title: Western betrayal

text: Colin Powell stated that he did not think "betrayal is the appropriate word" regarding the Allies' role in the Warsaw Uprising. While complaints of "betrayal" are common in politics generally, the idea of a western betrayal can also be seen as a political scapegoat in both Central and Eastern Europe and a partisan electioneering phrase among the former Western Allies. Historian Athan Theoharis maintains betrayal myths were used in part by those opposing US membership in the United Nations. The word "Yalta" came to stand for the appeasement of world communism and abandonment of freedom.


title: Western betrayal

text: The term "Betrayal of the West" (, ) was coined after the 1938 Munich Conference when Czechoslovakia was forced to cede the mostly German-populated Sudetenland to Germany. The region contained the Czechoslovak border fortifications and means of viable defence against German invasion. Poland would take Zaolzie from Czechoslovakia, while the First Vienna Award returned territories to Hungary. The next year, by the proclamation of the Slovak State, Czechoslovakia was dissolved, the next day the remainder of Carpathian Ruthenia was occupied and annexed by Hungary, while the next day Germany occupied the remaining Czech lands and proclaimed the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.


title: Western betrayal

text: Along with Italy and Nazi Germany, the Munich treaty was signed by Britain and France - Czechoslovakia's ally. Czechoslovakia was allied by treaty with France so it would be obliged to help Czechoslovakia if it was attacked.


title: Western betrayal

text: Czech politicians joined the newspapers in regularly using the term "Western betrayal" and it, along with the associated feelings, became a stereotype among Czechs. The Czech terms "Mnichov" (Munich), "Mnichovská zrada" ("Munich betrayal"), "Mnichovský diktát" ("Munich Dictate"), and "zrada spojenců" ("betrayal of the allies") were coined at the same time and have the same meaning. Poet František Halas published a poem with verse about "ringing bell of betrayal".


title: Western betrayal

text: Then Member of Parliament for Epping, Winston Churchill said: "Britain and France had to choose between war and dishonour. They chose dishonour. They will have war".


title: Western betrayal

text: On 5 May 1945, the citizens of Prague learned of the American invasion of Czechoslovakia by the US Third Army and revolted against German occupation. In four days of street fighting, thousands of Czechs were killed. Tactical conditions were favourable for an American advance, and General Patton, in command of the army, requested permission to continue eastward to the Vltava river in order to aid the Czech partisans fighting in Prague. This was denied by General Eisenhower, who was disinclined to accept American casualties or risk antagonising the Soviet Union. As a result, Prague was liberated on 9 May by the Red Army, significantly increasing the standing of the Czechoslovak Communist Party. According to a British diplomat, this was the moment that "Czechoslovakia was now definitely lost to the West."


title: Western betrayal

text: In the late 1920s and early 1930s, a complex set of alliances was established among the nations of Europe, in the hope of preventing future wars (either with Germany or the Soviet Union). With the rise of Nazism in Germany, this system of alliances was strengthened by the signing of a series of "mutual assistance" alliances between France, Britain, and Poland (Franco-Polish Alliance). This agreement with France stated that in the event of war the other allies were to fully mobilise and carry out a "ground intervention within two weeks" in support of the ally being attacked. The Anglo-Polish agreement stated that in the event of hostilities with a European power, the other contracting party would give "all the support and assistance in its power."


title: Western betrayal

text: According to Krzysztof Źwikliński, additionally representatives of the Western powers made several military promises to Poland, including such fantastic designs as those made by British General William Edmund Ironside in his July 1939 talks with Marshall Rydz-Śmigły who promised an attack from the direction of Black Sea, or placing a British aircraft carrier in the Baltic. However, the Anglo-Polish Alliance did not make that commitment, and the British commitment to France was for four divisions in Europe within 30 days of the outbreak of war, which was met.


title: Western betrayal

text: On the eve of the Second World War, the Polish government tried to buy as much armaments as it could and was asking for arms loans from Britain and France. As a result of that in the summer of 1939 Poland placed orders for 160 French Morane-Saulnier M.S.406 fighters, and for and 111 British airplanes (100 light bombers Fairey Battle, 10 Hurricanes, and 1 Spitfire). Although some of these planes had been shipped to Poland before 1 September 1939, none took part in combat. Shipments were interrupted due to the outbreak of war. The total amount of the loan from British government was also much smaller than asked for. Britain agreed to lend 8 million pounds, but Poland was asking for 60 million.


title: Western betrayal

text: Upon the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany in September 1939, after giving Germany an ultimatum on 1 September, Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September, and a British naval blockade of Germany was initiated. General Gort was appointed commander of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), and placed under the command of French General Gamelin of the North-eastern Theatre of Operations, as agreed before the war. On 4 September, an RAF raid against German warships in harbour was conducted, and the BEF began its shipment to France.


title: Western betrayal

text: The German forces reached Warsaw on 8 September, and on 14 September, Marshal Rydz-Śmigły ordered Polish forces to withdraw to the Romanian Bridgehead. On 17 September, the Soviet Union invaded Poland, and Polish Army in the field was effectively defeated before the divisions of the BEF could arrive in France. The first two BEF divisions, which took their place in the French line and change of command, on 3 October, and two further BEF divisions took their place in the French line on 12 October.


title: Western betrayal

text: France had committed to undertaking a ground offensive within two weeks of the outbreak of war. The French initiated full mobilisation and began the limited Saar Offensive on 7 September, sending 40 divisions into the region. The French assault was slowed down by out-dated doctrines, minefields, and the French lacked mine detectors. When the French reached artillery range of the Siegfried Line, they found that their shells could not penetrate the German defences. The French decided to regroup an attack on 20 September, but when Poland was invaded by the Soviet Union on 17 September, any further assault was called off. Around 13 September, the Polish military envoy to France, general Stanisław Burhardt-Bukacki, upon receiving the text of the message sent by Gamelin, alerted marshal Śmigły: "I received the message by general Gamelin. Please don't believe a single word in the dispatch"..


title: Western betrayal

text: It had been decided that no major air operations against Germany would take place. This was due to French concerns over reprisals on RAF launches from French airfields, against targets in Germany, so most British bomber activity over Germany was the dropping of propaganda leaflets and reconnaissance. This theme would continue in subsequent Anglo-French Supreme War Council meetings. Afterwards, French military leader Maurice Gamelin issued orders prohibiting Polish military envoys Lieutenant Wojciech Fyda and General Stanisław Burhardt-Bukacki from contacting him. In his post-war diaries, General Edmund Ironside, the chief of the Imperial General Staff, commented on French promises: "The French had lied to the Poles in saying they are going to attack. There is no idea of it".


title: Western betrayal

text: On 17 September 1939 the Soviet Union invaded Poland, as agreed in advance with Germany following the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Britain and France did not take any significant action in response to the Soviet invasion. However, the terms of the Anglo-Polish military alliance specifically applied to invasion from Germany only.


title: Western betrayal

text: France and Britain were unable to launch a successful land attack on Germany in the September 1939, and Poland was overcome by both the Germans and Soviets on 6 October, with the last Polish units capitulating that day following the battle of Kock. However, even by the end of October, the still-forming British Expeditionary Force totaled only 4 divisions compared to the 25 German divisions in Western Germany, making a British invasion of Germany unlikely to succeed.


title: Western betrayal

text: In November 1943, the Big Three (the USSR, US, and UK) met at the Tehran Conference. President Roosevelt and PM Churchill officially agreed that the eastern borders of Poland would roughly follow the Curzon Line. The Polish government-in-exile was not a party to this decision made in secret. The resulting loss of the Kresy, or "eastern territories", approximately 48% of Poland's pre-war territory, to the Soviet Union was seen by the London Poles in exile as another "betrayal" by their Western "Allies". However, it was no secret to the Allies that before his death in July 1943 General Władysław Sikorski, Prime Minister of Poland's London-based government in exile had been the originator, and not Stalin, of the concept of a westward shift of Poland's boundaries along an Oder–Neisse line as compensation for relinquishing Poland's eastern territories as part of a Polish rapprochement with the USSR. Józef Retinger, who was Sikorski's special political advisor at the time, was also in agreement with Sikorski's concept of Poland's realigned post-war borders, later in his memoirs Retinger wrote: "At the Tehran Conference, in November 1943, the Big Three agreed that Poland should receive territorial compensation in the West, at Germany's expense, for the land it was to lose to Russia in Central and Eastern Europe. This seemed like a fair bargain."


title: Western betrayal

text: Churchill told Stalin he could settle the issue with the Poles once a decision was made in Tehran, however he never consulted the Polish leadership. When the Prime Minister of the Polish government-in-exile Stanisław Mikołajczyk attended the Moscow Conference (1944), he was convinced he was coming to discuss borders that were still disputed, while Stalin believed everything had already been settled. This was the principal reason for the failure of the Polish Prime Minister's mission to Moscow. The Polish premier allegedly begged for inclusion of Lwów and Wilno in the new Polish borders, but got the following reply from Vyacheslav Molotov: "There is no use discussing that; it was all settled in Tehran."


title: Western betrayal

text: Since the establishment of the Polish government-in-exile in Paris and then in London, the military commanders of the Polish army were focusing most of their efforts on preparation of a future all-national uprising against Germany. Finally the plans for Operation Tempest were prepared and on 1 August 1944, the Warsaw Uprising started. The Uprising was an armed struggle by the Polish Home Army to liberate Warsaw from German occupation and Nazi rule.


title: Western betrayal

text: Despite the fact that Polish and later Royal Air Force (RAF) planes flew missions over Warsaw dropping supplies from 4 August on, the United States Army Air Force (USAAF) planes did not join the operation. The Allies specifically requested the use of Red Army airfields near Warsaw on 20 August but were refused by Stalin on 22 August (he referred to the insurrectionists as "a handful of criminals"). After Stalin's objections to support for the uprising, Churchill telegraphed Roosevelt on 25 August and proposed sending planes in defiance of Stalin and to "see what happens". Roosevelt replied on 26 August that "I do not consider it advantageous to the long-range general war prospect for me to join you in the proposed message to Uncle Joe." The commander of the British air drop, Air Marshal Sir John Slessor, later stated, "How, after the fall of Warsaw, any responsible statesman could trust the Russian Communist further than he could kick him, passes the comprehension of ordinary men."


title: Western betrayal

text: Various scholars argue that during the Warsaw Uprising both the governments of the United Kingdom and United States did little to help Polish resistance and that the Allies put little pressure on Stalin to help the Polish struggle for freedom.


title: Western betrayal

text: The Yalta Conference (4-11 February 1945) acknowledged the era of Soviet domination of Central and Eastern Europe, subsequent to the Soviet occupation of these lands as they advanced against Nazi Germany. This domination lasted until the end of Communist rule in Central and Eastern Europe in late 1989 and the collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991 and left bitter memories of Western betrayal and Soviet dominance in the collective memory of the region. To many Polish Americans, the Yalta conference "constituted a betrayal" of Poland and the Atlantic Charter. "After World War II," remarked Strobe Talbott, "many countries in the (center and) east suffered half a century under the shadow of Yalta." Territories which the Soviet Union had occupied during World War II in 1939 (with the exception of the Białystok area) were permanently annexed, and most of their Polish inhabitants expelled: today these territories are part of Belarus, Ukraine, and Lithuania. The factual basis of this decision was the result of a forged referendum from November 1939 in which the "huge majority" of voters accepted the incorporation of these lands into western Belarus and western Ukraine. In compensation, Poland was given former German territory (the so-called Recovered Territories): the southern half of East Prussia and all of Pomerania and Silesia, up to the Oder–Neisse line. The German population of these territories was expelled in masses and these territories were subsequently repopulated with Poles including Poles expelled from the Kresy regions. This, along with other similar migrations in Central and Eastern Europe, combined to form one of the largest human migrations in modern times. Stalin ordered Polish resistance fighters to be either incarcerated or deported to gulags in Siberia.


title: Western betrayal

text: At the time of Yalta over 200,000 troops of the Polish Armed Forces in the West were serving under the high command of the British Army. Many of these men and women were originally from the Kresy region of eastern Poland including cities such as Lwów and Wilno. They had been deported from Kresy to the Soviet gulags when Hitler and Stalin occupied Poland in 1939 in accordance with the Nazi–Soviet Pact. Two years later, when Churchill and Stalin formed an alliance against Hitler, the Kresy Poles were released from the Gulags in Siberia, formed the Anders Army, and marched to Iran to create the II Corps (Poland) under British high command. These Polish troops contributed to the Allied defeat of the Germans in North Africa and Italy, and hoped to return to Kresy in an independent and democratic Poland at the end of the War. But at Yalta, the borders agreed in Tehran in 1943 were finalized meaning that Stalin would keep the Soviet gains Hitler agreed to in the Nazi–Soviet Pact, including Kresy, and carry out Polish population transfers. These transfers included to the land Poland gained at Tehran in the West, at the expense of Germany. Consequently, at Yalta, it was agreed that tens of thousands of veteran Polish troops under British command should lose their Kresy homes to the Soviet Union. In reaction, thirty officers and men from the II Corps committed suicide.


title: Western betrayal

text: Churchill defended his actions in a three-day Parliamentary debate starting 27 February 1945, which ended in a vote of confidence. During the debate, many MPs openly criticised Churchill and passionately voiced loyalty to Britain's Polish allies and expressed deep reservations about Yalta. Moreover, 25 of these MPs risked their careers to draft an amendment protesting against Britain's tacit acceptance of Poland's domination by the Soviet Union. These members included Arthur Greenwood, Viscount Dunglass, Commander Archibald Southby, the Lord Willoughby de Eresby, and Victor Raikes. After the failure of the amendment, Henry Strauss, the Member of Parliament for Norwich, resigned his seat in protest at the British treatment of Poland.


title: Western betrayal

text: Before the Second World War ended, the Soviets installed a pro-Soviet regime. Although President Roosevelt "insisted on free and unfettered" elections in Poland, Vyacheslav Molotov instead managed to deliver an election fair by "Soviet standards." As many as half a million Polish soldiers refused to return to Poland, because of the Soviet repressions of Polish citizens, the Trial of the Sixteen, and other executions of pro-democracy Poles, particularly the so-called cursed soldiers, former members of the Armia Krajowa. The result was the Polish Resettlement Act 1947, Britain's first mass immigration law.


title: Western betrayal

text: Yalta was used by ruling communists to underline anti-Western sentiments. It was easy to argue that Poland was not very important to the West, since Allied leaders sacrificed Polish borders, legal government, and free elections for future peace between the Allies and the Soviet Union.


title: Western betrayal

text: On the other hand, some authors have pointed out that Yalta allowed the Polish communists to win over Polish nationalists by allowing them to realize their goal to annex and resettle formerly German land.


title: Western betrayal

text: The Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), formed in 1949, was portrayed by Communist propaganda as the breeder of Hitler's posthumous offspring who desired retaliation and wanted to take back from Poland the "Recovered Territories" that had been home of more than 8 million Germans. Giving this picture a grain of credibility was that West Germany until 1970 refused to recognize the Oder-Neisse Line as the German-Polish border, and that some West German officials had a tainted Nazi past. For a segment of Polish public opinion, Communist rule was seen as the lesser of the two evils.


title: Western betrayal

text: Defenders of the actions taken by the Western allies maintain that "Realpolitik" made it impossible to do anything else, and that they were in no shape to start an utterly un-winnable war with the Soviet Union over the subjugation of Poland and other Central and Eastern European countries immediately after the end of World War II. It could be contended that the presence of a double standard with respect to Nazi and Soviet aggression existed in 1939 and 1940, when the Soviets attacked the eastern part of Poland, then the Baltic States, and then Finland, and yet the Western Allies chose not to intervene in those theatres of the war.


title: Western betrayal

text: The chief American negotiator at Yalta was Alger Hiss, later accused of being a Soviet spy and convicted of perjuring himself in his testimony to the House Committee on Unamerican Activities. This accusation was later corroborated by the Venona tapes. In 2001, James Barron, a staff reporter for "The New York Times", identified what he called a "growing consensus that Hiss, indeed, had most likely been a Soviet agent."


title: Western betrayal

text: At the war's end many of these feelings of resentment were capitalised on by the occupying Soviets, who used them to reinforce anti-Western sentiments within Poland. Propaganda was produced by Communists to show the Soviet Union as the Great Liberator, and the West as the Great Traitor. For instance, Moscow's "Pravda" reported in February 1944 that all Poles who valued Poland's honour and independence were marching with the "Union of Polish Patriots" in the USSR.


title: Western betrayal

text: At some point in the spring of 1944, Churchill commissioned a contingency military enforcement operation plan (war on the Soviet Union) to obtain a "square deal for Poland" (Operation Unthinkable), which resulted in a May 22 report stating unfavorable success odds. The report's arguments included geostrategic issues (possible Soviet-Japanese alliance resulting in moving of Japanese troops from continent to Home Islands, threat to Iran and Iraq) and uncertainties concerning land battles in Europe.


title: Western betrayal

text: During the Fourth Moscow Conference in 1944, Soviet premier Joseph Stalin and British prime minister Winston Churchill discussed how to divide various European countries into spheres of influence. Churchill's account of the incident is that Churchill suggested that the Soviet Union should have 90 percent influence in Romania and 75 percent in Bulgaria; the United Kingdom should have 90 percent in Greece; with a 50–50 share in Hungary and Yugoslavia. The two foreign ministers, Anthony Eden and Vyacheslav Molotov, negotiated about the percentage shares on October 10 and 11. The result of these discussions was that the percentages of Soviet influence in Bulgaria and, more significantly, Hungary were amended to 80 percent.


title: Regarding Henry

text: Regarding Henry is a 1991 American drama film directed by Mike Nichols and written by J.J. Abrams. It stars Harrison Ford as a New York City lawyer from a dysfunctional family, who struggles to regain his memory and recover his speech and mobility after he survives a shooting, inadvertently restoring his family's integrity in the process.


title: Regarding Henry

text: The supporting cast includes Annette Bening, Mikki Allen, Bill Nunn, Rebecca Miller, Bruce Altman and Elizabeth Wilson. The film received mixed reviews with praise for the cast and Ford's performance but criticized for its sentimentality and manipulativeness. The film grossed $88 million at the box office on a production budget of $25 million.


title: Regarding Henry

text: Ambitious, callous, narcissistic, and at times unethical, Henry Turner is a wealthy successful Manhattan lawyer whose obsession with his work leaves him little time for his socialite wife, Sarah, and troubled preteen daughter, Rachel. He has just won a malpractice suit, defending a hospital against a plaintiff who claims, but is unable to prove, that he warned doctors about a pre-existing condition.


title: Regarding Henry

text: Running out to a convenience store to buy cigarettes one night, Henry is shot when he interrupts a robbery. One bullet hits his right frontal lobe, while the other hits his left subclavian artery, causing excessive internal bleeding and cardiac arrest. He experiences anoxia, resulting in brain damage.


title: Regarding Henry

text: Henry survives but can neither move nor talk and he suffers retrograde amnesia. While in a nursing facility, he slowly regains movement and speech with the help of a physical therapist named Bradley. Henry's recovery creates a financial burden for the family. Upon returning home, Henry is almost childlike. As he forges new relationships with his family, he realizes he does not like who he once was.


title: Regarding Henry

text: Sarah enrolls Rachel into an out-of-town elite school, though she is now reluctant to go. At orientation, Henry tells Rachel a lie to help her adjust to the new school. He and Sarah grow closer, as they were when they first met. Henry also misses Rachel.


title: Regarding Henry

text: Henry's firm allows him to return out of deference to his previous contributions. Sarah suggests they relocate to a smaller, less expensive residence. As his firm essentially assigns him only low-level work, he realizes he no longer wants to be a lawyer. While at a dinner party, they overhear several "friends" making derogatory comments about him.


title: Regarding Henry

text: Henry, finding a former colleague's letters to Sarah disclosing they had an affair, becomes angry and leaves home. He is confronted by Linda, a fellow attorney, who reveals they were having an affair and that he was going to leave Sarah. Henry has second thoughts about himself and his relationships.


title: Regarding Henry

text: Henry gives the documents that his firm suppressed to the plaintiff that proves their case, and he apologizes. He then resigns from the firm. He realizes that, as Sarah had said, everything had been wrong before but it is now so much better. They reconcile, then go to Rachel's school and withdraw her. She is overjoyed to be with her parents. As they leave the building, she tosses her school-uniform hat away.


title: Regarding Henry

text: "Regarding Henry: Music From the Motion Picture Soundtrack" was released on August 6, 1991 on Capitol Records/EMI Records.


title: Regarding Henry

text: Initial critical reception was mainly lukewarm to negative. Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" described the film as "a sentimental urban fairy tale" that "succeeds neither as an all-out inspirational drama nor as a send-up of American manners."


title: Regarding Henry

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" rated the film two out of four stars and commented, "There is possibly a good movie to be found somewhere within this story, but Mike Nichols has not found it in "Regarding Henry". This is a film of obvious and shallow contrivance, which aims without apology for easy emotional payoffs, and tries to manipulate the audience with plot twists that belong in a sitcom." Ebert also described the way it makes a connection between Ritz Crackers and the Ritz-Carlton hotel (which reveals that Henry's affair had in fact been deeply embedded in his apparently lost memories) as "especially annoying", apparently regarding it as comic.


title: Regarding Henry

text: Rita Kempley of "The Washington Post" called the film "a tidy parable of '90s sanctimony" while Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" described it as a "slick tearjerker" that "has a knack for trivializing the big issues it strenuously raises." However, he praised Ford's performance.


title: Regarding Henry

text: "Variety", however, called the film "a subtle emotional journey impeccably orchestrated by director Mike Nichols and acutely well acted."


title: Regarding Henry

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a "Rotten" 45% rating based on 31 reviews, with an average rating of 5.3/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "Although Harrison Ford makes the most of an opportunity to dig into a serious role, "Regarding Henry" is undermined by cheap sentiment and clichés." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 47 out of 100 based on 23 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Regarding Henry

text: The film was nominated in 2006 by the American Film Institute for their "100 Years...100 Cheers" list, but was not selected.


title: Regarding Henry

text: The film opened in 800 theaters in the United States on July 12, 1991, and grossed $6,146,782 on its opening weekend, ranking seventh at the US box office. It eventually grossed $43,001,500 in the United States and Canada. It grossed $44.9 million internationally for a worldwide total of $87.9 million.


title: Regarding Henry

text: Bening was named Newcomer of the Year for her work in this, as well as "Guilty by Suspicion", "The Grifters", "Valmont" and "Postcards from the Edge" by the London Film Critics' Circle. The film was nominated for the Young Artist Award for Best Family Motion Picture - Drama, and Allen was nominated Best Young Actress Starring in a Motion Picture.


title: Regarding Henry

text: The film was released on Region 1 DVD on September 9, 2003. It is in anamorphic widescreen format with audio tracks in English and French and subtitles in English. Australian premium label Imprint Films released the film on Blu Ray in 2022.


title: Lam Research

text: Lam Research Corporation is an American supplier of wafer fabrication equipment and related services to the semiconductor industry. Its products are used primarily in front-end wafer processing, which involves the steps that create the active components of semiconductor devices (transistors, capacitors) and their wiring (interconnects). The company also builds equipment for back-end wafer-level packaging (WLP) and for related manufacturing markets such as for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).


title: Lam Research

text: Lam Research was founded in 1980 by Dr. David K. Lam and is headquartered in Fremont, California, in the Silicon Valley. As of 2018, it was the second largest manufacturer in the Bay Area, after Tesla.


title: Lam Research

text: Lam Research was founded in 1980 by David K. Lam, a Chinese-born engineer who had previously worked at Xerox, Hewlett-Packard, and Texas Instruments. It was while he was at Hewlett Packard that he saw the need for better plasma etching equipment, to keep up with the rapid miniaturization of semiconductor wafers. He credited Bob Noyce, founder of Intel, for assisting him in getting funding by ensuring his business plan made sense.


title: Lam Research

text: In 1981, the company introduced its first product, the AutoEtch 480, an automated polysilicon plasma etcher. The name AutoEtch was chosen to convey that the etcher was automated, while the 80 in 480 came from 1980, the year the company was founded. The first system was sold in January 1982. In 1982, Roger Emerick was appointed CEO.


title: Lam Research

text: In May 1984, the company issued an IPO and was listed on NASDAQ, with the symbol LRCX. In 1985, David Lam left the company to join Link Technologies, which eventually was bought by Wyse and is now Dell Wyse. In the mid-1980s, Lam Research continued its global expansion, concentrating on Taiwan and also opening customer support centers throughout Europe, the United States and Japan.


title: Lam Research

text: By the early 1990s, the company had a presence in China, Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan. In March 1997, the company purchased OnTrak Systems Inc., a chip equipment manufacturer that specialized in chemical-mechanical planarization (CMP) cleaning, for $225 Million. CMP cleaning is a hybrid process to smooth surfaces using both etching and mechanical polishing. In August 1997, the company named OnTrak's CEO Jim Bagley as its CEO. In 1998, Bagley was named chairman of the board.


title: Lam Research

text: In 2005, Steve Newberry was appointed as CEO. In 2006, Lam Research acquired Bullen Semiconductor, now Silfex, Inc. In 2008, Lam Research acquired SEZ AG, now Lam Research AG. In 2011, Lam Research agreed to buy San Jose, California chip equipment manufacturer Novellus Systems, for $3.3B. The deal was completed in June 2012. In 2012, Martin Anstice was appointed as CEO. In October 2015, Lam Research announced plans to buy Milpitas, California-based wafer inspection equipment vendor KLA-Tencor for $10.6B, in what was viewed as a semiconductor industry consolidation move. In June 2016, it was announced that Lam Research had joined the Fortune 500 for the first time. In October 2016, the company announced it had terminated its offer for KLA-Tencor amidst concerns that the deal would not meet regulatory approval from the U.S. Department of Justice over antitrust concerns.


title: Lam Research

text: In September 2017, the company announced the acquisition of Cary, North Carolina-based chip simulation firm Coventor. The company's software reportedly would allow Lam to reduce the time to market for its new chips. In November, the company launched Lam Research Capital (Lam Capital), a venture capital group chartered to invest in companies.


title: Lam Research

text: In January 2018, the company announced that COO Tim Archer was being promoted to president, and CEO Martin Anstice remained in the CEO role.


title: Lam Research

text: In December 2018, Martin Anstice resigned as CEO due to allegations of personal misconduct, and the Board of Directors of Lam Research named Tim Archer as president and chief executive officer. Archer was also appointed to the Board of Directors of Lam Research. Before this appointment, Archer was the company's president and chief operating officer.


title: Lam Research

text: In August 2021, Lam opened a manufacturing facility in Batu Kawan, Malaysia to meet the growing demand for wafer fabrication equipment and to work more closely with key customers and supply chain partners.


title: Lam Research

text: In November 2022, it was announced Lam had acquired the Salzburg-headquartered, wet processing semiconductor equipment provider, Semsysco GmbH.


title: Lam Research

text: Lam Research designs and builds products for semiconductor manufacturing, including equipment for thin film deposition, plasma etch, photoresist strip, and wafer cleaning processes. Throughout semiconductor manufacturing, these technologies help create transistors, interconnects, advanced memory, and packaging structures. They are also used for applications in related markets like microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and light-emitting diodes (LEDs).


title: Lam Research

text: Lam's thin film deposition systems lay down the sub-microscopic layers of conducting (metal) or insulating (dielectric) materials that make up an integrated circuit. The processes require uniformity at the nanoscale level.


title: Lam Research

text: The company employs electrochemical deposition (ECD) and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technologies to form copper and other metal films for conducting structures. Atomic layer deposition (ALD) is also used for tungsten metal films in features like contacts and plugs, which are vertical connections between metal lines in multilevel interconnect chip designs.


title: Lam Research

text: Plasma-enhanced (PE) CVD and ALD technologies create dielectric films for a wide range of insulating parts. For gapfill processes, which require depositing dielectric material into narrow spaces, Lam uses high-density plasma (HDP) CVD technology. PECVD and ALD are also used to form hardmasks, layers that can be removed to improve circuit patterning processes.


title: Lam Research

text: Lam Research uses proprietary technology in its equipment for plasma etch, the process of selectively removing materials from the surface of a wafer to create the semiconductor device's features and patterns. The equipment helps chip manufacturers carve small parts such as those needed for the latest multiple patterning sequences, transistors, and advanced memory structures, which involve increasingly complex film stacks and ever higher aspect ratio structures.


title: Lam Research

text: The company uses reactive ion etch (RIE) and atomic layer etching (ALE) to shape a variety of conductive and dielectric features. The company's deep RIE technologies help create structures for applications like MEMS and through-silicon vias (TSVs).


title: Lam Research

text: Lam's dry strip systems use plasma technology to selectively remove the photoresist mask following a range of front-end wafer processing and advanced packaging applications.


title: Lam Research

text: Lam Research's wet spin clean and plasma-based bevel clean products remove particles, residues, and films from the wafer surface before or after adjacent processes.


title: Lam Research

text: The company's spin wet clean technology is used between chip-processing steps to remove yield-limiting residues and defects. Lam's bevel clean technology directs a plasma at the very edge of the wafer to clean unwanted particles, residues, and films. If not removed, these materials can impact yield if they flake off and re-deposit on the device area during subsequent manufacturing steps.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: In physics, the reciprocal lattice represents the Fourier transform of another lattice (group) (usually a Bravais lattice). In normal usage, the initial lattice (whose transform is represented by the reciprocal lattice) is a periodic spatial function in real space known as the "direct lattice". While the direct lattice exists in real space and is commonly understood to be a physical lattice (such as the lattice of a crystal), the reciprocal lattice exists in the space of spatial frequencies known as reciprocal space or k space, where formula_1 refers to the wavevector. In quantum physics, reciprocal space is closely related to momentum space according to the proportionality formula_2, where formula_3 is the momentum vector and formula_4 is the Planck constant. The reciprocal lattice of a reciprocal lattice is equivalent to the original direct lattice, because the defining equations are symmetrical with respect to the vectors in real and reciprocal space. Mathematically, direct and reciprocal lattice vectors represent covariant and contravariant vectors, respectively.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: The reciprocal lattice is the set of all vectors formula_5, that are wavevectors of plane waves in the Fourier series of a spatial function whose periodicity is the same as that of a direct lattice formula_6. Each plane wave in this Fourier series has the same phase or phases that are differed by multiples of formula_7 at each direct lattice point (so essentially same phase at all the direct lattice points).


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: The reciprocal lattice plays a fundamental role in most analytic studies of periodic structures, particularly in the theory of diffraction. In neutron, helium and X-ray diffraction, due to the Laue conditions, the momentum difference between incoming and diffracted X-rays of a crystal is a reciprocal lattice vector. The diffraction pattern of a crystal can be used to determine the reciprocal vectors of the lattice. Using this process, one can infer the atomic arrangement of a crystal.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: Reciprocal space (also called -space) provides a way to visualize the results of the Fourier transform of a spatial function. It is similar in role to the frequency domain arising from the Fourier transform of a time dependent function; reciprocal space is a space over which the Fourier transform of a spatial function is represented at spatial frequencies or wavevectors of plane waves of the Fourier transform. The domain of the spatial function itself is often referred to as real space. In physical applications, such as crystallography, both real and reciprocal space will often each be two or three dimensional. Whereas spatial dimensions of these two associated spaces will be the same, the spaces will differ in their units of length, so that when the real space has units of length L, its reciprocal space will have units of one divided by the length L so L (the reciprocal of length).


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: Reciprocal space comes into play regarding waves, both classical and quantum mechanical. Because a sinusoidal plane wave with unit amplitude can be written as an oscillatory term formula_8, with initial phase formula_9, angular wavenumber formula_10 and angular frequency formula_11, it can be regarded as a function of both formula_10 and formula_13 (and the time-varying part as a function of both formula_11 and formula_15). This complementary role of formula_10 and formula_13 leads to their visualization within complementary spaces (the real space and the reciprocal space). The spatial periodicity of this wave is defined by its wavelength formula_18, where formula_19; hence the corresponding wavenumber in reciprocal space will be formula_20.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: In three dimensions, the corresponding plane wave term becomes formula_21, which simplifies to formula_22 at a fixed time formula_15, where formula_24 is the position vector of a point in real space and now formula_25 is the wavevector in the three dimensional reciprocal space. (The magnitude of a wavevector is called wavenumber.) The constant formula_26 is the phase of the wavefront (a plane of a constant phase) through the origin formula_27 at time formula_15, and formula_29 is a unit vector perpendicular to this wavefront. The wavefronts with phases formula_30, where formula_31 represents any integer, comprise a set of parallel planes, equally spaced by the wavelength formula_18.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: In general, a geometric lattice is an infinite, regular array of vertices (points) in space, which can be modelled vectorially as a Bravais lattice. Some lattices may be skew, which means that their primary lines may not necessarily be at right angles. In reciprocal space, a reciprocal lattice is defined as the set of wavevectors formula_1 of plane waves in the Fourier series of any function formula_34 whose periodicity is compatible with that of an initial direct lattice in real space. Equivalently, a wavevector is a vertex of the reciprocal lattice if it corresponds to a plane wave in real space whose phase at any given time is the same (actually differs by formula_35 with an integer formula_31) at every direct lattice vertex.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: One heuristic approach to constructing the reciprocal lattice in three dimensions is to write the position vector of a vertex of the direct lattice as formula_37, where the formula_38 are integers defining the vertex and the formula_39 are linearly independent primitive translation vectors (or shortly called primitive vectors) that are characteristic of the lattice. There is then a unique plane wave (up to a factor of negative one), whose wavefront through the origin formula_40 contains the direct lattice points at formula_41 and formula_42, and with its adjacent wavefront (whose phase differs by formula_7 or formula_44 from the former wavefront passing the origin) passing through formula_45. Its angular wavevector takes the form formula_46, where formula_47 is the unit vector perpendicular to these two adjacent wavefronts and the wavelength formula_48 must satisfy formula_49, means that formula_48 is equal to the distance between the two wavefronts. Hence by construction formula_51 and formula_52.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: Cycling through the indices in turn, the same method yields three wavevectors formula_53 with formula_54, where the Kronecker delta formula_55 equals one when formula_56 and is zero otherwise. The formula_53 comprise a set of three primitive wavevectors or three primitive translation vectors for the reciprocal lattice, each of whose vertices takes the form formula_58, where the formula_59 are integers. The reciprocal lattice is also a Bravais lattice as it is formed by integer combinations of the primitive vectors, that are formula_60, formula_61, and formula_62 in this case. Simple algebra then shows that, for any plane wave with a wavevector formula_63 on the reciprocal lattice, the total phase shift formula_64 between the origin and any point formula_65 on the direct lattice is a multiple of formula_7 (that can be possibly zero if the multiplier is zero), so the phase of the plane wave with formula_63 will essentially be equal for every direct lattice vertex, in conformity with the reciprocal lattice definition above. (Although any wavevector formula_63 on the reciprocal lattice does always take this form, this derivation is motivational, rather than rigorous, because it has omitted the proof that no other possibilities exist.)


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: The Brillouin zone is a primitive cell (more specifically a Wigner-Seitz cell) of the reciprocal lattice, which plays an important role in solid state physics due to Bloch's theorem. In pure mathematics, the dual space of linear forms and the dual lattice provide more abstract generalizations of reciprocal space and the reciprocal lattice.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: Assuming a three-dimensional Bravais lattice and labelling each lattice vector (a vector indicating a lattice point) by the subscript formula_69 as 3-tuple of integers,


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: where formula_72 is the set of integers and formula_39 is a primitive translation vector or shortly primitive vector. Taking a function formula_34 where formula_24 is a position vector from the origin formula_76 to any position, if formula_34 follows the periodicity of this lattice, e.g. the function describing the electronic density in an atomic crystal, it is useful to write formula_34 as a multi-dimensional Fourier series


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: As formula_34 follows the periodicity of the lattice, translating formula_24 by any lattice vector formula_6 we get the same value, hence


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: Because equality of two Fourier series implies equality of their coefficients, formula_86, which only holds when


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: Mathematically, the reciprocal lattice is the set of all vectors formula_5, that are wavevectors of plane waves in the Fourier series of a spatial function whose periodicity is the same as that of a direct lattice as the set of all direct lattice point position vectors formula_6, and formula_5 satisfy this equality for all formula_6. Each plane wave in the Fourier series has the same phase (actually can be differed by a multiple of formula_7) at all the lattice point formula_6.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: As shown in the section multi-dimensional Fourier series, formula_5 can be chosen in the form of formula_96 where formula_54. With this form, the reciprocal lattice as the set of all wavevectors formula_5 for the Fourier series of a spatial function which periodicity follows formula_6, is itself a Bravais lattice as it is formed by integer combinations of its own primitive translation vectors formula_100, and the reciprocal of the reciprocal lattice is the original lattice, which reveals the Pontryagin duality of their respective vector spaces. (There may be other form of formula_5. Any valid form of formula_5 results in the same reciprocal lattice.)


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: For an infinite two-dimensional lattice, defined by its primitive vectors formula_103, its reciprocal lattice can be determined by generating its two reciprocal primitive vectors, through the following formulae,


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: Here formula_107 represents a 90 degree rotation matrix, i.e. a "q"uarter turn. The anti-clockwise rotation and the clockwise rotation can both be used to determine the reciprocal lattice: If formula_107 is the anti-clockwise rotation and formula_109 is the clockwise rotation, formula_110 for all vectors formula_111. Thus, using the permutation


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: Notably, in a 3D space this 2D reciprocal lattice is an infinitely extended set of Bragg rods—described by Sung et al.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: For an infinite three-dimensional lattice formula_70, defined by its primitive vectors formula_115 and the subscript of integers formula_116, its reciprocal lattice formula_96 with the integer subscript formula_80 can be determined by generating its three reciprocal primitive vectors formula_100


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: where formula_121 is the scalar triple product. The choice of these formula_100 is to satisfy formula_54 as the known condition (There may be other condition.) of primitive translation vectors for the reciprocal lattice derived in the heuristic approach above and the section multi-dimensional Fourier series. This choice also satisfies the requirement of the reciprocal lattice formula_86 mathematically derived above. Using column vector representation of (reciprocal) primitive vectors, the formulae above can be rewritten using matrix inversion:


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: This method appeals to the definition, and allows generalization to arbitrary dimensions. The cross product formula dominates introductory materials on crystallography.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: The above definition is called the "physics" definition, as the factor of formula_126 comes naturally from the study of periodic structures. An essentially equivalent definition, the "crystallographer's" definition, comes from defining the reciprocal lattice formula_127. which changes the reciprocal primitive vectors to be


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: and so on for the other primitive vectors. The crystallographer's definition has the advantage that the definition of formula_60 is just the reciprocal magnitude of formula_45 in the direction of formula_131, dropping the factor of formula_126. This can simplify certain mathematical manipulations, and expresses reciprocal lattice dimensions in units of spatial frequency. It is a matter of taste which definition of the lattice is used, as long as the two are not mixed.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: formula_80 is conventionally written as formula_134 or formula_135, called Miller indices; formula_136 is replaced with formula_137, formula_138 replaced with formula_10, and formula_140 replaced with formula_141. Each lattice point formula_135 in the reciprocal lattice corresponds to a set of lattice planes formula_135 in the real space lattice. (A lattice plane is a plane crossing lattice points.) The direction of the reciprocal lattice vector corresponds to the normal to the real space planes. The magnitude of the reciprocal lattice vector formula_144 is given in reciprocal length and is equal to the reciprocal of the interplanar spacing of the real space planes.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: The formula for formula_31 dimensions can be derived assuming an formula_31-dimensional real vector space formula_147 with a basis formula_148 and an inner product formula_149. The reciprocal lattice vectors are uniquely determined by the formula formula_150. Using the permutation


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: Here, formula_153 is the volume form, formula_154 is the inverse of the vector space isomorphism formula_155 defined by formula_156 and formula_157 denotes the inner multiplication.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: One can verify that this formula is equivalent to the known formulas for the two- and three-dimensional case by using the following facts: In three dimensions, formula_158 and in two dimensions, formula_159, where formula_160 is the rotation by 90 degrees (just like the volume form, the angle assigned to a rotation depends on the choice of orientation).


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: The simple cubic Bravais lattice, with cubic primitive cell of side formula_161, has for its reciprocal a simple cubic lattice with a cubic primitive cell of side formula_162 (or formula_163 in the crystallographer's definition). The cubic lattice is therefore said to be self-dual, having the same symmetry in reciprocal space as in real space.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: The reciprocal lattice to an FCC lattice is the body-centered cubic (BCC) lattice, with a cube side of formula_164.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: Consider an FCC compound unit cell. Locate a primitive unit cell of the FCC; i.e., a unit cell with one lattice point. Now take one of the vertices of the primitive unit cell as the origin. Give the basis vectors of the real lattice. Then from the known formulae, you can calculate the basis vectors of the reciprocal lattice. These reciprocal lattice vectors of the FCC represent the basis vectors of a BCC real lattice. Note that the basis vectors of a real BCC lattice and the reciprocal lattice of an FCC resemble each other in direction but not in magnitude.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: It can be proven that only the Bravais lattices which have 90 degrees between formula_166 (cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic) have primitive translation vectors for the reciprocal lattice, formula_167, parallel to their real-space vectors.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: The reciprocal to a simple hexagonal Bravais lattice with lattice constants formula_168 and formula_169 is another simple hexagonal lattice with lattice constants formula_170 and formula_171 rotated through 90° about the c axis with respect to the direct lattice. The simple hexagonal lattice is therefore said to be self-dual, having the same symmetry in reciprocal space as in real space. Primitive translation vectors for this simple hexagonal Bravais lattice vectors are formula_172, formula_173, and formula_174.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: One path to the reciprocal lattice of an arbitrary collection of atoms comes from the idea of scattered waves in the Fraunhofer (long-distance or lens back-focal-plane) limit as a Huygens-style sum of amplitudes from all points of scattering (in this case from each individual atom). This sum is denoted by the complex amplitude formula_175 in the equation below, because it is also the Fourier transform (as a function of spatial frequency or reciprocal distance) of an effective scattering potential in direct space:


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: Here g = q/(2π) is the scattering vector q in crystallographer units, "N" is the number of atoms, "f"[g] is the atomic scattering factor for atom "j" and scattering vector g, while r is the vector position of atom "j". Note that the Fourier phase depends on one's choice of coordinate origin.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: For the special case of an infinite periodic crystal, the scattered amplitude F = M F from M unit cells (as in the cases above) turns out to be non-zero only for integer values of formula_135, where


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: when there are j=1,m atoms inside the unit cell whose fractional lattice indices are respectively {u, v, w}. To consider effects due to finite crystal size, of course, a shape convolution for each point or the equation above for a finite lattice must be used instead.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: Whether the array of atoms is finite or infinite, one can also imagine an "intensity reciprocal lattice" I[g], which relates to the amplitude lattice F via the usual relation I = FF where F is the complex conjugate of F. Since Fourier transformation is reversible, of course, this act of conversion to intensity tosses out "all except 2nd moment" (i.e. the phase) information. For the case of an arbitrary collection of atoms, the intensity reciprocal lattice is therefore:


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: Here r is the vector separation between atom "j" and atom "k". One can also use this to predict the effect of nano-crystallite shape, and subtle changes in beam orientation, on detected diffraction peaks even if in some directions the cluster is only one atom thick. On the down side, scattering calculations using the reciprocal lattice basically consider an incident plane wave. Thus after a first look at reciprocal lattice (kinematic scattering) effects, beam broadening and multiple scattering (i.e. dynamical) effects may be important to consider as well.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: There are actually two versions in mathematics of the abstract dual lattice concept, for a given lattice "L" in a real vector space "V", of finite dimension.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: The first, which generalises directly the reciprocal lattice construction, uses Fourier analysis. It may be stated simply in terms of Pontryagin duality. The dual group "V"^ to "V" is again a real vector space, and its closed subgroup "L"^ dual to "L" turns out to be a lattice in "V"^. Therefore, "L"^ is the natural candidate for "dual lattice", in a different vector space (of the same dimension).


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: The other aspect is seen in the presence of a quadratic form "Q" on "V"; if it is non-degenerate it allows an identification of the dual space "V" of "V" with "V". The relation of "V" to "V" is not intrinsic; it depends on a choice of Haar measure (volume element) on "V". But given an identification of the two, which is in any case well-defined up to a scalar, the presence of "Q" allows one to speak to the dual lattice to "L" while staying within "V".


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: In mathematics, the dual lattice of a given lattice "L" in an abelian locally compact topological group "G" is the subgroup "L" of the dual group of "G" consisting of all continuous characters that are equal to one at each point of "L".


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: In discrete mathematics, a lattice is a locally discrete set of points described by all integral linear combinations of dim = "n" linearly independent vectors in R. The dual lattice is then defined by all points in the linear span of the original lattice (typically all of R) with the property that an integer results from the inner product with all elements of the original lattice. It follows that the dual of the dual lattice is the original lattice.


title: Reciprocal lattice

text: Furthermore, if we allow the matrix "B" to have columns as the linearly independent vectors that describe the lattice, then the matrix


title: Second Doctor

text: The Second Doctor is an incarnation of the Doctor, the protagonist of the BBC science fiction television series "Doctor Who". He was portrayed by actor Patrick Troughton. While the Troughton era of "Doctor Who" is well-remembered by fans and in that era's "Doctor Who" literature, it is difficult to appraise in full; of his 119 episodes, 53 remain missing.


title: Second Doctor

text: Within the series' narrative, the Doctor is a centuries-old alien Time Lord from the planet Gallifrey who travels in time and space in the TARDIS, frequently with companions. At the end of life, the Doctor regenerates; as a result, the physical appearance and personality of the Doctor changes. The transformation into the Second Doctor (originally referred to as a "renewal"), a figure who was the same 'essential' character as the first but with a very different persona, was a turning point in the evolution of the series, and eventually became a critical element of the series' longevity.


title: Second Doctor

text: Troughton's Doctor was an outwardly scruffy, light hearted and bumbling tramp, a portrayal that was nicknamed the Cosmic Hobo. He hid a more firm and slightly darker side that he would often use to manipulate his enemies and allies for the greater good. His original "swinging sixties" companions were the sophisticated socialite Polly (Anneke Wills) and working class sailor Ben Jackson (Michael Craze), who travelled with his previous incarnation. They were later joined by 18th century Jacobite Jamie McCrimmon (Frazer Hines), who would become the Second Doctor's most loyal and trusted companion. Following Ben and Polly's departures, the Doctor and Jamie were joined by the Victorian orphan Victoria Waterfield (Deborah Watling) and 21st century astrophysicist Zoe Heriot (Wendy Padbury). Jamie and Zoe stayed with the Second Doctor until the Time Lords sent them back to their own times, with their memories of all but their first encounter with him wiped.


title: Second Doctor

text: The First Doctor grew progressively weaker while battling the Cybermen during the events of "The Tenth Planet" (1966) and eventually collapsed, seemingly from old age. His body renewed itself and transformed into the Second Doctor.


title: Second Doctor

text: Initially, the relationship between the Second Doctor and his predecessor was unclear. In his first story, the Second Doctor referred to his predecessor in the third person as if he were a completely different person. His companions Ben and Polly are at first unsure how to treat him, though Polly is willing to believe he is the same man, and it is only when a Dalek recognises the Doctor that Ben accepts that he is the Doctor. This all occurred during the new Doctor's first story, "The Power of the Daleks" (1966).


title: Second Doctor

text: In the second story, "The Highlanders" (1966–67), Jamie McCrimmon joined the TARDIS crew, and remained with the Second Doctor for the rest of his travels. At the conclusion of "The Faceless Ones" (1967), Ben and Polly left together when the TARDIS landed at Gatwick Airport on the same day they originally left with the First Doctor, after they had stopped the mass kidnapping of tourists by shape shifting aliens. In the following story "The Evil of the Daleks" (1967), the Doctor and Jamie became involved in a plot by the Daleks to gain both the "Human and Dalek Factors" when the TARDIS was stolen, which led to them meeting Victoria Waterfield in the 19th century. The Doctor used the situation to engineer a Dalek civil war that seemingly destroyed the Daleks forever. However, Victoria's father was among the casualties. Now an orphan, Victoria chose to accompany the Doctor and Jamie on their travels. Although she felt great affection for the Doctor and Jamie, she was never able to completely come to terms with life in the TARDIS and the constant danger that resulted. She eventually chose to leave after the events of "Fury from the Deep" (1968) and was adopted by Mr. and Mrs. Harris in the 20th Century. After the events of "The Wheel in Space" (1968), the Doctor and Jamie were then joined by Zoe Heriot, an extremely intelligent woman from the 21st century, who helped defeat the Cybermen attack on a space station known as the Wheel. She then stowed away in the TARDIS and, despite the Doctor's warnings about what she might encounter, chose to remain.


title: Second Doctor

text: During his second incarnation, the Doctor confronted familiar foes such as the Daleks and the Cybermen, as well as new enemies such as the Great Intelligence and the Ice Warriors. It was during "The Web of Fear" (1968) that he first met Colonel Alistair Gordon Lethbridge-Stewart, in the tunnels of the London Underground. Following the defeat of the Great Intelligence, Lethbridge-Stewart was promoted to Brigadier and became the leader of the British contingent of UNIT, a military organisation tasked to investigate and defend the world from extraterrestrial threats. In "The Invasion" (1968), the Doctor reteamed with him to defeat an invasion of Cybermen in league with industrialist Tobias Vaughan.


title: Second Doctor

text: In his final story "The War Games" (1969), the Second Doctor's time came to an end when the TARDIS landed in the middle of a warzone, created by a race of alien warlords who, with the help of another renegade Time Lord the War Chief, progressively kidnapped and brainwashed humans into becoming soldiers for them, hoping to use the ones who survived to conquer the Galaxy. Although the Doctor was able to defeat their plan, he realised he would be unable to return the human subjects to their various original points in Earth's history. He therefore contacted the Time Lords, sacrificing his own freedom in the process, and despite an attempt to escape was forced to return to his home planet. He was then put on trial by the Time Lords, for breaking their laws of non-interference. Despite the Doctor's argument that the Time Lords should use their great powers to help others, he was sentenced to exile on 20th century Earth, the Time Lords forcing his regeneration into the Third Doctor in the process. Jamie and Zoe were returned to their own time, with their memories of all but their first encounter with the Doctor wiped and the secret of the TARDIS was also taken from the Doctor.


title: Second Doctor

text: Due to what would appear to be continuity errors in Troughton's later appearances (particularly in "The Two Doctors"), some fans have speculated that the Time Lords used the Second Doctor as an agent after the events of "The War Games" (1969), and that he did not in fact immediately regenerate and enter his exile on Earth. This theory of continuity is described as "Season 6B". Additionally, while "The War Games" never depicted the Doctor's regeneration itself, it was later depicted in "TV Comic", which treated the exiled Doctor's exploits on Earth, before, in a comic entitled "The Nightwalkers", showing the Doctor dragged in to the TARDIS by animated scarecrows, allowing his change of appearance to take place. The Second Doctor's regeneration was also depicted in "Devious", a fan-produced film starring Jon Pertwee in his last appearance as the Third Doctor.


title: Second Doctor

text: According to script editor Robert Holmes, the Second Doctor's missions for the Time Lords took place prior to the events of "The War Games": "they 'framed' the Troughton Doctor and got him to do various things for them, and then hauled him up in front of them on trial.


title: Second Doctor

text: The Second Doctor has been nicknamed the "Cosmic Hobo", as the impish Second Doctor appeared to be far more scruffy and childlike than his first incarnation.


title: Second Doctor

text: Mercurial, clever, and always a few steps ahead of his enemies, at times he could be a calculating schemer who would not only manipulate people for the greater good but act like a bumbling fool to have others underestimate his true abilities. One example is in "The Tomb of the Cybermen" (1967), where, despite his admonitions not to open the titular tomb, he corrects evil logician Eric Klieg's calculations of the code to open the tomb behind Klieg's back. This allows the tomb to be opened, so that the Doctor can expose Klieg and the Cybermens' respective plans and defeat both.


title: Second Doctor

text: Sometimes his manipulation of those around him can veer into dark territory. In "The Evil of the Daleks" (1967), he coldly manipulates Jamie into trying to rescue Victoria (thus setting in motion the Human Factor tests) and is unsympathetic when Edward Waterfield tries to apologise for his collaboration with the Daleks. Later in the story he appears to have been converted by the "Dalek factor" into a mental Dalek, although he eventually reveals this to be a pretence. In "The Enemy of the World" (1968) while impersonating villain Salamander who is his doppelganger, he interrogates Jamie and Victoria without their knowing that it is really himself, provoking them until they nearly physically attack him. In the following story "The Web of Fear" he apparently reconciles to the Great Intelligence's plan to drain his mind and resists rescue attempts - only afterwards does it emerge that he planned to reverse to mind-drain. Despite the bluster and tendency to panic when events got out of control, the Second Doctor always acted heroically and morally in his desire to help the oppressed.


title: Second Doctor

text: This Doctor is associated with the catchphrases "When I say run, "run"!", and "Oh my giddy aunt!" (although the latter is only first heard in one of his last few stories, "The Krotons") and is noted for playing the recorder.


title: Second Doctor

text: Troughton's costume was the result from discussion between the actor himself, producer Innes Lloyd, and script-editor Gerry Davis. He wore a black frock coat, several sizes too big, over a light blue-coloured, button-down collar shirt. The top button was undone, but the top of the shirt was held with a safety pin attached to a Winston Churchill style bow-tie. He wore very baggy trousers, which, were held up by red braces with stars, moons and flowers, or white braces with a navy stripe down the middle. In his first two stories, the trousers were orange and black two-inch check, later he wore brown houndstooth trousers. He also tended to wear a stovepipe hat and dark brown dress boots. The actor denied suggestions that his distinctive mop of jet black hair was a wig.


title: Second Doctor

text: In stories set in colder environments, Troughton wore a cloak ("The Highlanders", "The Tomb of the Cybermen") or a short fur coat ("The Abominable Snowmen", "The Five Doctors").


title: Second Doctor

text: With the arrival of a younger Doctor and changing tastes, the Second Doctor's tenure was characterised by a faster pace and a preference toward "monster of the week"-style horror stories, whilst the purely historical adventures that were a recurring feature of the Hartnell era ceased with "The Highlanders", the only Troughton-era entry in that genre. While Troughton's Doctor would still visit the Earth's past, he would always encounter an alien, such as the Daleks or the Ice Warriors. It was also during this era that "Doctor Who" began to come under fire for its purportedly violent and frightening content.


title: Second Doctor

text: As with his predecessor, all the Second Doctor's original episodes were in black-and-white. Later guest appearances in "The Three Doctors" (1972–73), "The Five Doctors" (1983) and "The Two Doctors" (1985) were in colour. However, Troughton's reign as the Doctor was more notable for what does "not" exist than for what does, as many of the episodes featuring the Second Doctor were junked by the BBC; a full list of incomplete Doctor Who serials shows how many of these episodes are missing from the BBC Archives.


title: Second Doctor

text: Only two stories in Troughton's first two seasons – "The Tomb of the Cybermen" (1967) and "The Enemy of the World" (1968) – still exist in their entirety; ten stories only exist partially (most with one or two episodes out of 4 or 6); and four are lost in their entirety: his first story, "The Power of the Daleks" (1966); Jamie's first adventure, "The Highlanders" (1966–67); "The Macra Terror" (1967); and Victoria's last adventure, "Fury From the Deep" (1968).


title: Second Doctor

text: The Second Doctor would return to the series on three occasions: in 1973 for the 10th anniversary serial "The Three Doctors" (which also saw the return of William Hartnell as the First Doctor), in 1983 for the 20th anniversary special, "The Five Doctors", and once more in 1985 in "The Two Doctors".


title: Second Doctor

text: Images of the Second Doctor appear in "Day of the Daleks" (1972), "The Brain of Morbius" (1976), "Earthshock" (1982), "Mawdryn Undead" (1983), "Resurrection of the Daleks" (1984), "Human Nature" (2007), "The Next Doctor" (2008), "The Eleventh Hour" (2010), "Vincent and the Doctor" (2010), "The Lodger" (2010), "Nightmare in Silver" (2013), and "The Sarah Jane Adventures" story "Death of the Doctor" (2010), and "The Husbands of River Song" (2015).


title: Second Doctor

text: A sculpture of his head, along with that of the First Doctor, appears in the 1993 special for "Children in Need" titled "Dimensions in Time" (1993). The Fourth Doctor calls him "the flautist."


title: Second Doctor

text: He briefly appears in "The Name of the Doctor" (2013), where archive footage from "The Five Doctors" is used to show him running past Clara Oswald in an unseen adventure.


title: Second Doctor

text: The Second Doctor appears, via archival images, in the series' 50th anniversary special, "The Day of the Doctor" (2013). He is seen piloting the TARDIS and acting in unison with twelve other incarnations of the Doctor to save Gallifrey on the final day of the Time War.


title: Second Doctor

text: Troughton received a mixed reception from viewers at first; letters sent to the "Radio Times" both praised "the superb character he has created" and criticised "a wonderful series" for turning into "what looked like Coco the Clown".


title: Second Doctor

text: Peter Davison, Colin Baker, Sylvester McCoy and Matt Smith, who portrayed the Fifth, Sixth, Seventh and Eleventh Doctors, respectively, have stated that the Second Doctor is their favourite. Smith has also stated that his Doctor costume, in particular the bow-tie, was also influenced by the Second Doctor's, citing the story "The Tomb of the Cybermen" as a favourite story.


title: Standard streams

text: In computer programming, standard streams are interconnected input and output communication channels between a computer program and its environment when it begins execution. The three input/output (I/O) connections are called standard input (stdin), standard output (stdout) and standard error (stderr). Originally I/O happened via a physically connected system console (input via keyboard, output via monitor), but standard streams abstract this. When a command is executed via an interactive shell, the streams are typically connected to the text terminal on which the shell is running, but can be changed with redirection or a pipeline. More generally, a child process inherits the standard streams of its parent process.


title: Standard streams

text: Users generally know standard streams as input and output channels that handle data coming from an input device, or that write data from the application. The data may be text with any encoding, or binary data.


title: Standard streams

text: In many modern systems, the standard error stream of a program is redirected into a log file, typically for error analysis purposes.


title: Standard streams

text: Streams may be used to chain applications, meaning that the output stream of one program can be redirected to be the input stream to another application. In many operating systems this is expressed by listing the application names, separated by the vertical bar character, for this reason often called the pipeline character. A well-known example is the use of a pagination application, such as more, providing the user control over the display of the output stream on the display.


title: Standard streams

text: In most operating systems predating Unix, programs had to explicitly connect to the appropriate input and output devices. OS-specific intricacies caused this to be a tedious programming task. On many systems it was necessary to obtain control of environment settings, access a local file table, determine the intended data set, and handle hardware correctly in the case of a punch card reader, magnetic tape drive, disk drive, line printer, card punch, or interactive terminal.


title: Standard streams

text: One of Unix's several groundbreaking advances was "abstract devices", which removed the need for a program to know or care what kind of devices it was communicating with. Older operating systems forced upon the programmer a record structure and frequently non-orthogonal data semantics and device control. Unix eliminated this complexity with the concept of a data stream: an ordered sequence of data bytes which can be read until the end of file. A program may also write bytes as desired and need not, and cannot easily declare their count or grouping.


title: Standard streams

text: Another Unix breakthrough was to automatically associate input and output to terminal keyboard and terminal display, respectively, by default — the program (and programmer) did absolutely nothing to establish input and output for a typical input-process-output program (unless it chose a different paradigm). In contrast, previous operating systems usually required some—often complex—job control language to establish connections, or the equivalent burden had to be orchestrated by the program.


title: Standard streams

text: Since Unix provided standard streams, the Unix C runtime environment was obliged to support it as well. As a result, most C runtime environments (and C's descendants), regardless of the operating system, provide equivalent functionality.


title: Standard streams

text: Standard input is a stream from which a program reads its input data. The program requests data transfers by use of the "read" operation. Not all programs require stream input. For example, the "dir" and "ls" programs (which display file names contained in a directory) may take command-line arguments, but perform their operations without any stream data input.


title: Standard streams

text: Unless redirected, standard input is inherited from the parent process. In the case of an interactive shell, that is usually associated with the keyboard.


title: Standard streams

text: The file descriptor for standard input is 0 (zero); the POSIX "<unistd.h>" definition is codice_1; the corresponding C "<stdio.h>" variable is codice_2; similarly, the C++ "<iostream>" variable is codice_3.


title: Standard streams

text: Standard output is a stream to which a program writes its output data. The program requests data transfer with the "write" operation. Not all programs generate output. For example, the "file rename" command (variously called "mv", "move", or "ren") is silent on success.


title: Standard streams

text: Unless redirected, standard output is inherited from the parent process. In the case of an interactive shell, that is usually the text terminal which initiated the program.


title: Standard streams

text: The file descriptor for standard output is 1 (one); the POSIX "<unistd.h>" definition is codice_4; the corresponding C "<stdio.h>" variable is codice_5; similarly, the C++ "<iostream>" variable is codice_6.


title: Standard streams

text: Standard error is another output stream typically used by programs to output error messages or diagnostics. It is a stream independent of standard output and can be redirected separately.


title: Standard streams

text: This solves the semi-predicate problem, allowing output and errors to be distinguished, and is analogous to a function returning a pair of values – see Semi-predicate problem: Multi valued return. The usual destination is the text terminal which started the program to provide the best chance of being seen even if "standard output" is redirected (so not readily observed). For example, output of a program in a pipeline is redirected to input of the next program or a text file, but errors from each program still go directly to the text terminal so they can be reviewed by the user in real time.


title: Standard streams

text: It is acceptable and normal to direct "standard output" and "standard error" to the same destination, such as the text terminal. Messages appear in the same order as the program writes them, unless buffering is involved. For example, in common situations the standard error stream is unbuffered but the standard output stream is line-buffered; in this case, text written to standard error later may appear on the terminal earlier, if the standard output stream buffer is not yet full.


title: Standard streams

text: The file descriptor for standard error is defined by POSIX as 2 (two); the "<unistd.h>" header file provides the symbol codice_7; the corresponding C "<stdio.h>" variable is codice_8. The C++ "<iostream>" standard header provides two variables associated with this stream: codice_9 and codice_10, the former being unbuffered and the latter using the same buffering mechanism as all other C++ streams.


title: Standard streams

text: Bourne-style shells allow "standard error" to be redirected to the same destination that standard output is directed to using


title: Standard streams

text: csh-style shells allow "standard error" to be redirected to the same destination that standard output is directed to using


title: Standard streams

text: Standard error was added to Unix in the 1970s after several wasted phototypesetting runs ended with error messages being typeset instead of displayed on the user's terminal.


title: Standard streams

text: Fortran has the equivalent of Unix file descriptors: By convention, many Fortran implementations use unit numbers codice_11 for stdin, codice_12 for stdout and codice_13 for stderr. In Fortran-2003, the intrinsic codice_14 module was standardized to include the named constants codice_15, codice_16, and codice_17 to portably specify the unit numbers.


title: Standard streams

text: ALGOL 68's input and output facilities were collectively referred to as the transput. Koster coordinated the definition of the "transput" standard. The model included three standard channels: codice_18, codice_19, and codice_20.


title: Standard streams

text: In the C programming language, the standard input, output, and error streams are attached to the existing Unix file descriptors 0, 1 and 2 respectively. In a POSIX environment the "<unistd.h>" definitions "STDIN_FILENO", "STDOUT_FILENO" or "STDERR_FILENO" should be used instead rather than magic numbers. File pointers "stdin", "stdout", and "stderr" are also provided.


title: Standard streams

text: Ken Thompson (designer and implementer of the original Unix operating system) modified sort in Version 5 Unix to accept "-" as representing standard input, which spread to other utilities and became a part of the operating system as a special file in Version 8. Diagnostics were part of standard output through Version 6, after which Dennis M. Ritchie created the concept of standard error.


title: Standard streams

text: In C# and other .NET languages, the standard streams are referred to by codice_21 (for stdin), codice_22 (for stdout) and codice_23 (for stderr). Basic read and write capabilities for the stdin and stdout streams are also accessible directly through the class codice_24 (e.g. codice_25 can be used instead of codice_26).


title: Standard streams

text: codice_21, codice_22 and codice_23 are codice_30 (stdin) and codice_31 (stdout, stderr) objects, which only allow access to the underlying standard streams on a text basis. Full binary access to the standard streams must be performed through the codice_32 objects returned by codice_33, codice_34 and codice_35 respectively.


title: Standard streams

text: When applying the codice_36 class one can use the instance properties codice_37, codice_38, and codice_39 of that class to access the standard streams of the process.


title: Standard streams

text: Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) don't always make use of the standard streams; they do when GUIs are wrappers of underlying scripts and/or console programs, for instance the Synaptic package manager GUI, which wraps apt commands in Debian and/or Ubuntu. GUIs created with scripting tools like Zenity and KDialog by KDE project make use of stdin, stdout, and stderr, and are based on simple scripts rather than a complete GUI programmed and compiled in C/C++ using Qt, GTK, or other equivalent proprietary widget framework.


title: Standard streams

text: The Services menu, as implemented on NeXTSTEP and Mac OS X, is also analogous to standard streams. On these operating systems, graphical applications can provide functionality through a system-wide menu that operates on the current selection in the GUI, no matter in what application.


title: Standard streams

text: Some GUI programs, primarily on Unix, still write debug information to standard error. Others (such as many Unix media players) may read files from standard input. Popular Windows programs that open a separate console window in addition to their GUI windows are the emulators pSX and DOSBox.


title: Standard streams

text: The Common Lisp Interface Manager paradigm "presents" GUI elements sent to an extended output stream.


title: Date rape

text: Date rape is a form of acquaintance rape and dating violence. The two phrases are often used interchangeably, but date rape specifically refers to a rape in which there has been some sort of romantic or potentially sexual relationship between the two parties. Acquaintance rape also includes rapes in which the victim and perpetrator have been in a non-romantic, non-sexual relationship, for example as co-workers or neighbors.


title: Date rape

text: Since the 1980s, date rape has constituted the majority of rapes in some countries. It is particularly prevalent on college campuses, and frequently involves consumption of alcohol or other date rape drugs. The peak age for date rape victims is from the late teens to early twenties.


title: Date rape

text: A feature of date rape is that in most cases the victim is female, knows the perpetrator and the rape takes place in the context of an actual or potential romantic or sexual relationship between the parties, or when that relationship has come to an end. The perpetrator may use physical or psychological intimidation to force a victim to have sex against their will, or when the perpetrator has sex with a victim who is incapable of giving consent, for example, because they have been incapacitated by alcohol or other drug.


title: Date rape

text: According to the United States Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), date rapes are among the most common forms of rape cases. Date rape most commonly takes place among college students when alcohol is involved or date rape drugs are taken. One of the most targeted groups are women between the ages of 16 to 24.


title: Date rape

text: The phenomenon of date rape is relatively new. Historically, date rape has been considered less serious than rape by a stranger. Since the 1980s, it has constituted the majority of rapes in some countries. It has been increasingly seen as a problem involving society's attitude towards women and as a form of violence against women. It is controversial, however, with some people believing the problem is overstated and that many date rape victims are actually willing, consenting participants, and others believing that date rape is seriously underreported and almost all women who claim date rape were actually raped.


title: Date rape

text: American researcher Mary Koss describes date rape as a specific form of acquaintance rape, in which there has been some level of romantic interest between the perpetrator and the victim, and in which sexual activity would have been generally seen as appropriate, if consensual. Acquaintance rape is a broader category than date rape, that can include many types of relationships including employer-employee, landlord-tenant, service provider-consumer, driver-hitchhiker, and rape among people who have a family relationship or who are neighbours.


title: Date rape

text: In his 1992 book "Sex and Reason" American jurist, legal theorist and economist Richard Posner characterized the increased attention being given to date rape as a sign of the changing status of women in American society, pointing out that dating itself is a feature of modern societies and that date rape can be expected to be frequent in a society in which sexual morals vary between the permissive and the repressive. In Sara Alcid's 2013 article "Navigating Consent: Debunking the 'Gray Area' Myth", she argues that dating is incorrectly believed to mean "a permanent state of consenting to sex".


title: Date rape

text: Since the final decades of the 20th century, in much of the world, rape has come to be broadly regarded as sexual intercourse (including anal or oral penetration) without a person's immediate consent, making rape illegal, including among people who know each other or who have previously had consensual sex. Some jurisdictions have specified that people debilitated by alcohol or other drugs are incapable of consenting to sex. Courts have also disagreed on whether consent, once given, can later be withdrawn. "Cultural and legal definitions of rape are always shaped by the relationships and status of those involved, a premise that holds both historically and cross-culturally."


title: Date rape

text: Many societies rank the seriousness of a rape based on the relationship between the perpetrator and the victim. "An assault by a stranger is more likely to be seen as a 'real rape' than one by some-one known to the victim." Because of this cultural conception, many date rapes are considered to be less serious than stranger rapes because the nature of the perpetrator-victim relationship, especially for those who have had a prior or current sexual relationship.


title: Date rape

text: The first appearance of the term "date rape" in a book was in 1975, in "" by American feminist journalist, author and activist Susan Brownmiller. The phrase appears in a few newspapers and journal articles earlier, but these had a more limited readership. The prominent feminist American-British lawyer Ann Olivarius helped popularize "date rape" in a series of public lectures at Yale University when she was an undergraduate to describe the strangulation and rape of a woman by a now-prominent gerontologist in California, Dr. Calvin Hirsch, to Yale's police department. In 1980 it was used in "Mademoiselle" magazine, in 1982 "Ms." magazine published an article titled "Date Rape: A Campus Epidemic?", and in 1984 English novelist Martin Amis used the term in his novel "Money: A Suicide Note". One of the earliest and most prominent date rape researchers is Mary Koss, who in 1987 conducted the first large-scale nationwide study on rape in the United States, surveying 7,000 students at 25 schools, and who is sometimes credited with originating the phrase date rape.


title: Date rape

text: The concept of date rape originated in the United States, where most of the research on date rape has been carried out.


title: Date rape

text: Rape prevalence among women in the U.S. (the percentage of women who experienced rape at least once in their lifetime so far) is in the range of 15–20%, with different studies disagreeing with each other. An early 1987 study found that one in four American women will be the victim of a rape or attempted rape in her lifetime, and 84% of those will know their attacker. However, only 27% of American women whose sexual assault met the legal definition of rape think of themselves as rape victims, and only about 5% report their rape. One study of rape on American college campuses found that 13% of acquaintance rapes, and 35% of attempted acquaintance rapes, took place during a date, and another found that 22% of female rape victims had been raped by a current or former date, boyfriend or girlfriend, and another 20% by a spouse or former spouse. A 2007 American study found black non-Hispanic students were likeliest to be victims of dating violence, followed by Hispanic students and then white non-Hispanic students.


title: Date rape

text: The rate of reported rapes is much lower in Japan than the United States. In a 1993 paper German sociologist and criminologist Joachim Kersten suggested date rape may be less prevalent in Japan compared with the United States because Japanese culture puts a lesser emphasis on romantic love and dating, and because young Japanese people have less physical privacy than their American counterparts, and in her 2007 book "Kickboxing Geishas: How Modern Japanese Women Are Changing Their Nation", American feminist Veronica Chambers questions whether date rape is under-reported in Japan because it isn't yet understood there to be rape. In the 2011 book "Transforming Japan: How Feminism and Diversity Are Making a Difference "Japanese feminist Masaki Matsuda argued that date rape was becoming an increasing problem for Japanese college and high school students.


title: Date rape

text: A 2007 study of attitudes towards rape among university students in South Korea found that date rape was "rarely recognized" as a form of rape, and that forced sex by a date was not viewed as traumatizing or criminal.


title: Date rape

text: Researcher Mary Koss says the peak age for women being date raped is from their late teens to early twenties.


title: Date rape

text: Even though date rape is considered a hurtful, destructive and life-changing experience, research done by Mufson and Kranz showed that lack of support is a factor that determines the fragmented recovery of victims. They refused to disclose any information about the sexual assault to others, especially if they have experienced date or acquaintance rape due to self-humiliation and self-blame feelings.


title: Date rape

text: However, there are several situational contexts where victims are able to seek for help or reveal the sexual assaults they have experienced. One act for disclosure can be provoked from the willing of preventing other people from being raped, in other words, speaking out. Also, a concern transmitted by the people surrounding the victim can lead into a confession of the assault, or within a situation in which alcohol is involved and that leads to recount the experience.


title: Date rape

text: Most of the research on sexual assault victims has been carried out with White-middle class population. However, the scale of date and acquaintance rape among the Black and Hispanic youth population is higher, and has its particular risk factors. A study conducted in 2013 indicated that sexual assault situations were greater among Hispanic (12.2%) and Black (11.5%) female high-school students than whites (9.1%).


title: Date rape

text: Date rape affects victims similarly to stranger rape, although the failure of others to acknowledge and take the rape seriously can make it harder for victims to recover.


title: Date rape

text: Rape crimes are more frequently perpetrated by people that the victims have confidence with and have known for quite some time. Nevertheless, some people's beliefs do not fit within the date rape scenario paradigm because they firmly prejudiced and stereotyped rape, victims and perpetrators. They tend to justify date rape and blame victims, particularly women victims, for the sexual assault by emphasizing the wearing of provocative clothing or the existence of a romantic relationship.


title: Date rape

text: One of the main problems of date rape attributions is the type of relationship that the victim and the offender shared. The more intimate the relationship between both partners, the more probable that witnesses will consider the sexual assault as consensual rather than a serious incident.


title: Date rape

text: A 2002 landmark study of undetected date rapists in Boston found that compared with non-rapists, rapists are measurably more angry at women and more motivated by a desire to dominate and control them, are more impulsive, disinhibited, antisocial, hypermasculine, and less empathic. The study found the rapists were extremely adept at identifying potential victims and testing their boundaries, and that they planned their attacks and used sophisticated strategies to isolate and groom victims, used violence instrumentally in order to terrify and coerce, and used psychological weapons against their victims including power, manipulation, control and threats. Date rapists target vulnerable victims, such as female freshmen who have less experience with drinking and are more likely to take risks, or people who are already intoxicated; they use alcohol as a weapon, as it makes the victim more vulnerable and impairs their credibility with the justice system should they choose to report the rape.


title: Date rape

text: American clinical psychologist David Lisak, the study's author and an expert in date rape, says that serial rapists account for 90% of all campus rapes, with an average of six rapes each. Lisak argues that this and similar findings conflict sharply with the widely held view that college rapes are typically perpetrated by "a basically 'decent' young man who, were it not for too much alcohol and too little communication, would never do such a thing", with the evidence actually suggesting that the vast majority of rapes, including date rapes, are committed by serial, violent predators.


title: Date rape

text: Date rape has a particular dynamic: the sexual assault happens on a date type of setting. Therefore, date rapes trials are considered inconclusive by nature and are charged with social concerns (e.g. gender roles, sexuality, body-shape). The criminal justice system urges the victim to describe the sexual assault in detail in order to be able to make a decision in court, ignoring the possibility that cross-examination can be a hostile and disturbing moment for the victim. Jurors’ personal beliefs and rape myth acceptance can be influential in their decision when it comes to evaluating the scenery, evidence, and making a sentence.


title: Date rape

text: Research has found that jurors are more likely to convict in stranger rape cases than in date rape cases. Often, even in cases in which sufficient physical evidence is present to support conviction, juries have reported being influenced by irrelevant factors related to the female victim such as whether she used birth control, engaged in non-marital sex, was perceived by jurors as sexually dressed, or had engaged in alcohol or other drug use. Researchers have noted that because date rape by definition occurs in the context of a dating relationship, jurors' propensity to discount the likelihood of rape having occurred based on date-like behaviors is problematic. A 1982 American study of assignment of responsibility for rape found respondents were more likely to assign greater responsibility to a rape victim if she was intoxicated at the time of the rape; however, when her assailant was intoxicated, respondents assigned him less responsibility.


title: Date rape

text: Some critics of the term date rape believe the distinction between stranger rape and date rape seems to position date rape as a lesser offence, which is insulting to date rape victims and could partly explain the lower conviction rates and lesser punishments of date rape cases.


title: Date rape

text: David Lisak argues that prevention efforts aimed at persuading men not to rape are unlikely to work, and universities should instead focus on helping non-rapists to identify rapists and intervene in high-risk situations to stop them. Lisak also argues that whenever a nonstranger sexual assault is reported, it represents a window of opportunity for law enforcement to comprehensively investigate the alleged offender, rather than "putting blinders on looking solely on the alleged 45-minute interaction between these two people". Lisak believes rape victims should be treated with respect, and that every report of an alleged rape should trigger two simultaneous investigations: one into the incident itself, and a second into the alleged perpetrator to determine whether they are a serial offender.


title: Date rape

text: Education programs are one way to prevent, protect, and raise awareness about rape and acquaintance rape. But these prevention programs don't have a huge impact. The combination of sexual harassment prevention tips, survival information and the psychosocial data gathered from women's assessment of date risks, make these programs focus on broad topics and don't emphasize specific and particular areas of date rape prevention.


title: Date rape

text: Future prevention programs should focus on engaging men, creating an open space for conversation and the possible recognition of holding gender bias beliefs and sexual behavior myths, which can lead them to promote sexual harassment behavior.