title: Curiosity Stream

text: Curiosity Stream is an American media company and subscription video streaming service that offers documentary programming including films, series, and TV shows. It was launched in 2015 by the founder of the Discovery Channel, John S. Hendricks. As of 2021, it was reported to have approximately 20 million subscribers worldwide across its direct and bundled platforms.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: Curiosity Stream produces original documentaries and series including "Royals: Keeping the Crown", "The History of Home", "Miniverse", "Stephen Hawking's Favorite Places", "David Attenborough's Light on Earth", and "Deep Time History"; and additionally features content from producers such as the BBC and NHK.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: John Hendricks, who founded Discovery in 1982, started Curiosity Stream as a stand-alone OTT media service in March 2015 with his daughter, Elizabeth Hendricks, as Chief Executive Officer. The service expanded distribution to Amazon Channels, and then in 2017, had its first distribution deal with a multichannel video programming distributor (MVPD) when it became available on Comcast's set-top box VOD platform and the MSO's Xfinity Stream app/portal.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: In April 2018, Dish Network made Curiosity Stream available on internet-connected Hopper devices and the Dish Anywhere mobile app.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: In June 2018, Clint Stinchcomb was appointed president and CEO of the company, after first joining Curiosity Stream in 2017 as Chief Distribution Officer. He is also the co-founder and former CEO of Poker Central. Previously Stinchcomb held positions as managing director of Worldwide Media Group (WMG) and executive VP and GM of Discovery Communications' Emerging Television Networks.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: In July 2020, it signed a partnership deal with Swedish telecommunications company Com Hem to bring the company's library content to Sweden. Many of the programs were made available with Swedish subtitles.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: In August 2020, Matthew Blank joined Curiosity Stream's board of directors. Blank formerly served as an advisor to Showtime Networks where he spent over 20 years as the chairman and CEO of Showtime Networks, overseeing series such as "Homeland", "Dexter", and "Billions".


title: Curiosity Stream

text: On October 15, 2020, Curiosity Stream became the first publicly traded streaming media company focused on factual content when it started trading on NASDAQ under the Ticker symbol "CURI". The public trading was a result of a reverse merger with Software Acquisition Group, Inc., a special-purpose acquisition company.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: In November 2020, Indian pay-TV and OTT provider Tata Sky partnered with the company to bring its content to Tata Sky's subscribers via binge+. The programs were also made available to Tata Sky DTH customers as a linear channel.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: In May 2021, the company acquired One Day University, an adult education platform that features lectures from university and college professors. In July 2021, Curiosity Stream partnered with German TV channel Spiegel TV to offer a linear channel in Germany, Austria and Switzerland.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: In August 2021, the company announced a rebranding including the shortened name for its parent company, Curiosity, which is composed of Curiosity Stream (streaming service), Curiosity Channel (linear channels), and Curiosity Studios (originals production). The streaming service was also retitled from CuriosityStream to Curiosity Stream.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: They have had a long-standing promotion with Nebula to promote a bundle subscription for both services, which has led to a substantial growth of parts of both services, and it was announced in September 2021 that Curiosity bought a minority share of Nebula, valuing the company at over $50 million.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: The service offers on-demand content and linear, live TV-style streams from its VoD catalog. Programs cover factual content including science, history, mathematics, technology, robotics, and nature. It also offers content for children and original programming, along with a Kids Mode option to filter out inappropriate content.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: In June 2020, Curiosity Stream signed a partnership with wildlife production company Doclights to add 50 original nature documentaries to SVOD and pay-TV platforms. Programs include "Cheetah: Beating the Odds; Hidden Australia; These Birds Were Made for Walking; Jaguar: King of the Jungle; Magical Fjords; Meet the Meerkats; Meet the Marsupials; Puma: The Ghost Cat;" and, "Sloth Bear: Birth of A Prince."


title: Curiosity Stream

text: In November 2020, the company announced a new series, "Beyond the Spotlight", from executive producers Leonardo DiCaprio and Stephen David. Each episode features conversations with celebrity icons, focused on their personal lives, histories, and inspirations. Celebrities include Samuel L. Jackson and his wife LaTanya Richardson Jackson, Kristen Bell, Shaquille O'Neal, Joe Namath, and MrBeast. The first episodes premiered on November 19, 2020.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: In December 2020, the company announced an original series focusing on primatologist Jane Goodall called "Rescued Chimpanzees of the Congo with Jane Goodall". The series was produced by Curiosity Stream, Off the Fence Productions, and the Jane Goodall Institute and premiered on July 14, 2021. It includes three decades of unseen archival footage.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: On June 10, 2021, “Doug to the Rescue,” a six-part docuseries, premiered. The series follows Doug Thron, an aerial cinematographer, who uses technology like drones, infrared cameras, spotlights, and high intensity zoom lenses to find and rescue animals in the wake of natural disasters around the world.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: In September 2021, the company released its first original feature-length film, "Heval," which is about the life of Michael Enright who volunteered to fight ISIL.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: Additional available programs on Curiosity Stream include David Attenborough's "Light on Earth" and "Ant Mountain"; "Dream the Future", "Empire of Tsars", "Out of the Cradle"; "The Spying Game: Tales from the Cold War"; "The Normans"; "Heston's Dinner in Space"; and "The Secret World of Lego." Content for children includes "Quarx", "Prehistoric Worlds", and "Ocean Mysteries with Jeff Corwin."


title: Curiosity Stream

text: In August 2021, the company had approximately 20 million subscribers across 175 countries. In 2019, Curiosity Stream was translating its programs into Russian, Serbian, Spanish, Portuguese, Mandarin, and Cantonese.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: Curiosity Stream offers annual and month-to-month subscriptions and a 4K plan. It distributes its programming in the U.S. and internationally using a mix of OTT players, pay-TV operators, and broadband ISPs. The app is available through Roku, Apple TV Channels and Apple TV, Android TV, Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S, Amazon Fire TV, Sprint, Google Chromecast, iOS and Android, Amazon Prime Video Channels, YouTube TV, Sling TV, Comcast Xfinity on Demand, LG TV webOS, and PlayStation 4. All programs are available in either HD or 4K.


title: Curiosity Stream

text: The service has over 50 partners, including Amazon, Comcast, Altice USA and Suddenlink (USA); Com Hem (Sweden); StarHub (Singapore); Totalplay (Mexico); Multichoice's DStv (Africa); Millicom (Latin America); Okko (Russia); Gazprom-Media (Russia); Liberty Global/FLOW (the Caribbean); and Tata Sky (India).


title: Daydream Believer

text: "Daydream Believer" is a song composed by American songwriter John Stewart shortly before he left the Kingston Trio. It was originally recorded by the Monkees, with Davy Jones singing the lead. The single reached No. 1 on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in December 1967, remaining there for four weeks, and peaked at No. 5 on the UK Singles Chart. It was the Monkees' third and last No. 1 hit in the U.S.


title: Daydream Believer

text: In 1979, "Daydream Believer" was recorded by Canadian singer Anne Murray, whose version reached No. 3 on the U.S. country singles chart and No. 12 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The song has been recorded by others, including a 1971 version by Stewart.


title: Daydream Believer

text: John Stewart wrote "Daydream Believer" as the third in a trilogy of songs about suburban life, recalling: "I remember going to bed thinking, 'What a wasted day — all I’ve done is daydream.' And from there I wrote the whole song. I never thought it was one of my best songs. Not at all".


title: Daydream Believer

text: The song was turned down by We Five and Spanky and Our Gang. While attending a party at Hoyt Axton's home in Hollywood's Laurel Canyon, producer Chip Douglas told Stewart that he was now producing the Monkees and asked if Stewart had any songs that might work for the group. Stewart offered "Daydream Believer." The song was recorded during the sessions for the Monkees' 1967 album "Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd.", but was ultimately included on their 1968 album "The Birds, The Bees & the Monkees". All four Monkees appear on the track; in addition to the lead vocals by Jones, Michael Nesmith plays lead guitar, Peter Tork plays piano and Micky Dolenz sings backing vocals. Tork created the piano introduction, and the orchestral arrangement was created by jazz trumpeter and composer Shorty Rogers, who included the same seven-note phrase preceding the chorus that can be heard on the Beach Boys' "Help Me, Rhonda."


title: Daydream Believer

text: Jones claimed he had been "pissed off" recording the song, with his lead vocal showing a hint of annoyance at the ongoing takes.


title: Daydream Believer

text: According to "Billboard" Hot 100 chart historian Joel Whitburn's mid-1980s book "The Billboard Book of Number One Hits", the recording was originally scheduled to be the B-side of the Barry Mann/Cynthia Weil song "Love Is Only Sleeping" (from "Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd."), featuring lead vocals by Michael Nesmith. However, a week before release, it was discovered that the European single masters for "Love Is Only Sleeping" were not ready, but the masters for "Daydream Believer" were. A last-minute switch meant that "Daydream Believer" now became the A-side and "Goin' Down," a song written by all four Monkees with Diane Hildebrand in the style of Mose Allison, became the flip side. Nesmith would not be given a lead vocal on a Monkees single A-side until 1969's "Listen to the Band." Allegedly, Colgems Records did not like Nesmith's voice, preferring the voices of both Dolenz and Jones, and was further aggrieved when Nesmith insisted on the inclusion of at least two of his songs per album. Previously, Nesmith's lead vocal version of "The Girl I Knew Somewhere" was replaced with Dolenz on lead vocals for the B-side of the single "A Little Bit Me, a Little Bit You".


title: Daydream Believer

text: "Billboard" described the single as a "well written easy beat rhythm ballad" with a "clever opening." "Cash Box" said that it has "fascinating arrangements that develop from a simple piano opening to a compelling ork ensemble and the hypnotic repetition of a very catchy refrain." According to "Variety", the song's lyrics focus on the endgame of a comfy but increasingly distant relationship, with the narrator "caught in mid-gaze before the bathroom mirror, reflecting on the quiet dissolution of his materialistic marriage – a union between 'a daydream believer and a homecoming queen,' now curdled, driven more by money than by romance."


title: Daydream Believer

text: RCA Records did not like the song as written by Stewart, and insisted on changing a critical word. Stewart originally wrote: "Now you know how funky I can be," but RCA wanted to change it to "Now you know how happy I can be," as one meaning of "funky" is "smelly." Stewart initially objected because the change would completely reverse the meaning of the line and would not make sense in the context of the song. He relented because RCA was adamant and Stewart realized that the song could be a hit. In 2006, Stewart said that the proceeds from "Daydream Believer" "...kept me alive for all these years."


title: Daydream Believer

text: In 1986, three of the four Monkees (Dolenz, Jones and Tork) mounted a successful reunion tour and had a major hit with the newly recorded "That Was Then, This Is Now." Arista Records, which owned the Monkees' masters at the time, rereleased "Daydream Believer" as a followup single, remixed with a new and heavier percussion track by Michael Lloyd, who had produced "That Was Then, This Is Now."


title: Daydream Believer

text: In 1971, songwriter John Stewart recorded his own version and included it as the ninth track on his fourth studio album, "The Lonesome Picker Rides Again". His version was released on Warner Bros. Records and was produced by his brother Michael Stewart.


title: Daydream Believer

text: Canadian singer Anne Murray recorded a cover version of "Daydream Believer" for her platinum-certified 1979 studio album "I'll Always Love You". Produced by Jim Ed Norman and issued on Capitol Records the following year, Murray's single became her eighth No. 1 hit on the U.S. Adult Contemporary chart. It reached No. 12 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and No. 3 on "Billboard"'s country chart. For her 2007 album "," Murray rerecorded the song as a duet with Nelly Furtado.


title: I Love That for You

text: I Love That for You is an American comedy television show created and executive produced by Vanessa Bayer and Jeremy Beiler for Showtime. The show stars Bayer as Joanna Gold, an aspiring host for shopping channel SVN, who lies that her childhood cancer has returned in order to keep her job. The story is inspired by Bayer's personal experience with childhood leukemia. "I Love That for You" premiered on May 1, 2022.


title: I Love That for You

text: "I Love That for You" was filmed in Los Angeles. The series consists of eight episodes. The show was originally titled "I Love This for You".


title: I Love That for You

text: Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 62 out of 100 based on 12 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: The Valhalla Murders

text: The Valhalla Murders (, literally "violation") is an eight-episode police procedural television series produced in Iceland, originally airing there in 2019, then released worldwide in 2020 on Netflix and airing for free on BBC Four in the UK.


title: The Valhalla Murders

text: This is the second Icelandic series to be featured on Netflix, "Trapped" ("Ófærð)" being the first. The plot is loosely based on a real-life incident. As described in an article on the website MEAWW, "In the late 1940s, an almost similar event took place in remote Iceland. A state-run institution ... housed troubled, young boys, aged between seven and 14, where they were beaten and abused by the staff. Although in reality there was no murder, per se, as shown in the series, it caused quite a noise and the boys were eventually compensated in monetary terms."


title: The Valhalla Murders

text: The series received mixed reviews. Writing in "The Sydney Morning Herald", Brad Newsome says: "Gutsy performances and judicious rationing of the scenery make for terrific viewing." However, Euan Ferguson of "The Guardian" writes: "Even halfway through it hasn’t quite got going: despite the dramatic backdrops, and a few stalwart performances, the word is glacial." Writing in "The List", Brian Donaldson concludes his review: ""The Valhalla Murders" is certainly distracting enough, but while it aims to send chills straight down your bones, this Icelandic drama is ultimately a lukewarm bowl of kjotsupa."


title: Hope

text: Hope is an optimistic state of mind that is based on an expectation of positive outcomes with respect to events and circumstances in one's life or the world at large.


title: Hope

text: As a verb, its definitions include: "expect with confidence" and "to cherish a desire with anticipation."


title: Hope

text: Professor of Psychology Barbara Fredrickson argues that hope comes into its own when crisis looms, opening us to new creative possibilities. Frederickson argues that with great need comes an unusually wide range of ideas, as well as such positive emotions as happiness and joy, courage, and empowerment, drawn from four different areas of one's self: from a cognitive, psychological, social, or physical perspective. Hopeful people are "like the little engine that could, [because] they keep telling themselves "I think I can, I think I can". Such positive thinking bears fruit when based on a realistic sense of optimism, not on a naive "false hope".


title: Hope

text: The psychologist Charles R. Snyder linked hope to the existence of a goal, combined with a determined plan for reaching that goal: Alfred Adler had similarly argued for the centrality of goal-seeking in human psychology, as too had philosophical anthropologists like Ernst Bloch. Snyder also stressed the link between hope and mental willpower, as well as the need for realistic perception of goals, arguing that the difference between hope and optimism was that the former included practical pathways to an improved future. D. W. Winnicott saw a child's antisocial behavior as expressing an unconscious hope for management by the wider society, when containment within the immediate family had failed. Object relations theory similarly sees the analytic transference as motivated in part by an unconscious hope that past conflicts and traumas can be dealt with anew.


title: Hope

text: As a specialist in positive psychology, Snyder studied how hope and forgiveness can impact several aspects of life such as health, work, education, and personal meaning. He postulated that there are three main things that make up hopeful thinking:


title: Hope

text: In other words, hope was defined as the perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals and motivate oneself via agency thinking to use those pathways.


title: Hope

text: Snyder argues that individuals who are able to realize these three components and develop a belief in their ability are hopeful people who can establish clear goals, imagine multiple workable pathways toward those goals, and persevere, even when obstacles get in their way.


title: Hope

text: Snyder proposed a "Hope Scale" which considered that a person's determination to achieve their goal is their measured hope. Snyder differentiates between adult-measured hope and child-measured hope. The Adult Hope Scale by Snyder contains 12 questions; 4 measuring 'pathways thinking', 4 measuring 'agency thinking', and 4 that are simply fillers. Each subject responds to each question using an 8-point scale. Fibel and Hale measure hope by combining Snyder's Hope Scale with their own Generalized Expectancy for Success Scale (GESS) to empirically measure hope. Snyder regarded that psychotherapy can help focus attention on one's goals, drawing on tacit knowledge of how to reach them. Similarly, there is an "outlook" and a "grasp of reality" to hope, distinguishing No Hope, Lost Hope, False Hope and Real Hope, which differ in terms of viewpoint and realism.


title: Hope

text: Contemporary philosopher Richard Rorty understands hope as more than goal setting, rather as a metanarrative, a story that serves as a promise or reason for expecting a better future. Rorty as postmodernist believes past meta–narratives, including the Christian story, utilitarianism, and Marxism have proved false hopes; that theory cannot offer social hope; and that liberal man must learn to live without a consensual theory of social hope. Rorty says a new document of promise is needed for social hope to exist again.


title: Hope

text: Of the countless models that examine the importance of hope in an individual's life, there are two major theories that have gained a significant amount of recognition in the field of psychology. One of these theories, developed by Charles R. Snyder, argues that hope should be viewed as a cognitive skill that demonstrates an individual's ability to maintain drive in the pursuit of a particular goal. This model reasons that an individual's ability to be hopeful depends on two types of thinking: agency thinking and pathway thinking. Agency thinking refers to an individual's determination to achieve their goals despite possible obstacles, while pathway thinking refers to the ways in which an individual believes they can achieve these personal goals.


title: Hope

text: Snyder's theory uses hope as a mechanism that is most often seen in psychotherapy. In these instances, the therapist helps their client overcome barriers that have prevented them from achieving goals. The therapist would then help the client set realistic and relevant personal goals (i.e. "I am going to find something I am passionate about and that makes me feel good about myself"), and would help them remain hopeful of their ability to achieve these goals, and suggest the correct pathways to do so.


title: Hope

text: Whereas Snyder's theory focuses on hope as a mechanism to overcome an individual's lack of motivation to achieve goals, the other major theory developed by Kaye A. Herth deals more specifically with an individual's future goals as they relate to coping with illnesses. Herth views hope as "a motivational and cognitive attribute that is theoretically necessary to initiate and sustain action toward goal attainment". Establishing realistic and attainable goals in this situation is more difficult, as the individual most likely does not have direct control over the future of their health. Instead, Herth suggests that the goals should be concerned with how the individual is going to personally deal with the illness—"Instead of drinking to ease the pain of my illness, I am going to surround myself with friends and family".


title: Hope

text: While the nature of the goals in Snyder's model differ with those in Herth's model, they both view hope as a way to maintain personal motivation, which ultimately will result in a greater sense of optimism.


title: Hope

text: Hope, and more specifically, particularized hope, has been shown to be an important part of the recovery process from illness; it has strong psychological benefits for patients, helping them to cope more effectively with their disease. For example, hope motivates people to pursue healthy behaviors for recovery, such as eating fruits and vegetables, quitting smoking, and engaging in regular physical activity. This not only helps to enhance people's recovery from illnesses but also helps prevent illness from developing in the first place. Patients who maintain high levels of hope have an improved prognosis for life-threatening illness and an enhanced quality of life. Belief and expectation, which are key elements of hope, block pain in patients suffering from chronic illness by releasing endorphins and mimicking the effects of morphine. Consequently, through this process, belief and expectation can set off a chain reaction in the body that can make recovery from chronic illness more likely. This chain reaction is especially evident with studies demonstrating the placebo effect, a situation when hope is the only variable aiding in these patients’ recovery.


title: Hope

text: Overall, studies have demonstrated that maintaining a sense of hope during a period of recovery from illness is beneficial. A sense of hopelessness during the recovery period has, in many instances, resulted in adverse health conditions for the patient (i.e. depression and anxiety following the recovery process). Additionally, having a greater amount of hope before and during cognitive therapy has led to decreased PTSD-related depression symptoms in war veterans. Hope has also been found to be associated with more positive perceptions of subjective health. However, reviews of research literature have noted that the connections between hope and symptom severity in other mental health disorders are less clear, such as in cases of individuals with schizophrenia.


title: Hope

text: Hope is a powerful protector against chronic or life-threatening illnesses. A person’s hope (even when facing an illness that will likely end their life), can be helpful by finding joy or comfort. It can be created and focused on achieving life goals, such as meeting grandchildren or attending a child’s wedding. Hope can be an opportunity for us to process and go through events, that can be traumatic. A setback in life, an accident, or our own final months of living can be times when hope is comfort and serves as a pathway from one stage to the next.


title: Hope

text: The inclusion of hope in treatment programs has potential in both physical and mental health settings. Hope as a mechanism for improved treatment has been studied in the contexts of PTSD, chronic physical illness, and terminal illness, among other disorders and ailments. Within mental health practice, clinicians have suggested using hope interventions as a supplement to more traditional cognitive behavioral therapies. In terms of support for physical illness, research suggests that hope can encourage the release of endorphins and enkephalins, which help to block pain.


title: Hope

text: There are two main arguments based on judgment against those who are advocates of using hope to help treat severe illnesses. The first of which is that if physicians have too much hope, they may aggressively treat the patient. The physician will hold on to a small shred of hope that the patient may get better. Thus, this causes them to try methods that are costly and may have many side effects. One physician noted that she regretted having hope for her patient; it resulted in her patient suffering through three more years of pain that the patient would not have endured if the physician had realized recovery was unfeasible.


title: Hope

text: The second argument is the division between hope and wishing. Those that are hopeful are actively trying to investigate the best path of action while taking into consideration the obstacles. Research has shown though that many of those who have "hope" are wishfully thinking and passively going through the motions, as if they are in denial about their actual circumstances. Being in denial and having too much hope may negatively impact both the patient and the physician.


title: Hope

text: The impact that hope can have on a patient's recovery process is strongly supported through both empirical research and theoretical approaches. However, reviews of literature also maintain that more longitudinal and methodologically sound research is needed to establish which hope interventions are actually the most effective, and in what setting (i.e. chronic illness vs. terminal illness).


title: Hope

text: Focusing on parts of Asia, hope has taken on a secular or materialistic form in relation to the pursuit of economic growth. Primary examples are the rise of the economies of China and India, correlating with the notion of Chindia. A secondary relevant example is the increased use of contemporary architecture in rising economies, such as the building of the Shanghai World Financial Center, Burj Khalifa and Taipei 101, which has given rise to a prevailing hope within the countries of origin. In chaotic environments hope is transcended without cultural boundaries, Syrian refugee children are supported by UNESCO's education project through creative education and psycho-social assistance. Other inter-cultural support for instilling hope involve food culture, disengaging refugees from trauma through immersing them in their rich cultural past.


title: Hope

text: A classic reference to hope which has entered modern language is the concept that "Hope springs eternal" taken from Alexander Pope's "Essay on Man", the phrase reading "Hope springs eternal in the human breast, Man never is, but always "to be" blest:" Another popular reference, "Hope is the thing with feathers," is from a poem by Emily Dickinson.


title: Hope

text: Hope can be used as an artistic plot device and is often a motivating force for change in dynamic characters. A commonly understood reference from western popular culture is the subtitle "A New Hope" from the original first installment (now considered Episode IV) in the "Star Wars" science fiction space opera. The subtitle refers to one of the lead characters, Luke Skywalker, who is expected in the future to allow good to triumph over evil within the plot of the films.


title: Hope

text: The swallow has been a symbol of hope, in Aesop's fables and numerous other historic literature. It symbolizes hope, in part because it is among the first birds to appear at the end of winter and the start of spring. Other symbols of hope include the anchor and the dove.


title: Hope

text: Elpis (Hope) appears in ancient Greek mythology with the story of Zeus and Prometheus. Prometheus stole fire from the god Zeus, which infuriated the supreme god. In turn, Zeus created a box that contained all manners of evil, unbeknownst to the receiver of the box. Pandora opened the box after being warned not to, and unleashed a multitude of harmful spirits that inflicted plagues, diseases, and illnesses on mankind. Spirits of greed, envy, hatred, mistrust, sorrow, anger, revenge, lust, and despair scattered far and wide looking for humans to torment. Inside the box, however, there was also an unreleased healing spirit named Hope. From ancient times, people have recognized that a spirit of hope had the power to heal afflictions and helps them bear times of great suffering, illnesses, disasters, loss, and pain caused by the malevolent spirits and events. In Hesiod's "Works and Days", the personification of hope is named Elpis.


title: Hope

text: Norse mythology however considered Hope ("Vön") to be the slobber dripping from the mouth of Fenris Wolf: their concept of courage rated most highly a cheerful bravery in the "absence" of hope.


title: Hope

text: Hope is a key concept in most major world religions, often signifying the "hoper" believes an individual or a collective group will reach a concept of heaven. Depending on the religion, hope can be seen as a prerequisite for and/or byproduct of spiritual attainment.


title: Hope

text: Hope is one of the three theological virtues of the Christian religion, alongside faith and love. "Hope" in the Holy Bible means "a strong and confident expectation" of future reward (see Titus 1:2). In modern terms, hope is akin to trust and a confident expectation". Paul the Apostle argued that Christ was a source of hope for Christians: "For in this hope we have been saved" (see Romans 8:24).


title: Hope

text: According to the "Holman Bible Dictionary", hope is a "[t]rustful expectation...the anticipation of a favorable outcome under God's guidance." In "The Pilgrim's Progress", it is Hopeful who comforts Christian in Doubting Castle; while conversely at the entrance to Dante's Hell were the words, "Lay down all hope, you that go in by me".


title: Hope

text: In historic literature of Hinduism, hope is referred to with "Pratidhi" (Sanskrit: प्रतिधी), or "Apêksh" (Sanskrit: अपेक्ष). It is discussed with the concepts of desire and wish. In Vedic philosophy, "karma" was linked to ritual sacrifices ("yajna"), hope and success linked to correct performance of these rituals. In Vishnu Smriti, the image of hope, morals and work is represented as the virtuous man who rides in a chariot directed by his hopeful mind to his desired wishes, drawn by his five senses, who keeps the chariot on the path of the virtuous, and thus is not distracted by the wrongs such as wrath, greed, and other vices.


title: Hope

text: In the centuries that followed, the concept of "karma" changed from sacramental rituals to actual human action that builds and serves society and human existence–a philosophy epitomized in the Bhagavad Gita. Hope, in the structure of beliefs and motivations, is a long-term "karmic" concept. In Hindu belief, actions have consequences, and while one's effort and work may or may not bear near term fruits, it will serve the good, that the journey of one's diligent efforts (karma) and how one pursues the journey, sooner or later leads to bliss and moksha.


title: Unleashed (2005 film)

text: Unleashed () is a 2005 action thriller film directed by Louis Leterrier, written by Luc Besson, and co-produced by Jet Li and Besson. It stars Jet Li, Morgan Freeman, Bob Hoskins and Kerry Condon, with action choreography by Yuen Woo-Ping. The film's setting and shooting location are Glasgow.


title: Unleashed (2005 film)

text: Bart, a vicious loan shark residing in Glasgow, uses his bodyguard, Danny, to violently attack non-complying customers. Bart has raised and trained Danny to be an attack dog and uses a metal collar around Danny's neck to control him; once the collar is off, Danny becomes a skilled fighter who relentlessly attacks his target. Once on, however, the collar turns Danny docile and harmless, with him developing very little knowledge on how to act as a socialized person.


title: Unleashed (2005 film)

text: As the collar trick with Danny starts to fail due to its inherent limitations, a crime boss approaches Bart with a business deal, offering Bart a hefty money prize in exchange for Danny winning, and surviving, death matches held in an underground fighting ring. After Danny easily wins the first fight, however, Bart gets into a mishap with another mobster and is left for dead after a shooting. Danny survives and takes refuge in an antiques warehouse, where he passes out due to his injuries. Sam, a blind piano tuner, takes him to his home. Together with his stepdaughter Victoria, Sam treats Danny's wounds and warmly welcomes him to their family. Danny slowly learns to be a civilized man and abandons his violent nature, especially after Victoria removes his collar. He also curiously develops an interest in music and begins using scattered memories to try and remember his past, particularly his mother.


title: Unleashed (2005 film)

text: Weeks later, Sam informs Danny about moving back to New York, where he and Victoria are originally from. He invites Danny, telling him they think of him as family, and Danny happily accepts. However, while out shopping alone, Danny runs into Bart's right-hand man Lefty, who reveals Bart is still alive. Lefty brings him back to Bart's compound, where Danny asks Bart if he knew Danny's mother. Bart denies knowing her and snaps a new collar back on Danny before taking him to the fighting ring. Danny refuses to fight, insisting he doesn't want to hurt people anymore, forcing a livid Bart to shove him into the pit. Danny initially struggles to defend himself against his four opponents but eventually defeats them all to save his own life; however, he refuses to kill them, much to Bart's chagrin. Bart drags Danny back to their compound and throws him into his cell. However, Danny sneaks out and looks through Bart's old photographs, finding one of a person who looks like Danny's mother. Danny angrily confronts Bart to demand answers, but Bart simply responds that his mother was a prostitute who is long gone.


title: Unleashed (2005 film)

text: Danny manages to escape from Bart the next morning and goes back to Sam and Victoria, telling them where he was and what he has learned. With the two's help, Danny regains memories from his childhood past: his mother was a music student who offered herself to Bart to get money to pay for her lessons while hiding Danny from him at the time. It ended when Bart shot her to death when she finally defied him, and Bart has raised Danny ever since.


title: Unleashed (2005 film)

text: Bart and a group of thugs arrive at Sam's apartment building to capture Danny. Danny hides Sam and Victoria in their closet and goes out to fight them off. Danny proceeds to confront and furiously beat Bart, causing Sam and Victoria to burst out and beg Danny not to kill; however, a defeated Bart orders Danny otherwise. Bart tells Danny he will always be an animal, to which Sam responds by smashing a flowerpot on Bart's head, knocking him unconscious. Sam, Danny, and Victoria embrace.


title: Unleashed (2005 film)

text: Sometime later, Danny is with Sam at a piano recital at Carnegie Hall, where Victoria is getting ready to perform. Realizing Victoria is playing what his mother played years ago, Danny sheds a happy tear.


title: Unleashed (2005 film)

text: "Unleashed" received generally positive reviews. The film has a rating of 66% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 131 reviews with an average score of 6.2/10. The critical consensus states: "Jet Li gets to emote in some emotionally awkward scenes, but the gritty fight sequences come through in what is Li's best English language film." The film also has a score of 58 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 31 reviews.


title: Unleashed (2005 film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun Times" gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, stating "The film is ingenious in its construction. It has all the martial arts action any Jet Li fan could possibly desire." In 2014, "Time Out" polled several film critics, directors, actors and stunt actors to list their top action films, and "Unleashed" was listed at 68th place on this list.


title: Unleashed (2005 film)

text: In North America, "Unleashed" was released by Rogue Pictures (which was a division of Focus Features). In its opening weekend in North America, the film grossed $10,900,901 which placed it third. It showed on 1,957 theaters for an average $5,570 per screen. The film grossed $24.5 million in North America and a further $26.3 million worldwide for a total of 50.9 million. This box office result surpassed Rogue's expectations of $18 million gross at the North America box office.


title: Unleashed (2005 film)

text: The soundtrack was created by Massive Attack. It was released under the name "Danny the Dog", in 2004 from Virgin/EMI Records. In 2005, Virgin Records re-released the soundtrack under the title "Unleashed", with two bonus tracks produced by the RZA. Neither version features the song "Aftersun", featuring vocals by Dot Allison, that appears in the end credits of the film. The classical piano solo played in several scenes of the film is Mozart's Piano Sonata No.11 "Andante grazioso" while the song "Two Rocks and a Cup of Water" was played in one of the trailers to "I Am Legend".


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Caral-Supe (also known as Caral and Norte Chico) was a complex pre-Columbian-era society that included as many as thirty major population centers in what is now the Caral region of north-central coastal Peru. The civilization flourished between the fourth and second millennia BC, with the formation of the first city generally dated to around 3500 BC, at Huaricanga, in the Fortaleza area. It is from 3100 BC onward that large-scale human settlement and communal construction become clearly apparent, which lasted until a period of decline around 1800 BC. Since the early twenty-first century, it has been established as the oldest-known civilization in the Americas.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: This civilization flourished along three rivers, the Fortaleza, the Pativilca, and the Supe. These river valleys each have large clusters of sites. Farther south, there are several associated sites along the Huaura River. The alternative name, Caral-Supe, is derived from the city of Caral in the Supe Valley, a large and well-studied Caral-Supe site.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Complex society in Caral-Supe arose a millennium after Sumer in Mesopotamia, was contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids, and predated the Mesoamerican Olmec by nearly two millennia.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: In archaeological nomenclature, Caral-Supe is a pre-ceramic culture of the pre-Columbian Late Archaic; it completely lacked ceramics and no evidence of visual art has survived. The most impressive achievement of the civilization was its monumental architecture, including large earthwork platform mounds and sunken circular plazas. Archaeological evidence suggests use of textile technology and, possibly, the worship of common deity symbols, both of which recur in pre-Columbian Andean cultures. Sophisticated government is presumed to have been required to manage the ancient Caral. Questions remain over its organization, particularly the influence of food resources on politics.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Archaeologists have been aware of ancient sites in the area since at least the 1940s; early work occurred at Aspero on the coast, a site identified as early as 1905, and later at Caral, farther inland. In the late 1990s, Peruvian archaeologists, led by Ruth Shady, provided the first extensive documentation of the civilization with work at Caral. A 2001 paper in "Science", providing a survey of the Caral research, and a 2004 article in "Nature", describing fieldwork and radiocarbon dating across a wider area, revealed Caral-Supe's full significance and led to widespread interest.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The dating of the Caral-Supe sites has pushed back the estimated beginning date of complex societies in the Peruvian region by more than one thousand years. The Chavín culture, circa 900 BC, had previously been considered the first civilization of the area. Regularly, it still is cited incorrectly as such in general works.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The discovery of Caral-Supe also has shifted the focus of research away from the highland areas of the Andes and lowlands adjacent to the mountains (where the Chavín, and later Inca, had their major centers) to the Peruvian littoral, or coastal regions. Caral is located in a north-central area of the coast, approximately 150 to 200 km north of Lima, roughly bounded by the Lurín Valley on the south and the Casma Valley on the north. It comprises four coastal valleys: the Huaura, Supe, Pativilca, and Fortaleza. Known sites are concentrated in the latter three, which share a common coastal plain. The three principal valleys cover only 1,800 km², and research has emphasized the density of the population centers.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The Peruvian littoral appears an "improbable, even aberrant" candidate for the "pristine" development of civilization, compared to other world centers. It is extremely arid, bounded by two rain shadows (caused by the Andes to the east, and the Pacific trade winds to the west). The region is punctuated by more than 50 rivers that carry Andean snowmelt. The development of widespread irrigation from these water sources is seen as decisive in the emergence of Caral-Supe; since all of the monumental architecture at various sites has been found close to irrigation channels.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The radiocarbon work of Jonathan Haas "et al.", found that 10 of 95 samples taken in the Pativilca and Fortaleza areas dated from before 3500 BC. The oldest, dating from 9210 BC, provides "limited indication" of human settlement during the Pre-Columbian Early Archaic era. Two dates of 3700 BC are associated with communal architecture, but are likely to be anomalous. It is from 3200 BC onward that large-scale human settlement and communal construction are clearly apparent. Mann, in a survey of the literature in 2005, suggests "sometime before 3200 BC, and possibly before 3500 BC" as the beginning date of the Caral-Supe formative period. He notes that the earliest date securely associated with a city is 3500 BC, at Huaricanga, in the Fortaleza area of the north, based on Haas's dates.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Haas's early-third-millennium dates suggest that the development of coastal and inland sites occurred in parallel. But, from 2500 to 2000 BC, during the period of greatest expansion, the population and development decisively shifted toward the inland sites. All development apparently occurred at large interior sites such as Caral, although they remained dependent on fish and shellfish from the coast. The peak in dates is in keeping with Shady's dates at Caral, which show habitation from 2627 BC to 2020 BC. That coastal and inland sites developed in tandem remains disputed, however (see next section).


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: By around 2200 BC, the influence of Norte Chico civilization spread far along the coast. To the south, it went as far as the Chillon valley, and the site of El Paraiso. To the north, it spread as far as the Santa River valley.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Circa 1800 BC, the Caral-Supe civilization began to decline, with more powerful centers appearing to the south and north along the coast, and to the east inside the belt of the Andes. The success of irrigation-based agriculture at Caral-Supe may have contributed to its being eclipsed. Anthropologist Professor Winifred Creamer of Northern Illinois University notes that "when this civilization is in decline, we begin to find extensive canals farther north. People were moving to more fertile ground and taking their knowledge of irrigation with them". It would be a thousand years before the rise of the next great Peruvian culture, the Chavín.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Cultural links with the highland areas have been noted by archaeologists. Ruth Shady highlights the links with the Kotosh Religious Tradition:


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Numerous architectural features found among the settlements of Supe, including subterranean circular courts, stepped pyramids and sequential platforms, as well as material remains and their cultural implications, excavated at Aspero and the valley sites we are digging (Caral, Chupacigarro, Lurihuasi, Miraya), are shared with other settlements of the area that participated in what is known as the Kotosh Religious Tradition. Most specific among these features include rooms with benches and hearths with subterranean ventilation ducts, wall niches, biconvex beads, and musical flutes.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Research into Caral-Supe continues, with many unsettled questions. Debate is ongoing regarding two related questions: the degree to which the flourishing of the Caral-Supe was based on maritime food resources, and the exact relationship this implies between the coastal and inland sites.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: A broad outline of the Caral-Supe diet has been suggested. At Caral, the edible domesticated plants noted by Shady are squash, beans, lúcuma, guava, pacay ("Inga feuilleei"), and sweet potato. Haas "et al." noted the same foods in their survey farther north, while adding avocado and achira. In 2013, good evidence for maize also was documented by Haas et al. (see below).


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: There was also a significant seafood component at both coastal and inland sites. Shady notes that "animal remains are almost exclusively marine" at Caral, including clams and mussels, and large amounts of anchovies and sardines. That the anchovy fish reached inland is clear, although Haas suggests that "shellfish [which would include clams and mussels], sea mammals, and seaweed do not appear to have been significant portions of the diet in the inland, non-maritime sites".


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The role of seafood in the Caral-Supe diet has aroused debate. Much early fieldwork was conducted in the region of Aspero on the coast, before the full scope and inter-connectedness of the several sites of the civilization were realized. In a 1973 paper, Michael E. Moseley contended that a maritime subsistence (seafood) economy had been the basis of the society and its remarkably early flourishing, a theory later elaborated as a "maritime foundation of Andean civilization" (MFAC). He confirmed a previously observed lack of ceramics at Aspero, and he deduced that "hummocks" on the site constituted the remains of artificial platform mounds.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: This thesis of a maritime foundation was contrary to the general scholarly consensus that the rise of civilization was based on intensive agriculture, particularly of at least one cereal. The production of agricultural surpluses had long been seen as essential in promoting population density and the emergence of complex society. Moseley's ideas would be debated and challenged (that maritime remains and their caloric contribution were overestimated, for example), but have been treated as plausible as late as 2005, when Mann conducted a summary of the literature.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Concomitant to the maritime subsistence hypothesis was an implied dominance of sites immediately adjacent to the coast over other centers. This idea was shaken by the realization of the magnitude of Caral, an inland site. Supplemental to a 1997 article by Shady dating Caral, a 2001 "Science" news article emphasized the dominance of agriculture and also suggested that Caral was the oldest urban center in Peru (and the entire Americas). It rejected the idea that civilization might have begun adjacent to the coast and then moved inland. One archaeologist was quoted as suggesting that "rather than coastal antecedents to monumental inland sites, what we have now are coastal satellite villages to monumental inland sites".


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: These assertions were quickly challenged by Sandweiss and Moseley, who observed that Caral, although being the largest and most complex preceramic site, it is not the oldest. They admitted the importance of agriculture to industry and to augment diet, while broadly affirming "the formative role of marine resources in early Andean civilization". Scholars now agree that the inland sites did have significantly greater populations, and that there were "so many more people along the four rivers than on the shore that they had to have been dominant".


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The remaining question is which of the areas developed first and created a template for subsequent development. Haas rejects suggestions that maritime development at sites immediately adjacent to the coast was initial, pointing to contemporaneous development based on his dating. Moseley remains convinced that coastal Aspero is the oldest site, and that its maritime subsistence served as a basis for the civilization.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The use of cotton (of the species "Gossypium barbadense") played an important economic role in the relationship between the inland and the coastal settlements in this area of Peru. Nevertheless, scholars are still divided over the exact chronology of these developments.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Although not edible, cotton was the most important product of irrigation in the Caral-Supe culture, vital to the production of fishing nets (that in turn provided maritime resources) as well as to textiles and textile technology. Haas notes that "control over cotton allows a ruling elite to provide the benefit of cloth for clothing, bags, wraps, and adornment". He is willing to admit to a mutual dependency dilemma: "The prehistoric residents of the Norte Chico needed the fish resources for their protein and the fishermen needed the cotton to make the nets to catch the fish." Thus, identifying cotton as a vital resource produced in the inland does not by itself resolve the issue of whether the inland centers were a progenitor for those on the coast, or vice versa. Moseley argues that successful maritime centers would have moved inland to find cotton.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: In a 2018 publication, David G. Beresford-Jones with coauthors have defended Moseley’s (1975) Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization (MFAC) hypothesis.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The authors modified and refined the Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization hypothesis of Moseley. Thus, according to them, the MFAC hypothesis now “emerges more persuasive than ever”. It was the potential for increased quantities of food production that the cultivation of cotton allowed that was the key in precipitating revolutionary social change and social complexity, according to the authors. Previous to that, the gathering of bast fibers of wild "Asclepias" was used for fiber production, which was far less efficient.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: It was Swiss archaeologist , originally, who coined the term "Cotton Preceramic Stage" in 1957 in order to describe the unusual coastal sites such Norte Chico that had cotton but lacked ceramics and were very ancient. This stage was seen as running for about 1200 years from 3000 to 1800 BC.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The development of Caral-Supe is particularly remarkable for the apparent absence of an agricultural staple food. However, recent studies increasingly dispute this and point to maize as a dietary backbone of this and later pre-Columbian civilizations. Moseley found a small number of maize cobs in 1973 at Aspero (also seen in site work in the 1940s and 1950s) but has since called the find "problematic". However, increasing evidence has emerged about the importance of maize in this period:


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: For Beresford-Jones, his new research on the two nearby ancient coastal settlements of La Yerba, on the east bank of Ica River, Peru ("Río Ica") was very important. This is not far from the southern Peruvian town of Ica. The earlier of these settlement was La Yerba II (7571–6674 Cal BP, or ca 5570-4670 BC). When it was occupied, La Yerba II shell midden was situated rather close to the ancient surf line. This was not a permanently occupied site.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: A somewhat later site, La Yerba III, on the other hand, was a permanently occupied settlement, and shows a population that was an order of magnitude greater than earlier. Obsidian debitage was abundant at La Yerba III, as opposed to earlier. This suggests an increasing interaction extending to the highlands where obsidian was procured.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The population of La Yerba III already practiced some floodplain horticulture. They cultivated gourds, Phaseolus, and Canavalia beans, and plant fiber production was of great importance for their fishing economy. Therefore, they were “pre-adapted to a Cotton Revolution".


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The degree of centralized authority is difficult to ascertain, but architectural construction patterns are indicative, at least in certain places at certain times, of an elite population who wielded considerable power: while some of the monumental architecture was constructed incrementally, other buildings, such as the two main platform mounds at Caral, appear to have been constructed in one or two intense construction phases. As further evidence of centralized control, Haas points to remains of large stone warehouses found at Upaca, on the Pativilca, as emblematic of authorities able to control vital resources such as cotton.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Haas suggests that the labour mobilization patterns revealed by the archaeological evidence, point to a unique emergence of human government, one of two alongside Sumer (or three, if Mesoamerica is included as a separate case). While in other cases, the idea of government would have been borrowed or copied, in this small group, government was "invented". Other archaeologists have rejected such claims as hyperbolic.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: In exploring the basis of possible government, Haas suggests three broad bases of power for early complex societies:


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Economic authority would have rested on the control of cotton, edible plants, and associated trade relationships, with power centered on the inland sites. Haas tentatively suggests that the scope of this economic power base may have extended widely: there are only two confirmed shore sites in the Caral-Supe (Aspero and Bandurria) and possibly two more, but cotton fishing nets and domesticated plants have been found up and down the Peruvian coast. It is possible that the major inland centers of Caral-Supe, were at the center of a broad regional trade network centered on these resources.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Citing Shady, a 2005 article in "Discover" magazine suggests a rich and varied trade life: "[Caral] exported its own products and those of Aspero to distant communities in exchange for exotic imports: "Spondylus" shells from the coast of Ecuador, rich dyes from the Andean highlands, hallucinogenic snuff from the Amazon." (Given the still limited extent of Caral-Supe research, such claims should be treated circumspectly.) Other reports on Shady's work indicate Caral traded with communities in the jungle farther inland and, possibly, with people from the mountains.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Haas postulates that ideological power exercised by leadership was based on apparent access to deities and the supernatural. Evidence regarding Caral-Supe religion is limited: in 2003, an image of the Staff God, a leering figure with a hood and fangs, was found on a gourd that dated to 2250 BC. The Staff God is a major deity of later Andean cultures, and Winifred Creamer suggests the find points to worship of common symbols of deities. As with much other research at Caral-Supe, the nature and significance of the find has been disputed by other researchers.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Mann postulates that the act of architectural construction and maintenance at Caral-Supe may have been a spiritual or religious experience: a process of communal exaltation and ceremony. Shady has called Caral "the sacred city" ("la ciudad sagrada") and reports that socio-economic and political focus was on the temples, which were periodically remodeled, with major burnt offerings associated with the remodeling.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Haas notes the absence of any suggestion of physical bases of power, that is, defensive construction, at Caral-Supe. There is no evidence of warfare "of any kind or at any level during the Preceramic Period". Mutilated bodies, burned buildings, and other tell-tale signs of violence are absent and settlement patterns are completely non-defensive. The evidence of the development of complex government in the absence of warfare contrasts markedly to archaeological theory, which suggests that human beings move away from kin-based groups to larger units resembling "states" for mutual defense of often scarce resources. In Caral-Supe, a vital resource was present: arable land generally, and the cotton crop specifically, but Mann noted that apparently, the move to greater complexity by the culture was not driven by the need for defense or warfare.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Caral-Supe sites are known for their density of large sites with immense architecture. Haas argues that the density of sites in such a small area is globally unique for a nascent civilization. During the third millennium BC, Caral-Supe may have been the most densely populated area of the world (excepting, possibly, Northern China). The Supe, Pativilca, Fortaleza, and Huaura River valleys of Caral-Supe each have several related sites.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Evidence from the ground-breaking work during 1973 at Aspero, at the mouth of the Supe Valley, suggested a site of approximately . Surveying of the midden suggested extensive prehistoric construction activity. Small-scale terracing was noted, along with more sophisticated platform mound masonry. As many as eleven artificial mounds were estimated to exist at the site. Moseley calls these "Corporate Labor Platforms", given that their size, layout, and construction materials and techniques would have required an organized workforce.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The survey of the northern rivers found sites between ; between one and seven large platform mounds—rectangular, terraced pyramids—were discovered, ranging in size from to more than . Shady notes that the central zone of Caral, with monumental architecture, covers an area of just greater than . Also, six platform mounds, numerous smaller mounds, two sunken circular plazas, and a variety of residential architecture were discovered at this site.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The monumental architecture was constructed with quarried stone and river cobbles. Using reed "shicra-bags", some of which have been preserved, laborers would have hauled the material to sites by hand. Roger Atwood of "Archaeology" magazine describes the process:


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Armies of workers would gather a long, durable grass known as "shicra" in the highlands above the city, tie the grass strands into loosely meshed bags, fill the bags with boulders, and then pack the trenches behind each successive retaining wall of the step pyramids with the stone-filled bags.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: In this way, the people of Norte Chico achieved formidable architectural success. The largest of the platforms mounds at Caral, the "Piramide Mayor", measures and rises high. In its summation of the 2001 Shady paper, the BBC suggests workers would have been "paid or compelled" to work on centralized projects of this sort, with dried anchovies possibly serving as a form of currency. Mann points to "ideology, charisma, and skilfully timed reinforcement" from leaders.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: When compared to the common Eurasian models of the development of civilization, Caral-Supe's differences are striking. In Caral-Supe, a total lack of ceramics persists across the period. Crops were cooked by roasting. The lack of pottery was accompanied by a lack of archaeologically apparent art. In conversation with Mann, Alvaro Ruiz observes: "In the Norte Chico we see almost no visual arts. No sculpture, no carving or bas-relief, almost no painting or drawing—the interiors are completely bare. What we do see are these huge mounds—and textiles."


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: While the absence of ceramics appears anomalous, Mann notes that the presence of textiles is intriguing. "Quipu" (or khipu), string-based recording devices, have been found at Caral, suggesting a writing, or proto-writing, system at Caral-Supe. (The discovery was reported by Mann in "Science" in 2005, but has not been formally published or described by Shady.) The exact use of quipu in this and later Andean cultures has been widely debated. Originally, it was believed to be a simple mnemonic technique used to record numeric information, such as a count of items bought and sold. Evidence has emerged, however, that the quipu also may have recorded logographic information in the same way writing does. Research has focused on the much larger sample of a few hundred quipu dating to Inca times. The Caral-Supe discovery remains singular and undeciphered.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Other finds at Caral-Supe have proved suggestive. While visual arts appear absent, the people may have played instrumental music: thirty-two flutes, crafted from pelican bone, have been discovered.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The oldest known depiction of the Staff God was found in 2003 on some broken gourd fragments in a burial site in the Pativilca River valley and the gourd was carbon dated to 2250 BCE. While still fragmentary, such archaeological evidence corresponds to the patterns of later Andean civilization and may indicate that Caral-Supe served as a template. Along with the specific finds, Mann highlights


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: "the primacy of exchange over a wide area, the penchant for collective, festive civic work projects, [and] the high valuation of textiles and textile technology" within Norte Chico as patterns that would recur later in the Peruvian cradle of civilization."


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: The magnitude of the Caral-Supe discovery has generated academic controversy among researchers. The "monumental feud", as described by "Archaeology", has included "public insults, a charge of plagiarism, ethics inquiries in both Peru and the United States, and complaints by Peruvian officials to the U.S. government". The lead author of the seminal paper of April 2001 was a Peruvian, Ruth Shady, with co-authors Jonathan Haas and Winifred Creamer, a married United States team; the coauthoring was reportedly suggested by Haas, in the hopes that the involvement of United States researchers would help secure funds for carbon dating as well as future research funding. Later, Shady charged the couple with plagiarism and insufficient attribution, suggesting the pair had received credit for her research, which had begun in 1994.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: At issue is credit for the discovery of the civilization, naming it, and developing the theoretical models to explain it. In 1997, Shady described a civilization located on the Supe River, with Caral at its center, although she suggested a larger geographic base for the society.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: In 2004, Haas "et al." wrote that "Our recent work in the neighboring Pativilca and Fortaleza has revealed that Caral and Aspero were but two of a much larger number of major Late Archaic sites in the Norte Chico", while noting Shady only in footnotes. Attribution of this type is what has angered Shady and her supporters. Shady's position has been hampered by a lack of funding for archaeological research in her native Peru, as well as the media advantages of North American researchers in disputes of this type.


title: Caral-Supe civilization

text: Haas and Creamer were cleared of the plagiarism charge by their institutions. The science advisory council of the Chicago Field Museum of Natural History rebuked Haas for press releases and web pages that gave too little credit to Shady and inflated the American couple's role as discoverers.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: Jesse Manalastas Robredo (born Jesus Manalastas Robredo; ; May 27, 1958 – August 18, 2012) was a Filipino politician who served as Secretary of the Interior and Local Government in the administration of President Benigno Aquino III from 2010 until his death in 2012. Robredo was a member of the Liberal Party.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: Beginning in 1988, Robredo served six terms as Mayor of Naga in Camarines Sur. In recognition of his achievements as Naga mayor, Robredo was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Service in 2000, the first Filipino mayor so honored. He was appointed to the Cabinet of President Aquino in July 2010.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: Robredo died on August 18, 2012, when the light aircraft he was traveling in crashed off the shore of Masbate Island, after suffering an engine failure.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: Jesse Manalastas Robredo was born on May 27, 1958, in Naga to José Chan Robredo Sr. and Marcelina Manalastas-Robredo. Jesse is of Chinese descent through his paternal grandfather, Lim Pay Co, who immigrated to the Philippines from Fujian province at the beginning of the 20th century and adopted the surname of the priest who baptized him, thus becoming Juan Lim Robredo. Jesse's Hokkien Chinese name is Lim Pieng Ti. He has one brother and three sisters.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: Robredo finished elementary at the Naga Parochial School and entered high school at the Ateneo de Naga University in 1970. Robredo obtained his undergraduate degrees in industrial management engineering and mechanical engineering at De La Salle University. He was later accepted as an Edward Mason Fellow and graduated with a Master of Public Administration degree from Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government in 1999. In 1985, Robredo finished his Masters in Business Administration at the University of the Philippines Diliman as a scholar and was named the Graduate School and Faculty Organization awardee for scholarly excellence. The Far Eastern University bestowed Robredo with a doctorate in Humanities, "honoris causa", during its 80th commencement exercise on April 4, 2008, in recognition of his efforts to develop Naga.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: In 1986, Robredo returned to Naga, where he became program director of the Bicol River Basin Development Program (BRBDP), an agency tasked to undertake integrated area development planning in the three provinces of the Bicol region. While working at the BRBDP, he met fellow Nagueño Leni Gerona, whom he would marry the following year.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: In 1988, Robredo was elected mayor of Naga at age 29. In 1995, Robredo was elected president of the League of Cities of the Philippines and chaired the Metro Naga Development Council." His three terms as mayor ended on June 30, 1998, and was succeeded by Robredo's endorsed candidate Sulpicio S. Roco, Jr. In 1999, "Asiaweek Magazine" credited Robredo with transforming Naga into one of the "Most Improved" cities in Asia.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: He re-elected as city mayor in 2001 and again served for three consecutive terms until June 30, 2010. He served for a total of 19 years as mayor of Naga before being appointed on July 9, 2010, as secretary of the Department of the Interior and Local Government.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: Robredo's appointment was met with political opposition. Two politicians from Bicol, Luis Agregado Ortega and Luis Villafuerte, expressed opposition to Robredo's confirmation by the Commission on Appointments of which Villafuerte himself was a member. In March 2012, the Commission on Appointments bypassed Robredo's nomination. His nomination was bypassed again in June 2012. Another confirmation hearing had reportedly been set on August 29, 2012, eleven days after Robredo's sudden death.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: During his time as the secretary of DILG, Robredo focused on relocating thousands of residents in Manila's slums into housing projects to clear Metro Manila's waterways and make way for flood mitigation projects and other development. As head of an inter-agency body for relocation, Robredo pushed for the building of in-city tenement housing units for thousands of informal settler families living in identified "danger zones" such as estuaries, riverbanks, waterways, railroad tracks, garbage dumps and similar areas. These contrasted with earlier government housing efforts, which relocated informal settlers to areas away from the city which deprived residents from their usual livelihoods.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: Robredo's opposition to forced evictions were met with resistance from some local government officials, notably Makati mayor Junjun Binay, who argued that such arrangements broke long-standing agreements with private land owners and undermined the city government's authority.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: Robredo died on August 18, 2012, when the Piper PA-34 Seneca light aircraft he was traveling in crashed off the coast of Masbate Island. He was flying to Naga to assist in his daughter's swimming competition. The plane suffered an engine failure en route from Cebu City, and was attempting an emergency landing at Masbate Airport.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: Robredo's aide, Police Chief Inspector June Paolo Abrazado, was also on board but survived. Robredo's body was found on August 21, from the shore and below sea level.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: He was survived by his wife, Former Vice President Leni Robredo, and three daughters as well as his siblings. His funeral was held at the Archbishop's Palace in Naga before it was transferred to Malacañang Palace for an official wake on August 24, 2012. His remains were later brought back to his hometown of Naga and cremated at Naga Imperial Crematory & Columbary. Robredo's ashes are entombed at the Eternal Gardens Memorial Park in Naga.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: Philippine President Benigno "Noynoy" Aquino III conferred the Philippine Legion of Honor with the rank of Chief Commander upon Robredo on August 28, 2012, just before the state funeral.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: In addition, two roads were named in his honor, Sec. Jesse Robredo Avenue in Naga and Jesse M. Robredo Boulevard in Masbate City. The Naga City Coliseum was renamed into the Jesse Robredo Coliseum, and the Naga City Governance Institute to the Jesse M. Robredo Good Governance Center. In 2017, the Museo ni Jesse Robredo in commemoration of his fifth death anniversary.


title: Jesse Robredo

text: His alma mater, De La Salle University, renamed the La Salle Institute of Governance into the Jesse M. Robredo Institute of Governance.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: Sabrina the Teenage Witch is a comic book series published by Archie Comics about the adventures of a fictional American teenager named Sabrina Spellman. Sabrina was created by writer George Gladir and artist Dan DeCarlo, and first appeared in "Archie's Madhouse" #22 (cover-dated Oct. 1962). Storylines of the character at elementary-school-age also appear under the title "Sabrina -- That Cute Little Witch" in almost all of the "Little Archie" comics.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: The series' premise is that Sabrina, a "half-witch" – her mother is an ordinary human, or "mortal" as witches refer to them, while her father is a warlock – lives with her two aunts, Hilda and Zelda Spellman, both witches themselves, in the fictional town of Greendale, which is located somewhere near Riverdale, the home of Archie Andrews. Also living with the three women as the family pet is Salem Saberhagen, a witch who has been turned into a cat as punishment for world domination attempts. Sabrina's primary romantic interest is her mortal boyfriend Harvey Kinkle who, like nearly all the other mortals in Sabrina's world, is unaware his girlfriend is a witch.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: Most of Sabrina's adventures consist of Sabrina either trying to use her powers in secret to help others – witches generally are not allowed to tell mortals about their abilities or existence – or dealing with the day-to-day trials of being a teenager. A recurring theme in Sabrina's stories is her learning more about the proper use of her powers, either through her aunts or from trips to a magical dimension that is the home of various magical/mythological creatures, including other witches. Various names are given to this dimension; the mid-late 2000s comics refer to it as the "Magic Realm," while the live-action sitcom referred to it as the "Other Realm".


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: The comic's characters have also appeared in various other media formats. The live-action sitcom, in which Sabrina discovers her powers at the age of sixteen, aired for seven seasons on ABC and the WB. Earlier, there had been an animated series produced by Filmation Associates. Another format was a series of paperback novels (see list below) written by various authors, including Nancy Holder, Diana G. Gallagher, and Mel Odom, as well as a set in the original Archie Comics continuity, where Sabrina already knows about her powers while in junior high. She is portrayed by Melissa Joan Hart on the live action sitcom and Kiernan Shipka on the Riverdale spin-off, Chilling Adventures of Sabrina.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: Sabrina the Teenage Witch debuted in "Archie's Madhouse" (the logo is sometimes given as "Archie's Mad House") #22 (Oct. 1962). Created by writer George Gladir and artist Dan DeCarlo. She first appeared in that humor anthology's lead story (the logo then spelled "Teen-Age"), and eventually became one of Archie Comics' major characters, appearing in an animated series and a television sitcom. Gladir recalled in 2007,


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: Sabrina made regular appearances in the comic book "Archie's TV Laugh-Out". The title was published from 1969 to 1985, and consisted of 106 issues.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: The first volume of "Sabrina The Teenage Witch" was published from 1971 to 1983, and ran for 77 issues. A new "Sabrina" comic series was introduced shortly after the debut of the 1996 live-action sitcom. This series ran for 32 issues, between 1997 and December 1999. The new series incorporated elements from the live-action sitcom, including modernized fashions and appearances for the aunts, Sabrina's last name and Salem's personality and backstory.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: Starting in January 2000, Archie rebooted the series from #1, this time based upon the 2000 animated series (the final issue of the 1997-1999 series had acted as a transition between the two adaptations). This new title was simply titled "Sabrina" and lasted for 37 issues; issue #38, published in late 2002, again acted as a transition issue, as the series was re-titled "Sabrina The Teenage Witch" and resumed the conventional high school setting. However, elements of the live-action sitcom (Salem's backstory, the modernized appearances of Hilda and Zelda) were retained, along with the name of Sabrina's hometown (Greendale) from "Sabrina the Animated Series" being incorporated into the comics. The conventional setting lasted until issue #57, published in 2004, when the comic underwent a manga makeover (see below). The series ended with issue #104 in September 2009.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: Sabrina also occasionally appears in other Archie Comics as a visiting acquaintance of Archie, Betty Cooper, Veronica Lodge, and Jughead Jones. In "Jughead" #200 (May 2010), Sabrina reveals to Jughead that she is a witch, which is made use of in a follow-up story. Sabrina and Salem make a notable appearance in the 2012 "Archie" issue #636, where Salem, as a plot device, performs a spell (against Sabrina's desires) that gender-bends the entire town of Riverdale without the characters noticing the change.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: Issue #28 of "Sabrina", as well as the Sonic Super Special "Crossover Chaos", featured a crossover with "Sonic the Hedgehog", in which Sonic was brought to Greendale from Mobius by one of Sabrina's enemies and subsequently brainwashed into attacking Sabrina herself. In this issue, it is mentioned that Salem is a fan of Sonic and has all of his comics and watches "Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog".


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: In 2004, beginning with issue #58 (in the second "Sabrina the Teenage Witch" comic book series), the comics were taken over by Tania del Rio with her manga-inspired art and design style. Concurrent with this, the comic ceased to be connected to either the live-action or animated "Sabrina" series. The comics were then released featuring new characters and a slightly more serious, continuity-heavy plot. The manga Sabrina story wrapped up at issue #100 in 2009, albeit with a few unresolved subplots.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: Issues #58-61 of the 'manga makeover' series were reprinted as "Sabrina- The Magic Revisited". Then, in 2013, issues #58-67 were reprinted as "Sabrina the Teenage Witch: The Magic Within Book 1" in grayscale instead of full-color. "Sabrina the Teenage Witch: The Magic Within Book 2" containing issues #68-78 also was reprinted in grayscale instead of full-color. Book 3 and 4 containing issues #79-89 and #90-100, respectively, were also released and, like the first two, were reprinted in gray-scale instead of full color.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: A four-issue spin-off miniseries featuring Salem as a young boy (predating his attempts at conquest later in life and his transformation into a cat) was published in 2009. The miniseries was written by Ian Flynn and illustrated by Chad Thomas. The mini-series continued directly on Sabrina's regular series beginning with issue #101, albeit with a different title known as "The Magical Tales of Young Salem". This was done as a method to cut newsstands costs. The new series is partially based on a two-part story which occurred during the manga Sabrina series issues #93 and #94, which was a flashback about Salem's near-rise to power. As of issue #104, the first "The Magical Tales of Young Salem" mini-series was concluded, but apparently the comic book series was subsequently suspended for internal reasons with no further Young Salem stories announced.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: In 2015, "New Riverdale" was introduced, rebooting the entire original Archie lineup in favor of a realistic aesthetic aimed at older readers. Sabrina debuted in the "New Riverdale" with "Jughead" #9. She continued to appear for issues #10 and #11. In December 2016, it was announced that a "Sabrina the Teenage Witch" one-shot would debut in March 2017 as part of Archie Comics' "pilot season". This one-shot would have been greenlit into a full series if there was enough fan interest. However, in May 2017 it was revealed that the one-shot was cancelled, with no intention of releasing it at a later date.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: In November 2018, Archie Comics announced a Five Issue Mini Series set to launch in the spring of 2019, the new five-issue Sabrina the Teenage Witch miniseries will be written by Kelly Thompson and illustrated by the husband-and-wife team of Veronica Fish and Andy Fish. Thompson is a rising star in comics, having penned Hawkeye and West Coast Avengers for Marvel, and she's also set to take over writing duties on Captain Marvel in the new year, just in time for the much-anticipated movie, while the Fish's, one of the few working spousal teams in comics, had made a name for themselves on BLACKWOOD for Dark Horse Comics written by Evan Dorkin.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: The series was critically acclaimed, with Thrillist calling it "one of the best comics of the year" and commercially successful. So, Archie Comics announced a second series to debut in the Winter of 2020 with the same creative team.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: This is a list and description of the characters that appear in the "Sabrina" comic books. For information about the characters from the live-action TV sitcom, see "List of Sabrina the Teenage Witch (1996 TV series) characters".


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: A 1990s storyline saw Sabrina and her aunts relocate for a time to the town of "Gravestone Heights," which is populated by various monsters and creatures.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: In 1970, CBS debuted a Filmation boy-oriented animated superhero fantasy sitcom, The Sabrina the Teenage Witch Show, a spin-off from its popular Archie franchise. It included shorts with her Universal Horror-inspired cousins, the Groovie Goolies, and ran for four seasons, with the Goolies spinning off into their own series in 1971.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: In 1999, Melissa Joan Hart provided the voice of Sabrina's two aunts for "". This series lasted one season and produced 65 episodes. "Broadcasting & Cable" reported that a second season was in the works, but no further information came out about this new season. After its cancelation, the television/direct-to-video movie "" made its debut in Nickelodeon, and was eventually followed up by the continuation-spinoff series "Sabrina's Secret Life". Both of those "Sabrina" animated shows and the movie are all produced by DIC Entertainment. Unlike the sitcom, the DIC series takes place in the original Archie Comics canon and so the characters live in Greendale.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: DiC had also announced a spin-off that revolved around Salem the Cat, but just like the show's second season, no further information on that came out.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: In 2011, Archie Comics announced plans to produce a new animated series based on Sabrina the Teenage Witch to be released in late 2012. The show featured CGI animation that was produced by MoonScoop, and a brand new look for the "Sabrina" characters. , The Hub has picked up the series, and it finally debuted on air on October 12, 2013.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: In September 1996, the live-action TV movie spawned the "Sabrina the Teenage Witch" television series. Both the TV-movie and sitcom starred Melissa Joan Hart as Sabrina. The fictional home of the series was moved to Westbridge, Massachusetts. Her original last name, Spellman, was retained, and her mother was stated to be mortal. The sitcom ran for seven seasons and included two television movies and one soundtrack release.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: On July 23, 2016, at San Diego Comic-Con, K.J. Apa, who portrays Archie Andrews in the darker, subversive live action take on Archie, confirmed that Sabrina will eventually appear in the CW series. Sabrina was originally slated to debut in the show's season one finale, but this was eventually decided against, as showrunner Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa said it would've distracted from the rest of the episode, though she is still being considered for a later season.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: In December 2017, a live-action adaptation of the comic book series "Chilling Adventures of Sabrina", produced by Warner Bros. Television and Berlanti Productions, with Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa, Lee Toland Krieger, Greg Berlanti, Sarah Schechter, and Jon Goldwater as executive producers, was picked up by the online streaming service Netflix for a two-season order. Starring Kiernan Shipka as Sabrina Spellman, the first part of the series was released worldwide on Netflix on October 26, 2018, with a special Christmas episode being released later that year on December 14. The second part was released on April 5, 2019, the third part was released on January 24, 2020, and the fourth part was released on December 31, 2020.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: In 1996, the comic was adapted into a live-action made-for-television film of the same name. In this version, Sabrina lives in Riverdale (fictional hometown of the Archie characters), rather than Greendale, as it was in the comic books. Her last name is Sawyer instead of Spellman, also it is said that both her parents are witches.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: A film starring Melissa Joan Hart, it follows American teenage witch Sabrina and her food-obsessed magical talking cat and mouse to Rome, the last whereabout of her 16th-century aunt Sophia.


title: Sabrina the Teenage Witch

text: The third "Sabrina" film finds the title character trying to save mermaids from environmental pollution and a man trying to alter Australia's waterways.


title: Cyberman

text: The Cybermen are a fictional race of cyborgs principally portrayed in the British science fiction television programme "Doctor Who". The Cybermen are a species of space-faring cyborgs who often forcefully and painfully convert human beings (or other similar species) into more Cybermen in order to populate their ranks while also removing their emotions and personalities. They were conceived by writer Kit Pedler (who was also the unofficial scientific advisor to the series) and story editor Gerry Davis, and first appeared in the 1966 "Doctor Who" serial "The Tenth Planet".


title: Cyberman

text: The Cybermen have seen many redesigns and costume changes over "Doctor Who"s long run, as well as a number of varying origin stories. In their first appearance, "The Tenth Planet" (1966), they are humans from Earth's nearly identical "twin planet" of Mondas who upgraded themselves into cyborgs in a bid for self-preservation. Forty years later, the two-part story, "Rise of the Cybermen" and "The Age of Steel" (2006), depicted Cybermen invented again in a parallel universe London as a business corporation's attempt at upgrading humanity. "Doctor Who" audio dramas, novels, and comic books have also elaborated on existing origin stories or presented alternatives. The 2017 episode, "The Doctor Falls", explains the different origins as parallel evolution, due to the inevitability of humans and human-like species attempting to upgrade themselves through technology; this perspective resolves continuity differences in the Cybermen's history.


title: Cyberman

text: A mainstay of "Doctor Who" since the 1960s, the Cybermen have also appeared in related programs and spin-off media, including novels, audiobooks, comic books, and video games. Cybermen stories were produced in officially licensed "Doctor Who" products between 1989 and 2005, when the TV show was off the air, with writers either filling historical gaps or depicting new encounters between them and the Doctor. The species also appeared in the "Doctor Who" TV spin-off, "Torchwood", appearing in the fourth episode, "Cyberwoman" (2006).


title: Cyberman

text: The name "Cyberman" comes from cybernetics, a term used in Norbert Wiener's book "Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine" (MIT Press, 1948). Wiener used the term in reference to the control of complex systems, particularly self-regulating control systems, in the animal world and in mechanical networks. By 1960, doctors were researching surgical or mechanical augmentation of humans and animals to operate machinery in space, leading to the portmanteau "cyborg", for "cybernetic organism".


title: Cyberman

text: In the 1960s, "spare-part" surgery began with the development of gigantic heart-lung machines. Public discussion included the possibility of wiring amputees' nerve endings directly into machines. In 1963, Kit Pedler discussed with his wife (who was also a doctor) what would happen if a person had so many prostheses that they could no longer distinguish themselves between man and machine. He got the opportunity to develop this idea when, in 1966, after an appearance on the BBC science programmes "Tomorrow's World" and "Horizon", the BBC hired him to consult on the "Doctor Who" serial "The War Machines" (1966). That eventually led to him writing, with Gerry Davis, "The Tenth Planet" (1966) for "Doctor Who".


title: Cyberman

text: Pedler, influenced by the logic-driven Treens from the "Dan Dare" comic strip, originally envisaged the Cybermen as "space monks", but was persuaded by Davis to concentrate on his fears about the direction of spare-part surgery. The Cybermen were originally imagined as human but with plastic and metal prostheses. The Cybermen of "The Tenth Planet" still have human hands, and their facial structures are visible beneath the masks they wear, but over time they evolved into metallic, more fully mechanized designs.


title: Cyberman

text: A variety of specialized forms of Cybermen have been shown, in particular Cyber Leaders and Cyber Controllers, with power to command other Cybermen.


title: Cyberman

text: The Cybermen first appear in the serial "The Tenth Planet" in 1966, set in 1986. This serial explains how, millions of years ago, Earth had a twin planet known as Mondas that was knocked out of solar orbit and drifted into deep space. The Mondasians, already far in advance of Earth's technology and fearful for their race's survival, replaced most of their bodies with cybernetic parts. Having eventually removed all emotion from their brains (to maintain their sanity), the natives installed a drive propulsion system to pilot the planet itself through space. As the original race was limited in numbers and were continually being depleted, the Mondasians – now Cybermen – became a race of conquerors who reproduced by forcibly changing other organic beings into Cybermen. The First Doctor (William Hartnell) opposes these Cybermen when they attempt to drain the Earth's energy to make way for Mondas' return to the solar system; in this encounter, Mondas absorbs too much energy from Earth, destroying it and all Cybermen on Earth. The adventure takes its physical toll on the Doctor, forcing him to regenerate for the first time, becoming the Second Doctor (Patrick Troughton).


title: Cyberman

text: The Cybermen next appeared later in the same television season in "The Moonbase" (1967) opposite the Second Doctor. In 2070, the Cybermen attempt to remotely destroy the Earth by affecting its weather patterns with a device called the Gravitron. However, the Gravitron is used against them, hurling them into space. In the following season, "The Tomb of the Cybermen" saw a 25th Century human expedition discover sarcophagi containing hibernating Cybermen on the planet Telos, where the creatures arise and attack. This episode introduced the cybermats, small mechanical scouts used by the Cybermen, as well as the Cyber Controller. In "The Wheel in Space" (1968), the Doctor and his crew face off against the Cybermen on a marooned Earth space station in the 21st Century. This episode introduces the Cyber-Planner, an immobile unit which directs the Cybermen. The Cybermen plan to take over the space station, after which their fleet will invade Earth. The Doctor uses an x-ray laser to destroy the Cybermen. In the next season, "The Invasion" has the Doctor and his companions visit late 20th century England, where he discovers an army of Cybermen are hidden on Earth and working with magnate Tobias Vaughn (Kevin Stoney) to invade Earth. Their invasion is defeated by the Doctor and the military support of the newly formed United Nations Intelligence Taskforce.


title: Cyberman

text: The Cybermen did not face the Third Doctor (Jon Pertwee) during his era, but one is shown as part of an exhibit in "Carnival of Monsters" (1973). The Third Doctor would however face Cybermen in the 20th anniversary special "The Five Doctors" (1983).


title: Cyberman

text: The Fourth Doctor (Tom Baker) is next to encounter a group of Cybermen in "Revenge of the Cybermen" (1975). These Cybermen are depicted as the wandering remnants of a fallen empire, ravaged by the so-called Cyber-Wars against victorious humanity, which had exploited the Cybermen's weakness to gold. These Cybermen attempt to restore the glory of their race by destroying the gold-rich asteroid Voga.


title: Cyberman

text: Cybermen were not seen again until "Earthshock" (1982), in which the Fifth Doctor (Peter Davison) encounters Cybermen in Earth in the year 2526. The Cybermen plan to destroy the planet with a large bomb while alien dignitaries visit Earth to discuss the ongoing Cyber-Wars. After the Doctor foils this plan, they decide to crash their freighter into the planet to achieve the same result. The freighter is hurled back in time, however, and the Doctor's companion, boy genius Adric (Matthew Waterhouse), is trapped on board as the freighter crashes into prehistoric Earth, killing Adric and triggering the K-T extinction event. The Cybermen appear once more in the Fifth Doctor's era, alongside the four previous Doctors, in "The Five Doctors" (1983), when they are transported to the Doctor's home planet of Gallifrey by the Time Lord President Borusa (Philip Latham).


title: Cyberman

text: "Attack of the Cybermen" (1985) is set much earlier in the Cyber-Wars than "Revenge"—during a time when the Cybermen faced defeat following the human invention of the glittergun and the discovery of gold-rich Voga. The Cybermen attempt to use a time machine to avert the destruction of Mondas. Their plan fails and, due to the intervention of the Sixth Doctor (Colin Baker), they also lose their adopted homeworld of Telos to its original inhabitants, the Cryons.


title: Cyberman

text: The Cybermen appeared for a final time in the classic series in "Silver Nemesis" (1988), in which a fleet of Cybermen warships assemble to convert Earth into a new Mondas. A Cybermen scouting party is sent to Earth in search of the legendary Nemesis statue, a Time Lord artefact of immense power, made of the "living metal" validium. The intervention of the Seventh Doctor (Sylvester McCoy) and his companion Ace (Sophie Aldred), however, ensures that the Nemesis destroys the entire cyber-fleet instead.


title: Cyberman

text: Between the series' cancellation and its subsequent revival, the Cybermen make one brief appearance, in the 1993 Children in Need special "Dimensions in Time", as one of several enemies used by evil Time Lady the Rani (Kate O'Mara) to hunt the Doctor.


title: Cyberman

text: "Doctor Who" was revived after a long hiatus by new showrunner Russell T Davies in 2005. By then, development of CGI let script-writers include large numbers of Cybermen or Daleks in stories. In the first series of the revived programme, the Cybermen do not appear except for the inactive head of one, which is seen in a private museum of alien artefacts on Earth in the episode "Dalek". For Series 2 in 2006, Cybermen were reintroduced with a new origin story set in a parallel universe. In the "Rise of the Cybermen" and "The Age of Steel" two-part story, the Tenth Doctor (David Tennant) and his companions, Rose Tyler (Billie Piper) and Mickey Smith (Noel Clarke), crash land in a parallel London where the Cybermen are being created on modern-day Earth. The Cybermen are created by the owner of Cybus Industries, the dying transhumanist mad scientist John Lumic (Roger Lloyd-Pack). Lumic's Cybermen successfully convert much of the world's population by placing their human brains into robotic shells. The Doctor and his friends free London from their control. A human resistance group, the Preachers, then sets about to clean up the remainder of Lumic's factories around the world. The Cybermen reappear in the 2006 two-part finale "Army of Ghosts" and "Doomsday", exploiting a breach between universes to invade the Doctor's Earth. This breach is caused by a transport device belonging to the Daleks, who reveal themselves and trigger all-out war between the two species. The Doctor ultimately re-opens the breach, causing the Cybermen and all but a few Daleks to become trapped inside before it is re-sealed. Cybermen next appear in the 2008 "Doctor Who" Christmas special "The Next Doctor", emerging in 1851 London after the Daleks damaged the walls of reality in the previous episode, "Journey's End". They attempt to raise a new army on Earth using period technology, but are again foiled by the Doctor.