title: Big Brother 16 (American season)

text: Host Julie Chen introduced "Team America" during the first premiere show. This twist involved three HouseGuests, chosen by public vote, who would form a secret alliance in the house and work together to perform secret missions throughout the season. For every successfully completed mission, each member of the team would receive $5,000. Before the season began, fans were asked to vote for which HouseGuest they would want to form an alliance with, based on short biographies written by the HouseGuests themselves. The HouseGuests with the most votes would become the first member of "Team America," with the winners of this poll being revealed to the viewers on the second night premiere show. Team America was adapted from the "America's Player" twist from "Big Brother 8" and "Big Brother 10".


title: Big Brother 16 (American season)

text: On the second night premiere show, Julie announced that Joey was voted by the viewers as the first member of Team America, and that the second member would be revealed on the first live show. On that live show, Joey was evicted and Donny was revealed as the new member of Team America. On the July 9, 2014 episode, it was announced that Derrick and Frankie would join Donny to complete the Team America trio. Throughout the season, the viewing audience was asked to vote between two tasks, one of which would be given to Team America.


title: Big Brother 16 (American season)

text: It was later revealed that if a member of Team America won the game (in addition to the $500,000 prize), they would receive a bonus $50,000 in addition to their Team America winnings, which was achieved by member Derrick Levasseur, totalling his winnings to $575,000, which included the $5,000 in the "Sloppy the Snowman" competition where he opted for the 5,000 dollas and 5,000 hollas prize instead of winning the competition.


title: Big Brother 16 (American season)

text: Joey was evicted before Team America's assembly was completed and thus received no tasks. Donny was evicted after seven tasks; he completed three, earning $15,000. Frankie completed four tasks, earning $20,000. Derrick completed five tasks (including the game winning bonus), earning $70,000.


title: Big Brother 16 (American season)

text: For the first eight weeks, two Heads of Household would be named each week. Each HoH names their set of Nominations. The two pairs of nominees would then compete in the "Battle of the Block" competition. The winning pair would win Immunity for the week (indicated by )


title: Big Brother 16 (American season)

text: while the HoH who nominated them would be dethroned (indicated in strikethrough). The dethroned HoH would later be eligible to be nominated after the Power of Veto has been used.


title: Big Brother 16 (American season)

text: "Big Brother 16" was officially announced on September 12, 2013, a week before the finale of "Big Brother 15." In March 2014, casting began with applicants being able to apply online or attend open casting calls throughout the country.


title: Big Brother 16 (American season)

text: In June 2014, it was revealed that "Big Brother 16" would be the first season of the series to be broadcast in high definition. Plans to finally transition the show to HD were made as early as "Big Brother 13," but were hampered by logistical challenges due to the nature of the program's format, such as the amount of video footage that would have to be stored and processed, and the need to install high definition cameras (which were also used to provide new shots and angles), wiring and post-production equipment. The house was also remodeled to benefit from the transition. "Big Brother" was the last primetime program across the five major networks to still be broadcast in standard definition, and the second-last network program in any daypart behind fellow CBS series "Let's Make a Deal" (which had migrated to HD for its new season that had started taping but would air later in the year).


title: Big Brother 16 (American season)

text: Press interviews were filmed on June 17, 2014, the cast was announced on June 19, 2014 and the HouseGuests moved into the "Big Brother" house on June 20, 2014. "Big Brother 16" began with a two-night premiere on June 25–26, 2014. On June 25, 2014, five days after the HouseGuests moved into the "Big Brother" house, eight of the 16 HouseGuests—Amber, Cody, Devin, Donny, Frankie, Joey, Nicole and Paola—were introduced, shown entering the house and taking part in the first HoH competition of the season, while on June 26, the eight HouseGuests who were not introduced the night before—Brittany, Caleb, Christine, Derrick, Hayden, Jocasta, Victoria and Zach—were introduced, shown entering the house and taking part in the second HoH competition. It was on the June 26 episode that the Team America and Battle of the Block twists were revealed.


title: Big Brother 16 (American season)

text: "Big Brother 16" was not known for season-long controversy, but mainly for certain minor events, including Frankie Grande for crass remarks targeting Victoria Rafaeli and Jocasta Odom. As well as Caleb Reynolds for his comments about President Obama, and his persistent treatment of Amber Borzotra.


title: Sweet Saraya

text: Julia Hamer (née Hamer; born 19 October 1971), better known by her ring names Sweet Saraya and Saraya Knight, is an English professional wrestler, trainer and promoter. She is also the mother of AEW wrestler Saraya.


title: Sweet Saraya

text: Hamer was born in Penzance, Cornwall. As a child, she was abused by her stepfather, and ran away from home at the age of 15. She lived on the streets and used public swimming pools to bathe herself. She was also raped and became a drug addict, At the age of 18, she overdosed on pills and had her stomach pumped, which prompted her to get clean.


title: Sweet Saraya

text: In 1990, Hamer landed a job as a chef at a Pontins holiday camp in Norfolk for the summer season, requesting that her employers wait for 12 hours as she had to hitchhike there. While working in the restaurant, she met professional wrestler Ricky Knight, part of the cabaret circuit. The two became inseparable, and Hamer soon left Pontins to travel with Knight full-time. She became involved in making wrestling costumes and putting the rings up and down. A few months later, Knight said he wanted her to be part of the show, as a manager in his corner. At a show in Camber Sands, Knight made her debut as Saraya. When the summer season finished, she joined the Sensational Superflys (Knight and Jimmy Ocean) as their manager. In 1993, Knight suggested that Saraya may want to wrestle. She agreed and was a quick learner, debuting later that year against Nikki Best.


title: Sweet Saraya

text: Saraya made her debut for the Berwyn, Illinois based all-female promotion Shimmer Women Athletes on 26 March 2011, at the tapings of "Volume 37", alongside her daughter and tag team partner Britani Knight. Saraya and Britani were managed by the returning Rebecca Knox and made an open challenge, which was answered by Nikki Roxx and Ariel. The Knight Dynasty won the match via disqualification after Saraya tried to hit Ariel with brass knuckles and Ariel grabbed them and got caught hitting Saraya with them. Later that same day, at the tapings of "Volume 38", the Knight Dynasty unsuccessfully challenged the Seven Star Sisters (Hiroyo Matsumoto and Misaki Ohata) for the Shimmer Tag Team Championship. During the 1 and 2 October 2011, tapings Britani entered a losing streak, which eventually caused Saraya to turn on her. Saraya and Britani faced each other in a no disqualification match on "Volume 44", where Britani managed to pick up the win in her final Shimmer appearance, before heading to WWE. During the March 2012 tapings, Knight feuded with Cheerleader Melissa. The feud drew inspiration from a previous incident between the pair at a Real Quality Wrestling event in Colchester, England in 2007, where Knight suffered a career-threatening knee injury at the hands of Melissa. This culminated in a match on 18 March on "Volume 48", where Knight defeated Melissa to win the Shimmer Championship.


title: Sweet Saraya

text: Knight made her first defense of the title at the Shine Wrestling SHINE #4 iPPV in Ybor City, Florida on 19 October, defeating Jazz, and again at All American Wrestling (AAW) in Berwyn on 26 October, against MsChif. Knight successfully defended her Shimmer Championship during the October 2012 tapings, defeating Athena on "Volume 49", Kellie Skater, MsChif and Hiroyo Matsumoto in a four-way elimination match on "Volume 51", and in a rematch with Cheerleader Melissa on "Volume 52". On 6 April 2013, at "Volume 53", Knight lost the Shimmer Championship back to Cheerleader Melissa in a steel cage match. At "Volume 65", Knight teamed up with Rhia O'Reilly to unsuccessfully challenge Kellie Skater and Tomoka Nakagawa for the Shimmer Tag Team Championship. In October, Knight formed a tag team with Mayumi Ozaki, and the duo would defeat Kana and LuFisto at "Volume 68", and would unsuccessfully challenge Kellie Skater and Tomoko Nakagawa for the Shimmer Tag Team Championship at "Volume 69" in a no disqualification tag team match. Knight returned to Shine Wrestling on 3 April 2015 at SHINE #26, where she and Su Yung defeated Jessicka Havok and Leva Bates in a no disqualification tag team match. At SHINE #30 on 2 October, Knight lost to Allysin Kay in an Anything Goes match.


title: Sweet Saraya

text: In November 2011, Knight revived her all-female promotion WAWW, the sister promotion to her husband's World Association of Wrestling. The first show was called "The Return", and featured Shimmer Women Athletes wrestler Allison Danger in the main event against Knight for the vacant World Championship, which Danger would win.


title: Sweet Saraya

text: The company's second show "Bellatrix" was held in March, and was main evented by Busty Keegan teaming with Destiny to face "The Twisted Sisters" of Sweet Saraya and EWW Women's Champions Skarlett in a 2 out of 3 falls tag team match, which The Twisted Sisters defeated Keegan and Destiny 2 falls to 1. At the companies third show in June, Saraya unsuccessfully challenged Liberty for the British Championship, a title Liberty won from Knight's daughter Britani Knight. In September 2012, WAWW held The Queen of the Ring Tournament featuring Knight, Skarlett, Destiny, Lady Lori, Violet O'Hara, Miss Mina, Chanel and Penelope. The finals saw Destiny face Knight with Destiny victorious after interference from Jetta, who then brawled with Knight, causing the WAW roster to separate them.


title: Sweet Saraya

text: Hamer married professional wrestler Patrick Bevis, better known by his ring name Ricky Knight, Together they have two children, both of whom are professional wrestlers: Saraya Jade, who works for AEW under the ring name Saraya, and Zak, who performs as Zak Zodiac. She is also the step-mother of Roy Bevis, who performs as Zebra Kid and Roy Knight. Hamer once wrestled while she was unknowingly seven months pregnant with Saraya Jade. For a time, WWE Hall of Famer Jake "The Snake" Roberts lived with the family. The family runs the World Association of Wrestling (WAW) promotion in Norwich. She owns and operates Bellatrix Female Warriors, a women's wrestling promotion also based in Norwich.


title: Sweet Saraya

text: In July 2012, Channel 4 produced a documentary about the Knights entitled "The Wrestlers: Fighting with My Family". The documentary was turned into a 2019 feature film by Stephen Merchant with Dwayne Johnson producing, titled "Fighting with My Family", where she was portrayed by Lena Headey.


title: Sweet Saraya

text: In June 2020, she was accused by former trainees of verbal and physical abuse. After the allegation, she took a step back from social media, claiming she and the Knight family prepare to take legal action against those who have made such allegations. She then returned to professional wrestling in December 2020, wrestling for WAW.


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: In medicine, the mean arterial pressure (MAP) is an average blood pressure in an individual during a single cardiac cycle. MAP is altered by cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance.


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: Mean arterial pressure can be measured directly or determined by using a formula. The least invasive method is the use of an blood pressure cuff which gives the values to calculate the mean pressure. A similar method is to use a oscillometric blood pressure device that works by a cuff only method where a microprocessor determines the systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Invasively, an arterial catheter with a transducer is placed and the mean pressure is determined by the subsequent waveform.


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: While MAP can only be measured directly by invasive monitoring. The MAP can be estimated by using a formula in which the lower (diastolic) blood pressure is doubled and added to the higher (systolic) blood pressure and that composite sum then is divided by 3 to estimate MAP.


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: Another way to find the MAP is to use the Systemic Vascular Resistance equated (formula_2), which is represented mathematically by the formula


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: where formula_4 is the change in pressure across the systemic circulation from its beginning to its end and formula_5 is the flow through the vasculature (equal to cardiac output).


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: This is only valid at normal resting heart rates during which formula_11 can be approximated using the measured systolic (formula_12) and diastolic (formula_13) blood pressures:


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: At high heart rates formula_11 is more closely approximated by the arithmetic mean of systolic and diastolic pressures because of the change in shape of the arterial pressure pulse.


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: The version of the MAP equation multiplying 0.412 by pulse pressure and adding diastolic blood is indicated to correlate better than other versions of the equation with left ventricular hypertrophy, carotid wall thickness and aortic stiffness. It is expressed:


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: For young patients with congenital heart disease a slight alteration to the factor used found to be more precise. This was written as:


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: This added precision means cerebral blood flow can be more accurately maintained in uncontrolled hypertension.


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: For neonates, because of their altered physiology, a different formula has been proposed for a more precise reading:


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: It has also been suggested that when getting readings from a neonates radial arterial line, mean arterial pressure can be approximated by averaging the systolic and diastolic pressure.


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: Mean arterial pressure is considered to be the perfusion pressure seen by organs in the body. It is believed that a MAP that is greater than 70 mmHg is enough to sustain the organs of the average person. MAP is normally between 65 and 110 mmHg.


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: Even 1 minute at a mean arterial pressure of 50 mmHg, or accumulative effects over short periods, increases the risk of mortality by 5% and can result in organ failure or complications. MAP may be used like systolic blood pressure in monitoring and treating target blood pressure. Both have been shown advantageous targets for sepsis, major trauma, stroke, intracranial bleed. If the MAP falls below the target number for an appreciable time, vital organs will not get enough oxygen perfusion, and will become hypoxic, a condition called ischemia.


title: Mean arterial pressure

text: As the 24 hour mean arterial pressure increases, so does the risk of adverse cardiovascular events. MAP shows information about both the systolic and diastolic blood pressure In the management of high blood pressure, so it can be evaluated to ensure perfusion is maintained to the organs.


title: 70 mm film

text: 70 mm film (or 65 mm film) is a wide high-resolution film gauge for motion picture photography, with a negative area nearly 3.5 times as large as the standard 35 mm motion picture film format. As used in cameras, the film is wide. For projection, the original 65 mm film is printed on film. The additional 5 mm contains the four magnetic strips, holding six tracks of stereophonic sound. Although later 70 mm prints use digital sound encoding (specifically the DTS format), the vast majority of existing and surviving 70 mm prints pre-date this technology.


title: 70 mm film

text: Each frame is five perforations tall, with an aspect ratio of 2.2:1. However, the use of anamorphic Ultra Panavision 70 lenses squeezes the image into an ultra-wide 2.76:1 aspect ratio. To this day, Ultra Panavision 70 produces the widest picture size in the history of filmmaking; surpassed only by Polyvision, which was only used for 1927's Napoleon.


title: 70 mm film

text: With regard to exhibition, 70 mm film was always considered a specialty format reserved for epics and spectacle films shot on 65 mm and blockbuster films that were released both in 35 mm and as 70 mm blow-ups. While few venues were equipped to screen this special format, at the height of its popularity most major markets and cities had a theater that could screen it. Some venues continue to screen 70 mm to this day or have even had 70 mm projectors permanently or temporarily installed for more recent 70 mm releases.


title: 70 mm film

text: Films formatted with a width of 70 mm have existed since the early days of the motion picture industry. The first 70 mm format film was most likely footage of the Henley Regatta, which was projected in 1896 and 1897, but may have been filmed as early as 1894. It required a specially built projector built by Herman Casler in Canastota, New York and had a ratio similar to full frame, with an aperture of by . There were also several film formats of various sizes from 50 to 68 mm which were developed from 1884 onwards, including Cinéorama (not to be confused with the entirely distinct "Cinerama" format), started in 1900 by Raoul Grimoin-Sanson. In 1914 the Italian Filoteo Alberini invented a panoramic film system utilising a 70 mm wide film called Panoramica.


title: 70 mm film

text: In 1928, William Fox of the Fox Film Corporation, in personal partnership with Theodore Case as the Fox-Case Corporation, began working on a wide film format using 70 mm film which they named Grandeur. Cameras were ordered by Fox-Case from Mitchell Camera Corp, with the first 70 mm production cameras, designated as the Mitchell Model FC camera, delivered to Fox-Case in May 1929. This was one of a number of wide-film processes developed by some of the major film studios at about that time. However, due to the financial strains of the Great Depression, along with strong resistance from movie theater owners, who were in the process of equipping their theaters for sound, none of these systems became commercially successful. Fox dropped Grandeur in 1930.


title: 70 mm film

text: Producer Mike Todd had been one of the founders of Cinerama, a wide-screen movie process that was launched in 1952. Cinerama employed three 35 mm film projectors running in synchronism to project a wide (2.6:1) image onto a deeply curved screen. Although the results were impressive, the system was expensive, cumbersome and had some serious shortcomings due to the need to match up three separate projected images. Todd left the company to develop a system of his own which, he hoped, would be as impressive as Cinerama, yet be simpler and cheaper and avoid the problems associated with three-strip projection; in his own words, he wanted "Cinerama out of one hole".


title: 70 mm film

text: In collaboration with the American Optical Company, Todd developed a system which was to be called "Todd-AO". This uses a single 70 mm wide film and was introduced with the film "Oklahoma!" in October 1955. The 70 mm film is perforated at the same pitch (0.187 inch, 4.75 mm) as standard 35 mm film. With a five-perforation pull-down, the Todd-AO system provides a frame dimension of 1.912 inch (48.56 mm) by 0.816 inch (20.73 mm) giving an aspect ratio of 2.3:1.


title: 70 mm film

text: The original version of Todd-AO used a frame rate of 30 per second, 25% faster than the 24 frames per second that was (and is) the standard; this was changed after the second film – "Around the World in 80 Days" - because of the need to produce (24 frame/sec) 35 mm reduction prints from the Todd-AO 65 mm negative. The Todd-AO format was originally intended to use a deeply curved Cinerama-type screen but this failed to survive beyond the first few films. However, in the 1960s and 70s, such films as "The Sound of Music" (which had been filmed in Todd-AO) and "Patton" (which had been filmed in a copycat process known as Dimension 150) were shown in some Cinerama cinemas, which allowed for deeply curved screens.


title: 70 mm film

text: Todd-AO adopted a similar multi-channel magnetic sound system to the one developed for Cinemascope two years earlier, recorded on "stripes" of magnetic oxide deposited on the film. However Todd-AO has six channels instead of the four of Cinemascope and due to the wider stripes and faster film speed provides superior audio quality. Five of these six channels are fed to five speakers spaced behind the screen, and the sixth is fed to surround speakers around the walls of the auditorium.


title: 70 mm film

text: Panavision developed their own 65/70 mm system that was technically compatible and virtually identical to Todd-AO. Monikered as Super Panavision 70, it used spherical lenses and the same 2.2:1 aspect ratio at 24 frames per second. Panavision also had another 65 mm system, (Ultra Panavision 70), which sprang from the MGM Camera 65 system they helped develop for MGM that was used to film "Raintree County" and "Ben-Hur". Both Ultra Panavision 70 and MGM Camera 65 employed an anamorphic lens with a 1.25x squeeze on a 65 mm negative (as opposed to 35 mm CinemaScope which used a 2× compression, or 8-perf, horizontally filmed 35 mm Technirama which used a 1.5× compression). When projected on a 70 mm print, a 1.25× anamorphic projection lens was used to decompress the image to an aspect ratio of 2.76:1, one of the widest ever used in commercial cinema.


title: 70 mm film

text: Due to the high cost of 70 mm film and the expensive projection system and screen required to use the stock, distribution for films using the stock was limited, although this did not always hurt profits. Most 70 mm films were also released on 35 mm film for a wider distribution after the initial debut of the film. "South Pacific" (1958), "Lawrence of Arabia" (1962), "My Fair Lady" (1964), and "The Sound of Music" (1965) are well-known films widely shown in 70 mm format with a general release in 35 mm format. 70 mm film received a brief resurgence in the 1980s when it became popular to make "blow-up" prints of 35 mm titles. It had another resurgence in the mid-2010s with the release of "The Master" (2012), "The Hateful Eight" (2015) and "Dunkirk" (2017), with a small number of venues getting temporary or permanent 70 mm film projectors in order to be able to screen these titles. Quentin Tarantino, in particular, led a successful campaign to have the equipment required to show "The Hateful Eight" (his 8th film) in Ultra Panavision installed in 100 cinemas worldwide.


title: 70 mm film

text: The 35 mm to 70 mm "blow-up" process produces 70 mm release prints from 35 mm negatives, so that films shot on the smaller format could benefit from 70 mm image and sound quality. This process began in the 1960s with titles like "The Cardinal" (1963) and continues up until the present day, with the height of its popularity being in the 1980s. These enlargements often provided richer colors, and a brighter, steadier and sharper (though often grainier) image, but the main benefit was the ability to provide 6-channel stereophonic sound as most theaters before the mid-70s (before the advent of Dolby A) were screening 35 mm prints with single channel monaural sound. However these "blow-ups" rarely used the full six channels of the Todd-AO system and instead used the four-track mixes made for 35 mm prints, the additional half-left and half-right speakers of the Todd-AO layout being fed with a simple mix of the signals intended for the adjacent speakers (known as a "spread") or simply left blank. If a 70 mm film was shown in a Cinerama theatre, the Cinerama sound system was used. From 1976 onwards, many 70 mm prints used Dolby noise reduction on the magnetic tracks but Dolby disapproved of the "spread" and instead re-allocated the 6 available tracks to provide for left, center and right screen channels, left and right surround channels plus a "low-frequency enhancement" channel to give more body to low-frequency bass. This layout came to be known as "5.1" (the "point one" is the low-frequency enhancement channel) and was subsequently adopted for digital sound systems used with 35 mm.


title: 70 mm film

text: In the 1980s the use of these "blow-ups" increased with large numbers of 70 mm prints being made of some blockbusters of the period such as the 125 70 mm prints made of "The Empire Strikes Back" (1980). However the early 1990s saw the advent of digital sound systems (Dolby Digital, DTS and SDDS) for 35 mm prints which meant that 35 mm could finally match 70 mm for sound quality but at a far lower cost. Coupled with the rise of the multiplex cinema, which meant that audiences were increasingly seeing films on relatively small screens rather than the giant screens of the old "Picture Palaces", this meant that the expensive 70 mm format went out of favour again. The DTS digital sound-on-disc system was adapted for use with 70 mm film, thus saving the significant costs of magnetic striping, but this has not been enough to stop the decline, and 70 mm prints were rarely made.


title: 70 mm film

text: Among some of the more recent 70 mm blow-up titles are Paul Thomas Anderson's "Inherent Vice" (2014) and "Phantom Thread" (2017), Patty Jenkins's "Wonder Woman" (2017), and Steven Spielberg's "Ready Player One" (2018).


title: 70 mm film

text: In the late 20th century, the usage of 65 mm negative film drastically reduced, in part due to the high cost of 65 mm raw stock and processing. Some of the few films since 1990 shot entirely on 65 mm stock are Kenneth Branagh's "Hamlet" (1996), Ron Fricke's "Baraka" (1992) and its sequel, "Samsara" (2011), Paul Thomas Anderson's "The Master" (2012), Quentin Tarantino's "The Hateful Eight" (2015), Christopher Nolan's "Dunkirk" (2017) (almost 80 minutes, about 75% of the film was shot on 65 mm IMAX film, while the rest was shot on regular 65mm film), Kenneth Branagh's "Murder on the Orient Express" (2017), and "Tenet" (2020). Other films used 65 mm cameras sparingly, for selected scenes or special effects. Films with limited 65 mm footage include


title: 70 mm film

text: Terrence Malick's "The New World" (2005), the Patty Jenkins film "Wonder Woman 1984" (2020), Cary Joji Fukunaga's "No Time to Die" (2021) and the Christopher Nolan films "The Dark Knight" (featured 28 minutes of IMAX footage), "Inception", "The Dark Knight Rises" (over an hour in IMAX) and "Interstellar".


title: 70 mm film

text: Since the 2010s, most movie theaters have converted to digital projection systems, resulting in the removal of both 35 mm (the previous industry standard) projectors and 70 mm projectors. However some venues and organizations remain committed to screening 70 mm film, seeing the special format as something that can set them apart and be an audience draw in an industry where most movies are screened digitally.


title: 70 mm film

text: 70 mm film festivals continue to take place regularly at venues such as The Somerville Theatre in Somerville, MA, The Music Box Theatre in Chicago, IL, the Hollywood Theatre in Portland, OR, the American Cinematheque's Aero and Egyptian Theaters in Los Angeles, the Museum of the Moving Image in New York City, the TIFF Bell Lightbox in Toronto, the Worcester Polytechnic Institute in Worcester, MA, and others.


title: 70 mm film

text: For home theater, VHS and DVD did not offer enough resolution to carry the full image quality captured by 70 mm film, and VHS and DVD video transfers were usually prepared from 35 mm reduction elements. The high-definition Blu-ray format, in contrast, can potentially reveal the quality advantage of 70 mm productions. Although telecine machines for 70 mm scanning are uncommon, high-resolution transfers from high-quality full-gauge elements can reveal impressive technical quality.


title: 70 mm film

text: An anamorphic squeeze combined with 65 mm film allowed for extremely wide aspect ratios to be used while still preserving quality. This was used in the 1957 film "Raintree County" and to incredible success in the 1959 film "Ben-Hur" and the 2015 film "The Hateful Eight", both of which were filmed with the Ultra Panavision 70/MGM Camera 65 process at an aspect ratio of 2.76:1. It required the use of a 1.25x anamorphic lens to horizontally compress the image, and a corresponding lens on the projector to uncompress it.


title: 70 mm film

text: Limited use of 65 mm film was revived in the late 1970s for some of the visual effects sequences in films like "Close Encounters of the Third Kind", mainly because the larger negative did a better job than 35 mm negative of minimizing visible film grain during optical compositing. 65 mm was the primary film format used at VFX pioneer Douglas Trumbull's facility EEG (Entertainment Effects Group), which later became Boss Film Studios, run by former Industrial Light & Magic alum Richard Edlund. Since the 1990s, a handful of films (such as "Spider-Man 2") have used 65mm for this purpose, but the usage of digital intermediate for compositing has largely negated these issues. Digital intermediate offers other benefits such as lower cost and a greater range of available lenses and accessories to ensure a consistent look to the footage.


title: 70 mm film

text: A horizontal variant of 70 mm, with an even bigger picture area, is used for the high-performance IMAX format which uses a frame that is 15 perforations wide on 70 mm film. The Dynavision and Astrovision systems each use slightly less film per frame and vertical pulldown to save print costs while being able to project onto an IMAX screen. Both were rare, with Astrovision largely used in Japanese planetariums. IMAX introduced a digital projection system in the late 2000s and most IMAX venues have migrated to a digital setup.


title: 70 mm film

text: The first commercial introduction of 70 mm single projector 3D was the 1967 release of "Con la muerte a la espalda", a Spanish/French/Italian co-production which used a process called Hi-Fi Stereo 70, itself based on a simplified, earlier developed soviet process called Stereo-70. This process captured two anamorphic images, one for each eye, side by side on 65 mm film. A special lens on a 70 mm projector added polarization and merged the two images on the screen. The 1971 re-release of Warner Bros.' "House of Wax" used the side-by-side StereoVision format and was distributed in both anamorphically squeezed 35 mm and deluxe non-anamorphic 70 mm form. The system was developed by Allan Silliphant and Chris Condon of StereoVision International Inc., which handled all technical and marketing aspects on a five-year special-royalty basis with Warner Bros. The big screen 3D image was both bright and clear, with all the former sync and brightness problems of traditional dual 35 mm 3D eliminated. Still, it took many years more before IMAX began to test the water for big-screen 3D, and sold the concept to Hollywood executives.


title: 70 mm film

text: Hollywood has released films shot on 35 mm as IMAX blow-up versions. Many 3D films were shown in the 70 mm IMAX format. "The Polar Express" in IMAX 3D 70 mm earned 14 times as much, per screen, as the simultaneous 2D 35 mm release of that film in the fall of 2004.


title: 70 mm film

text: Omnivision started in Sarasota, Florida. Theatres were designed to compete with Omnimax but with much lower startup and operating costs. Most theatres were built in fabric domed structures designed by Seaman Corporation. The last known OmniVision theatres to exist in USA are The Alaska Experience Theatre in Anchorage, Alaska, built in 1981 (closed in 2007, reopened in 2008), and the Hawaii Experience Theatre in Lahaina, Hawaii (closed in 2004). Rainbow's End (Theme Park) in NZ had the only remaining permanent Cinema 180 attraction until May 2015 when it was demolished.


title: 70 mm film

text: One of the few producers of 70 mm films for Cinema 180 was the German company Cinevision (today AKPservices GmbH, Paderborn).


title: Adobe XD

text: Adobe XD (also known as Adobe Experience Design) is a vector design tool for web and mobile applications, developed and published by Adobe Inc. It is available for macOS and Windows, and there are versions for iOS and Android to help preview the result of work directly on mobile devices. Adobe XD enables website wireframing and creating click-through prototypes.


title: Adobe XD

text: Adobe first announced they were developing a new interface design and prototyping tool under the name "Project Comet" at the Adobe MAX conference in October 2015, which was a response to the rising popularity of Sketch, a UX and UI design-focused vector editor, released in 2010.


title: Adobe XD

text: The first public beta was released for macOS as "Adobe Experience Design CC" to anyone with an Adobe account, on March 14, 2016. A beta of Adobe XD was released for Windows 10 on December 13, 2016. On October 18, 2017, Adobe announced that Adobe XD was out of beta.


title: Adobe XD

text: Adobe XD creates user interfaces for mobile and web apps. Many features in XD were previously either hard to use or nonexistent in other Adobe applications like Illustrator or Photoshop.


title: Adobe XD

text: Creates animated prototypes through linking artboards. These prototypes can be previewed on supported mobile devices.


title: Adobe XD

text: XD supports and can open files from Illustrator, Photoshop, Sketch, and After Effects. In addition to the Adobe Creative Cloud, XD can also connect to other tools and services such as Slack and Microsoft Teams to collaborate. XD is also able to auto-adjust and move from macOS to Windows. For security, prototypes can be sent with password protection to ensure full disclosure.


title: Adobe XD

text: Design and edit components without the nudging or the tinkering. Content-Aware Layout aligns and evenly-spaces as you add, remove, or resize objects. Make adjustments with smart controls and get back to exploring.


title: Adobe XD

text: Apps can be designed using voice commands. In addition, what users create for smart assistants can be previewed as well.


title: Adobe XD

text: Users can create components to create logos, buttons, and other assets for reuse. Their appearance can change with the context where they are used.


title: Adobe XD

text: Responsive resize automatically adjusts and sizes pictures and other objects on the artboards. This allows the user to have their content automatically adjusted for different screens for different sized platforms such as mobile phones and PCs.


title: Adobe XD

text: XD is compatible with custom plugins that add additional features and uses. Plugins range from design to functionality, automation and animation.


title: Adobe XD

text: Adobe offers educational articles, videos and live streams through various mediums to help designers learn Adobe XD and best practices.


title: Adobe XD

text: Launched in 2021, the Learn Hub is a resource for learning how to use XD and what features the program offers. The Getting Started series includes beginner to advanced tips & tricks for designers looking to improve their work.


title: Adobe XD

text: Adobe Live is a live stream hosted on Behance which delivers online training for a variety of Adobe applications, including Adobe XD, Photoshop and Illustrator.


title: Adobe XD

text: Adobe MAX is an annual conference held by Adobe, showing various new products by Adobe in a format similar to other tech companies as well as various sessions and workshops. What was previously an in-person event has since transitioned online.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: The Avro Type 694 Lincoln is a British four-engined heavy bomber, which first flew on 9 June 1944. Developed from the Avro Lancaster, the first Lincoln variants were initially known as the Lancaster IV and V; these were renamed Lincoln I and II. It was the last piston-engined bomber operated by the Royal Air Force (RAF).


title: Avro Lincoln

text: The Lincoln attained operational status in August 1945. It had been initially assigned to units of the Tiger Force, a Commonwealth heavy bomber force which had been intended to play a role in the Japan campaign in the closing stages of the Second World War, but the war ended before the Lincoln could participate. Production of the type proceeded and the type was adopted in quantity, complementing and progressively replacing the Lancaster in RAF service during the late 1940s.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: The Lincoln was deployed on operations during the 1950s. RAF squadrons equipped with the type fought against guerrilla fighters during the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya; the RAF and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) also operated the Lincoln during the Malayan Emergency. The type also saw significant peacetime service with the RAF, RAAF and the Argentine Air Force. Lincolns were also operated in civil aviation, including use as aerial test beds for aero-engine research.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: In RAF service, the Lincoln was replaced by a new generation of bombers harnessing newly developed jet propulsion. Chief amongst these was the English Electric Canberra, which was also adopted by a wide range of operators across the world, including the RAAF and Argentine Air Force. During the 1950s, the RAF also adopted a total of three advanced jet-powered strategic bombers to carry Britain's new nuclear deterrent – collectively known as the V Force – the Vickers Valiant, Handley Page Victor and the Avro Vulcan. In 1967, the last Lincoln bombers in Argentinian service were retired.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: The Avro Lincoln originated from a design produced by Roy Chadwick as a development of the earlier Lancaster bomber which had been produced with the purpose of conforming with the requirements of the Specification B.14/43. Known initially as the "Lancaster IV" and "Lancaster V", the envisioned aircraft, while bearing considerable similarity to the Lancaster, featured numerous improvements, such as the adoption of stronger, longer span, higher aspect ratio (10.30 compared with 8.02) wings along with two-stage supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin 85 engines fitted within Universal Power Plant (UPP) installations. The new bomber also possessed an enlarged fuselage that accommodated increased fuel and bomb loads and allowed up to 11 tons of various armaments and equipment fittings including the Grand Slam bomb to be carried. It had a higher operational ceiling and longer range than its Lancaster predecessor, being capable of a maximum altitude of and a maximum range of .


title: Avro Lincoln

text: The prototype Lancaster IV, later renamed the "Lincoln I", was assembled by Avro's experimental flight department at Manchester's Ringway Airport. According to aviation author Kev Delve, development of the Lincoln had proceeded relatively smoothly. On 9 June 1944, the prototype conducted its maiden flight from Ringway Airport. Testing of the prototype quickly proved it to have favourable flight characteristics. In February 1945, the first production Lincoln was completed.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: The type was mainly produced at Avro's Woodford, Cheshire and Chadderton Lancashire factories; additional aircraft were also constructed by Armstrong Whitworth at their Coventry facilities. Separate production lines were also established in Canada and Australia, although, as a consequence of the end of the war, production in Canada was halted after only a single aircraft had been constructed. Production in Australia went ahead: the Lincolns that were manufactured there were operated by the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF).


title: Avro Lincoln

text: During early 1945, the British Government immediately set about restoring the country to a peacetime stance, which involved the demobilisation of the military and, more specifically, the disbanding of many squadrons of the Royal Air Force (RAF) as a part of cost-saving measures. A new emphasis was soon placed on 'quality over quantity' during the rationalisation process, seeking to employ fewer but more capable aircraft to perform their envisioned roles; while there was no longer any urgency in bringing new types of aircraft into service, limited procurement of equipment that fell within this ethos did proceed. In accordance with this aim, the British Air Ministry proceeded to formulate and release Specification B.14/43, which sought an improved piston-engined heavy bomber to replace the wartime four-engine bombers, the Short Stirling, the Handley Page Halifax, and the Avro Lancaster.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: One Lincoln B Mk XV pattern aircraft was completed in Canada by Victory Aircraft; a follow-up order for a total of six RCAF variants was cancelled shortly following the end of hostilities. Along with two additional Lincoln (Mk I and Mk II) aircraft on loan from the RAF, the type was briefly evaluated postwar by the RCAF. The Lancaster V/Lincoln II differed mainly in that it was fitted with Merlin 68A engines.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: Prior to the Lincoln being developed, the Australian government had already formulated plans for its Department of Aircraft Production (DAP), later known as the Government Aircraft Factory (GAF), to construct the earlier Lancaster Mk III. In its place, it was decided to proceed with manufacturing a variant of the Lincoln I to replace the Consolidated Liberators, which was re-designated the Lincoln Mk 30. This model was manufactured between 1946 and 1949; it has the distinction of being the largest aircraft ever constructed in Australia. Orders for a total of 85 Mk 30 Lincolns were placed by the RAAF, although only 73 were ever produced.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: The first five Australian examples ("A73–1" to "A73–5"), were assembled at Fishermans Bend using a large proportion of imported British-made components. On 17 March 1946, "A73-1" conducted its début flight; the first entirely Australian-built Lincoln, "A73-6", was formally delivered in November 1946. The Mk 30 initially featured four Merlin 85 engines, this arrangement was later changed to a combination of two outboard Merlin 66s and two inboard Merlin 85s. A further improved later version, designated Lincoln Mk 30A, featured a total of four Merlin 102s.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: During the 1950s, the RAAF heavily modified some of their Mk 30 aircraft to perform anti-submarine warfare (ASW) missions, re-designating them "Lincoln GR.Mk 31". These examples had a longer nose to house acoustic submarine detection gear and its operators, larger fuel tanks to provide the aircraft with a 13-hour flight endurance and a modified bomb bay to accommodate torpedoes. According to pilot feedback, the Lincoln Mk 31 was particularly difficult to land at night, as the bomber had a tailwheel undercarriage and the long nose obstructed the pilot's view of the runway. In 1952, 18 aircraft were rebuilt to this standard, and were reallocated new serial numbers accordingly. Ten were subsequently upgraded to the MR.Mk 31 standard, which included the adoption of an updated radar.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: Further aircraft were also derived from the Lincoln. A dedicated maritime patrol aircraft, designated the Avro Shackleton, was developed for the RAF and the South African Air Force (SAAF). Additionally, Avro decided to develop a commercial airliner, known as the Tudor, which harnessed elements of the Lincoln, such as its wings, in combination with various new elements, such as the adoption of a pressurised fuselage, to perform passenger operations.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: During 1945, the RAF received its first Lincoln, which was delivered to No. 57 Squadron based at RAF East Kirkby, Lincolnshire. In August 1945, No. 75 (New Zealand) Squadron began to re-equip with the Lincoln at RAF Spilsby, Lincolnshire. However, No. 75 (NZ) Sqn had received just three aircraft prior to VJ Day, and was disbanded quickly thereafter.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: During the postwar climate, the Lincoln quickly equipped the bomber squadrons of the RAF. Nearly 600 Lincolns were constructed to equip a total of 29 RAF squadrons, the majority of which were based in the United Kingdom. They were supplemented and partially replaced by 88 Boeing Washingtons, on loan from the USAF, which had longer range and could reach targets inside the Iron Curtain. Small numbers remained in use with Nos 7, 83 and 97 Squadrons until the end of 1955, at which point the type was phased out, having been replaced by the first of the V bombers.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: During the 1950s, RAF Lincolns participated in operations in Kenya against Mau-Mau insurgents. During this action, they were operated from Eastleigh. The Lincoln was also deployed to Malaya during the Malayan Emergency, where it was used against insurgents aligned to the Malayan Communist Party. In Malayan theatre, RAF Lincolns were operated from Changi Air Base and Tengah Air Base. In excess of 3,000 sorties were flown during their -year deployment, during which half a million pounds of bombs dropped, 85 per cent of the total bomb tonnage dropped during the Malayan emergency.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: On 12 March 1953, an RAF Lincoln ("RF531" "C") of Central Gunnery School was shot down 20 mi (32 km) NE of Lüneburg, Germany by several Soviet MiG-15s as it flew to Berlin on a radar reconnaissance flight, killing the seven crew members.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: In November 1955, four Lincolns of No. 7 Squadron RAF were detached for duties in British territories in the Middle East. In Bahrain, they carried out border patrols of the then Trucial States. When 7 Sqn was disbanded in December 1955, the four detached crews and aircraft became No. 1426 Flight RAF, officially a photographic reconnaissance unit. It was later sent to Aden, carrying out patrols in the lead-up to the Aden Emergency.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: As the RAF Lincolns became unserviceable, primarily due to progressive wear and tear, they were replaced by a variety of jet-powered aircraft. The Lincolns of Bomber Command were phased out from the mid-1950s and had been completely replaced by jet bombers by 1963. The last Lincolns in RAF service were five operated by No. 151 Squadron, Signals Command, at RAF Watton, Norfolk, which were retired on 12 March 1963.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: From late 1946, Australian-built Lincolns were phased into No. 82 Wing, based at RAAF Base Amberley, Ipswich, Queensland. The type quickly replaced the Liberator bombers that had been operated by 12, 21 and 23 Squadrons. In February 1948, these units were renumbered 1, 2 and 6 Squadrons respectively; a fourth RAAF Lincoln squadron, No. 10 was formed on 17 March 1949 at RAAF Townsville as a reconnaissance unit.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: During the 1950s, RAAF Lincolns participated in combat operations in Malaya, operating alongside RAF examples. The RAAF based the B.Mk 30s of No.1 Squadron at Tengah, for the duration of operations in Malaya.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: These Lincolns served with 10 Squadron RAAF at RAAF Base Townsville, Garbutt, Queensland; the discovery of corrosion in the wing spars led to the type's premature retirement in 1961. The Lincoln MR.Mk 31 was the final variant to see service in Australia.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: From 1947, the Lincoln bomber served with the "Fuerza Aerea Argentina"; Argentina had procured a total of 30 aircraft, together with a batch of 15 secondhand Lancasters. The adoption of the Lincoln effectively gave Argentina the most powerful bombing force in South America. Eighteen of these Lincolns were newly built, along with twelve ex-RAF aircraft. In 1947, the type entered service with "I Grupo de Bombardeo" of "V Brigada Aérea". By the beginning of 1965, eleven of these remained in operational use, the majority of these were retired during the next year. In 1967, the final examples of the Lincoln were retired.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: The Argentine aircraft were used in bombing missions against domestic rebels. Lincolns were deployed during an attempted military coup conducted in September 1951, the type was also used by both the government and rebel forces during the 1955 "Revolución Libertadora" coup which resulted in Argentinian President Juan Perón being deposed.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: Argentine Lincolns were also used to conduct supply airdrops in support of Argentine operations in the Antarctic region. In 1948, one of the bombers was returned to Avro for modification at RAF Langar in Nottinghamshire to allow it to operate these Antarctic support flights; the changes included the addition of Lancastrian nose and tail cones, additional fuel tanks, and removal of armament; this led to the aircraft becoming the first Avro Lincolnian. Modified as such, the aircraft received a civilian registration and was named "Cruz del Sur"; it undertook its first aerial supply flight to the Antarctic San Martín Base in December 1951.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: Lincolns were frequently employed as testbeds in new jet engine development. "RF403", "RE339/G" and "SX972" flew with a pair of Armstrong Siddeley Python turboprops outboard in place of the Merlins, and was used for the ballistic casing drop-test programme for the Blue Danube atomic weapon. "SX972" was further modified to fly with a pair of Bristol Proteus turboprops. "RA716/G" had a similarly placed pair of Bristol Theseus turboprops and later also flew with Rolls-Royce Avon turbojets replacing the pair of turboprops. Lincoln Test Bed "RF530" kept its Merlins but had a Napier Naiad turboprop in the nose. It later flew, bearing the civilian "Class B" test registration "G-37-1", with a similarly placed Rolls-Royce Tyne which it displayed at the 1956 Society of British Aircraft Constructors (SBAC) show, making a low level flypast on just the nose Tyne, the four Merlins being shut down and propellers feathered."SX973" had a Napier Nomad diesel turbo-compound installed in a similar nose-mounted installation. "RA643" flew with a Bristol Phoebus turbojet in the bomb bay, and "SX971" had an afterburning Rolls-Royce Derwent mounted ventrally.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: A pair of Lincoln IIs were operated by D. Napier & Son Ltd. for icing research from 1948 to 1962. A transport conversion of the Lincoln II, using the streamlined nose and tail cones of the Lancastrian and a ventral cargo pannier, was known as the Avro 695 Lincolnian.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: One Lincoln Freighter Mk.2 G-ALPF, former RAF RE290, converted by Airflight Ltd. was used on the Berlin Air Lift by Surrey Flying Services Ltd.


title: Avro Lincoln

text: Four Lincolnian conversions by Field Aircraft Services for use as meat haulers in Paraguay were not delivered and subsequently scrapped.


title: Muscovite

text: Muscovite (also known as common mica, isinglass, or potash mica) is a hydrated phyllosilicate mineral of aluminium and potassium with formula KAl(AlSiO)(F,OH), or (KF)(AlO)(SiO)(HO). It has a highly perfect basal cleavage yielding remarkably thin laminae (sheets) which are often highly elastic. Sheets of muscovite 5 meters × 3 meters (16.5 feet × 10 feet) have been found in Nellore, India.


title: Muscovite

text: Muscovite has a Mohs hardness of 2–2.25 parallel to the [001] face, 4 perpendicular to the [001] and a specific gravity of 2.76–3. It can be colorless or tinted through grays, browns, greens, yellows, or (rarely) violet or red, and can be transparent or translucent. It is anisotropic and has high birefringence. Its crystal system is monoclinic. The green, chromium-rich variety is called fuchsite; mariposite is also a chromium-rich type of muscovite.


title: Muscovite

text: Muscovite is the most common mica, found in granites, pegmatites, gneisses, and schists, and as a contact metamorphic rock or as a secondary mineral resulting from the alteration of topaz, feldspar, kyanite, etc. It is characteristic of peraluminous rock, in which the content of aluminum is relatively high. In pegmatites, it is often found in immense sheets that are commercially valuable. Muscovite is in demand for the manufacture of fireproofing and insulating materials and to some extent as a lubricant.


title: Muscovite

text: The name muscovite comes from "Muscovy-glass", a name given to the mineral in Elizabethan England due to its use in medieval Russia (Muscovy) as a cheaper alternative to glass in windows. This usage became widely known in England during the sixteenth century with its first mention appearing in letters by George Turberville, the secretary of England's ambassador to the Muscovite tsar Ivan the Terrible, in 1568.


title: Muscovite

text: Micas are distinguished from other minerals by their pseudohexagonal crystal shape and their perfect cleavage, which allows the crystals to be pulled apart into very thin elastic sheets. Pyrophyllite, and talc are softer than micas and have a greasy feel, while chlorite is green in color and its cleavage sheets are inelastic. The other common mica mineral, biotite, is almost always much darker in color than muscovite. Paragonite can be difficult to distinguish from muscovite but is much less common, though it is likely mistaken for muscovite often enough that it may be more common that is generally appreciated.


title: Muscovite

text: Like all mica minerals, muscovite is a phyllosilicate (sheet silicate) mineral with a "TOT-c" structure. In other words, a crystal of muscovite consists of layers ("TOT") bonded to each other by potassium cations ("c").


title: Muscovite

text: Each layer is composed of three sheets. The outer sheets ('T' or tetrahedral sheets) consist of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra and aluminium-oxygen tetrahedra, with three of the oxygen anions of each tetrahedron shared with neighboring tetrahedra to form a hexagonal sheet. The fourth oxygen anion in each tetrahedral sheet is called an "apical" oxygen anion. There are three silicon cations for each aluminium cation but the arrangement of aluminium and silicon cations is largely disordered.


title: Muscovite

text: The middle octahedral ("O") sheet consists of aluminium cations that are each surrounded by six oxygen or hydroxide anions forming an octahedron, with the octahedrons sharing anions to form a hexagonal sheet similar to the tetrahedral sheets. The apical oxygen anions of the outer "T" sheets face inwards and are shared by the octahedral sheet, binding the sheets firmly together. The relatively strong binding between oxygen anions and aluminium and silicon cations within a layer, compared with the weaker binding of potassium cations between layers, gives muscovite its perfect basal cleavage.


title: Muscovite

text: In muscovite, alternate layers are slightly offset from each other, so that the structure repeats every two layers. This is called the 1"M" polytype of the general mica structure.


title: Muscovite

text: The formula for muscovite is typically given as , but it is common for small amounts of other elements to substitute for the main constituents. Alkali metals such as sodium, rubidium, and caesium substitute for potassium; magnesium, iron, lithium, chromium, titanium, or vanadium can substitute for aluminium in the octahedral sheet; fluorine or chlorine can substitute for hydroxide; and the ratio of aluminium to silicon in the tetrahedral sheets can change to maintain charge balance where necessary (as when magnesium cations, with a charge of +2, substitute for aluminium ions, with a charge of +3).


title: Muscovite

text: Up to 10% of the potassium may be replaced by sodium, and up to 20% of the hydroxide by fluorine. Chorine rarely replaces more than 1% of the hydroxide. Muscovite in which the mole fraction of silicon is greater than aluminium, and magnesium or iron replaces some of the aluminium to maintain charge balance, is called phengite.


title: Muscovite

text: Muscovite can be cleaved into very thin transparent sheets that can substitute for glass, particularly for high-temperature applications such as industrial furnace or oven windows. It is also used in the manufacture of a wide variety of electronics and as a filler in paints, plastic, and wallboard. It lends a silky luster to wallpaper. It is also used in tire manufacture as a mold release agent, in drilling mud, and in various cosmetics for its luster.


title: Youth detention center

text: In criminal justice systems, a youth detention center, known as a juvenile detention center (JDC), juvenile detention, juvenile jail, juvenile hall, or more colloquially as juvie/juvy, also sometimes referred as observation home or remand home is a prison for people under the age of majority, to which they have been sentenced and committed for a period of time, or detained on a short-term basis while awaiting trial or placement in a long-term care program. Juveniles go through a separate court system, the juvenile court, which sentences or commits juveniles to a certain program or facility.


title: Youth detention center

text: Once processed in the juvenile court system there are many different pathways for juveniles. Some juveniles are released directly back into the community to undergo community-based rehabilitative programs, while others juveniles may pose a greater threat to society and to themselves and therefore are in need of a stay in a supervised juvenile detention center. If a juvenile is sent by the courts to a juvenile detention center, there are two types of facilities: secure detention and secure confinement.


title: Youth detention center

text: Secure detention means that juveniles are held for usually short periods of time in facilities in order to await current trial hearings and further placement decisions. By holding juveniles in secure detention, it ensures appearance in court while also keeping the community safe and risk-free of the juvenile. This type of facility is usually called a "juvenile hall," which is a holding center for juvenile delinquents. On the other hand, secure confinement implies that the juvenile has been committed by the court into the custody of a secure juvenile correctional facility for the duration of a specific program, which can span from a few months to many years.


title: Youth detention center

text: Juvenile detention is not intended to be punitive. Rather, juveniles held in secure custody usually receive care consistent with the doctrine of "parens patriae", i.e., the state as parent. The state or local jurisdiction is usually responsible for providing education, recreation, health, assessment, counseling and other intervention services with the intent of maintaining a youth's well-being during his or her stay in custody.


title: Youth detention center

text: Generally speaking, secure detention is reserved for juveniles considered to be a threat to public safety or the court process, though in many cases, youths are held for violating a court order. Status offenders, i.e., juveniles charged with running away from home, alcohol possession, and other offenses that are not crimes if committed by adults, may only be held for 24 hours or less, while initial case investigation is completed, and other alternatives are arranged.


title: Youth detention center

text: Within the categories of secure detention and secure confinement for juveniles, the overarching name of these facilities is residential programs. Five overarching types of residential programs where a juvenile may be placed while in court custody: The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention found the five types of residential programs for juveniles to be a broad range, which included detention, corrections, camp, community based, and residential treatment. The reason for the wide variety in placement options of juveniles is that there does not currently exist a uniform definition of residential treatment programs. As a result, this creates a lack of uniformity across states and a large variety of names for secure detention and secure confinement centers for juveniles.


title: Youth detention center

text: Many services are supposed to be provided to the youth at both detention centers and confinement facilities. Services vary from facility to facility, but in general the programs and services provided to the youth are geared toward the juvenile's needs. At the core, juvenile facilities function as rehabilitative institutions for youth. Education is seen by many as the primary rehabilitative service that must be provided to detained youth. Highly effective schools within juvenile facilities provide high school curriculum, opportunities for General Equivalency Diploma (GED) preparation, special education services, certified teachers, small student to teacher ratio, connection with families, and vocational training opportunities. Despite state and federal requirements, there are many problems with the educational systems in juvenile detention centers. Many institutions do not provide basic education services, and in others, children only receive a fraction of the state-mandated instructional time, and classes are not based on a coherent curriculum.(Katherine Twomey, The right to Education in Juvenile Detention Under State Constitutions, p. 766). Some facilities do not have designated classrooms, libraries, or even books, and the teachers are often poorly trained, and are not trained in how to deal with special needs of children in detention. (Id. at 767.) Despite these shortcomings, there have been very few consequences to states for violating the requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act, (Id. at 779.); therefore, states do not have much incentive to improve standards to achieve compliance.


title: Youth detention center

text: There is a long-standing connection found in research between youth who commit crimes and mental health concerns. A remarkably high population of juveniles present serious mental health illness within juvenile facilities. Since juvenile detention facilities operate on the foundation of rehabilitating the youth, different mental health programs are provided by facilities to help the youth rehabilitate. It is the expectation that juvenile detention centers and juvenile institutions provide mental health services to their residents. The incarcerated youth population requires careful and structured intervention, which must be provided by the facilities.


title: Youth detention center

text: Many different mental health treatment strategies exist for juveniles. It is the responsibility of case management to decide what type of intervention strategy works best for each youth in his or her mental health treatment plan. Mental health services that can be provided to the youth include, individual counseling, group counseling, crisis counseling, family intervention, medication management, and transition planning.


title: Youth detention center

text: Education is seen by many as the cornerstone of youth rehabilitation. Many landmark court cases, such as the 1981 case of "Green v. Johnson", have given way to juveniles receiving their educational rights while incarcerated. "Green v. Johnson" (1981) ruled that incarcerated students do not have to give up their rights to an education while incarcerated.


title: Youth detention center

text: Despite research stating the need for strong educational programs in juvenile detention facilities, there does not exist a uniform standard for education in juvenile facilities as education settings in juvenile facilities greatly vary across the country. The overseer of the school within the juvenile facility differs from state to state. Some schools within juvenile detention facilities are decentralized, some are centralized and run by school districts, and others are overseen by a State education agency.


title: Youth detention center

text: There is a large percentage of incarcerated juveniles who are diagnosed as students with special needs. Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), youths with disabilities in correctional facilities are entitled to special education and related services regardless of incarceration status. The Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) requires State Education Agencies to ensure that special education services are being provided at juvenile facilities.


title: Youth detention center

text: There is a grave presence of juveniles who are classified as youth with disabilities. The disabilities most prevalent in incarcerated juveniles include mental retardation, learning disabilities, and emotional disturbances. Surveys and studies have found that a high number of incarcerated youth suffer from emotional disturbance disabilities as opposed to youth in general public schools. Even with key court decisions and acts, it has been found that a large number of juveniles held at both detention centers and confinement facilities are not being served the special education services they should be provided by law. It has been found that many juvenile detention institutions have struggling special education programs, especially for those centers that detain youth for short periods of time.


title: Youth detention center

text: Juvenile Court Schools provide public education for juveniles who are incarcerated in facilities run by county probation departments. These schools are located in juvenile halls, juvenile homes, day centers, ranches, camps, and regional youth education facilities and are operated by the county board of education. Even though court schools have the same school curriculum, they are often more strict in discipline that is more punitive than holistic. The most disadvantaged and "troubled" students are filling up schools in the juvenile justice system. These students are often further behind in credits and with more personal and structural problems than their counterparts at traditional schools. The majority of these teenagers struggle with learning disabilities, which ties with noticeable behavioral problems, and are experiencing emotional and psychological problems at home. Zero tolerance policies seem to be more strict in the juvenile justice system than in other traditional schools. In a juvenile court school, when a student violates a zero tolerance rule they automatically are prone to suspension and eventually going back to a detention center for its violation. In contrast, a student from a traditional school is more likely to get a second chance for its violation. Zero Tolerance policies are enforced in a greater manner in juvenile court schools than in other traditional schools.


title: Youth detention center

text: The rules at Juvenile Court Schools are strict and are based on zero tolerance policies. Zero Tolerance Policies may serve more to "push students further out of school and into the school-to-prison pipeline than to re engage them". Students are being harshly punished for minor incidents that should be fixed without having to involve severe consequences. Zero tolerance policies have taken over the role of education. The definition of Zero Tolerance Policies is described in the article, A Study of Zero Tolerance Policies in Schools: A Multi-Integrated Systems Approach to Improve Outcomes for Adolescents, as


title: Youth detention center

text: “…a widespread application to minor offenses can be attributed to the "Broken Windows" theory of crime. This theory analogizes the spread of crime to a few broken windows in a building that go un-repaired and consequently attract vagrants who break more windows and soon become squatters".


title: Youth detention center

text: Stephen Hoffman in his article, "Zero Benefit: Estimating the Effect of Zero Tolerance Discipline Policies on Racial Disparities in School Discipline" states that, “...zero tolerance discipline policies are associated with poorer school climate, lower student achievement, higher dropout rates…” At Juvenile Court Schools, students are expected to follow a set of rules. The rules at the Court Schools differ from those at traditional schools; they are more punitive.


title: Youth detention center

text: Two major concerns in regard to juvenile detention centers and long-term confinement facilities have been raised: overcrowding and ineffectiveness. As the number of juvenile cases has increased in the past 15 years, so has the number of juveniles spending time in secure and confined facilities. As a result, the system has become overcrowded, often leading to a shortage of available beds.


title: Youth detention center

text: Overcrowding exists in many facilities for juveniles, and in overcrowded juvenile detention centers and correctional facilities increased violence can occur. Furthermore, overcrowding can lead to a shortage of necessary and promised programs and services in the facility. Underfunding an overcrowded facility can lead to a shortage of services for the youth, such as education and mental health services.


title: Youth detention center

text: Apart from overcrowding, the overall efficacy of juvenile secure facilities in the life of youth has been questioned. The high juvenile recidivism rate has caused many critics to question the overall efficacy of secure detention centers and confinement facilities.


title: Youth detention center

text: There were 45,567 total juveniles in detention facilities in 2016. 32,301 juveniles were in a public facility. 13,266 were in a private facility.


title: Youth detention center

text: In 1870, Long Lane School was built on donated land in Middletown. However, it became the Connecticut Juvenile Training School (CJTS) in 2003. CJTS is a treatment facility dedicated to delinquent boys from age 12–17. There have been numerous controversies and scandals associated with CJTS between 1998–2005. In 2005, Governor Jodi Rell attempted to close the facility, but it was instead reformed in 2008 by The Department of Children & Families. The new CJTS features a therapeutic model which was developed with assistance from The Boys & Girls Clubs of America. The school was shut down without replacement in 2018.


title: Youth detention center

text: The Department of Youth Rehabilitation Services (DYRS) is the District of Columbia's head juvenile justice agency and is responsible for placing DC community youth who are in its oversight in detention, commitment, and aftercare programs.


title: Youth detention center

text: DYRS offers and operates a range of services and placements for their committed youth. The secure centers that DYRS operates are Youth Services Center (YSC) and New Beginnings Youth Development Center. YSC is the District's secure detention center. New Beginnings Youth Development Center is a secure confinement facility for the District's committed youth.


title: Youth detention center

text: YSC is operated by DYRS as the District of Columbia's secure juvenile detention center, which was opened in 2004. It is an 88-bed facility for male and female detained (not committed) youth who have been accused of delinquent acts and are awaiting their court hearings. YSC's meets the required needs of the youth it serves. Education services in YSC are provided by the District of Columbia Public Schools (DCPS), which delivers a range of services to the residents. The facility also provides programs and services to meet the essential mental health, emotional, physical, and social needs of the youth. YSC provides a secure and humane environment and coordinates all court meetings and team meetings for its youth. Above all else, YSC makes certain that the protection of the legal rights of the juveniles are being upheld.


title: Youth detention center

text: New Beginnings Youth Development Center is another secure DYRS operation. The center is a 60-bed, all-male secure center for DC's most serious youth delinquents. The $46 million facility opened in 2009 in unincorporated Anne Arundel County, Maryland, near Laurel. New Beginnings replaced the Oak Hill Youth Center, which was located away in unincorporated Anne Arundel County.


title: Youth detention center

text: The main goal of New Beginnings is to provide residents with 24-hour supervision as well as programs and services that allow for successful transitions back into the DC community. The services provided include educational, recreation, medical, dental, and mental health programs. DYRS created a partnership with the See Forever Foundation to provide the educational services of Maya Angelou Academy for the residents. Behavioral health staff oversee the mental health programs. The facility is a 9–12-month program, which is modeled after the very successful Missouri Model.


title: Youth detention center

text: Maya Angelou Academy was founded in 2007, first at Oak Hill Youth Center, and now is the education program serving DYRS committed youth at New Beginnings Youth Development Center. Maya Angelou Academy is part of the Maya Angelou Charter School Network in the DC area. The academy provides a safe, structured, and intensive learning environment to the youth it serves at New Beginnings Youth Development Center.


title: Youth detention center

text: PA Child Care is a detention center in Pennsylvania, USA. It was part of the Kids for cash scandal in which judges were given kickbacks in exchange for imposing harsh sentences on youth offenders so that the detention centers would get business.


title: Phil Esposito

text: Philip Anthony Esposito ( , ; born February 20, 1942) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player, coach and executive, and current broadcaster for the Tampa Bay Lightning. A member of the Hockey Hall of Fame, he played 18 seasons in the National Hockey League for the Chicago Black Hawks, Boston Bruins, and New York Rangers, winning two Stanley Cups with Boston.


title: Phil Esposito

text: He is considered one of the greatest players of all time, and is the older brother of fellow Hall-of-Famer Tony Esposito, a goaltender. He became the first player to score more than 100 points in a season, with 126 in 1968-69, a feat he would later achieve a further 5 times, also becoming the first player to score 50 goals in a season 5 times in a row, including the then record of 76 goals in 1970-71 to go with the then record 152 points the same year. Altogether, he won the Art Ross Trophy as the leading point scorer five times, lead the league in goals six times, was voted the MVP by winning the Hart Trophy twice, and was named as a first team All-Star centre six times.


title: Phil Esposito

text: After retiring as a player, Esposito served as head coach and general manager for the Rangers for two seasons. In 1991, he and his younger brother co-founded the Tampa Bay Lightning, the first NHL expansion team in Florida. The elder Esposito served as the franchise's first president and general manager until 1998; he now serves as Tampa Bay's radio colour commentator.


title: Phil Esposito

text: In 2017, Esposito was named one of the '100 Greatest NHL Players' in history. His #7 jersey was retired by the Bruins on December 3, 1987, and there is a statue in his likeness at Tampa Bay's Amalie Arena.


title: Phil Esposito

text: Esposito signed with the Chicago Black Hawks as a teenager and was assigned to the Sarnia Legionnaires Jr. 'B' hockey team for the 1960–61 season. In just 32 games with the Legionnaires, he scored 47 goals and 61 assists, for 108 points - a scoring pace of 3.3 points per game. In a playoff game, he scored 12 points in one game as the Legionnaires advanced to the Western Ontario final before being eliminated.


title: Phil Esposito

text: After a sparkling junior season with the St. Catharines Teepees of the Ontario Hockey Association in 1962, Esposito spent two seasons with Chicago's minor league affiliate, the St. Louis Braves, scoring 90 points in his first season and 80 points in only 46 games in his second.


title: Phil Esposito

text: Midway through the 1964 season, Esposito was called up to the parent Black Hawks to make his NHL debut. Centreing for the great Bobby Hull beginning in the 1965 season, he proved himself a quality playmaker, twice finishing amongst the League-leading scorers over the next three seasons.


title: Phil Esposito

text: In 1967, Esposito was dealt with Ken Hodge and Fred Stanfield to the Boston Bruins in a blockbuster trade. While Hodge and Stanfield rose to become stars in Boston, Esposito blossomed into the greatest scorer of his day. In 1969, he became the first NHL player to score 100 points in a season, far eclipsing the "century" mark with a record 126. He would fall a single point shy in 1970, then reached triple digits again the next five years running. Along the way, he captured the Art Ross Trophy as the top regular-season scorer in 1969 and 1971 to 1974, and led the League in goals six straight seasons between 1969–70 and 1974–75.


title: Phil Esposito

text: Esposito was named to the NHL's first All-Star team six consecutive times (from 1969 to 1974), and won the Hart Memorial Trophy as the NHL's most valuable player in 1969 and 1974. His Boston fans, celebrating his scoring touch during his heyday, displayed bumper stickers that read, "Jesus saves, Espo scores on the rebound." Esposito, while not a fast or graceful skater, was best known for his unmovable presence in front of the opposition net from which he could score from all angles. Esposito has said, "Scoring is easy. You simply stand in the slot, take your beating and shoot the puck into the net." He also possessed a combination of skating and stickhandling ability, strength, and long reach that enabled him to "rag the puck," holding onto it for long periods of time in the face of opponents' checks and thus enabling his team to kill off penalties.


title: Phil Esposito

text: During his prime, Esposito centred one of the most renowned forward lines in history, featuring Ken Hodge on his right wing and Wayne Cashman on his left. Esposito and fellow superstar Bobby Orr led the Bruins to Stanley Cup victories in 1970 and 1972, and first-place finishes in the League in 1971, 1972 and 1974.


title: Phil Esposito

text: During 1970–71, Esposito shattered the record for most goals in a season, finishing with 76. The mark stood until 1982, when Wayne Gretzky scored his 77th, 78th and 79th goals against the Buffalo Sabres on February 24, 1982, at the Buffalo Memorial Auditorium. Esposito was on hand to present the game puck to Gretzky. Esposito also set the single-season point-scoring record in 1971 with 152, a mark later raised by Gretzky to 215. Only three others have reached the 150 point plateau — Mario Lemieux (4 times), Steve Yzerman and Bernie Nicholls — and only Gretzky, Lemieux, Brett Hull, Teemu Selänne and Alexander Mogilny have matched or bettered Esposito's 76 goals in a season. The 1970 season also saw Esposito shatter the single-season mark for shots on goal, tallying 550. Only one other player has come within 100 shots of this record, Alexander Ovechkin in 2008–09, in a season that was four games longer than when it was set.


title: Phil Esposito

text: As of May 31, 2021, Esposito ranked second in all-time regular-season goals for Boston with 459 (behind only Johnny Bucyk's 545). As of 2022, Esposito third behind Cam Neely and Patrice Bergeron in all-time Bruins playoff goals with 46. Esposito holds the Boston record for most playoff hat-tricks with four, one of which was a four-goal game versus Toronto in 1969. Often used to kill penalties, Esposito scored 20 shorthanded goals for Boston over his career.


title: Phil Esposito

text: After his performance in the Summit Series, where he was the Captain and inspirational leader for Canada and its leading scorer in the series, Esposito won the 1972 Lou Marsh Trophy as Canada's outstanding male athlete of the year and was made an Officer of the Order of Canada. He also scored the first goal of the series and he scored or assisted four times in the deciding game. During that series, his scolding of Canadian fans, who booed the national team after a 5–3 loss to the Soviet Union in Game Four, was credited with firing up his teammates:


title: Phil Esposito

text: "If the Russian fans boo their players in Moscow like you people are booing us, I'll come back and apologize personally to every one of you, but I really don't think that will happen. We gave it and are doing our best. All of us guys are really disheartened. . . We came out here because we love Canada. They're a good hockey team, and we don't know what we could do better, but I promise we will figure it out. But it's totally ridiculous – I don't think it is fair that we should be booed."


title: Phil Esposito

text: Esposito also played for Canada in the inaugural Canada Cup in 1976, on a line with Hall-of-Famers Bobby Hull and Marcel Dionne. The following year, he would represent Canada once more in the 1977 World Championships in Vienna.


title: Phil Esposito

text: In 1975–76, Esposito was traded because he did not want to relinquish his playing time, even with his age. He and Carol Vadnais were traded to the New York Rangers on November 7 in exchange for Brad Park, Joe Zanussi and Jean Ratelle. This trade was monumental, as Esposito was still a great scorer, but Ratelle was a skilled centre and Park was arguably the second best defenceman in the NHL, behind Bobby Orr.


title: Phil Esposito

text: While not as glittering an offensive force as in his glory days, as captain of the Rangers, Esposito led the team in points each of his full seasons with the club and remained an effective scorer until his final season. The highlight of his years in New York was leading the Rangers to the Stanley Cup Final in 1979 where, at 37 years of age, he finished third in post-season scoring.


title: Phil Esposito

text: On November 4, 1977, Esposito scored his 600th NHL goal, against the Vancouver Canucks in Vancouver, becoming the first player to reach that milestone in a Rangers uniform.


title: Phil Esposito

text: Esposito retired in 1981, behind only Gordie Howe in career goals and total points, and third in assists to Howe and Stan Mikita.


title: Phil Esposito

text: Esposito served as general manager and head coach of the Rangers for three years in the mid-1980s, during which he earned the nickname "Trader Phil" for the numerous transactions he made. During his tenure as GM, he made more trades than the Vancouver Canucks had made in the entire 1980s. While serving as GM, two of his most famous trades included the trade for the legendary Marcel Dionne and one in which he sent a first-round pick to the Quebec Nordiques as compensation for signing Michel Bergeron to be the Rangers' head coach.


title: Phil Esposito

text: When the NHL announced its expansion plans in the late 1980s, Phil Esposito, along with his brother Tony, sought to place a franchise in Tampa Bay, Florida. They faced competition from the Compuware Group, which wanted to place a team in nearby St. Petersburg, Florida. It was proposed to Esposito that he merge his bid with the Compuware Group, which he refused. His reputation and force of personality was widely credited with winning the expansion bid for Tampa Bay on December 6, 1990. The Tampa Bay Lightning would start play in the 1992–93 NHL season, with the elder Esposito as the team's first president and general manager.


title: Phil Esposito

text: For the Lightning's inaugural season, Esposito hired many of his former teammates from the Bruins, including Cashman as an assistant coach and former Bruins trainer John "Frosty" Forristal as trainer. He also made hockey history by signing Manon Rhéaume, making her the first woman to sign with and play for an NHL team.


title: Phil Esposito

text: However, one of the Esposito group's key backers, the Pritzker family, had backed out a few months before the bid, to be replaced by a Japanese consortium headed by Kokusai Green, a golf course and resort operator. Though Kokusai Green had helped the Esposito's secure the initial bid, the team languished under their ownership; financed almost entirely by loans, the Lightning were constantly short of cash, hampering Esposito's ability to function as GM. Kokusai Green's owner, Takashi Okubo, never met with the Espositos (or with any other NHL officials), and it was rumored that the consortium was a criminal front for the yakuza. The Lightning quickly fell to the bottom of the league and Esposito fired head coach Terry Crisp in 1997. Even with interim coach Jacques Demers, who had enjoyed successful tenures with the Red Wings and Canadiens, the Lightning lost 55 games for a franchise-worst .268 winning percentage.


title: Phil Esposito

text: Kokusai Green sold the Lightning to insurance tycoon Art Williams in 1998. Shortly after taking control, Williams fired both Esposito brothers two games into the 1998–99 season.


title: Phil Esposito

text: After his firing, Esposito returned to the Lightning organization for the 1999–00 season as a radio colour commentator. He still calls home games on WHPT (and previously, on WFLA), along with play-by-play commentator Dave Mishkin. Esposito also co-hosts a daily call-in show on SiriusXM's "SiriusXM NHL Network Radio" channel.


title: Phil Esposito

text: Esposito was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1984. On December 3, 1987, his #7 jersey was retired by the Boston Bruins in an emotional ceremony where the then-current wearer, superstar defenceman Ray Bourque, pulled off his #7 jersey to reveal his new number, 77—dramatically "surrendering" his old number in Esposito's favour (coincidentally, Esposito wore #77 with the New York Rangers, because #7 was already being worn by Rod Gilbert). Esposito was "visibly moved" when Bourque showed the Boston Garden crowd his new number, which he used for the rest of his career. Esposito was also on hand in Boston to hand Bourque his retired number after the latter retired.


title: Phil Esposito

text: Esposito's younger brother Tony is also an honoured member of the Hockey Hall of Fame. Former NHL player Alexander Selivanov is Esposito's son-in-law.


title: Phil Esposito

text: Esposito and New York Rangers teammates Ron Duguay, Dave Maloney and Anders Hedberg famously appeared in a TV commercial for Sasson designer jeans in 1979. In 1979, Esposito and Ranger teammates recorded a song written by Alan Thicke as a fundraiser for the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation called "Hockey Sock Rock".


title: Phil Esposito

text: Esposito makes an appearance in the 2015 animated Christmas special, "", both as a young ballet dancer's imaginary mentor and as the actual person performing a cameo in "The Nutcracker". He voiced the role himself.


title: Phil Esposito

text: Esposito also appeared in a recurring role for several episodes as a fire chief in Denis Leary's FX show "Rescue Me."


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: Hỏa Lò Prison (, Nhà tù Hỏa Lò; ) was a prison in Hanoi originally used by the French colonists in Indochina for political prisoners, and later by North Vietnam for U.S. prisoners of war during the Vietnam War. During this later period, it was known to American POWs as the "Hanoi Hilton". The prison was demolished during the 1990s, although the gatehouse remains as a museum.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: The name Hỏa Lò, commonly translated as "fiery furnace" or even "Hell's hole", also means "stove". The name originated from the street name phố Hỏa Lò, due to the concentration of stores selling wood stoves and coal-fire stoves along the street in pre-colonial times.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: The prison was built in Hanoi by the French, in dates ranging from 1886 to 1889 to 1898 to 1901, when Vietnam was still part of French Indochina. The French called the prison "Maison Centrale", 'Central House', which is still the designation of prisons for dangerous or long sentence detainees in France. It was located near Hanoi's French Quarter. It was intended to hold Vietnamese prisoners, particularly political prisoners agitating for independence who were often subject to torture and execution. A 1913 renovation expanded its capacity from 460 inmates to 600. It was nevertheless often overcrowded, holding some 730 prisoners on a given day in 1916, a figure which rose to 895 in 1922 and 1,430 in 1933. By 1954 it held more than 2000 people; with its inmates held in subhuman conditions, it had become a symbol of colonialist exploitation and of the bitterness of the Vietnamese towards the French.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: The central urban location of the prison also became part of its early character. During the 1910s through 1930s, street peddlers made an occupation of passing outside messages in through the jail's windows and tossing tobacco and opium over the walls; letters and packets would be thrown out to the street in the opposite direction. Within the prison itself, communication and ideas passed. Many of the future leading figures in Communist North Vietnam spent time in Maison Centrale during the 1930s and 1940s.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: Conditions for political prisoners in the "Colonial Bastille" were publicised in 1929 in a widely circulated account by the Trotskyist Phan Van Hum of the experience he shared with the charismatic publicist Nguyen An Ninh.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: Following the defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and the 1954 Geneva Accords the French left Hanoi and the prison came under the authority of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Thereafter the prison served as an education center for revolutionary doctrine and activity, and it was kept around after the French left to mark its historical significance to the North Vietnamese.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: During the Vietnam War, the first U.S. prisoner to be sent to Hỏa Lò was Lieutenant Junior Grade Everett Alvarez Jr., who was shot down on August 5, 1964. From the beginning, U.S. POWs endured miserable conditions, including poor food and unsanitary conditions. The prison complex was sarcastically nicknamed the "Hanoi Hilton" by the American POWs, in reference to the well-known Hilton Hotel chain. There is some disagreement among the first group of POWs who coined the name but F8D pilot Bob Shumaker was the first to write it down, carving "Welcome to the Hanoi Hilton" on the handle of a pail to greet the arrival of Air Force Lieutenant Robert Peel.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: Beginning in early 1967, a new area of the prison was opened for incoming American POWs; it was dubbed "Little Vegas", and its individual buildings and areas were named after Las Vegas Strip landmarks, such as "Golden Nugget", "Thunderbird", "Stardust", "Riviera", and the "Desert Inn". These names were chosen because many pilots had trained at Nellis Air Force Base, located in proximity to Las Vegas. American pilots were frequently already in poor condition by the time they were captured, injured either during their ejection or in landing on the ground.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: The Hỏa Lò was one site used by the North Vietnamese Army to house, torture and interrogate captured servicemen, mostly American pilots shot down during bombing raids. Although North Vietnam was a signatory of the Third Geneva Convention of 1949, which demanded "decent and humane treatment" of prisoners of war, severe torture methods were employed, such as rope bindings, irons, beatings, and prolonged solitary confinement. When prisoners of war began to be released from this and other North Vietnamese prisons during the Johnson administration, their testimonies revealed widespread and systematic abuse of prisoners of war.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: In 1968, and from East Germany filmed in the prison the 4-chapter series "" with interviews with American pilots in the prison, that they claimed were unscripted.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: Heynowski and Scheumann asked them about the contradictions in their self image and their war behavior and between the Code of the United States Fighting Force and their behavior during and after capture.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: Regarding treatment at Hỏa Lò and other prisons, the North Vietnamese countered by stating that prisoners were treated well and in accordance with the Geneva Conventions. During 1969, they broadcast a series of statements from American prisoners that purported to support this notion. The North Vietnamese also maintained that their prisons were no worse than prisons for POWs and political prisoners in South Vietnam, such as the one on Côn Sơn Island. Mistreatment of Viet Cong and North Vietnamese prisoners and South Vietnamese dissidents in South Vietnam's prisons was indeed frequent, as was North Vietnamese abuse of South Vietnamese prisoners and their own dissidents.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: Beginning in late 1969, treatment of the prisoners at Hỏa Lò and other camps became less severe and generally more tolerable. Following the late 1970 attempted rescue operation at Sơn Tây prison camp, most of the POWs at the outlying camps were moved to Hỏa Lò, so that the North Vietnamese had fewer camps to protect. This created the "Camp Unity" communal living area at Hỏa Lò, which greatly reduced the isolation of the POWs and improved their morale.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: After the implementation of the 1973 Paris Peace Accords, neither the United States nor its allies ever formally charged North Vietnam with the war crimes revealed to have been committed there. In the 2000s, the Vietnamese government has had the position that claims that prisoners were tortured at Hỏa Lò and other sites during the war are fabricated, but that Vietnam wants to move past the issue as part of establishing better relations with the U.S. Tran Trong Duyet, a jailer at Hỏa Lò beginning in 1968 and its commandant for the last three years of the war, maintained in 2008 that no prisoners were tortured. However, eyewitness accounts by American servicemen present a different account of their captivity.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: After the war, Risner wrote the book "Passing of the Night" detailing his seven years at Hỏa Lò. A considerable amount of literature emerged from released POWs after repatriation, depicting Hỏa Lò and the other prisons as places where such atrocities as murder, beatings, broken bones, teeth and eardrums, dislocated limbs, starvation, serving of food contaminated with human and animal feces, and medical neglect of infections and tropical disease occurred. These details are revealed in famous accounts by McCain ("Faith of My Fathers"), Denton, Alvarez, Day, Risner, Stockdale and dozens of others.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: The prison continued to be in use after the release of the American prisoners. Among the last inmates was dissident poet Nguyễn Chí Thiện, who was reimprisoned in 1979 after attempting to deliver his poems to the British Embassy, and spent the next six years in Hỏa Lò until 1985 when he was transferred to a more modern prison. He mentions the last years of the prison, partly in fictional form, in "Hỏa Lò/Hanoi Hilton Stories" (2007).


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: Most of the prison was demolished in the mid-1990s and the site now contains two high-rise buildings, one of them the 25-story Somerset Grand Hanoi serviced apartment building. Other parts have been converted into a commercial complex retaining the original French colonial walls.


title: Hỏa Lò Prison

text: Only part of the prison exists today as a museum. The displays mainly show the prison during the French colonial period, including the guillotine room, still with original equipment, and the quarters for male and female Vietnamese political prisoners.


title: Cherry Bomb (album)

text: Cherry Bomb is the third studio album by American rapper Tyler, the Creator. It was released on April 13, 2015, by Odd Future Records. On April 9, 2015, the album was informally announced on iTunes, along with the release of two tracks. Production was handled entirely by Tyler himself, with additional contributions by Incubus guitarist Mike Einziger. The album features guest appearances from Schoolboy Q, Charlie Wilson, Kali Uchis, Kanye West, Lil Wayne, Pharrell Williams and Austin Feinstein among others. The album was supported by two singles: "Deathcamp" and "Fucking Young / Perfect". All of Tyler's music videos contain most of one song and a snippet of another; "Deathcamp" appeared at the end of the "Fucking Young" video accordingly.


title: Cherry Bomb (album)

text: "Cherry Bomb" received generally positive reviews from critics. It debuted at number four on the US "Billboard" 200, selling 51,000 copies in its first week.


title: Cherry Bomb (album)

text: In November 2014, Larry Fitzmaurice wrote a piece for "The Fader" magazine, giving details about a follow-up to Tyler, the Creator's second studio album, "Wolf" (2013). Fitzmaurice wrote the album features a multitude of guests, but likely no features from other Odd Future members, the rap group of which Tyler is the face, stating: "Everyone's on their own island." Tyler cited artist Stevie Wonder as his inspiration for the album. Associate editor of "The Fader", Matthew Trammel, reported that the album would feature Tyler lyrically tackling many current social issues. Trammel noted that "[Tyler] offers up heavy-handed indictments of gang culture and rapper consumerism, calling them detrimental not just to the progress of his race, but to humanity as a whole". Guests that were rumored to appear included Jay-Z, Rick Ross, Keyshia Cole, Cherry Glazerr, Leon Ware and Kali Uchis.