactics from the government prompted resistance movements, supported by Ethiopia, which sprang up across the country and eventually led to the Somali Civil War. Among the militia groups were the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), United Somali Congress (USC), Somali National Movement (SNM) and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), together with the non-violent political oppositions of the Somali Democratic Movement (SDM), the Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG).


title: Joss Whedon filmography

text: American screenwriter, director and producer Joss Whedon has generated numerous films and television series over the course of his career, many of which have influenced popular culture and acquired "cult status".


title: TAI Hürjet

text: The TAI Hürjet is a single-engine, tandem seat, supersonic advanced trainer and light combat aircraft, under development by Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI). The first flight of the aircraft is planned for 18 March 2023.


title: TAI Hürjet

text: The Turkish Air Force intends to use the design to replace the Northrop T-38 Talon in the trainer role and also to supplement the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon for close air support. The aircraft is also planned to replace the Northrop F-5 used by the Turkish Stars aerobatic team. A naval version of the aircraft may also be developed. The company also plans to pursue export orders to countries looking to replace older trainer and ground attack aircraft.


title: TAI Hürjet

text: The project was initiated by TAI in August 2017 using its own financial resources. A mock-up was displayed at the 2018 Farnborough International Airshow.


title: TAI Hürjet

text: On 22 July 2018 the Turkish Under-secretariat for Defence Industries announced that the Turkish Air Force had signed an agreement with TAI, giving the project official status to move development forward.


title: TAI Hürjet

text: Capabilities are planned to include air-to-air refuelling, fly-by-wire with parameter limiting, built in auxiliary power unit, night vision goggle-compatible cockpit, head-up display and an integrated helmet display system.


title: TAI Hürjet

text: The company completed the first test simulator for the aircraft in September 2020. Designated the Hurjet 270, the artificial intelligence based simulator will incorporate feedback from the test pilots to change the flight control algorithms and the avionics software during the flight test process.


title: TAI Hürjet

text: The company has developed simulator avionics, flight control systems, screen, cockpit and communication systems for the simulator.


title: TAI Hürjet

text: Turkey has invited Malaysia to join the Hürjet project, in the role of producing some parts for the aircraft. While Malaysia has some experience developing composite materials, it has never designed and built any aircraft.


title: Stuart Damon

text: Stuart Damon (born Stuart Michael Zonis; February 5, 1937 June 29, 2021) was an American actor and singer. He was best known for his 30-year portrayal of Dr. Alan Quartermaine on the American soap opera "General Hospital", for which he won an Emmy Award in 1999. Outside the United States, he was known for the role of Craig Stirling in "The Champions".


title: Stuart Damon

text: Damon was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Marvin Leonard Zonis, who was a manufacturer. Damon's parents were Russian Jewish immigrants who made their home in America after fleeing the Bolshevik Revolution.


title: Stuart Damon

text: After a series of roles on Broadway, Damon's appearance as the Prince in the 1965 version of Rodgers and Hammerstein's "Cinderella" starring Lesley Ann Warren helped pave the way to a long career in television soap opera. That same year, he had a prominent featured role in the Broadway musical "Do I Hear a Waltz?" written by Richard Rodgers (music) and Stephen Sondheim (lyrics). He had earlier appeared in an Off-Broadway revival of "The Boys From Syracuse" with music by Rodgers and lyrics by Lorenz Hart. Damon is prominently featured on the cast albums of these musicals, as well as the hit "Irma La Douce" (1960).


title: Stuart Damon

text: Moving to Great Britain, Damon starred in the hit West End musical "Charlie Girl" with Anna Neagle in 1965, and was selected to appear as American secret agent Craig Stirling, alongside British actors Alexandra Bastedo and William Gaunt, in the ITC series "The Champions". He also appeared with Roger Moore in an episode of "The Saint" which has been credited as the inspiration for the later series "The Persuaders!", with Damon's role being played by Tony Curtis. In 1968, he appeared in the BBC TV adaptation of "The £1,000,000 Bank Note" and played Henry Adams in the starring role. Damon also played magician Harry Houdini in a lavishly staged London musical, "Man of Magic". In 1970 Damon released an LP called "Stuart 'Champion' Damon" recorded on Reflection records REF L7 which failed to chart.


title: Stuart Damon

text: In the 1970s, he was cast alongside Gene Barry and Catherine Schell for the series "The Adventurer", appearing briefly in two episodes. Damon later spoke candidly about the fact that Barry did not want him in the series because of his height: at over six feet, he towered over the shorter Barry. After acting roles in several other British television series, including "Thriller", "The New Avengers", and children's series "The Adventures of Black Beauty" where he played a hypnotist, he returned to the United States.


title: Stuart Damon

text: In 1977, he began his best known American role, as Dr. Alan Quartermaine Sr. on "General Hospital". He also repeated the role on the short-lived "GH" spin-off "Port Charles" (1997–2003).


title: Stuart Damon

text: In 1999, Damon won the Best Supporting Actor Emmy, for his portrayal of Alan, a physician addicted to the painkiller hydrocodone. In 2005, Damon was reunited with Alexandra Bastedo and William Gaunt for the first time in almost 40 years, to provide audio commentary on a DVD release of "The Champions". In December 2006, it was reported that Damon had been fired from "General Hospital" by Jill Farren Phelps, on the orders of Anne Sweeney and Brian Frons, and his last air date was scheduled for February 26, 2007, when his character died. The reason behind his release was not made public. The taping of the final scene occurred on February 5, coincidentally Damon's 70th birthday. Fellow actors on "General Hospital" spoke to the press about how upset they were over Damon's firing, with Damon's on-show wife Leslie Charleson saying, "This is the 30th anniversary for the two of us, in August. The timing leaves me very discouraged about the way soaps are going, the total disregard for history and the blatant disregard for the veterans."


title: Stuart Damon

text: Despite the death of the character, Damon had remained on the show, playing the ghost of Alan Quartermaine, haunting his sister Tracy about forging Alan's will. He remained with the show until December 23, 2008, when Alan appeared to Monica on Christmas to tell her that he loved her.


title: Stuart Damon

text: On September 18, 2009, Damon began appearing on "As the World Turns" as Janet and Teri Ciccone's "Uncle" Ralph Manzo, a businessman most likely involved with the mob. He left the series on October 30, 2009, but returned August 23-25, 2010. From March 19–25, 2010, Damon played the role of Governor Jim Ford on "Days of Our Lives".


title: Stuart Damon

text: Damon returned to "General Hospital" for two episodes (August 26, 2011, and August 29, 2011), in which Alan appears in a fantasy sequence of Monica's. He returned again in November 2012 as a ghost when son AJ was announced to be alive, after son Jason's disappearance. He appeared, along with Rick Webber (Chris Robinson) and Emily Quartermaine (Natalia Livingston), as a hallucination shared by Tracy and Monica, for the show's 50th anniversary episode, which aired on April 2, 2013.


title: Stuart Damon

text: Damon married Deirdre Ann Ottewill, a former actress, singer, and dancer on March 12, 1961. They had two children, Christopher and Jennifer Zonis. Damon died of kidney failure on June 29, 2021, aged 84, at the Motion Picture & Television Fund retirement community in Los Angeles, where he had lived for seven years.


title: Squidgygate

text: Squidgygate or Dianagate refers to the pre-1990 telephone conversations between Diana, Princess of Wales and a close friend, James Gilbey (heir to Gilbey's Gin) which were published by "The Sun" newspaper.


title: Squidgygate

text: In 1992, "The Sun" publicly revealed the tapes' existence in an article titled "Squidgygate" (the "-gate" suffix being a reference for a scandal). During the calls, Gilbey affectionately called Diana by the names "Squidgy" and "Squidge". In the conversation, the Princess of Wales likens her situation to that of a character in the popular British soap opera "EastEnders", and expresses concern that she might be pregnant. The publication of the tapes was a highpoint of the media attention which surrounded the marriage, separation and eventual divorce of the Prince and Princess of Wales.


title: Squidgygate

text: The tape was published after it was accidentally recorded by a retired bank manager who was a radio enthusiast.


title: Squidgygate

text: In January 1990, two reporters from "The Sun" newspaper met Cyril Reenan in the parking bay of Didcot railway station, six miles from his home in Abingdon, England. Reenan, a 70-year-old retired manager for the Trustee Savings Bank, regularly listened in on non-commercial radio frequencies for amusement with his wife. Reenan played them excerpts from a tape without having previously told them what he had recorded.


title: Squidgygate

text: Two days later the journalists were shown round Mr Reenan's home-made eavesdropping studio, in which "Above the scanners was a 1960s-style tape recorder with a microphone dangling down above the scanning equipment so that the couple could tape 'interesting' conversations".


title: Squidgygate

text: Reenan was quoted as saying he was "so nervous I just want you [the reporters] to take the tape away." He added, "I didn't know what to do with it once I'd got it. I was stuck with it, and I was frightened of it," he was quoted as saying, claiming that if the paper had told him that "the tape was 'dangerous', I would have burned it or scrubbed it out."


title: Squidgygate

text: Reenan claimed that he had been so worried by the evident security breach that he had first thought of attempting to gain an audience with Diana: "I could have used a code-word, perhaps the nickname Squidgy... I was trying to save her face in a way." However, having thought on it "for a day, at least", Reenan decided that he "would not get to see Diana." So he "rang the Sun instead."


title: Squidgygate

text: Published in "The Sun" on 23 August 1992, "Squidgygate" (initially called "Dianagate") was the front-page revelation of the existence of a tape-recording of Diana, Princess of Wales talking to a close friend, who later turned out to be Gilbey, heir to the eponymous gin fortune. Gilbey, who initially denied "The Sun"<nowiki>'s</nowiki> charges, was a 33-year-old Lotus car-dealer who had been a friend of Diana's since childhood. Their conversation, which took place on New Year's Eve 1989, was wide-ranging. A special phone line allowed about 60,000 callers to hear the contents of the 30-minute tape for themselves, at 36 pence per minute.


title: Squidgygate

text: The tape begins in mid-conversation, with the man asking: "And so, darling, what other lows today?" To which the woman replies: "I was very bad at lunch, and I nearly started blubbing. I just felt so sad and empty and thought 'bloody hell, after all I've done for this fucking family...' It's just so desperate. Always being innuendo, the fact that I'm going to do something dramatic because I can't stand the confines of this marriage [...] He makes my life real torture, I've decided."


title: Squidgygate

text: The conversation covered topics as diverse as the BBC soap opera "EastEnders", and the strange looks that Diana received from the Queen Mother: "It's not hatred, it's sort of pity and interest mixed in one [...] every time I look up, she's looking at me, and then looks away and smiles." Additionally, in view of a fascination with clairvoyance that was later to become well-known, Diana was also heard explaining how she had startled the Bishop of Norwich by claiming to be "aware that people I have loved and [who] have died [...] are now in the spirit world, looking after me."


title: Squidgygate

text: Diana expressed worries about whether a recent meeting with Gilbey would be discovered. She also discussed a fear of becoming pregnant, and Gilbey referred to her as "Darling" 14 times, and as "Squidgy" (or "Squidge") 53 times.


title: Squidgygate

text: On 5 September 1992, "The Sun" announced that the same call had also been recorded by an Oxfordshire eavesdropper, 25-year-old Jane Norgrove, who claimed she had recorded the call on New Year's Eve 1989, but "didn't even listen to it. I just put the tape in a drawer. I didn't play it until weeks later, and then I suddenly realised who was speaking on the tape."


title: Squidgygate

text: In January 1991, after sitting on the tape for a year, Norgrove approached "The Sun". The paper made a copy of her recording, and offered her £200 for her time: Norgrove refused the money, claiming that she "got scared and didn't want to know about it any more." Norgrove claimed: "I wanted to speak out now to clear up all this nonsense about a conspiracy [...] I'm not part of a Palace plot to smear the Princess of Wales." "The Sun" had initially published the opinions of "a senior courtier [who] claims the tape is part of a plot to blacken Diana's name" and the verdicts of other anonymous Palace staffers, who said that the tape was "a sophisticated attempt to get even by friends loyal to Prince Charles after Diana's co-operation with the book "Diana: Her True Story", by Andrew Morton."


title: Squidgygate

text: Such speculation had not been confined to tabloid newspapers: William Parsons, of anti-surveillance consultants Systems Elite, remarked that the technical and atmospheric requirements for such a recording to be possible (both halves of a cellular telephone call, with equal clarity, when the callers were over 100 miles apart, in different network cells), were so improbable as to arouse suspicion: "My money would not be on somebody accidentally picking it up [...] There is more to this than meets the eye."


title: Squidgygate

text: Jane Norgrove was adamant: "It was just me, recording a telephone conversation in my bedroom. Nothing more and nothing less than that."


title: Squidgygate

text: According to Tina Brown, Diana and Gilbey had first met each other before her marriage to Charles and reconnected in the late 1980s. At the time of publication, the Prince and Princess of Wales, engaged in acrimonious pre-divorce proceedings, were involved in a protracted battle for public sympathy which became known as the "War of the Waleses". The Duke and Duchess of York had separated months before, and now all eyes were on Charles and Diana, the next king and queen, whose marriage had been the subject of rumour for years.


title: Squidgygate

text: Speculation in the media—and in court circles—reached fever pitch. In his memoirs, Diana's private secretary Patrick Jephson recounts a fraught game of media one-upmanship by the feuding couple: secret briefings to friendly journalists, open collaboration with TV documentaries, and separate appearances at different public events on the same day were just some of the many strategies with which Charles and Diana attempted to force each other out of the limelight. Jephson recalls that the atmosphere at Kensington Palace at the time was "like a slowly-spreading pool of blood leaking from under a locked door."


title: Squidgygate

text: Throughout 1991 and into 1992, Diana had been involved in secret co-operation with a previously little-known court correspondent called Andrew Morton. The result of this liaison was the book "", revealed in graphic detail the previously hidden disaster that the Waleses' marriage had become. Diana's bulimia, suicide attempts and self-harm were spelt out unambiguously, as were Charles's relationship with Camilla Parker Bowles, and the intrigues of Palace officials in attempting to contain the disintegrating royal marriage.


title: Squidgygate

text: In 1993, "The Sunday Times" published the findings of an analysis of the "Squidgygate" tape, commissioned from Corby-based surveillance specialists Audiotel International.


title: Squidgygate

text: Audiotel concluded that the presence of data bursts on the tape was suspicious. Data bursts ("pips" at intervals of approximately 10 seconds, containing information for billing purposes) would normally be filtered out at the exchange before Cellnet transmission. That these "pips" were present at all was therefore anomalous, but they were also too fast, too loud, and exhibited a "low-frequency [audio] 'shadow'," implying "some kind of doctoring of the tape," said Audiotel's managing director, Andrew Martin, in his firm's report. "The balance of probability suggests something irregular about the recording which may indicate a rebroadcasting of the conversation some time after the conversation took place."


title: Squidgygate

text: Within a week of the "Sunday Times"s announcement, a further independent analysis was carried out for the same newspaper by John Nelson of Crew Green Consulting, with assistance from Martin Colloms, audio analyst for Sony International. Their analysis demonstrated convincingly that the conversation could not have been recorded by a scanning receiver in the manner claimed by Reenan. Amongst several relevant factors, there was a 50 hertz hum in the background of the "Squidgygate" conversation together with components in the recorded speech with frequencies in excess of 4 kHz. Neither could have passed through the filters of Reenan's Icom receiver or indeed have been transmitted by the cellular telephone system. The 50 Hz hum was consistent with the effect of attempting to record a telephone conversation via a direct tap on a landline.


title: Squidgygate

text: Since Gilbey was known to have been speaking from a mobile phone, inside a parked car, this left Diana's telephone line at Sandringham as the source of the recording. Nelson's analysis, written after a visit to Reenan and an examination of his unsophisticated receiving system (which consisted essentially of an Icom wideband scanning receiver and a conventional television antenna), showed that the recording was most likely to have been made as a result of a local tapping of the telephone line somewhere between the female party's telephone itself, and the local exchange. Furthermore, narrow-band spectrum analysis showed this 50 Hz "hum" to consist of two separate but superimposed components, possibly indicating a remixing of the tape after the initial recording. The spectral frequency content of the tape was demonstrably inconsistent with its supposed origin as an off-air recording of an analogue cellular telephone channel but quite feasible if the recording had been made via a local-end direct tap.


title: Squidgygate

text: As well as the strong technical case he made against the recording, Nelson established two other salient points. The first was that Gilbey's mobile telephone was registered to the Cellnet network. Secondly, the Cellnet base-station transmitter site in Abingdon Town, the data channel of which was the only one receivable on Reenan's receiving system at the time of his visit, was not in service at the date of the alleged telephone conversation; it was first commissioned on 3 March 1990. It was therefore not possible that the purported recording could have been made off-air by Reenan or Norgrove in December 1989 or January 1990.


title: Squidgygate

text: With regard to the data-bursts that had aroused the suspicion of Audiotel International, Colloms and Nelson stated: "We are forced to conclude that these data-bursts are not genuine, but were added later to the tape. They originated with a locally-made recording, and show that an attempt has been made to disguise a local tap by making it appear that it was recorded over cellular radio."


title: Squidgygate

text: Telecommunications company Cellnet admitted that it had automatically conducted its own internal investigation after publication of the "Squidgygate" transcript, because Gilbey had been speaking on a Cellnet phone. "It is a very sensitive issue if a cellular network has been bugged," said Cellnet spokesman William Ostrom: "We wished to satisfy ourselves exactly what happened." Cellnet's inquiry, claimed Ostrom, had "replicated" the findings of Colloms and Nelson: Cellnet announced that it was "completely satisfied that we can dismiss this as an example of our network being eavesdropped."


title: Squidgygate

text: Suspicion about responsibility for the "Squidgygate" leak focused on the United Kingdom's security service, MI5. Home Secretary Kenneth Clarke said: "The security services are strictly controlled in their telephone tapping, and I know of no evidence whatever to indicate that they were involved." Such suggestions, he added, were "wild" and "extremely silly."


title: Squidgygate

text: On the same day as these remarks, members of the Commons all-party Home Affairs Select Committee had their first meeting with Stella Rimington, director general of MI5. Committee member John Greenway MP (Conservative) remarked that the recent "Camillagate" leak "strengthens the case for a parliamentary committee to have responsibility to oversee or scrutinise the work of the security services [...] I suspect that colleagues will want to ask how true the allegations [of MI5 complicity in the 'Camillagate' leak] are, and I suspect that she [Rimington] will refuse to tell us." No record exists of matters discussed at the meeting.


title: Squidgygate

text: The first major "Establishment" figure to question the official line on "Squidgygate" was Lord Rees-Mogg, the arch-conservative chairman of the Broadcasting Standards Authority. He had proved an early proponent of the "rogue spies" school of thought in January 1993, when he used his "Times" column to accuse elements within the British security services of being responsible for both the recording and its leak. "All those tapes were made within a month," he wrote. "The most likely explanation is that MI5 did it to protect the Royal Family at a time of danger from the IRA. I don't think there was any sense of wrong-doing, but once they were made there was the danger of a leak."


title: Squidgygate

text: A few days before Clarke's remarks, the "Daily Mirror" had run with "Camillagate", an eight-minute tape of Prince Charles engaging in explicit conversation with his mistress, Camilla Parker Bowles. Richard Stott, editor of the "Mirror", claimed that the tape had been recorded by "a very ordinary member of the public", although the paper was not allowed to keep or to make a copy of the tape. But "The Sunday Times" reported that an anonymous freelance journalist from Manchester was known to be attempting to sell a complete copy of the original tape, asking price £50,000. The re-ignition of the controversy over "Squidgygate" had been instantaneous: the date of the "Camillagate" recording was known to be 18 December 1989, just weeks before the "Squidgygate" tape had been recorded.


title: Squidgygate

text: Before any investigation into "Squidgygate" or "Camillagate" had begun, Home Secretary Kenneth Clarke told the House of Commons: "There is nothing to investigate. [...] I am absolutely certain that the allegation that this is anything to do with the security services or GCHQ [...] is being put out by newspapers, who I think feel rather guilty that they are using plainly tapped telephone calls."


title: Squidgygate

text: The Labour Party, then in Opposition, accused Kenneth Clarke of irresponsibility, issuing a statement: "He has to show that he is taking these allegations seriously, otherwise he will be perceived as being unable to control an organisation for which he is responsible."


title: Squidgygate

text: John Major's government eventually published two reports, both of which cleared MI5 and MI6 of involvement in the "Royalgates" tapes. One of these was the annual report of the Interceptions Commissioner, Lord Bingham of Cornhill, who oversaw the intelligence-gathering practices of the security services. Excerpt follows: "[Lord Bingham] was impressed by the scrupulous adherence to the statutory provisions [against misconduct] of those involved in the [intelligence-gathering] procedures." In a clear reference to the "Squidgygate" affair, he commented on "the stories which occasionally circulated in the press with regard to the interceptions by MI5, MI6 and GCHQ," stating that such stories were, in his experience, "without exception false, and gave an entirely misleading impression to the public both of the extent of official interception and of the targets against which interception is directed."


title: Squidgygate

text: Conservative MP Richard Shepherd called the official reports: "two old buffers saying that in their opinion the security services act with integrity." The National Heritage Secretary Peter Brook gave MPs "a categorical assurance that the heads of the agencies concerned have said there is no truth in the rumours."


title: Squidgygate

text: The Queen was so disturbed by the "Squidgygate" episode that she requested that MI5 conduct an investigation to discover the culprit or culprits. Since the motive could not have been financial, said the investigators—the only winners were the radio hams and the press—it must have been political.


title: Squidgygate

text: In 2002, Diana's former Personal Protection Officer, Inspector Ken Wharfe, stated that the investigation had "identified all those involved, but for legal reasons I cannot expand further, and nor is it necessary to do so." Wharfe added that: "It does [...] lend credence to the Princess's belief, so often dismissed by her detractors, that the Establishment was out to destroy her."


title: Kshmr

text: Niles Hollowell-Dhar (born October 6, 1988), known professionally as Kshmr (pronounced "Kashmir" and stylized in all caps), is an American songwriter, DJ, music producer, and musician. He was ranked 23rd on "DJ Mag"s 2015 Top 100 DJs poll and was awarded highest new entry for the year. In the same poll he elevated to 12th in 2016 and 2017, and again in 2020. He was ranked 11th in the same poll in 2021. In July 2017, he launched Dharma Worldwide, a sublabel of Spinnin' Records. Kshmr performed live at many music festivals like Coachella, Tomorrowland, EDC, Ultra and Sunburn.


title: Kshmr

text: Hollowell-Dhar was born in Berkeley, California. His father is a Kashmiri Hindu who emigrated from India, while his mother is American. He got his stage name from the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, where his paternal side hails from. His singles "Jammu" and "Kashmir" also derive their names from the former state.


title: Kshmr

text: Hollowell-Dhar was originally part of the hip-hop production duo the Cataracs with high school friend David Singer-Vine, releasing hits such as "Like a G6" with Far East Movement and "Bass Down Low" with DEV, and co-producing others such as Selena Gomez's second song off her debut album "Stars Dance". Following Singer-Vine's departure from the duo in 2012, Hollowell-Dhar continued producing music with the name the Cataracs until 2014.


title: Kshmr

text: In 2014, Hollowell-Dhar started making electro house music under the alias of Kshmr. Under this name, he charted on Beatport. Before he released songs under Kshmr, he co-produced tracks like 'Tsunami' by DVBBS and Borgeous, as well as 'Stampede' by Dimitri Vegas & Like Mike, Dvbbs, and Borgeous. Hollowell-Dhar released his first single "Megalodon" on February 24, 2014, through Spinnin' Records. A Kshmr and R3hab collaboration resulted in the single "Karate" that charted in SNEP in March 2015. Most of Hollowell-Dhar's songs are released under Spinnin' Records. Hollowell-Dhar started raising attention when his single "Burn", a collaboration with DallasK, debuted reached the Top 40 chart on Beatport then eventually reached No. 1. The song has been released on 3 labels: Revealed Recordings, Spinnin' Records, and Ultra Records.


title: Kshmr

text: Until Hollowell-Dhar was introduced at Ultra Music Festival 2015 by Tiësto, his identity was relatively unknown. His song, "Secrets", a collaboration with Tiësto and Vassy was largely successful, streaming through buzz charts, and reaching the top of the Beatport Chart. In June 2015, Hollowell-Dhar announced he would host with Spinnin' Records a remix contest for his track "Jammu" – the first prize being a collaboration with Hollowell-Dhar on a new track. The contest was held on Spinnin Records' Talent Pool platform and the first place went to KYFRA, who won the collaboration with Hollowell-Dhar. In July 2015, Hollowell-Dhar released his highly anticipated debut sound pack exclusively with Splice Sounds. After the contest, Hollowell-Dhar announced his first live performance, at the Fonda Theater, Los Angeles, which took place on September 19, 2015.


title: Kshmr

text: He released his first EP, "The Lion Across the Field" on May 13, 2016. On July 23, 2016, he performed his first set in the Tomorrowland music festival, on the mainstage. On September 5, 2016, he collaborated with Tigerlily to release his new single, "Invisible Children". Hollowell-Dhar said "The project was already a great start. I added my ideas and it came together pretty quickly. The name comes from a term referring to slum kids in India and places around the world where poverty is so rampant that people begin to stop noticing". Two weeks later, he was awarded "Best Live Act" category on DJ Mag 2016. His place elevated from 23rd to 12th in DJ Mag's 2016 Top 100 DJs list. On October 24, 2016, he collaborated with Bassjackers to release their single "Extreme" featuring Sidnie Tipton via Spinnin' Records. In an emailed statement, Bassjackers said "Besides a musical connection, we also developed a friendship outside of music. We think that friendship contributes to what makes this song so special". In October 2016, he released his new song with Will Sparks titled "Voices" as a free download on Spinnin' Premium.


title: Kshmr

text: In March 2017, Hollowell-Dhar released "Back To Me" with Crossnaders featuring Micky Blue. He performed at Ultra Music Festival on March 24, 2017, with Timmy Trumpet and played with live musicians throughout the whole set for the first time in his career, as he wrote:


title: Kshmr

text: On June 16, 2017, "Harder", a collaboration between Hollowell-Dhar and Tiësto, was released via Spinnin' Records. The first song released via Kshmr's label, Dharma Worldwide, was "Festival of Lights", a collaboration with Maurice West. "Festival of Lights" is heavily based on Indian culture. Within a week, Hollowell-Dhar released "Kolkata" on July 28, 2017, a collaboration with JDG and Mariana BO on Dharma. He also played at the mainstage of Tomorrowland 2017 on July 29, a day after releasing "Kolkata". "Divination", a collaboration between Hollowell-Dhar and Dutch duo No Mondays was released on August 4, 2017. "The Serpent" was released on the same day as a collaboration with Snails. On September 22, 2017, Hollowell-Dhar released "Power" with Hardwell on Spinnin' Records. Hollowell-Dhar collaborated with Bollywood singer Sonu Nigam for track "Underwater" which was released on October 13, 2017, on his label Dharma Worldwide. On December 1, 2017, Hollowell-Dhar released "Islands" on Dharma Worldwide with electro house producer R3HAB. Within the same month, Hollowell-Dhar worked with producers Marnik and the Golden Army to release a psytrance influenced big room house track titled "Shiva" on December 29, 2017.


title: Kshmr

text: Kshmr released "House Of Cards" on February 16, 2018, which features Sidnie Tipton, who provided vocals to "Wildcard". Lacking Hollowell-Dhar's notable big room elements, the track is influenced by pop and acoustic components such as guitar riffs in the song's break. He also played the mainstage of Ultra Music Festival Miami with a set presenting new tracks and many of his well-known productions. On May 18, 2018, Hollowell-Dhar released "Doonka" which incorporates elements of both big room and trap music as a free download with Mr.Black. Hollowell-Dhar collaborated with Jake Reese to release "Carry Me Home" on June 15, 2018, a progressive house song originally premiered at his 2018 Ultra Music Festival performance. Commenting on the track's production, Hollowell-Dhar stated, "Carry Me Home started with the drop melody. I was scared I wouldn't find a vocal I loved just as much, but Jake Reese and [co-writer Joren van der Voort] blew me away with what they wrote." He released Greek-influenced single "Opa" with Dimitri Vegas & Like Mike on July 22, 2018, and "Neverland" with 7 Skies on August 3, 2018, which combined elements from the genres of bounce and big room house. The duo had previously worked together on a sample pack titled Symphony-Serum Hybrid Orchestra on music creation platform Splice. His next single titled "Good Vibes Soldier", co-produced with Israeli psytrance duo Vini Vici and comprising elements of reggaeton and rap, was released on August 24, 2018. On November 2, 2018, he released big room single "Magic", which features uncredited vocals by Vassy. "Dancing Astronaut" lauded the track as a return to Hollowell-Dhar's older era sound, together with its vocal resemblance to David Guetta's "Bad". Regarding the song's backstory, Hollowell-Dhar revealed that "Magic" was originally produced with Adrian Lux two years prior, with the duo failing to bring the track into the right direction then. Lux eventually gave up on the song, but Hollowell-Dhar continued working on the song until its final release.


title: Kshmr

text: Hollowell-Dhar's first release of the year was a collaboration with Belgian producer Yves V and American band Krewella titled "No Regrets". Released through Dharma on March 1, 2019, the track's chord patterns and drop were favorably compared to Alan Walker's signature sounds and style. In the same month, Hollowell-Dhar released 'Devil Inside Me' with Swedish producer Kaaze and vocalist Kaara. The melody of the song samples some elements the Jewish ballad, "Shalom Aleichem".


title: Kshmr

text: On June 24, 2019, Hollowell-Dhar announced the release of a new educational Dharma Worldwide platform consisting of tutorials, templates, and samples. Following that, a big room collaboration with Australian producer Timmy Trumpet, titled "The People", was released on June 28, 2019. The next day, he released "Lies" with Dutch producer B3rror featuring the vocals of Luciana. Hollowell-Dhar then released "My Best Life" with Australian singer Mike Waters on July 12, 2019. Regarding the song, Niles said, "This song, made by me and Mike Waters, is about social media and how it has become a tool for measuring ourselves. We talked about how it can be freeing to submit to the fact that somebody will always have nicer things and from there the lyrics came together". The track sparked some controversy with Indian rapper Emiway Bantai's song "Machayenge" as they both sampled some portions from Hollowell-Dhar's sample pack "Sounds of KSHMR Volume 3".


title: Kshmr

text: On October 15, 2020, Hollowell-Dhar released the single "One More Round" featuring Jeremy Oceans. It was released on Spinnin' Records and is a collaboration with Singaporean game developer Garena for their game Free Fire in celebration of the game's "Booyah Day" event which ran from October 16 to November 1. As a result of this collaboration, Free Fire introduced into their game a new character based on Hollowell-Dhar named K.


title: Kshmr

text: Hollowell-Dhar released two songs: "The World We Left Behind" featuring Karra and "Around the World" with producer Noumenn and uncredited vocals by Ivy on January 15 and February 26 respectively, as the first and second singles from his debut studio album "Harmonica Andromeda". The rest of the album was released on March 19, featuring 11 songs and 3 interludes. On June 11, a deluxe version of the album was released with 5 new songs, amounting to 19 tracks in total.


title: Kshmr

text: On May 24, 2021, Hollowell-Dhar, along with Armaan Malik and Eric Nam, released their new joint single, "Echo," in celebration of Asian American Pacific Islander (AAPI) Heritage Month. Regarding the song, Hollowell-Dhar said, "Echo is a song about tough relationships that I think we can all relate to. It was a demo I started years ago, unsure of how to finish it until I met Armaan. The voice and story he brought to the song was the perfect fit. Eric lent his awesome talent and it became a cross-country Asian collaboration, which I love."


title: Kshmr

text: On August 5, 2021, Hollowell-Dhar released the psytrance-influenced big room house track "Winners Anthem" with Zafrir. Later that month on the 24th, he along with Alok and Dimitri Vegas & Like Mike released a slap house track for Garena Free Fire's 4th anniversary, titled "Reunion".


title: Kshmr

text: He then released "Close Your Eyes" with Norwegian artist and music producer Martin Tungevaag on November 19.


title: Kshmr

text: On February 25, Hollowell-Dhar released the single "Lion Heart" in collaboration with Indian rapper Divine and Argentine freestyle rapper Lit Killah featuring Jeremy Oceans and frequent collaborator Karra.


title: Kshmr

text: Hollowell-Dhar had a number of Beatport hits, such as "No Heroes", "Burn", "Dead Mans Hand", "Kashmir", "Dogs", "Karate", his remix of duo Nervo's song "It Feels", and "Jammu". His logo, artist name, and tracks like "Delhi", "Jammu", "Kashmir", "Bazaar", "Dharma" and his EP "Paradesi" are based on and/or inspired by his half Kashmiri ethnic descent:


title: Kshmr

text: In 2015, Hollowell-Dhar was ranked number 23 on "DJ Mag's" Top 100 DJs of the year poll, the highest new entry that year. His position in the Top 100 DJs of 2016 elevated by 11 from the previous year to be placed at 12th.


title: Kshmr

text: Hollowell-Dhar currently uses Ableton Live 10 as his DAW. While part of the Cataracs, he used Reason.


title: Infinitive

text: Infinitive (abbreviated ) is a linguistics term for certain verb forms existing in many languages, most often used as non-finite verbs. As with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition applicable to all languages. The word is derived from Late Latin "[modus] infinitivus", a derivative of "infinitus" meaning "unlimited".


title: Infinitive

text: In traditional descriptions of English, the infinitive is the basic dictionary form of a verb when used non-finitely, with or without the particle "to". Thus "to go" is an infinitive, as is "go" in a sentence like "I must go there" (but not in "I go there", where it is a finite verb). The form without "to" is called the bare infinitive, and the form with "to" is called the full infinitive or to-infinitive.


title: Infinitive

text: In many other languages the infinitive is a distinct single word, often with a characteristic inflective ending, like "morir" ("[to] die") in Spanish, "manger" ("[to] eat") in French, "portare" ("[to] carry") in Latin and Italian, "lieben" ("[to] love") in German, ' ("chitat, "[to] read") in Russian, etc. However, some languages have no infinitive forms. Many Native American languages, Arabic, Asian languages such as Japanese, and some languages in Africa and Australia do not have direct equivalents to infinitives or verbal nouns. Instead, they use finite verb forms in ordinary clauses or various special constructions.


title: Infinitive

text: Being a verb, an infinitive may take objects and other complements and modifiers to form a verb phrase (called an infinitive phrase). Like other non-finite verb forms (like participles, converbs, gerunds and gerundives), infinitives do not generally have an expressed subject; thus an infinitive verb phrase also constitutes a complete non-finite clause, called an infinitive (infinitival) clause. Such phrases or clauses may play a variety of roles within sentences, often being nouns (for example being the subject of a sentence or being a complement of another verb), and sometimes being adverbs or other types of modifier. Many verb forms known as infinitives differ from gerunds (verbal nouns) in that they do not inflect for case or occur in adpositional phrases. Instead, infinitives often originate in earlier inflectional forms of verbal nouns. Unlike finite verbs, infinitives are not usually inflected for tense, person, etc. either, although some degree of inflection sometimes occurs; for example Latin has distinct active and passive infinitives.


title: Infinitive

text: An "infinitive phrase" is a verb phrase constructed with the verb in infinitive form. This consists of the verb together with its objects and other complements and modifiers. Some examples of infinitive phrases in English are given below – these may be based on either the full infinitive (introduced by the particle "to") or the bare infinitive (without the particle "to").


title: Infinitive

text: Infinitive phrases often have an implied grammatical subject making them effectively clauses rather than phrases. Such "infinitive clauses" or "infinitival clauses", are one of several kinds of non-finite clause. They can play various grammatical roles like a constituent of a larger clause or sentence; for example it may form a noun phrase or adverb. Infinitival clauses may be embedded within each other in complex ways, like in the sentence:


title: Infinitive

text: Here the infinitival clause "to get married" is contained within the finite dependent clause "that John Welborn is going to get married to Blair"; this in turn is contained within another infinitival clause, which is contained in the finite independent clause (the whole sentence).


title: Infinitive

text: The grammatical structure of an infinitival clause may differ from that of a corresponding finite clause. For example, in German, the infinitive form of the verb usually goes to the end of its clause, whereas a finite verb (in an independent clause) typically comes in second position.


title: Infinitive

text: As these examples illustrate, the implicit subject of the infinitive occurs in the objective case (them, him) in contrast to the nominative case that occurs with a finite verb, e.g., "They ate their dinner."


title: Infinitive

text: Such accusative and infinitive constructions are present in Latin and Ancient Greek, as well as many modern languages. The atypical case regarding the implicit subject of an infinitive is an example of exceptional case-marking. As shown in the above examples, the object of the transitive verb "want" and the preposition "for" allude to their respective pronouns' subjective role within the clauses.


title: Infinitive

text: In some languages, infinitives may be marked for grammatical categories like voice, aspect, and to some extent tense. This may be done by inflection, as with the Latin perfect and passive infinitives, or by periphrasis (with the use of auxiliary verbs), as with the Latin future infinitives or the English perfect and progressive infinitives.


title: Infinitive

text: Latin has present, perfect and future infinitives, with active and passive forms of each. For details see .


title: Infinitive

text: English has infinitive constructions that are marked (periphrastically) for aspect: perfect, progressive (continuous), or a combination of the two (perfect progressive). These can also be marked for passive voice (as can the plain infinitive):


title: Infinitive

text: Further constructions can be made with other auxiliary-like expressions, like "(to) be going to eat" or "(to) be about to eat", which have future meaning. For more examples of the above types of construction, see .


title: Infinitive

text: Perfect infinitives are also found in other European languages that have perfect forms with auxiliaries similarly to English. For example, "avoir mangé" means "(to) have eaten" in French.


title: Infinitive

text: Regarding English, the term "infinitive" is traditionally applied to the unmarked form of the verb (the "plain form") when it forms a non-finite verb, whether or not introduced by the particle "to". Hence "sit" and "to sit", as used in the following sentences, would each be considered an infinitive:


title: Infinitive

text: The form without "to" is called the "bare infinitive"; the form introduced by "to" is called the "full infinitive" or "to-infinitive".


title: Infinitive

text: The other non-finite verb forms in English are the gerund or present participle (the "-ing" form), and the past participle – these are not considered infinitives. Moreover, the unmarked form of the verb is not considered an infinitive when it forms a finite verb: like a present indicative ("I "sit" every day"), subjunctive ("I suggest that he "sit""), or imperative (""Sit" down!"). (For some irregular verbs the form of the infinitive coincides additionally with that of the past tense and/or past participle, like in the case of "put".)


title: Infinitive

text: Certain auxiliary verbs are defective in that they do not have infinitives (or any other non-finite forms). This applies to the modal verbs ("can", "must", etc.), as well as certain related auxiliaries like the "had" of "had better" and the "used" of "used to". (Periphrases can be employed instead in some cases, like "(to) be able to" for "can", and "(to) have to" for "must".) It also applies to the auxiliary "do", like used in questions, negatives and emphasis like described under "do"-support. (Infinitives are negated by simply preceding them with "not". Of course the verb "do" when forming a main verb can appear in the infinitive.) However, the auxiliary verbs "have" (used to form the perfect) and "be" (used to form the passive voice and continuous aspect) both commonly appear in the infinitive: "I should have finished by now"; "It's thought to have been a burial site"; "Let him be released"; "I hope to be working tomorrow."


title: Infinitive

text: Huddleston and Pullum's "Cambridge Grammar of the English Language" (2002) does not use the notion of the "infinitive" ("there is no form in the English verb paradigm called 'the infinitive'"), only that of the "infinitival clause", noting that English uses the same form of the verb, the "plain form", in infinitival clauses that it uses in imperative and present-subjunctive clauses.


title: Infinitive

text: A matter of controversy among prescriptive grammarians and style writers has been the appropriateness of separating the two words of the "to"-infinitive (as in "I expect "to" happily "sit" here"). For details of this, see split infinitive. Opposing linguistic theories typically do not consider the "to"-infinitive a distinct constituent, instead regarding the scope of the particle "to" as an entire verb phrase; thus, "to buy a car" is parsed like "<nowiki>to [buy [a car]]</nowiki>", not like "<nowiki>[to buy] [a car]</nowiki>".


title: Infinitive

text: The bare infinitive and the "to"-infinitive have a variety of uses in English. The two forms are mostly in complementary distribution – certain contexts call for one, and certain contexts for the other; they are not normally interchangeable, except in occasional instances like after the verb "help", where either can be used.


title: Infinitive

text: The infinitive is also the usual dictionary form or citation form of a verb. The form listed in dictionaries is the bare infinitive, although the "to"-infinitive is often used in referring to verbs or in defining other verbs: "The word 'amble' means 'to walk slowly'"; "How do we conjugate the verb "to go"?"


title: Infinitive

text: For further detail and examples of the uses of infinitives in English, see Bare infinitive and "To"-infinitive in the article on uses of English verb forms.


title: Infinitive

text: The original Proto-Germanic ending of the infinitive was "-an", with verbs derived from other words ending in "-jan" or "-janan".


title: Infinitive

text: In German it is "-en" ("sagen"), with "-eln" or "-ern" endings on a few words based on -l or -r roots ("segeln", "ändern"). The use of "zu" with infinitives is similar to English "to", but is less frequent than in English. German infinitives can form nouns, often expressing abstractions of the action, in which case they are of neuter gender: "das Essen" means "the eating", but also "the food".


title: Infinitive

text: In Dutch infinitives also end in "-en" ("zeggen" — "to say"), sometimes used with "te" similar to English "to", e.g., "Het is niet moeilijk te begrijpen" → "It is not hard to understand." The few verbs with stems ending in "-a" have infinitives in -n ("gaan" — "to go", "slaan" — "to hit"). Afrikaans has lost the distinction between the infinitive and present forms of verbs, with the exception of the verbs "wees" (to be), which admits the present form "is", and the verb "hê" (to have), whose present form is "het".


title: Infinitive

text: In North Germanic languages the final "-n" was lost from the infinitive as early as 500–540 AD, reducing the suffix to "-a". Later it has been further reduced to "-e" in Danish and some Norwegian dialects (including the written majority language bokmål). In the majority of Eastern Norwegian dialects and a few bordering Western Swedish dialects the reduction to "-e" was only partial, leaving some infinitives in "-a" and others in "-e" (å laga vs. å kaste). In northern parts of Norway the infinitive suffix is completely lost (å lag’ vs. å kast’) or only the "-a" is kept (å laga vs. å kast’). The infinitives of these languages are inflected for passive voice through the addition of "-s" or "-st" to the active form. This suffix appearance in Old Norse was a contraction of "mik" (“me”, forming "-mk") or "sik" (reflexive pronoun, forming "-sk") and was originally expressing reflexive actions: (hann) "kallar" (“[he] calls”) + "-sik" (“himself”) > (hann) "kallask" (“[he] calls himself”). The suffixes "-mk" and "-sk" later merged to "-s", which evolved to "-st" in the western dialects. The loss or reduction of "-a" in active voice in Norwegian did not occur in the passive forms ("-ast", "-as"), except for some dialects that have "-es". The other North Germanic languages have the same vowel in both forms.


title: Infinitive

text: The formation of the infinitive in the Romance languages reflects that in their ancestor, Latin, almost all verbs had an infinitive ending with "-re" (preceded by one of various thematic vowels). For example, in Italian infinitives end in "-are", "-ere", "-rre" (rare), or "-ire" (which is still identical to the Latin forms), and in "-arsi", "-ersi", "-rsi", "-irsi" for the reflexive forms. In Spanish and Portuguese, infinitives end in "-ar", "-er", or "-ir" (Spanish also has reflexive forms in "-arse", "-erse", "-irse"), while similarly in French they typically end in "-re", "-er", "oir", and "-ir". In Romanian, both short and long-form infinitives exist; the so-called "long infinitives" end in "-are, -ere, -ire" and in modern speech are used exclusively as verbal nouns, while there are a few verbs that cannot be converted into the nominal long infinitive. The "short infinitives" used in verbal contexts (e.g., after an auxiliary verb) have the endings "-a","-ea", "-e", and "-i" (basically removing the ending in "-re"). In Romanian, the infinitive is usually replaced by a clause containing the conjunction "să" plus the subjunctive mood. The only verb that is modal in common modern Romanian is the verb "a putea", to be able to. However, in popular speech the infinitive after "a putea" is also increasingly replaced by the subjunctive.


title: Infinitive

text: Latin infinitives challenged several of the generalizations about infinitives. They did inflect for voice ("amare", "to love", "amari", to be loved) and for tense ("amare", "to love", "amavisse", "to have loved"), and allowed for an overt expression of the subject ("video Socratem currere", "I see Socrates running"). See .


title: Infinitive

text: Romance languages inherited from Latin the possibility of an overt expression of the subject (as in Italian "vedo Socrate correre"). Moreover, the "inflected infinitive" (or "personal infinitive") found in Portuguese and Galician inflects for person and number. These, alongside Sardinian, are the only Indo-European languages that allow infinitives to take person and number endings. This helps to make infinitive clauses very common in these languages; for example, the English finite clause "in order that you/she/we have..." would be translated to Portuguese like "para teres/ela ter/termos..." (Portuguese is a null-subject language). The Portuguese personal infinitive has no proper tenses, only aspects (imperfect and perfect), but tenses can be expressed using periphrastic structures. For instance, ""even though you sing/have sung/are going to sing"" could be translated to ""apesar de cantares/teres cantado/ires cantar"".


title: Infinitive

text: Other Romance languages (including Spanish, Romanian, Catalan, and some Italian dialects) allow uninflected infinitives to combine with overt nominative subjects. For example, Spanish "al abrir yo los ojos" ("when I opened my eyes") or "sin yo saberlo" ("without my knowing about it").


title: Infinitive

text: In Ancient Greek the infinitive has four tenses (present, future, aorist, perfect) and three voices (active, middle, passive). Present and perfect have the same infinitive for both middle and passive, while future and aorist have separate middle and passive forms.


title: Infinitive

text: Thematic verbs form present active infinitives by adding to the stem the thematic vowel and the infinitive ending , and contracts to , e.g., . Athematic verbs, and perfect actives and aorist passives, add the suffix instead, e.g., . In the middle and passive, the present middle infinitive ending is , e.g., and most tenses of thematic verbs add an additional between the ending and the stem, e.g., .


title: Infinitive

text: The infinitive "per se" does not exist in Modern Greek. To see this, consider the ancient Greek "ἐθέλω γράφειν" “I want to write”. In modern Greek this becomes "θέλω να γράψω" “I want that I write”. In modern Greek, the infinitive has thus changed form and function and is used mainly in the formation of periphrastic tense forms and not with an article or alone. Instead of the Ancient Greek infinitive system "γράφειν, γράψειν, γράψαι, γεγραφέναι", Modern Greek uses only the form "γράψει", a development of the ancient Greek aorist infinitive "γράψαι". This form is also invariable. The modern Greek infinitive has only two forms according to voice: for example, "γράψει" for the active voice and "γραφ(τ)εί" for the passive voice (coming from the ancient passive aorist infinitive "γραφῆναι").


title: Infinitive

text: The infinitive in Russian usually ends in "-t’" (ть) preceded by a thematic vowel, or "-ti" (ти), if not preceded by one; some verbs have a stem ending in a consonant and change the "t" to "č’", like "*mogt’ → moč’" (*могть → мочь) "can". Some other Balto-Slavic languages have the infinitive typically ending in, for example, "-ć" (sometimes "-c") in Polish, "-t’" in Slovak, "-t" (formerly "-ti") in Czech and Latvian (with a handful ending in -s on the latter), "-ty" (-ти) in Ukrainian, -ць ("-ts"') in Belarusian. Lithuanian infinitives end in -"ti", Serbo-Croatian in -"ti" or -"ći," and Slovenian in -"ti" or -"či."


title: Infinitive

text: Serbian officially retains infinitives -"ti" or -"ći", but is more flexible than the other slavic languages in breaking the infinitive through a clause. The infinitive nevertheless remains the dictionary form.


title: Infinitive

text: Bulgarian and Macedonian have lost the infinitive altogether except in a handful of frozen expressions where it is the same as the 3rd person singular aorist form. Almost all expressions where an infinitive may be used in Bulgarian are listed here; neverthess in all cases a subordinate clause is the more usual form. For that reason, the present first-person singular conjugation is the dictionary form in Bulgarian, while Macedonian uses the third person singular form of the verb in present tense.


title: Infinitive

text: Hebrew has "two" infinitives, the infinitive absolute and the infinitive construct. The infinitive construct is used after prepositions and is inflected with pronominal endings to indicate its subject or object: "bikhtōbh hassōphēr" "when the scribe wrote", "ahare lekhtō" "after his going". When the infinitive construct is preceded by ("lə-", "li-", "lā-", "lo-") "to", it has a similar meaning to the English "to"-infinitive, and this is its most frequent use in Modern Hebrew. The infinitive absolute is used for verb focus and emphasis, like in "mōth yāmūth" (literally "a dying he will die"; figuratively, "he shall indeed/surely die"). This usage is commonplace in the Hebrew Bible. In Modern Hebrew it is restricted to high-register literary works.


title: Infinitive

text: Note, however, that the "to"-infinitive of Hebrew is not the dictionary form; that is the third person singular past form.


title: Infinitive

text: The Finnish grammatical tradition includes many non-finite forms that are generally labeled as (numbered) infinitives although many of these are functionally converbs. To form the so-called? first infinitive, the strong form of the root (without consonant gradation or epenthetic 'e') is used, and these changes occur:


title: Infinitive

text: As such, it is inconvenient for dictionary use, because the imperative would be closer to the root word. Nevertheless, dictionaries use the first infinitive.


title: Infinitive

text: Note that all of these must change to reflect vowel harmony, so the fifth infinitive (with a third-person suffix) of "hypätä" "jump" is "hyppäämäisillään" "he was about to jump", not "*hyppäämaisillaan".


title: Infinitive

text: The Seri language of northwestern Mexico has infinitival forms used in two constructions (with the verb meaning 'want' and with the verb meaning 'be able'). The infinitive is formed by adding a prefix to the stem: either "iha-" (plus a vowel change of certain vowel-initial stems) if the complement clause is transitive, or "ica-" (and no vowel change) if the complement clause is intransitive. The infinitive shows agreement in number with the controlling subject. Examples are: "icatax ihmiimzo" 'I want to go', where "icatax" is the singular infinitive of the verb 'go' (singular root is "-atax"), and "icalx hamiimcajc" 'we want to go', where "icalx" is the plural infinitive. Examples of the transitive infinitive: "ihaho" 'to see it/him/her/them' (root "-aho"), and "ihacta" 'to look at it/him/her/them' (root "-oocta").


title: Infinitive

text: In languages without an infinitive, the infinitive is translated either as a "that"-clause or as a verbal noun. For example, in Literary Arabic the sentence "I want to write a book" is translated as either "urīdu an aktuba kitāban" (lit. "I want that I write a book", with a verb in the subjunctive mood) or "urīdu kitābata kitābin" (lit. "I want the writing of a book", with the "masdar" or verbal noun), and in Levantine Colloquial Arabic "biddi aktub kitāb" (subordinate clause with verb in subjunctive).


title: Infinitive

text: Even in languages that have infinitives, similar constructions are sometimes necessary where English would allow the infinitive. For example, in French the sentence "I want you to come" translates to "Je veux que vous veniez" (lit. "I want that you come", "come" being in the subjunctive mood). However, "I want to come" is simply "Je veux venir", using the infinitive, just as in English. In Russian, sentences such as "I want you to leave" do not use an infinitive. Rather, they use the conjunction чтобы "in order to/so that" with the past tense form (most probably remnant of subjunctive) of the verb: "Я хочу, чтобы вы ушли" (literally, "I want so that you left").


title: Austrasia

text: Austrasia was a territory which formed the north-eastern section of the Merovingian Kingdom of the Franks during the 6th to 8th centuries. It was centred on the Meuse, Middle Rhine and the Moselle rivers, and was the original territory of the Franks, including both the so-called Salians and Rhineland Franks, which Clovis I conquered after first taking control of the bordering part of Roman Gaul, now northern France, which is sometimes described in this period as Neustria.


title: Austrasia

text: In 561, Austrasia became a separate kingdom within the Frankish kingdom and was ruled by Sigebert I. In the 7th and 8th centuries it was the powerbase from which the Carolingians, originally mayors of the palace of Austrasia, took over the rule of all Franks, all of Gaul, most of Germany, and northern Italy. After this period of unification, the now larger Frankish empire was once again divided between eastern and western sub-kingdoms, with the new version of the eastern kingdom eventually becoming the foundation of the Kingdom of Germany.


title: Austrasia

text: The name "Austrasia" is not well attested in the Merovingian period. It is recorded first by Gregory of Tours in 580 and then by Aimoin of Fleury in c. 1000.


title: Austrasia

text: It is presumably the latinisation of an Old Frankish name, reconstructed as "*Oster-rike" ("Eastern Kingdom").


title: Austrasia

text: As with the name "Austria", it contains the word for "east", i.e. meaning "eastern land" to designate the original territory of the Franks in contrast to Neustria, the "(new) western land" in northern Gaul conquered by Clovis I in the wake of the Battle of Soissons of 486.


title: Austrasia

text: Austrasia was centered on the Middle Rhine, including the basins of the Moselle, Main, and Meuse rivers. It bordered on Frisia and Saxony to the north, Thuringia to the east, Swabia and Burgundy to the south and to Neustria to the southwest. The exact boundary between Merovingian Neustria and Austrasia is unclear with respect to areas such as the medieval counties of Flanders, Brabant and Hainaut, and areas immediately to the south of these.


title: Austrasia

text: Metz served as the Austrasian capital, although some Austrasian kings ruled from Reims, Trier and Cologne. Other important cities included Verdun, Worms and Speyer. Fulda monastery was founded in eastern Austrasia in the final decade of the Merovingian period.


title: Austrasia

text: In the High Middle Ages, its territory became divided among the duchies of Lotharingia and Franconia in Germany, with some western portions including Reims and Rethel passing to France.


title: Austrasia

text: Its exact boundaries were somewhat fluid over the history of the Frankish sub-kingdoms, but Austrasia can be taken to correspond roughly to the territory of present-day Luxembourg, parts of eastern Belgium, north-eastern France (Lorraine and Champagne-Ardenne), west-central Germany (the Rhineland, Hesse and Franconia) and the southern Netherlands (Limburg, North Brabant, with a salient north of the Rhine including Utrecht and parts of Gelderland).


title: Austrasia

text: After the death of the Frankish king Clovis I in 511, his four sons partitioned his kingdom amongst themselves, with Theuderic I receiving the lands that were to become Austrasia. Descended from Theuderic, a line of kings ruled Austrasia until 555, when it was united with the other Frankish kingdoms of Chlothar I, who inherited all the Frankish realms by 558. He redivided the Frankish territory amongst his four sons, but the four kingdoms coalesced into three on the death of Charibert I in 567: Austrasia under Sigebert I, Neustria under Chilperic I, and Burgundy under Guntram. These three kingdoms defined the political division of Francia until the rise of the Carolingians and even thereafter.


title: Austrasia

text: From 567 to the death of Sigebert II in 613, Neustria and Austrasia fought each other almost constantly, with Burgundy playing the peacemaker between them. These struggles reached their climax in the wars between Brunhilda and Fredegund, queens respectively of Austrasia and Neustria. Finally, in 613, a rebellion by the nobility against Brunhilda saw her betrayed and handed over to her nephew and foe in Neustria, Chlothar II. Chlothar then took control of the other two kingdoms and set up a united Frankish kingdom with its capital in Paris. During this period the first "majores domus" or mayors of the palace appeared. These officials acted as mediators between king and people in each realm. The first Austrasian mayors came from the Pippinid family, which experienced a slow but steady ascent until it eventually displaced the Merovingians on the throne.


title: Austrasia

text: In 623, the Austrasians asked Chlothar II for a king of their own and he appointed his son Dagobert I to rule over them with Pepin of Landen as regent. Dagobert's government in Austrasia was widely admired. In 629, he inherited Neustria and Burgundy. Austrasia was again neglected until, in 633, the people demanded the king's son as their own king again. Dagobert complied and sent his elder son Sigebert III to Austrasia. Historians often categorise Sigebert as the first "roi fainéant", or do-nothing king, of the Merovingian dynasty. His court was dominated by the mayors. In 657, the mayor Grimoald the Elder succeeded in putting his son Childebert the Adopted on the throne, where he remained until 662. Thereafter, Austrasia was predominantly the kingdom of the Arnulfing mayors of the palace and their base of power. With the Battle of Tertry in 687, Pepin of Heristal defeated the Neustrian king Theuderic III and established his mayoralty over all the Frankish kingdoms. This was even regarded by contemporaries as the beginning of his "reign". It also signalled the dominance of Austrasia over Neustria, which would last until the end of the Merovingian era.


title: Austrasia

text: In 718, Charles Martel had Austrasian support in his war against Neustria for control of all the Francian realms. He was not king himself, but appointed Chlothar IV to rule in Austrasia. In 719, Francia was united by Martel's family, the Carolingian dynasty, under Austrasian hegemony. While the Frankish kings continued to divide up the Frankish realm in different ways over subsequent generations, the term Austrasia was only used occasionally after the Carolingian dynasty.


title: Missile defense

text: Missile defense is a system, weapon, or technology involved in the detection, tracking, interception, and also the destruction of attacking missiles. Conceived as a defense against nuclear-armed intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), its application has broadened to include shorter-ranged non-nuclear tactical and theater missiles.


title: Missile defense

text: China, France, India, Iran, Israel, Italy, Russia, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and the United States have all developed such air defense systems.


title: Missile defense

text: Missile defense can be divided into categories based on various characteristics: type/range of missile intercepted, the trajectory phase where the intercept occurs, and whether intercepted inside or outside the Earth's atmosphere:


title: Missile defense

text: These types/ranges include strategic, theater and tactical. Each entails unique requirements for intercept, and a defensive system capable of intercepting one missile type frequently cannot intercept others. However, there is sometimes overlap in capability.


title: Missile defense

text: Targets long-range ICBMs, which travel at about 7 km/s (15,700 mph). Examples of currently active systems: Russian A-135 system which defends Moscow, and the U.S. Ground-Based Midcourse Defense system that defends the United States from missiles launched from Asia. Geographic range of strategic defense can be regional (Russian system) or national (U.S. system).


title: Missile defense

text: Targets medium-range missiles, which travel at about 3 km/s (6,700 mph) or less. In this context, the term "theater" means the entire localized region for military operations, typically a radius of several hundred kilometers. Defense range of theater defensive systems is usually on this order. Examples of deployed theater missile defenses: Israeli Arrow missile, American THAAD, and Russian S-400.


title: Missile defense

text: Targets short-range tactical ballistic missiles, which usually travel at less than 1.5 km/s (3,400 mph). Tactical anti-ballistic missiles (ABMs) have short ranges, typically 20–80 km (12–50 miles). Examples of currently-deployed tactical ABMs: American MIM-104 Patriot and Russian S-300V.


title: Missile defense

text: Ballistic missiles can be intercepted in three regions of their trajectory: boost phase, midcourse phase, or terminal phase.


title: Missile defense

text: Intercepting the missile while its rocket motors are firing, usually over the launch territory (e.g., American aircraft-mounted laser weapon Boeing YAL-1 [program canceled]).


title: Missile defense

text: Intercepting the missile in space after the rocket burns out (example: American Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD), Chinese SC-19 & DN-series missiles, Israeli Arrow 3 missile).


title: Missile defense

text: Intercepting the missile after it reenters the atmosphere (examples: American Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System, Chinese HQ-29, American THAAD, American Sprint, Russian ABM-3 Gazelle)


title: Missile defense

text: Missile defense can take place either inside (endoatmospheric) or outside (exoatmospheric) the Earth's atmosphere. The trajectory of most ballistic missiles takes them inside and outside the Earth's atmosphere, and they can be intercepted in either place. There are advantages and disadvantages to either intercept technique.


title: Missile defense

text: Some missiles such as THAAD can intercept both inside and outside the Earth's atmosphere, giving two intercept opportunities.


title: Missile defense

text: Endoatmospheric anti-ballistic missiles are usually shorter ranged (e.g., American MIM-104 Patriot, Indian Advanced Air Defence).


title: Missile defense

text: Exoatmospheric anti-ballistic missiles are usually longer-ranged (e.g., American GMD, Ground-Based Midcourse Defense).


title: Missile defense

text: Given the immense variety by which a defense system can operate (targeting nuclear-armed intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), tactical, and theater missiles), there are some unarguably effective exoatmospheric (outside the Earth's atmosphere) countermeasures an attacking party can use to deter or completely defend against certain types of defense systems, ranges of ACBM's, and intercept locations. Many of defenses to these countermeasures have been implemented and taken into account when constructing missile defense systems, however, it does not guarantee their effectiveness or success. The U.S. Missile Defense Agency has received scrutiny in regards to their lack of foresight of these countermeasures, causing many scientists to perform various studies and data analysis as to the true effectiveness of these countermeasures.


title: Missile defense

text: A common countermeasure that attacking parties use to disrupt the efficacy of Missile Defense Systems are the simultaneous launching of decoys from the primary launch site or from the exterior of the main attacking missile itself. These decoys are usually small, lightweight dud rockets that take advantage of the interceptor sensors tracking and fool it by making many different targets available in an instant. This is accomplished via the releasing of decoys in certain phases of flight. Because objects of differing weights follow the same trajectory when in space, decoys released during the midcourse phase can prevent interceptor missiles from accurately identifying the warhead. This could force the defense system to attempt to destroy all incoming projectiles, which masks the true attacking missile and lets it slip by the defense system.


title: Missile defense

text: Since there can be many forms of this type of deception of a missile system, different categorizations of decoys have developed, all of which operate and are designed slightly different. Details of these types of decoys and their effectiveness were provided in a report by a variety of prominent scientists in 2000.


title: Missile defense

text: This categorization of decoy is the most similar to the standard understanding of what a missile decoy is. These types of decoys attempt to mask the attacking ICBM via the release of many similar missiles. This type of decoy confuses the missile defense system by the sudden replication and the sheer number of similar targets. Knowing that no defense system is 100% reliable, this confusion within the targeting of the defense system would cause the system to target each decoy with equal priority and as if it was the actual warhead, allowing the real warheads chance of passing through the system and striking the target to increase drastically.


title: Missile defense

text: Similar to replica decoys, these types of decoys also take advantage of the limitations in number within the missile defense systems targeting. However, rather than using missiles of similar build and trace to the attacking warhead, these types of decoys all have slightly different appearances from both each other and the warhead itself. This creates a different kind of confusion within the system; rather than creating a situation where each decoy (and the warhead itself) appears the same and is therefore targeted and treated exactly like the "real" warhead, the targeting system simply does not know what is the real threat and what is a decoy due to the mass amount of differing information. This creates a similar situation as the result of the replica decoy, increasing the chance that the real warhead passes through the system and strikes the target.


title: Missile defense

text: This type of decoy is perhaps the most difficult and subversive for a missile defense system to determine. Instead of taking advantage of the missile defense system's targeting, this type of decoy intends to fool the operation of the system itself. Rather than using sheer quantity to overrun the targeting system, an anti-simulation decoy disguises the actual warhead as a decoy, and a decoy as the actual warhead. This system of "anti-simulation" allows the attacking warhead to, in some cases, take advantage of the "bulk-filtering" of certain missile defense systems, in which objects with characteristics of the warhead poorly matching those expected by the defense are either not observed because of sensor filters, or observed very briefly and immediately rejected without the need for a detailed examination. The actual warhead may simply pass by undetected, or rejected as a threat.


title: Missile defense

text: Another common countermeasure used to fool missile defense systems are the implementation of cooled shrouds surrounding attacking missiles. This method covers the entire missile in a steel containment filled with liquid oxygen, nitrogen, or other sub-zero coolants that prevent the missile from being easily detected. Because many missile defense systems use infrared sensors to detect the heat traces of incoming missiles, this capsule of extremely cold liquid either renders the incoming missile entirely invisible to detection or reduces the system's ability to detect the incoming missile fast enough.


title: Missile defense

text: Another commonly applied countermeasure to missile defense is the application of various low-emissivity coatings. Similar to cooled shrouds, these warheads are fully coated with infrared reflective or resistant coatings that allow similar resistance to infrared detection that cooled shrouds do. Because the most effective coating discovered so far is gold, though, this method is often overstepped by cooled shrouds.


title: Missile defense

text: This is perhaps the most extreme approach to countering missile defense systems that are designed to destroy ICBMs and other forms of nuclear weaponry. Rather than using many missiles equipped with nuclear warheads as their main weapon of attack, this idea involves the release of biological or chemical sub-munition weapons/agents from the missile shortly after the boost phase of the attacking ICBM. Because missile defense systems are designed with intent to destroy main attacking missiles or ICBMs, this system of sub-munition attack is too numerous for the system to defend against while also distributing the chemical or biological agent across a large area of attack.


title: Missile defense

text: There is currently no proposed countermeasure to this type of attack except through diplomacy and the effective banning of biological weaponry and chemical agents within war. However, this does not guarantee that this countermeasure to missile defense system will not be abused via extremists/terrorists. An example of this severe threat can be further seen in North Korea's testing of anthrax tipped ICBMs in 2017.


title: Missile defense

text: Countries including Iran and North Korea may have sought missiles that can maneuver and vary their trajectories in order to evade missile defense systems.


title: Missile defense

text: In March 2022, when Russia used a hypersonic missile against Ukraine, Joe Biden characterized the weapon as "almost impossible to stop". Boost-glide hypersonic weapons shift trajectory to evade current missile-defense systems.


title: Missile defense

text: Another way to counter an ABM system is to attach multiple warheads that break apart upon reentry. If the ABM is able to counter one or two of the warheads via detonation or collision the others would slip through radar either because of limitations on ABM firing speeds or because of radar blackout caused by plasma interference. The first MRV was the Polaris A-3 which had three warheads and was launched from a submarine. Before regulations on how many warheads could be stored in a MIRV, the Soviets had up to twenty to thirty attached to ICBMs.


title: Missile defense

text: Jammers use radar noise to saturate the incoming signals to the point there the radar cannot discern meaningful data about a target's location with meaningless noise. They can also imitate the signal of a missile to create a fake target.  They are usually spread over planned missile paths to enemy territory to give the missile a clear path to their target. Because these jammers take relatively little electricity and hardware to operate, they are usually small, self-contained, and easily dispersible.


title: Missile defense

text: Command and control, battle management, and communications (C2BMC) systems are hardware and software interfaces that integrate a multitude of sensory information at a centralized center for the ballistic missile defense system (BMDS). The command center allows for human management in accordance to the incorporated sensory information- BMDS status, system coverage, and ballistic missile attacks. The interface system helps build an image of the battle scenario or situation which enables the user to select the optimal firing solutions.


title: Missile defense

text: The first C2BMC system became operational in 2004. Since then, many elements have been added to update the C2BMC, which act to provide further sensory information and allow for enhanced communications between combatant commanders. A C2BMC is even capable of initiating live planning system before any engagement has even started.


title: Missile defense

text: The function of ground-based midcourse defense (GMD) systems is to provide combatants the ability to seek and destroy intermediate- and long-range ballistic missiles en route to the US homeland. Data are transmitted from the defense satellite communication system, and compiles an image using the coordinated information. The system is able to relay real-time data once missiles have been launched. The GMD can also work to receive information from the C2BMC, which allows Aegis SPY-1, and TPY-2 to contribute to the defense system.


title: Missile defense

text: A problem with GMD is that the ground systems have increasingly becoming obsolete as the technology was initially installed as early as the 1990s. So, the ground sensors had been replaced sometime in 2018. The update was to add the capability of handling up to 44 systems; it would also reduce overlapping redundancies and inefficiencies.


title: Missile defense

text: Link-16 is a data link that connects communication between land, air, and sea forces to support joint operations and improve operability. The system is intended to improve the interoperability for joint operations of NATO and coalition forces. Link-16 is also used by the U.S. Army and Navy for air and sea operations. An important feature of Link-16 is its ability to broadcast information simultaneously to as many users as needed. Another feature of Link-16 is its ability to act as nodes, which allows for a multitude of distributed forces to operate cohesively.


title: Missile defense

text: The newest generation of Link-16 is the multifunctional information distribution system low-volume terminal (MIDS LVT). It is a much smaller unit that can be fitted on air, ground, and sea units to incorporate data. The MIDS LVT terminals are installed on most bombers, aircraft, UAVs, and tankers, allowing for the incorporation of most air defense systems.


title: Missile defense

text: The Integrated Air and Missile Defense Battle Command System (IBCS) is an unified command and control network developed by the U.S. Army. It is designed to integrate data relay between weapon launchers, radars, and the operators, which allows air-defense units to fire interceptors with information being relayed among radars. The advantage of such a system is it can increase the area an air unit can defend and reduce interceptor spending by ensuring than no other air defense unit would engage the same target. The IBCS will be able to integrate with air defense networks of foreign military as the global C2BMC system.


title: Missile defense

text: IBCS engagement stations will integrate raw data from multiple sensors and process it into a single air picture, and choose elect different weapons and launcher locations depending on the detected threat instead of being limited to particular unit capabilities.


title: Missile defense

text: The IBCS system is intended to be operational in 2019; between 2016 and 2017, implementation of IBCS had to be put on hold due to software issues with the system. In 2021, F-35 sensor data were linked via airborne gateway to ground-based IBCS, to conduct a simulated Army fires exercise, for future Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2).


title: Missile defense

text: The problem was first studied during the last year of the Second World War. The only countermeasure against the V-2 missile that could be devised was a massive barrage of anti-aircraft guns. Even if the missile's trajectory were accurately calculated, the guns would still have a small probability of destroying it before impact with the ground. Also, the shells fired by the guns would have caused more damage than the actual missile when they fell back to the ground. Plans for an operational test began anyway, but the idea was rendered moot when the V-2 launching sites in the Netherlands were captured.


title: Missile defense

text: In the 1950s and 1960s, missile defense meant defense against strategic (usually nuclear-armed) missiles. The technology mostly centered around detecting offensive launch events and tracking inbound ballistic missiles, but with limited ability to actually defend against the missile. The Soviet Union achieved the first nonnuclear intercept of a ballistic missile warhead by a missile at the Sary Shagan antiballistic missile defense test range on 4 March 1961. Nicknamed the "Griffon" missile system, it would be installed around Leningrad as a test