title: Designer drug

text: In some jurisdictions, drugs that are highly similar in structure to a prohibited drug are illegal to trade regardless of that drug's legal status (or indeed whether or not the structurally similar analogue has similar pharmacological effects). In other jurisdictions, their trade is a legal grey area, making them grey market goods. Some jurisdictions may have analogue laws which ban drugs similar in chemical structure to other prohibited drugs, while some designer drugs may be prohibited irrespective of the legal status of structurally similar drugs; in both cases, their trade may take place on the black market.


title: Designer drug

text: Following the passage of the second International Opium Convention in 1925, which specifically banned morphine and the diacetyl ester of morphine, heroin, a number of alternative esters of morphine quickly started to be manufactured and sold. The most notable of these were dibenzoylmorphine and acetylpropionylmorphine, which have virtually identical effects to heroin but were not covered by the Opium Convention. This then led the Health Committee of the League of Nations to pass several resolutions attempting to bring these new drugs under control, ultimately leading in 1930 to the first broad analogues provisions extending legal control to all esters of morphine, oxycodone, and hydromorphone. Another early example of what could loosely be termed designer drug use, was during the Prohibition era in the 1930s, when diethyl ether was sold and used as an alternative to illegal alcoholic beverages in a number of countries.


title: Designer drug

text: During the 1960s and 1970s, a number of new synthetic hallucinogens were introduced, with a notable example being the sale of highly potent tablets of DOM in San Francisco in 1967. There was little scope to prosecute people over drug analogues at this time, with new compounds instead being added to the controlled drug schedules one by one as they became a problem. One significant court case from this period was in 1973, when Tim Scully and Nicholas Sand were prosecuted for making the acetyl amide of LSD, known as ALD-52. At this time ALD-52 was not a controlled drug, but they were convicted on the grounds that in order to make ALD-52, they would have had to be in possession of LSD, which was illegal. The late 1970s also saw the introduction of various analogues of phencyclidine (PCP) to the illicit market.


title: Designer drug

text: The modern use of the term designer drug was coined in the 1980s to refer to various synthetic opioid drugs, based mostly on the fentanyl molecule (such as α-methylfentanyl). The term gained widespread popularity when MDMA (ecstasy) experienced a popularity boom in the mid-1980s. When the term was coined in the 1980s, a wide range of narcotics were being sold as heroin on the black market. Many were based on fentanyl or meperidine. One, MPPP, was found in some cases to contain an impurity called MPTP, which caused brain damage that could result in a syndrome identical to late stage Parkinson's disease, from only a single dose. Other problems were highly potent fentanyl analogues, which were sold as China White, that caused many accidental overdoses.


title: Designer drug

text: Because the government was powerless to prosecute people for these drugs until after they had been marketed successfully, laws were passed to give the DEA power to emergency schedule chemicals for a year, with an optional 6-month extension, while gathering evidence to justify permanent scheduling, as well as the analogue laws mentioned previously. Emergency-scheduling power was used for the first time for MDMA. In this case, the DEA scheduled MDMA as a Schedule I drug and retained this classification after review, even though their own judge ruled that MDMA should be classified Schedule III on the basis of its demonstrated uses in medicine. The emergency scheduling power has subsequently been used for a variety of other drugs including 2C-B, AMT, and BZP. In 2004, a piperazine drug, TFMPP, became the first drug that had been emergency-scheduled to be denied permanent scheduling and revert to legal status.


title: Designer drug

text: The late 1980s and early 1990s also saw the re-emergence of methamphetamine in the United States as a widespread public health issue, leading to increasing controls on precursor chemicals in an attempt to cut down on domestic manufacture of the drug. This led to several alternative stimulant drugs emerging, the most notable ones being methcathinone and 4-methylaminorex, but, despite attracting enough attention from authorities to provoke legal scheduling of these compounds, their distribution was relatively limited in extent and methamphetamine continued to dominate the illicit synthetic stimulant market overall.


title: Designer drug

text: In the late 1990s and early 2000s, there was a huge explosion in designer drugs being sold over the internet. The term and concept of "research chemicals" was coined by some marketers of designer drugs (in particular, of psychedelic drugs in the tryptamine and phenethylamine family). The idea was that, by selling the chemicals as for "scientific research" rather than human consumption, the intent clause of the U.S. analogue drug laws would be avoided. Nonetheless, the DEA raided multiple suppliers, first JLF Primary Materials, and then multiple vendors (such as RAC Research) several years later in Operation Web Tryp. This process was accelerated greatly when vendors began advertising via search engines like Google by linking their sites to searches on key words such as chemical names and terms like psychedelic or hallucinogen. Widespread discussion of consumptive use and the sources for the chemicals in public forums also drew the attention of the media and authorities.


title: Designer drug

text: In 2004, the US Drug Enforcement Administration raided and shut down several Internet-based research chemical vendors in an operation called "Web Tryp". With help from the authorities in India and China, two chemical manufacturers were also closed. Many other internet-based vendors promptly stopped doing business, even though their products were still legal throughout much of the world.


title: Designer drug

text: Most substances that were sold as "research chemicals" in this period of time are hallucinogens and bear a chemical resemblance to drugs such as psilocybin and mescaline. As with other hallucinogens, these substances are often taken for the purposes of facilitating spiritual processes, mental reflection or recreation. Some research chemicals on the market were not psychoactive, but can be used as precursors in the synthesis of other potentially psychoactive substances, for example, 2C-H, which could be used to make 2C-B and 2C-I among others. Extensive surveys of structural variations have been conducted by pharmaceutical corporations, universities and independent researchers over the last century, from which some of the presently available research chemicals derive. One particularly notable researcher is Dr. Alexander Shulgin, who presented syntheses and pharmacological explorations of hundreds of substances in the books "TiHKAL" and "PiHKAL" (co-authored with Ann Shulgin), and has served as an expert witness for the defense in several court cases against manufacturers of psychoactive drugs.


title: Designer drug

text: The majority of chemical suppliers sold research chemicals in bulk form as powder, not as pills, as selling in pill form would invalidate the claims that they were being sold for non-consumptive research. Active dosages vary widely from substance to substance, ranging from micrograms to hundreds of milligrams, but while it is critical for the end user to weigh doses with a precision scale, instead of guessing ("eyeballing"), many users did not do this and this led to many emergency room visits and several deaths, which were a prominent factor leading to the emergency scheduling of several substances and eventually Operation Web Tryp. Some compounds such as 2C-B and 5-Meo-DiPT did eventually increase in popularity to the point that they were sold in pill form to reach a wider market, and acquired popular street names ("Nexus" and "Foxy," respectively). Once a chemical reaches this kind of popularity, it is usually just a matter of time before it is added to the list of scheduled (i.e., illegal) drugs.


title: Designer drug

text: The late 1990s and early 2000s also saw the first widespread use of novel anabolic steroids by athletes in competition. Steroids had been banned by the International Olympic Committee since 1976, but due to the large number of different anabolic agents available for human and veterinary use, the ability of laboratories to test for all available drugs had always lagged behind the ability of athletes to find new compounds to use. The introduction of increasingly formalised testing procedures, especially with the creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999, made it much more difficult for athletes to get away with using these drugs without detection, which then led to the synthesis of novel and potent anabolic steroid drugs such as tetrahydrogestrinone (THG), which were not detectable by the standard tests.


title: Designer drug

text: While through recent history most designer drugs had been either opioids, hallucinogens, or anabolic steroids, the range of possible compounds is limited only by the scientific and patent literature, and recent years have been characterised by a broadening of the range of compounds sold as designer drugs. These have included a wide variety of designer stimulants such as geranamine, mephedrone, MDPV and desoxypipradrol, several designer sedatives such as methylmethaqualone and premazepam, and designer analogues of sildenafil (Viagra), which have been reported as active compounds in "herbal" aphrodisiac products. Designer cannabinoids are another recent development, with two compounds JWH-018 and (C8)-CP 47,497 initially found in December 2008 as active components of "herbal smoking blends" sold as legal alternatives to marijuana. Subsequently, a growing range of synthetic cannabinoid agonists have continued to appear, including by 2010, novel compounds such as RCS-4, RCS-8, and AB-001, which had never been reported in the literature, and appear to have been invented by designer drug manufacturers themselves. Another novel development is the use of research ligands for cosmetic rather than strictly recreational purposes, such as grey-market internet sales of the non-approved alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone tanning drugs known as melanotan peptides.


title: Designer drug

text: Mephedrone and the cathinones marked somewhat of a turning point for designer drugs, turning them from little known, ineffective substances sold in head shops to powerful substances able to compete with classical drugs on the black market. Mephedrone especially experienced a somewhat meteoric rise in popularity in 2009 and the resulting media panic resulted in its prohibition in multiple countries. Following this there was a considerable emergence of other cathinones which attempted to mimic the effects of mephedrone, and with a newly attracted customer base, plenty of money to drive innovation.


title: Designer drug

text: Subsequently, the market rapidly expanded, with more and more substances being detected every year. In 2009, the EMCDDA's early warning system discovered 24 new drugs. In 2010, it found another 41; in 2011, another 49; and in 2012, there were 73 more. In 2013, a further 81 were identified: a total of 268 new drugs in just four years. These have not been limited to cathinones, with 35% being cannabinoids and the rest being composed of stimulants, benzodiazepines, psychedelics, dissociatives and to a lesser extent, every other class of drugs, even ibogoids and nootropics. The largest group of drugs being monitored by the EMCDDA is synthetic cannabinoids, with 209 different synthetic cannabinoids reported between 2008 and 2021 - including 11 new cannabinoids identified for the first time in 2020.


title: Designer drug

text: The safety of research chemicals is untested and little if any research has been done on the toxicology or pharmacology of most of these drugs. Few, if any, human or animal studies have been done. Many research compounds have produced unexpected side-effects and adverse incidents due to the lack of screening for off-target effects prior to marketing; both bromo-dragonfly and mephedrone seem to be capable of producing pronounced vasoconstriction under some circumstances, which has resulted in several deaths, although the mechanism remains unclear. Substituted phenethylamines such as the 2C family and substituted amphetamines such as the DOx family have also caused a limited number of deaths.


title: Designer drug

text: Due to the recent development of many designer drugs, laws banning or regulating their use have not been developed yet, and in recent cases novel drugs have appeared directly in response to legislative action, to replace a similar compound that had recently been banned. Many of the chemicals fall under the various drug analogue legislations in certain countries, but most countries have no general analogue act or equivalent legislation and so novel compounds may fall outside of the law after only minor structural modifications.


title: Designer drug

text: In the United States, the Controlled Substances Act was amended by the Controlled Substance Analogue Enforcement of 1986, which attempted to ban designer drugs pre-emptively by making it illegal to manufacture, sell, or possess chemicals that were substantially similar in chemistry and pharmacology to Schedule I or Schedule II drugs.


title: Designer drug

text: Other countries have dealt with the issue differently. In some, the new drugs are banned as they become a concern, as in Germany, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Sweden. In Sweden, the police and customs may also seize drugs that are not on the list of drugs covered by the anti-drug laws if the police suspect that the purpose of the holding is related to drug abuse. Following a decision by a prosecutor, the police may destroy the seized drugs.


title: Designer drug

text: In Ireland, the Criminal Justice (Psychoactive Substances) Act 2010 bans substances based on their psychoactive effect, and was introduced as a catch-all to address the time lag between new substances appearing and their being banned individually. In the United Kingdom, the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016 adopts a similar approach.


title: Designer drug

text: Some countries, such as Australia, have enacted generic bans but based on chemical structure rather than psychoactive effect: if a chemical fits a set of rules regarding substitutions and alterations of an already-banned drug, then it too is banned. Brazil adopted the same model as Australia, in a recent ruling from ANVISA, which is responsible to define what constitute drugs.


title: Designer drug

text: A temporary class drug is a relatively new status for controlled drugs, which has been adopted in some jurisdictions, notably New Zealand and the United Kingdom, to attempt to bring newly synthesized designer drugs under legal control. The controlled drug legislation in these jurisdictions requires drug scheduling decisions to follow an evidence-based process, where the harms of the drug are assessed and reviewed so that an appropriate legal status can be assigned. Since many designer drugs sold in recent years have had little or no published research that could help inform such a decision, they have been widely sold as "legal highs", often for months, before sufficient evidence accumulates to justify placing them on the controlled drug schedules.


title: Designer drug

text: In the UK to avoid being controlled by the Medicines Act, designer drugs such as mephedrone have been described as "plant food," despite the compounds having no history of being used for these purposes.


title: Designer drug

text: In the US, similar descriptions ("bath salts" is the most common) have been used to describe mephedrone as well as methylone and methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Combined with labeling that they are "not for human consumption," these descriptions are an attempt to skirt the Federal Analog Act which forbids drugs that are "substantially similar" to already classified drugs from being sold for human use.


title: Designer drug

text: Synthetic cannabinoids are known under a variety of names including K2, Spice, Black Mamba, Bombay Blue, Genie, Zohai, Banana Cream Nuke, Krypton, and Lava Red. They are often called "synthetic marijuana," "herbal incense," or "herbal smoking blends" and often labeled "not for human consumption."


title: Rugelach

text: Rugelach ( ; , or and "rōgalaḵ") is a filled baked confection originating in the Jewish communities of Poland. It is popular in Israel, commonly found in most cafes and bakeries. It is also a popular treat among Jews in the diaspora.


title: Rugelach

text: Traditional rugelach are made in the form of a crescent by rolling a triangle of dough around a filling. Some sources state that the rugelach and the French croissant share a common Viennese ancestor, crescent-shaped pastries commemorating the lifting of the Turkish siege, possibly a reference to the Battle of Vienna in 1683. This appears to be an urban legend however, as both the rugelach and its supposed ancestor, the Kipferl, pre-date the Early Modern era, while the croissant in its modern form did not originate earlier than the 19th century (see viennoiserie). This leads many to believe that the croissant is simply a descendant of one of these two.


title: Rugelach

text: An alternative form is constructed much like a strudel or nut roll, but unlike those, the rolled dough and filling are cut into slices before baking.


title: Rugelach

text: The name is Yiddish, the historical language of Ashkenazi Jews. The ' ending () indicates plural, while the ' () can be a diminutive, as, for example, ' (, villages) is the plural of ' (, village), the diminutive of ' (, town). In this case, the root means something like "twist" so the translation would be "little twists," a reference to the shape of this pastry. In this context, note that ' () means "corner" in Yiddish. In Polish, which influenced Yiddish, ' can mean "corner", but can also mean "horn" – both the kind on an animal and the musical instrument. Croissant-shaped pastries, which look like horns, are called ' in Polish, see . ' is almost identical in pronunciation and meaning to the Yiddish word '.


title: Rugelach

text: Alternatively, some assert that the root is ', meaning "royal", possibly a reference to the taste. This explanation is in conflict with Yiddish usage, where the word ' () is the dominant word meaning "royal".


title: Rugelach

text: Rugelach can be made with sour cream or cream cheese doughs, but there are also pareve variants (with no dairy ingredients), so that it can be eaten with or after a meat meal and still be kosher. Cream cheese doughs are the most recent, while yeast leavened and sour cream doughs are much older.


title: Rugelach

text: The different fillings can include raisins, walnuts, cinnamon, chocolate, marzipan, poppy seed, or fruit preserves which are rolled up inside. Vanilla-filled rugelach have become popular in New York in recent decades.


title: Rugelach

text: In recent years, chefs have introduced savory versions of these pastries, filled with chicken and schmaltz or salmon and boursin cheese.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: The 1918 United Kingdom general election was called immediately after the Armistice with Germany which ended the First World War, and was held on Saturday, 14 December 1918. The governing coalition, under Prime Minister David Lloyd George, sent letters of endorsement to candidates who supported the coalition government. These were nicknamed "Coalition Coupons", and led to the election being known as the "coupon election". The result was a massive landslide in favour of the coalition, comprising primarily the Conservatives and Coalition Liberals, with massive losses for Liberals who were not endorsed. Nearly all the Liberal MPs without coupons were defeated, including party leader H. H. Asquith.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: It was the first general election to include on a single day all eligible voters of the United Kingdom, although the vote count was delayed until 28 December so that the ballots cast by soldiers serving overseas could be included in the tallies.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: It resulted in a landslide victory for the coalition government of David Lloyd George, who had replaced H. H. Asquith as Prime Minister in December 1916. They were both Liberals and continued to battle for control of the party, which was rapidly losing popular support and never regained power.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: It was the first general election to be held after enactment of the Representation of the People Act 1918. It was thus the first election in which women over the age of 30, and all men over the age of 21, could vote. Previously, all women and many poor men had been excluded from voting. Women generally supported the coalition candidates.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: It was the first parliamentary election in which women were able to stand as candidates following the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918, believed to be one of the shortest Acts of Parliament ever given Royal Assent. The Act was passed shortly before Parliament was dissolved. It followed a report by Law Officers that the Great Reform Act 1832 had specified parliamentary candidates had to be male and that the Representation of the People Act passed earlier in the year did not change that. One woman, Nina Boyle, had already presented herself for a by-election earlier in the year in Keighley but had been turned down by the returning officer on technical grounds.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: The election was also noted for the dramatic result in Ireland, which showed clear disapproval of government policy. The Irish Parliamentary Party were almost completely wiped out by the Irish republican party Sinn Féin, who vowed in their manifesto to establish an independent Irish Republic. They refused to take their seats in Westminster, instead forming a breakaway government and declaring Irish independence. The Irish War of Independence began soon after the election. Because of the resulting partition of Ireland, this was the last United Kingdom general election to include the entire island of Ireland.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: Lloyd George's coalition government was supported by a minority (majority after the election) of the Liberals and Bonar Law's Conservatives. However, the election saw a split in the Liberal Party between those who were aligned with Lloyd George and the government and those who were aligned with Asquith, the party's official leader.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: On 14 November it was announced that Parliament, which had been sitting since 1910 and had been extended by emergency wartime action, would dissolve on 25 November, with elections on 14 December.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: Following confidential negotiations over the summer of 1918, it was agreed that certain candidates were to be offered the support of the Prime Minister and the leader of the Conservative Party at the next general election. To these candidates a letter, known as the Coalition Coupon, was sent, indicating the government's endorsement of their candidacy. 159 Liberal, 364 Conservative, 20 National Democratic and Labour, and 2 Coalition Labour candidates received the coupon. For this reason, the election is often called the Coupon Election.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: 80 Conservative candidates stood without a coupon. Of these, 35 candidates were Irish Unionists. Of the other non-couponed Conservative candidates, only 23 stood against a Coalition candidate; the remaining 22 candidates stood in areas where there were no coupons, or refused the offer of a coupon.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: The Labour Party, led by William Adamson, fought the election independently, as did those Liberals who did not receive a coupon.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: The election was not chiefly fought over what peace to make with Germany, although those issues played a role. More important was the voters' evaluation of Lloyd George in terms of what he had accomplished so far and what he promised for the future. His supporters emphasised that he had won the Great War. Against his strong record in social legislation, he called for making "a country fit for heroes to live in".


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: This election was also known as a khaki election, due to the immediate postwar setting and the role of the demobilised soldiers.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: The coalition won the election easily, with the Conservatives the big winners. They were the largest party in the governing majority. Lloyd George remained Prime Minister, despite the Conservatives outnumbering his pro-coalition Liberals. The Conservatives welcomed his leadership on foreign policy as the Paris Peace talks began a few weeks after the election.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: An additional 47 Conservatives, 23 of whom were Irish Unionists, won without the coupon but did not act as a separate block or oppose the government except on the issue of Irish independence.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: While most of the pro-coalition Liberals were re-elected, the Independent Liberal faction was reduced to a handful of MPs, not all of whom were opponents of the coalition. Asquith and the other leaders lost their seats, and only three with junior ministerial experience were elected. According to Trevor Wilson's book, "The Downfall of the Liberal Party", 136 couponed Liberals were elected, whereas only 29 who did not receive the coupon were returned to Parliament, but as 8 Independent Liberals received the coupon and 10 Lloyd George Liberals did not, the actual number of the Asquith faction was 27. Another historian puts the Asquith faction at 36 seats, of whom nine of these MPs subsequently joined the Coalition Liberal group. The remainder became bitter enemies of Lloyd George. Asquith's biographer Stephen Koss accepts that, although accounts differ as to the exact numbers, around 29 uncouponed Liberals had been elected. On 3 February 1919, 23 non-coalition Liberals formed themselves into a "Free Liberal" group (soon known as the "Wee Frees" after a Scottish religious sect of that name); they accepted Asquith's appointment of Sir Donald Maclean as chairman in his absence. After a brief attempt to set up a joint committee with the Coalition Liberal MPs, the "Wee Frees" resigned the government whip on 4 April, although some Liberal MPs still remained of uncertain allegiance. Maclean served as Leader of the Opposition until Asquith returned at a by-election in February 1920.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: The Labour Party greatly increased its vote share and surpassed the total votes of either faction of the Liberal party, but they lacked an official leader. Labour could only slightly increase their number of seats, however, from 42 to 57 and some of their earlier leaders including Ramsay MacDonald and Arthur Henderson lost their seats. Labour won the most seats in Wales (which had previously been dominated by the Liberals) for the first time, a feat it has continued to the present day.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: The Conservative MPs included record numbers of corporate directors, bankers and businessmen, while Labour MPs were mostly from the working class. Bonar Law himself symbolised the change in the type of a Conservative MP as Bonar Law was a Presbyterian Canadian-born Scottish businessman who became in the words of his biographer, Robert Blake, the leader of "the Party of Old England, the Party of the Anglican Church and the country squire, the party of broad acres and hereditary titles". Bonar Law's ascent as leader of the Conservatives marked a shift in Conservative leaders from the aristocrats who generally led the party in the 19th century to a more middle class leadership who usually led the party in the 20th century. Many young veterans reacted against the harsh tone of the campaign and became disillusioned with politics.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: In Ireland, the Irish Parliamentary Party, which favoured Home Rule within the United Kingdom, lost almost all their seats, most of which were won by Sinn Féin under Éamon de Valera, which called for independence. The executions of many of the leaders of the Easter uprising of 1916, the force-feeding of those imprisoned in connection with the uprising who had gone on a hunger strike in 1917, and the Conscription Crisis of 1918 all served to alienate Irish Catholic opinion from the United Kingdom. The Sinn Féin candidates had promised on the campaign trail to win an Irish republic "by any means necessary", which was a code-word for violence, though it is not entirely clear if all Irish voters understood what the phrase meant. The 73 Sinn Féin elected members declined to take their seats in the British House of Commons, sitting instead in the Irish revolutionary assembly, the Dáil Éireann. On 17 May 1918 almost the entire leadership of Sinn Féin, including de Valera and Arthur Griffith, had been arrested. In total 47 of the Sinn Féin MPs were elected from jail. The Dáil first convened on 21 January 1919, which marks the beginning of the Irish War of Independence.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: In the six Ulster counties that became Northern Ireland, Unionists consolidated their position by winning 23 out of the 30 seats. Cardinal Michael Logue brokered a pact in eight seats (one, East Donegal, not in the six counties), after nominations closed, where Catholic voters were instructed to vote for one particular nationalist party. Split evenly, the Irish Parliamentary Party won four of those seats and Sinn Féin three. (The pact failed in East Down). Joseph Devlin, memorably, also won Belfast (Falls) for the Irish Parliamentary Party in a straight fight with Éamon de Valera of Sinn Féin.


title: 1918 United Kingdom general election

text: Constance Markievicz became the first woman elected to Parliament and also to the Dáil Éireann. She was a Sinn Féin member elected for Dublin St Patrick's, and like the other Sinn Féin MPs, did not take her seat at Westminster.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: In the fictional universe of "Warhammer 40,000", the Space Marines, also known as the Adeptus Astartes, are superhuman warrior-monks who fight for the Imperium of Man. They wear mechanised suits of armour and have modified genomes that grant them superhuman strength and endurance. Some Space Marines have betrayed the Imperium and serve the Gods of Chaos, and are thus known as Chaos Space Marines.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: "Warhammer 40,000" is a miniature wargame, where Space Marines are one of the playable factions that can be used. They are the most well-known and popular characters in "Warhammer 40,000", always featuring in the artwork and starter set of each edition of "Warhammer 40,000" and other spin-off games such as "Space Hulk" and "Epic" (excluding the 2nd edition "Titan Legions"), and simpler derivative games such as "Space Crusade". Likewise, they are the most popular protagonists in spin-off fiction such as novels and video games.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: Space Marines were first introduced in "" (1987) by Rick Priestley, which was the first edition of the tabletop game.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: The book "Realm of Chaos: The Lost and the Damned" (Rick Priestley and Bryan Ansell, 1990) was the first book from Games Workshop to give a backstory for the Space Marines. It introduced the original 20 Space Marine Legions as well as their Primarchs. It also first described the Horus Heresy, the civil war of the 30th millennium in which nine of the Legions converted to the worship of the Chaos Gods and rebelled against the Emperor.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: Two of the original 20 Legions and their respective Primarchs are not named and are described as "redacted" from the records of the Imperium. Rick Priestley explained that this was to illustrate the Imperium's practice of erasing embarrassing or incriminating events and figures from Imperial records ("damnatio memoriae").


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: Bob Naismith created the initial design for the Space Marines. The first edition's Space Marines had helmets with prominent conical snouts. This design is popularly known as the "beaky" helmet. The design of the helmet initially had a gas mask, with an airtube connected to the snout, and this concept is apparent in a 1991 limited edition model that is based on this initial design. The designers at Games Workshop felt that this concept was too banal and derivative, and they made a conscious decision to give the Space Marine, and "Warhammer 40,000" in general, a "medieval-in-space" aesthetic. The helmet was modified to resemble a medieval "hounskull" helmet. Likewise, the Space Marine's armor was redesigned to resemble medieval plate armour. Jes Goodwin redesigned the armour for the second edition (1993), where the helmet's beak was replaced by a flat grill, and the chestplate features a winged skull. With the eighth edition (2017), Games Workshop introduced the Primaris Space Marine models which are slightly taller and have a new helmet design.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: Space Marine Terminators first appeared in 1989 for the spin-off board game "Space Hulk" and were eventually incorporated into the principal "Warhammer 40,000" game. They wear a bulkier kind of armor and carry heavier weapons.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: Simplified miniatures of Space Marines in Power Armour, Space Marine Scouts, and Space Marine Terminators are found in the board games "Space Crusade" and "Tyranid Attack".


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: As far as non-hero infantry go, Space Marines are rather powerful and have a high point cost. A Space Marine Intercessor is worth 20 points, whereas a normal human soldier is worth only 4 points. Consequently, an army based on Space Marines will be relatively small compared to, say, a Tyranid army of equal strength. This means that a player can assemble a functional army for relatively little money and effort. In terms of playing style, a Space Marine army neither excels nor fails at any particular tactic, though certain Chapters do have variant rules (e.g. the Salamanders specialise in flamethrowers). Individual units are typically not strongly specialised and can roughly substitute in other roles, meaning most mistakes and setbacks are easy to compensate for. Their tough armour and generally unspecialised weaponry means that they do not have to be maneuvered as carefully as units of other armies (such as the powerful but frail Aeldari). These qualities make them ideal for beginners, and may help them succeed more often in their early gameplay stages.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: Much like in "Warhammer 40,000", Space Marine teams in "Kill Team" tend to be small teams of powerful warriors. For instance, a Space Marine team will consist of five warriors, whereas an Imperial Guard team will consist of 10 to 14 warriors.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: In "Space Hulk", Space Marines in Terminator armor move through narrow corridors fending off attacks by alien monsters known as "genestealers". The genestealers move fast and are very deadly in melee combat, whereas the Space Marines move slowly and are weak in melee combat but possess firearms.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: A Space Marine is stronger, tougher, heavier and taller than a normal human due to genetic augmentation. Space Marines wear suits of mechanized armour which have a medieval aesthetic, and they are often brightly painted and ornately decorated (camouflage is mostly redundant in warfare of the far future). The classic weapon of the Space Marine is the boltgun, which fires small rocket-assisted rounds and has such powerful recoil that it cannot be safely wielded by a normal human. Space Marines can live for centuries and thereby develop vast combat experience.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: Those Space Marines who are loyal to the Imperium are organised into "Chapters", each usually containing about a thousand Space Marines, led by a Chapter Master. Each Chapter is an autonomous organization and controls a fiefdom from which it raises funds and recruits. Each Space Marine Chapter is a fully integrated military force, possessing both naval ships and ground forces. The Space Marines themselves are dedicated shock troops, while ordinary human serfs serve in support roles such as crewing their ships and maintaining their equipment. A Chapter's headquarters is called the "fortress-monastery". Each Chapter bears a name, such as "the Iron Hands" and "the Dark Angels", and a distinctive paint scheme for their armour (e.g. the White Scars paint their armour white). A Space Marine's commitment to his Chapter is lifelong and they rarely have any kind of personal life outside the Chapter. Space Marines are conditioned to have a fanatical reverence for the Emperor of Mankind.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: Chaos Space Marines are organised into large "Legions" and smaller warbands that likewise have colourful names (e.g. "the Thousand Sons" and "the Night Lords"). Some Chaos Space Marines dedicate themselves to a specific Chaos God, which affects their personalities and physiologies in specific ways. For instance, Chaos Space Marines devoted to Nurgle have grotesque, bloated bodies riddled with disease, yet are paradoxically very resilient in battle; and Chaos Space Marines devoted to Slaanesh tend to be hedonistic. Chaos Space Marines tend to be even more brutal than their Loyalist counterparts, often killing and torturing people for the mere sake of it.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: A Space Marine is created by implanting "gene-seed" in a human recruit, which transforms them into superhumans. Gene-seed cannot be mass-produced in factories. New gene-seed grows within the bodies of the Space Marines themselves and are periodically harvested by surgery to implant in new recruits. Space Marines also cannot procreate sexually as humans normally do as their genetic modifications make them sterile. Because their production cannot be scaled up, Space Marines are few in number. The vast majority of the Imperium's armed forces are regular humans.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: Space Marines are always male, as gene-seed will kill a woman if implanted. Most chapters prefer to recruit boys in early adolescence, as younger recruits suffer fewer complications in the transformation process; but adults can be recruited up to middle age.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: The Emperor of Mankind created the Space Marines around the time he founded the Imperium and used them to spearhead his conquest of the galaxy. A few centuries into this campaign, known as the "Great Crusade", about half of the Space Marine legions converted to the worship of the Chaos Gods and rebelled against the Emperor in what became known as the "Horus Heresy". The insurrection was eventually defeated and the survivors fled Imperial space. Because Space Marines age at a much slower rate than normal humans, and most of the rebels dwell in realms of Chaos that are outside the normal flow of time, many of the Chaos Space Marines that fled during after the Heresy are alive and continue to wage war against the Imperium over ten thousand years later.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: The 8th edition of "Warhammer 40,000", released in 2017, introduces Primaris Space Marines, which are larger and more resilient than standard Space Marines. Roboute Guilliman, the Primarch (genetic "father") of the original Ultramarines Legion and creator of the "Codex Astartes" (the rules that dictated the creation of Space Marine Chapters), had sanctioned the creation of a new generation of Space Marines following the events of the Horus Heresy. Ten thousand years later, upon Guilliman's resurrection, Legions of Primaris were introduced into the Imperial forces, both to augment the existing Chapters and to create new Chapters.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: Space Marines are featured in numerous Science-fantasy novels, predominantly published by Black Library, a division of Games Workshop.


title: Space Marine (Warhammer 40,000)

text: In December 2012, Games Workshop claimed that any use of the phrase "Space Marine" on content other than their own infringed on their trademark of the term and requested that online retailer Amazon remove the e-book "Spots the Space Marine" by M.C.A. Hogarth. The row received a lot of publicity during February 2013, with authors such as Cory Doctorow, Charles Stross, and John Scalzi supporting Hogarth. Amazon restored the e-book for sale.


title: Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem

text: In mathematics, specifically in real analysis, the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem, named after Bernard Bolzano and Karl Weierstrass, is a fundamental result about convergence in a finite-dimensional Euclidean space formula_1. The theorem states that each infinite bounded sequence in formula_1 has a convergent subsequence. An equivalent formulation is that a subset of formula_1 is sequentially compact if and only if it is closed and bounded. The theorem is sometimes called the sequential compactness theorem.


title: Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem

text: The Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem is named after mathematicians Bernard Bolzano and Karl Weierstrass. It was actually first proved by Bolzano in 1817 as a lemma in the proof of the intermediate value theorem. Some fifty years later the result was identified as significant in its own right, and proved again by Weierstrass. It has since become an essential theorem of analysis.


title: Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem

text: First we prove the theorem for formula_4 (set of all real numbers), in which case the ordering on formula_4 can be put to good use. Indeed, we have the following result:


title: Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem

text: Proof: Let us call a positive integer-valued index formula_8 of a sequence a "peak" of the sequence when formula_9 for every formula_10. Suppose first that the sequence has infinitely many peaks, which means there is a subsequence with the following indices formula_11 and the following terms formula_12. So, the infinite sequence formula_6 in formula_4 has a monotone subsequence, which is formula_15. But suppose now that there are only finitely many peaks, let formula_16 be the final peak and let the first index of a new subsequence formula_15 be set to formula_18. Then formula_19 is not a peak, since formula_19 comes after the final peak, which implies the existence of formula_21 with formula_22 and formula_23. Again, formula_21 comes after the final peak, hence there is an formula_25 where formula_26 with formula_27. Repeating this process leads to an infinite non-decreasing subsequence  formula_28, thereby proving that every infinite sequence formula_6 in formula_4 has a monotone subsequence.


title: Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem

text: Now suppose one has a bounded sequence in formula_4; by the lemma proven above there exists a monotone subsequence, likewise also bounded. It follows from the monotone convergence theorem that this subsequence converges.


title: Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem

text: Finally, the general case (formula_32), can be reduced to the case of formula_4 as follows: given a bounded sequence in formula_32, the sequence of first coordinates is a bounded real sequence, hence it has a convergent subsequence. One can then extract a sub-subsequence on which the second coordinates converge, and so on, until in the end we have passed from the original sequence to a subsequence formula_8 times—which is still a subsequence of the original sequence—on which each coordinate sequence converges, hence the subsequence itself is convergent.


title: Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem

text: There is also an alternative proof of the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem using nested intervals. We start with a bounded sequence formula_6:


title: Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem

text: Because we halve the length of an interval at each step, the limit of the interval's length is zero. Also, by the "nested intervals theorem", which states that if each formula_37 is a closed and bounded interval, say


title: Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem

text: then under the assumption of nesting, the intersection of the formula_37 is not empty. Thus there is a number formula_41 that is in each interval formula_37. Now we show, that formula_41 is an accumulation point of formula_6.


title: Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem

text: Take a neighbourhood formula_45 of formula_41. Because the length of the intervals converges to zero, there is an interval formula_47 that is a subset of formula_45. Because formula_47 contains by construction infinitely many members of formula_6 and formula_51, also formula_45 contains infinitely many members of formula_6. This proves that formula_41 is an accumulation point of formula_6. Thus, there is a subsequence of formula_6 that converges to formula_41.


title: Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem

text: Suppose "formula_58" is a subset of formula_1 with the property that every sequence in "formula_58" has a subsequence converging to an element of "formula_58". Then "formula_58" must be bounded, since otherwise there exists a sequence formula_63 in "formula_58" with formula_65 for all "formula_66", and then every subsequence is unbounded and therefore not convergent. Moreover, "formula_58" must be closed, since from a noninterior point "formula_41" in the complement of "formula_58", one can build an "formula_58"-valued sequence converging to "formula_41". Thus the subsets "formula_58" of formula_1 for which every sequence in "A" has a subsequence converging to an element of "formula_58" – i.e., the subsets that are sequentially compact in the subspace topology – are precisely the closed and bounded subsets.


title: Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem

text: This form of the theorem makes especially clear the analogy to the Heine–Borel theorem, which asserts that a subset of formula_1 is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded. In fact, general topology tells us that a metrizable space is compact if and only if it is sequentially compact, so that the Bolzano–Weierstrass and Heine–Borel theorems are essentially the same.


title: Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem

text: There are different important equilibrium concepts in economics, the proofs of the existence of which often require variations of the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem. One example is the existence of a Pareto efficient allocation. An allocation is a matrix of consumption bundles for agents in an economy, and an allocation is Pareto efficient if no change can be made to it that makes no agent worse off and at least one agent better off (here rows of the allocation matrix must be rankable by a preference relation). The Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem allows one to prove that if the set of allocations is compact and non-empty, then the system has a Pareto-efficient allocation.


title: Jalen Duren

text: Jalen Montez Duren (born November 18, 2003) is an American professional basketball player for the Detroit Pistons of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Memphis Tigers. A center, he stands and weighs . He was a consensus five-star recruit and one of the top players in the 2021 class. Duren was ranked as the top player in the 2022 class before reclassifying.


title: Jalen Duren

text: Hailing from Sharon Hill, Pennsylvania, Duren grew up playing football and baseball in addition to basketball, which he ended up focusing on as he grew older and improved his skills. By the eighth grade he measured about , gaining recognition on the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) circuit playing with Team Final and winning the MADE League title. Strong showings at the MADE Hoops Middle School Academy and the CP3 Rising Stars Camp that summer solidified his position as one of the top players in his class.


title: Jalen Duren

text: Duren committed to playing high school basketball at Roman Catholic High School in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania along with AAU teammate and highly-ranked guard Justice Williams. He averaged 12.8 points, 9.3 rebounds and 2.5 blocks per game while shooting 71 percent from the field as a freshman, leading his team to their second consecutive Philadelphia Catholic League title. He earned first-team all-league and second-team all-state honors, and was named a MaxPreps Freshman All-American. That summer he was a standout performer at the 2019 Nike Elite 100 Camp.


title: Jalen Duren

text: Duren averaged 18.1 points, 12.5 rebounds and 3.4 blocks per contest during his second year, leading his team to an 18–10 record. In the first round of the Catholic League playoffs he recorded 18 points and 18 rebounds against Bonner-Prendergast, hitting the game-winning buzzer beater in the 61–59 victory on Valentine's Day. He added 20 points and 18 rebounds in their 83–73 semi-final win over regular season champions Archbishop Wood at the Palestra. They were unable to defend their league crown, though, as they were defeated by Neumann Goretti in the title game; Duren contributed 11 points and 16 rebounds in the 66–58 loss. In the first round of the PIAA class 6A playoffs, they defeated Coatesville 81–75 with Duren posting 13 points and eight rebounds. He recorded 20 points, six rebounds and eight blocks in their 62–51 quarter-final win over Pennridge before play was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. At the end of the year he collected first-team all-league, first-team all-state and MaxPreps Sophomore All-American honors.


title: Jalen Duren

text: For his junior year Duren transferred to Montverde Academy in Montverde, Florida, who was in the process of joining the independent National Interscholastic Basketball Conference (NIBC) with other elite programs like Oak Hill, Wasatch Academy and Sunrise Christian amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Duren was one of only five underclassmen named to the Sports Illustrated Preseason All-American team. In January 2021, Duren had a strong showing competing against high-level talent at the St. James NIBC Invitational in Washington, D.C., including a SportsCenter Top 10 play against Wasatch Academy where he blocked a shot by catching the ball in mid-air. On March 11, Montverde avenged their only loss of the season by defeating Sunrise Christian 61–57 for the inaugural NIBC championship; Duren finished with 13 points and seven rebounds. He averaged 15.5 points, 10.6 rebounds and 2.4 blocks per game in NIBC conference play, leading the Eagles to a 12–1 league record (20–1 overall). He was also recognized as the 2020–21 MaxPreps Florida High School Basketball Player of the Year.


title: Jalen Duren

text: Duren overtook Emoni Bates in his junior year as the top prospect in the 2022 recruiting class, surpassing Bates as the number one recruit according to ESPN, 247Sports and Rivals. On August 6, 2021, he reclassified to the 2021 class and committed to playing college basketball for Memphis over offers from Kentucky, Miami (Florida), the NBA G League and the Australia NBL.


title: Jalen Duren

text: On November 19, 2021, Duren scored 19 points, grabbed 19 rebounds and blocked five shots in a 74–62 win against Western Kentucky. He was named to the First Team All-AAC as well as AAC Freshman of the Year. Duren lead Memphis to their first NCAA tournament appearance since 2014 leading the Tigers to the round of 32. As a freshman, he averaged 12 points, 8.1 rebounds and 2.1 blocks per game. On April 18, 2022, Duren declared for the 2022 NBA draft, forgoing his remaining college eligibility.


title: Jalen Duren

text: Duren was selected with the 13th overall pick by the Charlotte Hornets in the 2022 NBA draft. On draft day, his rights were traded to the New York Knicks and then to the Detroit Pistons. Duren joined the Pistons' 2022 NBA Summer League roster. In his summer league debut, Duren scored nine points in an 81–78 win against the Portland Trail Blazers. On July 7, 2022, Duren signed a rookie-scale contract with the Pistons. On October 19, Duren made his regular season debut, putting up 14 points, 10 rebounds, and three blocks in a 113–109 win over the Orlando Magic.


title: Jalen Duren

text: Duren played for United States at the 2019 FIBA Under-16 Americas Championship in Belém, Brazil. He averaged 10.3 points, 8.2 rebounds and two blocks per game en route to a gold medal and a spot on the tournament all-star five team.


title: Jalen Duren

text: Duren is widely considered the best "true post" player in his class by recruiting sites and sportswriters alike. He wields influence in the paint due to his size, strength, athleticism and footwork that allows him to dominate on both sides of the floor. Jake Weingarten, founder of recruiting site StockRisers.com, described him as NBA-ready as a tenth grader amid reports that the NBA was considering lowering the minimum draft age from 19 to 18.


title: Jalen Duren

text: His physically imposing frame and shot-blocking talent drew comparisons to Bam Adebayo from 247Sports national basketball director Eric Bossi, while his AAU coach Chris Rountree likened him to Marvin Bagley III.


title: Lee Joon-hyuk (actor, born 1984)

text: Lee Joon-hyuk made his entertainment debut in 2006 (January 20) by appearing in a music video by hip hop band Typhoon. He began acting in the 2007 television drama "First Wives' Club", followed by a few supporting turns. Lee rise to popularity with his starring roles in "Three Brothers" (2009), "I Am Legend" (2010), "City Hunter" (2011), and "Man from the Equator" (2012).


title: Lee Joon-hyuk (actor, born 1984)

text: In 2011, Lee appeared in "Carried by the Wind", a reality show that aired as part of "Sunday Night" in which several male celebrities go on a road trip in the United States to learn about music. He also expanded his Korean Wave fan base by starring in the Chinese television drama "Half a Fairytale" in 2012.


title: Lee Joon-hyuk (actor, born 1984)

text: Lee enlisted for his mandatory military service on June 19, 2012, and was discharged on March 18, 2014. He made his acting comeback in "My Spring Days".


title: Lee Joon-hyuk (actor, born 1984)

text: In 2017, Lee gained recognition with his roles in crime thriller "Stranger" and fantasy epic "". In 2018, Lee played the lead role in the medical drama "A Poem a Day" and the second lead role in the scifi drama Are You Human? In 2019, Lee joined the cast of the critically acclaimed tvN drama and of the OCN drama The Lies Within. He also played the role of baseball coach Choi Jin-tae alongside Lee Joo-young in the independent film Baseball Girl, which premiered at the 24th Busan International Film Festival on October 4, 2019.


title: Lee Joon-hyuk (actor, born 1984)

text: In 2020, Lee starred in the timetravel mystery thriller "" as a detective of a homicide team. That role brought him Best Acting Award at the 5th Asia Artist Awards, as well as Excellence Award (Actor in a Monday-Tuesday Miniseries) at the 39th MBC Drama Awards. Later that year he reprised his role of Seo Dong-jae in the second season of "Stranger".


title: Lee Joon-hyuk (actor, born 1984)

text: In 2021, Lee starred in the OCN drama Dark Hole, had a cameo role in the tvN drama Secret Royal Inspector & Joy and is set to appear in Kwak Kyung-taek's film Firefighter.


title: Lee Joon-hyuk (actor, born 1984)

text: In August 2020, Lee achieved 'Three-Civil-Servants' award of the year. In November 2020, Lee appointed as 'Honorary Firefighter' by the president of South Korea on '58th Firefighter Day's Celebration'. He was awarded this title for his generous donation of his full fee from Naked Fireman drama to 'South Korea Fire Service' and appearing in two firefighting-related projects.


title: Lee Joon-hyuk (actor, born 1984)

text: In 2021, Lee was featured on The Actor is Present – The Korean Actors 200 KOFIC campaign. His KOFIC biography tagline was "a generalist who meticulously plays selfishness, justice, and the extremes of human emotions".


title: Lee Joon-hyuk (actor, born 1984)

text: On December 6, 2022, Lee decided to donate all royalties to animal protection organizations right from the pre-publishing stage of 'Hello Popcorn'.


title: Concurrent List

text: The Concurrent List or List-III (Seventh Schedule) is a list of 52 items (though the last subject is numbered 47) given in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India. It includes the power to be considered by both the union and state government. The legislative section is divided into three lists: Union List, State List and Concurrent List. Unlike the federal governments of the United States, Switzerland or Australia, residual powers remain with the Union Government, as with the Canadian federal government.


title: Concurrent List

text: Uniformity is desirable but not essential on items in the concurrent list. If any provision of a law made by the Legislature of a State is repugnant to any provision of a law made by Parliament which Parliament is competent to enact, or to any provision of an existing law with respect to one of the matters enumerated in the Concurrent List, then, the law made by Parliament, whether passed before or after the law made by the Legislature of such State, or, as the case may be, the existing law, shall prevail and the law made by the Legislature of the State shall, to the extent of the repugnancy, be void. There is an exception to this in cases "where a law is made by the Legislature of a State with respect to one of the matters enumerated in the Concurrent List contains any provision repugnant to the provisions of an earlier law made by Parliament or an existing law with respect to that matter, then, the law so made by the Legislature of such State shall, if it has been reserved for the consideration of the President and has received his assent, prevail in that State. Provided that nothing in this clause shall prevent Parliament from enacting at any time any law with respect to the same matter including a law adding to, amending, varying or repealing the law so made by the Legislature of the State."


title: Concurrent List

text: Through the 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 Five subjects were transferred from State to Concurrent List. They are:


title: Share (finance)

text: In financial markets, a share is a unit of equity ownership in the capital stock of a corporation, and can refer to units of mutual funds, limited partnerships, and real estate investment trusts. Share capital refers to all of the shares of an enterprise. The owner of shares in a company is a shareholder (or stockholder) of the corporation. A share is an indivisible unit of capital, expressing the ownership relationship between the company and the shareholder. The denominated value of a share is its face value, and the total of the face value of issued shares represent the capital of a company, which may not reflect the market value of those shares.


title: Share (finance)

text: The income received from the ownership of shares is a dividend. There are different types of shares such as equity shares, preference shares, deferred shares, redeemable shares, bonus shares, right shares, and employee stock option plan shares.


title: Share (finance)

text: Shares are valued according to the various principles in different markets, but a basic premise is that a share is worth the price at which a transaction would be likely to occur were the shares to be sold. The liquidity of markets is a major consideration as to whether a share is able to be sold at any given time. An actual sale transaction of shares between buyer and seller is usually considered to provide the best prima facie market indicator as to the "true value" of shares at that particular time. A minority discount is usually applied when valuing a minority shareholding (less than 50%), where ownership of the shares offers limited control over the business if this is held by a majority shareholder.


title: Share (finance)

text: Tax treatment of dividends varies between tax jurisdictions. For instance, in India, dividends are tax free in the hands of the shareholder up to INR 1 million, but the company paying the dividend has to pay dividend distribution tax at 12.5%. There


title: Share (finance)

text: is also the concept of a deemed dividend, which is not tax free. Further, Indian tax laws include provisions to stop dividend stripping.


title: Share (finance)

text: Historically, investors were given share certificates as evidence of their ownership of shares. In modern times, certificates are not always given and ownership may be recorded electronically by a system such as CREST or DTCC, a central securities depository.


title: Hey Jude (Beatles album)

text: Hey Jude (original title: The Beatles Again) is a 1970 collection of non-album singles and B-sides by the Beatles. Originally released in the United States and various other markets, but not in the United Kingdom, it consisted of non-album singles and B-sides not previously issued on an American Beatles LP; this included "I Should Have Known Better" and "Can't Buy Me Love", two singles released by Capitol Records whose only previous American album appearance had been on the "A Hard Day's Night" soundtrack album, which had been released by United Artists Records. The "Hey Jude" LP has been out of print since the late 1980s, although it remained available on cassette during the 1990s. The album was issued on CD for the first time in 2014, as an individual release and in a box set titled "The U.S. Albums".


title: Hey Jude (Beatles album)

text: The "Hey Jude" album was conceived by Allen Klein and Apple Records. Klein had negotiated a more lucrative contract for the Beatles with Capitol Records in 1969 which required one compilation album per year. He directed Allan Steckler of ABKCO/Apple to work on one. Steckler chose songs that had not appeared on a Capitol album in the United States and that spanned the group's career. He also focused more on recent singles than on earlier material. The absence of the songs from a US Capitol album was partially due to the Beatles' unwillingness to include single releases on their contemporaneous albums. This was a consequence of their arrangement with United Artists in 1964 and due to the habit of Capitol Records of recompiling the Beatles' British releases for local markets until 1967. Steckler chose not to include the original Parlophone single version of "Love Me Do"; "A Hard Day's Night", which had been released as a single by Capitol and was available on the United Artists soundtrack album; "I'm Down", which was the B-side of "Help!"; and "The Inner Light", the B-side of "Lady Madonna". He also overlooked "From Me to You", "Misery", and "There's a Place", which were first issued in the US by Vee Jay Records but had not yet been issued on a Capitol album. "Sie Liebt Dich", a German-language version of "She Loves You", and the single version of "Get Back" were also passed over. (The single version of "Let It Be" and its B-side, "You Know My Name (Look Up the Number)", had yet to be released.)


title: Hey Jude (Beatles album)

text: Steckler and Apple had become disappointed with the Capitol Records release schedules and determined to promote the new album themselves. Steckler also took the tapes to Sam Feldman at Bell Sound Studios for mastering, rather than delivering them to Capitol. He would do this for several releases thereafter.


title: Hey Jude (Beatles album)

text: Originally, the album was to be called "The Beatles Again". Shortly before the record was released, however, the title was changed to "Hey Jude" in order to promote the inclusion of the top-selling song that led off side two. The title change occurred after the record labels were printed, and an untold number of copies of the LP were sold with labels with the title "The Beatles Again". This was also true for cassette copies of the album, which retained the original title. Neither the front nor the back of the album jacket displayed the record's title (or the name of the band), but most copies were sold in a jacket whose spine read "Hey Jude". In an attempt to clear up any confusion caused by the preprinted labels, initial copies of the album displayed a sticker on the cover bearing the title "Hey Jude". The edition of the album with ""The Beatles Again"" label bore catalogue number SO-385 on the label but not on the jacket. This is because of a similarly timed decision to reduce the price from $6.98 (SO- prefix) to $5.98 (SW- prefix). The record jacket was prepared late enough so that it lists the catalogue number as SW-385. The SW-385 catalogue number appears on the label of later pressings that bear the title "Hey Jude" on the label.


title: Hey Jude (Beatles album)

text: Klein authorised the release of the album as a sales buffer during post-production of the delayed "Let It Be" album. In 2007 Neil Aspinall claimed that the back cover was supposed to be the front cover and vice versa but that Klein had reversed them in error. However, at least three prototype cover designs are known to exist, with the earliest of those showing the photos "reversed": the art department seemingly made the determination that the photo that now appears on the front cover was better suited for that purpose. The front and back cover pictures were taken at the last-ever Beatles photo session, on 22 August 1969, at John Lennon's home Tittenhurst Park by Ethan Russel.


title: Hey Jude (Beatles album)

text: The compilation was released in many countries, including the United States, Canada, Australia, Spain, Germany, France, Greece, Japan, Mexico, Venezuela and most of South America. It was also available to other countries as an "export" from Britain (Parlophone/Apple CPCS-106) but was not at first issued in Britain, although it was a popular import to the UK. The first issue in New Zealand was on the gloss black Apple label with the catalogue number CPCS-106. The matrix numbers were identical to those on the UK "export" issue. Because of its popularity worldwide, EMI issued "Hey Jude" in Britain on the Parlophone label on 11 May 1979 (catalogue number PCS 7184). Until the release of "1967–1970" in 1973, "Hey Jude" was the only way to own the extremely popular "Hey Jude" single on LP or in a stereo mix. The songs "Rain", "Lady Madonna" and "Revolution" were also first mixed for stereo specifically for this album. Prior to the release of the "Get Back" single in the spring of 1969, all Beatles singles were issued in mono in the US. Several other countries adopted the original "The Beatles Again" title. Of these, the Spanish release omitted "The Ballad of John and Yoko", due to that song having been deemed offensive. (In addition to making repeated mention of Christ and crucifixion, the lyrics contain the line "Gibraltar near Spain" at a time when Spain's Franco administration was contending with the UK over the ownership of Gibraltar.)


title: Hey Jude (Beatles album)

text: On the reel-to-reel and cassette tape releases, sides one and two are reversed. Although it is clear on the vinyl version that "Hey Jude" opens side two, when compiling this issue for audio tape, some compilers (at Capitol and Ampex) thought to make the change, which resulted in "Hey Jude" leading off the album. This was done because side two was the longer side, and it was the practice in some tape formats to lead the album with the longer side to avoid a large gap in the "middle" of the tape. The four-track tape, prepared by Ampex along with the reel-to-reel tape, has the songs in the original, chronological order. (The eight-track tape was treated to the usual re-ordering that eight-tracks received.)


title: Hey Jude (Beatles album)

text: The CD era saw the standardisation of the Beatles' discographies worldwide, and for many years the "Hey Jude" album was not available in that format. In January 2014, "Hey Jude" was issued on CD both individually and in an American Beatles album compilation box set titled "The U.S. Albums".


title: Hey Jude (Beatles album)

text: In the US, the album sold 2,321,769 copies by 31 December 1970 and 3,264,398 copies by the end of the decade.


title: Santiniketan

text: Santiniketan is a neighbourhood of Bolpur town in Bolpur subdivision of Birbhum district in West Bengal, India, approximately 152 km north of Kolkata. It was established by Maharshi Devendranath Tagore, and later expanded by his son Rabindranath Tagore whose vision became what is now a university town with the creation of Visva-Bharati.


title: Santiniketan

text: In 1863, Debendranath Tagore took on permanent lease of land, with two (Alstonia scholaris) trees, at a yearly payment of Rs. 5, from Bhuban Mohan Sinha, the talukdar of Raipur,Birbhum. He built a guest house there and named it "Shantiniketan" (the abode of peace). Gradually, the whole area came to be known as Shantiniketan.


title: Santiniketan

text: Binoy Ghosh says that Bolpur was a small place in the middle of the 19th century. It grew as Shantiniketan grew. A certain portion of Bolpur was a part of the "zamindari" of the Sinha family of Raipur. Bhuban Mohan Sinha had developed a small village in the Bolpur area and named it Bhubandanga. It was just opposite Shantiniketan of those days. Bhubandanga was the den of a gang of notorious dacoits, who had no compunction in killing people. It led to a situation of conflict and confrontation, but the leader of the gang, ultimately, surrendered to Debendranath, and they started helping him in developing the area. There was a tree under which Debendranath used to meditate. Inspired by The Crystal Palace built originally in Hyde Park, London, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851 and later relocated, Debendranath constructed a 60-foot × 30-foot hall for Brahmo prayers. The roof was tiled and the floor had white marble, but the rest of the structure was made of glass. From its earliest days, it was a great attraction for people from all around.


title: Santiniketan

text: Rabindranath Tagore first visited Shantiniketan in 27 January, 1878 when he was 17 years old. In 1888, Debendranath dedicated the entire property for the establishment of a Brahmavidyalaya through a trust deed. In 1901, Rabindranath started a Brahmacharyaashrama and it came to be known as Patha Bhavana from 1925. In 1913, Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize in Literature. It was a new feather in the cap of the Tagore family which was the leading family contributing to the enrichment of life and society in Bengal in many fields of activity over a long period of time. The environment at Jorasanko Thakur Bari, one of the bases of the Tagore family in Kolkata, was filled with literature, music, painting, and theatre. Founded in 1921 by Rabindranath Tagore, Visva Bharati was declared to be a central university and an institute of national importance, in 1951.


title: Santiniketan

text: The area is flanked on two sides by the rivers, the Ajay and the Kopai. Santiniketan earlier had an extensive forest cover, but substantial soil erosion gave certain areas a barren look, the resulting phenomenon is locally known as "khoai". However, as a result of the consistent efforts by botanists, plants and trees from all over India flourish in parts of the town. Although the overall environment of the surrounding areas have changed with time, the core area of Santiniketan has retained its closeness with nature.


title: Santiniketan

text: In the 2011 census, Santiniketan is not identified as a separate place. In the map of Bolpur-Sriniketan CD block on page 718 of District Census Handbook Birbhum (Part A), the area occupied by Santiniketan is shown as a part of Bolpur municipal area and Sriniketan is shown as a part of Surul, a census town.


title: Santiniketan

text: As per the "Human Development Report" for Birbhum in 2009, Santiniketan attracted 1.2 million tourists annually.


title: Santiniketan

text: Rabindra Bhavana, founded in 1942, just after the death of the poet, is the focal point of Visva Bharati. It has a museum, archives, library and other units. It houses a major part of Rabindranath's manuscripts, correspondence, paintings and sketches, 40,000 volumes of books and 12,000 volumes of bound journals, photographs and numerous items associated with the poet's life. It is generally one of the first points of interest for anybody visiting Santiniketan. It was established by the poet's son, Rathindranath Tagore, as a memorial museum and research centre for Tagore studies.


title: Santiniketan

text: The Uttarayana Complex, which lies in the northern portion of the town and is located next to Rabindra Bhavana, features a collection of five houses built by Rabindranath – "Udayan", "Shyamali", "Konark", "Udichi" and "Punascha". The gardens in the Uttarayan complex were planned and laid out by Rathindranath. "Shyamali" and "Konark" are mud houses. "Shyamali" was an experiment. The visual perspective was based on the Borobudur style. The entire outside wall was decorated with beautiful relief work by Kala Bhavana students under the guidance of Nandalal Bose. The Santals on either side of the main door and on the eastern corner were by Ramkinkar Baij. Mahatma Gandhi and Kasturba Gandhi stayed in the house as guests. "Udayan" is the most imposing house in the Uttarayan complex. It is meant for important guests visiting Santiniketan. Each suite in "Udayan" is on a different level which gives this house its individuality. In 2013, Visva Bharati opened a museum "Guha Ghar", in the Uttarayan complex, in memory of Rathindranath Tagore.


title: Santiniketan

text: The Ashram Complex is the oldest area of Santiniketan, where Debendranath built the "Santiniketan Griha" and the beautiful stained glass prayer hall, in the second half of the 19th century. Patha Bhavana came up after Rabindranath started residing in Santiniketan. It has beautiful frescoes by Nandalal Bose. "Natun Bari" was built in 1902 for residential purposes. "Kalo Bari" is a unique structure of mud and coal tar and profusely decorated. There are numerous other houses: "Dehali", "Santoshalaya", "Singha Sadan", "Dwijaviram", "Dinantika", "Taladwaj", "Chaitya", "Ghantatala", "Panthasala", "Ratan Kuthi", "Malancha" and others – each with an interesting story that makes it historically relevant.


title: Santiniketan

text: Visva Bharati was established as a centre for culture with the objective of exploring the arts, language, humanities, music etc. Specialised institutes came up in different fields: Cheena Bhavana, Hindi Bhavana, Kala Bhavana, Sangit Bhavana, Bhasa Bhavana, Nippon Bhavana, Bangladesh Bhavana and others. Many of these institutes with myriad structures have been decorated by illustrious artists.


title: Santiniketan

text: "The landscape of Shantiniketan is dotted with sculptures by Ramkinkar Baij (1906–1980), larger-than-life figures of Santals who were in reality part of the landscape. A Santal family, complete with dog, a group of workers running along at the call of the mill, their clothes flying in the air, a thresher, all situated along the main road. When Ramkinkar created Sujata, an elongated figure of one of the disciples of Buddha, he placed it just a little distance from the seated Buddha. Nandalal planted Eucalyptus saplings in the area, knowing that one day these tall trees would be a perfect setting to Ramkinkar's Sujata. It was Nandalal Bose, who created an environment where art would be a part of life and the children of Santiniketan have grown absorbing these beautiful monuments as they have the oxygen in the air."


title: Santiniketan

text: Shantiniketan was founded and developed by members of the Tagore family. It was founded by Debendranath Tagore. Rabindranath Tagore wrote many of his literary classics at Santiniketan. His son, Rathindranath Tagore was one of the first five students at the "Brahmacharya asrama" at Santiniketan. After the death of his father in 1941, Rathindranath took over the burden of all responsibilities at Santiniketan. When Visva Bharati was made a central university in 1951, Rathindranath was appointed its first vice-chancellor.


title: Santiniketan

text: Pratima Devi, Rathindranath's wife, had active links with Visva Bharati from a very young age. She lived in Santinketan till her death in 1969.


title: Santiniketan

text: Mira Devi, Rabindranath's youngest daughter, after her failed marriage, lived in "Malancha" built for her in the Ashrama complex in 1926. She died at Santiniketan in 1969. Krishna Kripalani, husband of Nandita (Buri), daughter of Mira Devi, taught at Santiniketan for nearly 15 years, beginning 1933. Krishna Kripalani's biography of Tagore was amongst the best ever written.


title: Santiniketan

text: Dwijendranath Tagore, Rabindranath's eldest brother, spent the last twenty years of his life at Santiniketan. He lived in "Dwaijaviram" in the Ashrama complex.


title: Santiniketan

text: Dinendranath Tagore, Dwijendranath's grandson, was principal of Sangit Bhavana in its earliest years. "Dinantika", built in 1939, housed the "Cha chakra", where staff members of Visva Bharati met over a cup of tea for meetings and relaxation.


title: Santiniketan

text: Indira Devi Chaudhurani, daughter of Satyendranath Tagore, started living in Santiniketan in 1941 and took charge of Sangit Bhavana. She was acting vice-chancellor for a short period.


title: Santiniketan

text: Supriyo Tagore, great grandson of Satyendranath, was a student of Patha Bhavana and Visva Bharati University before going abroad to complete his education. He retired as the longest serving principal of Patha Bhavana. He now runs Sisu Tirtha, an institution for orphans mainly from the economically disadvantaged tribals, near Santiniketan. His son, Sudripta, with wide-ranging experience in the field of education, is also engaged in setting up a school, at Ruppur near Santiniketan, embodying the ideas of Rabindranath.


title: Santiniketan

text: The climate of Shantiniketan is moderately warm, with summer temperatures at around 35-42 °C (maximum) and winter at 10-15 °C (minimum). Summer is felt for three months, March, April and May. December, January and February are the winter months. June, July, August and September see heavy rainfall, these four months are known as monsoon (rainy season). Shantiniketan saw its highest temperature rising 47.0 °C, on 10 June 1966. The lowest temperature ever recorded is 4.9 °C, on 9 January 2013. The annual average temperature is 26.2 °C. About 1480mm of rain falls per year, with 76 days seeing the rain.


title: Santiniketan

text: The area is classified as an "Aw" (tropical savanna climate) under the Köppen Climate Classification.


title: Santiniketan

text: Bolpur Shantiniketan railway station is well connected with Sealdah Railway Station, Howrah Station, Kolkata Railway Station, Malda Town, New Jalpaiguri etc of West Bengal & Guwahati Railway Station of Assam.


title: Santiniketan

text: There is direct AC Volvo bus service of WBTC from Kolkata to Bolpur Shantiniketan (Kolkata-Bolpur-Suri & Suri-Bolpur-Kolkata).


title: Santiniketan

text: Bus and private cars are available from Kolkata (outstation cab service of Ola Cabs, Uber from Kolkata), Durgapur City Centre Bus Stop, Katwa, Berhampore and soon from Santragachi Railway Station in Howrah.


title: Santiniketan

text: Shantiniketan is a university town with varied educational facilities. At the school level are Patha Bhavana and Siksha Satra. Apart from a number of courses in humanities, science and education, Visva-Bharati offers a range of music, dance and art courses and lays emphasis on language courses. Sangit Bhavana offers courses in Rabindra Sangit, Hindustani classical vocal, sitar, esraj, tabla, pakhawaj, Kathakali dance and Manipuri dance. Kala Bhavana offers courses in painting, mural, sculpture, graphic art, design (textiles/ ceramics) and history of art. The university offers specialised 4-year courses in Persian, Tibetan, Chinese and Japanese. Bhasa Bhavana offers undergraduate and post-graduate courses in Arabic & Persian, Bengali, Chinese, Hindi, Indo-Tibetan, Japanese, Odia, Santali and Sanskrit. Vidya Bhavana offers 1-year courses in Arabic, Bengali, Chinese, French, German, Hindi, Italian, Japanese, Marathi, Odia, Pali, Persian, Russian, Sanskrit, Santali, Tamil, Tibetan and Urdu. It also offers 2-year courses in Arabic, Assamese, Bengali, Chinese, French, German, Hindi, Italian, Japanese, Marathi, Odia, Pali, Persian, Russian, Sanskrit, Santali, Tamil, Tibetan and Urdu. There are certificate courses in leather craft, book binding & hand-made packaging, batik work and hand-made paper making. Shantiniketan offers courses in the field of agriculture and rural development. Only a selective list is presented here to give an idea of the range of courses offered.


title: Santiniketan

text: The town is known for its literary and artistic heritage, with the notable figures being Rabindranath Tagore and Nandalal Bose. In addition, the Visva Bharati also serves as Shantiniketan's cultural center.


title: Santiniketan

text: In Birbhum district, the fairs ("mela" in Bengali) are spread right across the district and are thought of as an extension of the concept of markets, a place of not only trade and business but also a meeting place of people and an arena for cultural exchange. The largest and most notable fair is the "Poush Mela" held at Santiniketan for three days from 7 Poush. Devendranath Tagore with twenty followers accepted the Brahmo creed from Ram Chandra Vidyabagish on 21 December 1843 (7 Poush 1250 according to the Bengali calendar). This was the basis of "Poush Utsav" (the Festival of Poush) at Santiniketan


title: Santiniketan

text: In Shantiniketan, seasonal changes bring their own colors and beauties with various festivals. The emphasis in organising these festivals is on traditional Indian forms and rituals. Numerous festivals range from "Basanta Utsav" and "Barsha Mangal" to "Maghotsav" and "Rabindra Jayanti".


title: Santiniketan

text: Holi, the festival of colours, is celebrated in its own style at Santiniketan – it is called "Basanta Utsav" and welcomes the arrival of spring. The programme starts from the morning with singing and dancing to Tagore's tunes by the students and ends with spreading coloured powders (called ‘abir’) and expression of festive wishes. After the formal Visva Bharati programme, other programmes follow. "Barsha Mangal" is celebrated with cultural programmes in July–August. "Ananda Bazar" is a fair for handicrafts by the students, held on Mahalaya day. Prior to leaving for the puja vacations students celebrate "Sharad Utsav". "Nandan Mela" marks Nandalal Bose's birth anniversary (on 1–2 December) and is a special attraction for art lovers. "Briksharopan" and "Halkarshan" emphasise man's closeness to nature and are held on 22-23 Shraavana (August). "Maghotsab", celebrating the founding of the Brahmo Samaj, is held on 11 Magh (towards the end of January). Various anniversaries and cultural programmes are organised throughout the year. 25 Baisakh (7-8 May) is the birthday of Rabindranath Tagore but his birth anniversary is celebrated along with and subsequent to the Bengali New Year (mid April onwards).


title: Santiniketan

text: Shantiniketan was originally a part of the ancestral "zamindari" of the Sinha family of Raipur, Birbhum. Satyendra Prasanna Sinha, 1st Baron Sinha donated for the construction of Sinha Sadan with a clock tower and bell. It was in this building that Oxford University conferred its honorary doctorate on the poet, Rabindranath Tagore.


title: Santiniketan

text: Ballabhpur Wildlife Sanctuary is located 3 km from Shantiniketan and is popular as Deer Park. Established in 1977, it was a khoai area affected by soil erosion. It is now a large wooded area with herds of deer and makes a natural bird sanctuary.


title: Santiniketan

text: Amar Kutir (meaning: my cottage), once a place of refuge for independence movement activists has been turned into a cooperative society for the promotion of arts and crafts. It is located on the banks of the Kopai River, about from the central areas of Santiniketan.


title: Santiniketan

text: Every Saturday and Sunday, one can visit the "haat" (or market) at Sonajhuri, close to Shantiniketan. This is a village market and one can buy local handicrafts and listen to folk music sung by tribal groups . Sonajhuri haat is a great place to see and collect wooden crafts, terracotta crafts, raw metal ornaments, dhokra art and local made clothes. It is an excellent place to experience the local culture of Shantiniketan.


title: Dave Duerson

text: David Russell Duerson (November 28, 1960February 17, 2011) was an American professional football player who was a safety in the National Football League (NFL) for 11 seasons, primarily with the Chicago Bears. As a member of the Bears, he was selected to four consecutive Pro Bowls from 1985 to 1988 and was part of the 1985 defense that won the franchise's first Super Bowl in Super Bowl XX. He also played for the New York Giants and Arizona Cardinals, winning Super Bowl XXV with the former.


title: Dave Duerson

text: At age 50, Duerson died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the chest. Following his request, his brain was sent to the Boston University School of Medicine for research on chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). Neurologists at Boston University confirmed that Duerson had CTE as a result of the concussions he had during his playing career.


title: Dave Duerson

text: Born and raised in Muncie, Indiana, Duerson played football, basketball, and baseball at Northside High School. Duerson's honors during his high school years included the 1979 Indiana Mr. Football.


title: Dave Duerson

text: Duerson played college football at the University of Notre Dame from 1979 to 1982, and graduated with honors, with a BA in economics. He started all four years for the Fighting Irish, and earned recognition as an All-American in 1981 and 1982. Duerson was a captain and the team's MVP as a senior in 1982, intercepting seven passes and returning them for 104 yards. He finished his college career with 12 interceptions, which he returned for 256 yards and a touchdown. He also returned 103 punts for 869 yards and 3 kickoffs for 75.


title: Dave Duerson

text: He was the winner of the Edward "Moose" Krause Distinguished Service Award in 1990 by the Notre Dame Monogram Club, of which he was a past president. He was also a member of the University of Notre Dame Board of Trustees from 2001 to 2005.


title: Dave Duerson

text: Taken in the third round of the 1983 NFL Draft by the Chicago Bears, Duerson was selected to four consecutive Pro Bowls (–). He won two Super Bowl championship rings, with the 1985 Bears (XX), and 1990 Giants (XXV). During the 1986 season, Duerson set an NFL record that stood for 19 years (Adrian Wilson, 2005) for most sacks in a season by a defensive back, with seven. He also intercepted six passes for 139 yards with a longest return of 38 yards. At season's end, Duerson was named first-team All-Pro by "Pro Football Weekly", the Pro Football Writers Association and "The Sporting News" and second-team All-Pro by the Associated Press. In 1987, Duerson was the recipient of the NFL Man of the Year Award. In his 11 seasons, Duerson recorded 20 interceptions, which he returned for 226 yards, and 16 quarterback sacks. He also recovered five fumbles, returning them for 47 yards and a touchdown.


title: Dave Duerson

text: Duerson owned three McDonald's restaurants in Louisville, Kentucky for six months, from late 1994 to April 1995. He purchased the majority interest in Fair Oaks Farms (formerly Brooks Sausage Company) in 1995. He sold his stake in the company in 2002 and started Duerson Foods, but that company was forced into receivership in 2006 and most of its assets were auctioned off.


title: Dave Duerson

text: Duerson was found dead at his Sunny Isles Beach, Florida home on February 17, 2011. The Miami-Dade County medical examiner reported that Duerson died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the chest. He sent a text message to his family saying he wanted his brain to be used for research at the Boston University School of Medicine, which is conducting research into chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a neurodegenerative disease, which can be caused by playing football. He left behind three sons and a daughter from his marriage to ex-wife Alicia. He was buried in the Cedar Grove Cemetery in Notre Dame, Indiana.


title: Dave Duerson

text: On May 2, 2011, neurologists at Boston University confirmed that he had had CTE, which is linked to concussions.


title: Dave Duerson

text: Duerson was portrayed by actor Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje in the 2015 film "Concussion". Duerson's family was displeased with how he was portrayed. Duerson was also mentioned in the HBO series "Ballers" in reference to CTE with character Ricky Jerret.


title: Operation Linebacker II

text: Operation Linebacker II was an aerial bombing campaign conducted by U.S. Seventh Air Force, Strategic Air Command and U.S. Navy Task Force 77 against targets in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) during the final period of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. The operation was conducted from 18 to 29 December 1972, leading to several informal names such as The December Raids and The Christmas Bombings. In Vietnam, it is just simply called "12 days and nights" () and "Operation Dien Bien Phu in the air" () or just simply "Dien Bien Phu in the air" (). Unlike the Operation Rolling Thunder and Operation Linebacker air interdiction operations, Linebacker II was designed to be a "maximum effort" bombing campaign to "destroy major target complexes in the Hanoi and Haiphong areas, which could only be accomplished by B-52s". It saw the largest heavy bomber strikes launched by the U.S. Air Force since World War II.


title: Operation Linebacker II

text: On 8 October 1972, U.S. National Security Advisor Dr. Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese Politburo member Le Duc Tho met in Paris to discuss new proposals by both nations, hoping to reach mutually agreeable terms for a peace settlement for the decade-old Vietnam War. Tho presented a new North Vietnamese plan which included proposals for a cease-fire, the withdrawal of American forces, and an exchange of prisoners of war. All three Vietnamese combatant governments—North Vietnam, the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam), and the Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam (PRG)—would remain intact, as would their separate armies. Hanoi no longer demanded that South Vietnamese president Nguyen Van Thieu be removed from office, the U.S. did not have to cease its aid to the southern government, and both Washington and Hanoi could continue to resupply their allies or forces on a parity basis. No new North Vietnamese forces were to be infiltrated from the north, and the U.S. agreed to extend post-war reconstruction assistance to North Vietnam.


title: Operation Linebacker II

text: The new terms on the table also included the establishment of a National Council of National Reconciliation and Concord, a loosely defined administrative structure which was to work toward general and local elections within South Vietnam. Political power would be shared by three groups: the Saigon government, the PRG, and a "third force" group to be mutually agreed upon by the other two parties. Since it was to work by consensus, nothing could be accomplished by the new council without the agreement of President Thieu.


title: Operation Linebacker II

text: When the two sides convened again on 17 October, there were two main areas of disagreement: the periodic replacement of South Vietnam's American weaponry and the release of political prisoners held by the Saigon government. The North Vietnamese had made significant modifications to their past negotiating position and were hurrying to get the agreement signed before November, believing that President Richard Nixon would be more willing to make concessions before, rather than after, the upcoming presidential election. Although there were still some issues to be finalized, Kissinger was generally satisfied with the new terms and so notified Nixon, who gave his approval to the settlement.


title: Operation Linebacker II

text: Kissinger then flew on to Saigon on the 18th to discuss the terms with Thieu. The South Vietnamese president was not happy with either the new agreement or with Kissinger, who he felt had betrayed him. Although Kissinger knew Thieu's negotiating position, he had not informed him of the changes made in Paris nor had his approval been sought. Kissinger "had negotiated on behalf of the South Vietnamese government provisions that he, Thieu, had already rejected". Thieu completely castigated the agreement and proposed 129 textual changes to the document. He went further, demanding that the Demilitarized Zone separating the two Vietnams be recognized as a true international border and not as a "provisional military demarcation line" (as had been stipulated in the Geneva Accords) and that South Vietnam be recognized as a sovereign state. The supreme irony, in the words of Stanley Karnow, had now arrived: "having fought a war to defend South Vietnam's independence, the United States was now denying its legitimacy."


title: Operation Linebacker II

text: Thieu then went one step further on 26 October, and publicly released an altered version of the text that made the South Vietnamese provisions look even worse than they actually were. The North Vietnamese leadership, believing that they had been hoodwinked by Kissinger, responded by broadcasting portions of the agreement that gave the impression that the agreement conformed to Washington and Saigon's objectives. Kissinger, hoping to both reassure the Communists of America's sincerity, and convince Thieu of the administration's dedication to a compromise, held a televised press conference at the White House during which he announced "[w]e believe that peace is at hand."


title: Operation Linebacker II

text: On 20 November, the South Vietnamese revisions, and 44 additional changes demanded by Nixon, were presented to the North Vietnamese delegation by Kissinger. These new demands included: that the DMZ be accepted as a true international boundary; that a token withdrawal of North Vietnamese troops take place; that the North Vietnamese guarantee an Indochina-wide cease fire; and that a strong international peace-keeping force (the ICCS) be created for supervising and enforcing the cease-fire.


title: Operation Linebacker II

text: Once the North Vietnamese read the new demands, they began to retract their own concessions and wanted to bargain anew, leading Kissinger to proclaim that they were "stalling". The talks, scheduled to last ten days, ended on 13 December, with both parties agreeing to resume negotiations. Teams of experts from each side met to discuss technicalities and protocols on 14 December, during which time the North Vietnamese representatives submitted a Vietnamese-language text of the protocol on prisoners containing several important changes that Hanoi had failed to gain in the main negotiating sessions. At a subsequent meeting of experts on 16 December, the North Vietnamese side "stone-walled from beginning to end". The talks broke down that day, and the Hanoi negotiators refused to set a date for the resumption of negotiations.


title: Operation Linebacker II

text: Nixon was now working against a January deadline. Kissinger's "peace is at hand" statement had raised expectations of a settlement among the US population. Even weightier on the President's mind was the fact that the new 93rd Congress would go into session on 3 January, and the President feared that the heavily Democratic legislative branch would preempt his pledge of "peace with honor" by legislating an end to the war.


title: Operation Linebacker II

text: Also prompting the President toward some form of rapid offensive action was the cost of the force mobilization that had accompanied "Operation Linebacker". The additional aircraft and personnel assigned to Southeast Asia for the operation was straining the Pentagon's budget. The cost of maintaining this "augmentation force" totaled over $4 billion by mid-autumn and Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird insisted that the President request a supplementary defense appropriation from Congress to pay for it. Nixon and Kissinger were convinced that the legislative branch "would seize the opportunity to simply write the United States out of the war".


title: Operation Linebacker II

text: After returning from Paris on 14 December, and after consultations with Nixon, Kissinger fired off an ultimatum to Hanoi, threatening "grave consequences" if North Vietnam did not return to the negotiating table within 72 hours. On that day, Nixon ordered the reseeding of North Vietnamese ports with air-dropped naval mines and that the Joint Chiefs of Staff direct the Air Force to begin planning for a bombing campaign (a three-day "maximum effort" operation) which was to begin within 72 hours. Two days after the 16 December deadline had passed, the U.S. bombed Hanoi. Senior Air Force officers James R. Mccarthy and George B. Allison stated years later that the operation had been mainly politically driven, as a negotiation tool to "bring the point home".


title: Operation Linebacker II

text: Many historians of the Vietnam War follow the lead of President Nixon, who claimed that Hanoi's representatives had walked out of the talks, refusing to continue the negotiations. Both sides had proclaimed their willingness to continue the talks; however, Hanoi's negotiators refused to set a date, preferring to wait for the incoming Congress. The goal of President Nixon was not to convince Hanoi, but to convince Saigon. President Thieu had to be assured that "whatever the formal wording of the cease-fire agreement, he could count on Nixon to come to the defense of South Vietnam if the North broke the cease-fire."