title: West Village

text: Costas Kondylis's 1 Morton Square residential development (on Morton and West Street, completed in 2004) is the residence of actresses Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen and of actor Daniel Radcliffe. Richard Meier's towers at 173 Perry Street, 176 Perry Street, and 165 Charles Street are home to actors Jim Carrey, Hugh Jackman, and Nicole Kidman. Other notable actors who formerly lived or currently reside in the neighborhood include Matthew Broderick, Scarlett Johansson, Ray Romano, Jason Biggs, Ryan Eggold, Andy Samberg, Claire Danes, Hugh Dancy, Will Ferrell, Jill Hennessy, Seth Meyers, Julianne Moore, Sarah Jessica Parker, Brooke Shields, Liv Tyler, Saoirse Ronan, Karlie Kloss, and musician/actor Richard Barone. Ramsey Clark, Attorney General under Lyndon B. Johnson, activist and founder of the International Action Center, lived here as well.


title: Felix Magath

text: The most notable spell of his playing career was with Hamburger SV, with whom he won three Bundesliga titles, the 1977 European Cup Winners' Cup Final and the 1983 European Cup Final, scoring in both Finals. He also gained 43 international caps for the West Germany national team, winning UEFA Euro 1980 and reaching two consecutive World Cup finals.


title: Felix Magath

text: As a manager, Magath's honours include two consecutive Doubles (Bundesliga and German Cup titles) with Bayern Munich, and a further Bundesliga title with VfL Wolfsburg in 2009. He has a reputation of demanding strong discipline and thorough training.


title: Felix Magath

text: In 2014, Magath coached English club Fulham, becoming the first German to manage in the Premier League.


title: Felix Magath

text: Born near Aschaffenburg, Magath started his career playing for local club Viktoria Aschaffenburg. From 1974 to 1976, he played for 1. FC Saarbrücken, at that time in the second division, before moving to Hamburger SV in the top flight. He spent the following ten seasons with Hamburg, and from his debut in 1976 to his retirement he scored 46 goals in 306 games in the West German top flight.


title: Felix Magath

text: In 1983, Magath led Hamburg to success in the European Cup, scoring the single goal in the final against Juventus; in 1980–81, he netted a career-best (in the first division) ten goals, helping his side to a runner-up league spot, as Hamburg also won the league in three years during that time.


title: Felix Magath

text: Magath also represented the West Germany national team at many international events, including the 1982 and 1986 FIFA World Cups, helping West Germany finish in second place both times. He was also part of the squad that won the 1980 UEFA European Championship. Magath made his debut on 30 April 1977, in a 2–1 friendly win with Yugoslavia, and went on to amass 43 caps, with three goals.


title: Felix Magath

text: Having suffered a career-ending knee injury, Magath retired shortly after the 1986 World Cup and became general manager for his former club Hamburg. He left Hamburg in June 1988 after moderate success. His next stints as general manager included then 2. Bundesliga side 1. FC Saarbrücken (November 1989 to June 1990) as well as Bayer Uerdingen (July 1990 to January 1992) who were relegated from the first tier during Magath's time at the club.


title: Felix Magath

text: Magath took up coaching in 1992 as a player-coach for the fourth-tier club FC Bremerhaven which he led to division championship. He then rejoined Hamburger SV as reserves coach in 1993 and became manager Benno Möhlmann's assistant soon after. Magath succeeded Möhlmann as manager after the latter was sacked in October 1995. His first match was a 2–2 draw against 1860 Munich. Having reached the UEFA Cup during his first season, Hamburg finished in fifth place. The following season as disappointing 15th at the time Magath was sacked. His final match was a 4–0 loss to 1. FC Köln. He finished with a record of 28 wins, 19 draws, and 22 losses.


title: Felix Magath

text: In the following years, Magath acquired a reputation as the "fireman", coming in at difficult times at a club and leading it to salvation. In September 1997, he took over 1. FC Nürnberg who were newly promoted to the 2. Bundesliga and fighting relegation. His first match was a 0–0 draw against KFC Uerdingen 05. "Der Club" finished the season in third–place, meaning promotion to the Bundesliga, but Magath left due to differences in opinion with the club president Michael A. Roth. He finished with a record of 16 wins, eight draws, and five losses. During a short stint at Werder Bremen during the 1998–99 season, Magath lead the club out of relegation places, only for Bremen to find themselves in the relegation dogfight again with two games to go. At this point he was replaced as manager by Thomas Schaaf who helped them avoid relegation by a point. Magath also helped Bremen get to the final of the DFB-Pokal however he was sacked before the final itself, which Bremen won in his absence. He had nine wins, seven draws, and ten losses. Halfway through the 1999–00 season, Magath joined troubled Eintracht Frankfurt. An impressive Magath-inspired run saw Frankfurt finish the second round as third best and four points off relegation. Magath was sacked the season after (29 January 2001) when Frankfurt found themselves in the relegation zone. His last match was a 5–1 loss to Köln. He finished with record of 15 wins, five draws, and 17 losses.


title: Felix Magath

text: Magath bounced back with what was to become one of his most successful stints when he took over fellow relegation battlers VfB Stuttgart a few weeks after. Having narrowly avoided relegation in 2001, Stuttgart finished the 2001–02 in a mid-table position. The club went then on to become 2002–03 Bundesliga runners-up and finished the 2003–04 season as respectable fourth. During this time, Magath also introduced a group of players from the Stuttgart youth ranks, such as Timo Hildebrand, Andreas Hinkel and Kevin Kurányi, who became known as ""die jungen Wilden"" (wild youth). The Stuttgart stint was also the first time Magath combined the head coach and the director of football roles. He finished with a record of 73 wins, 37 draws, and 37 losses.


title: Felix Magath

text: Having impressed with Stuttgart, Magath was handed the FC Bayern Munich job on 1 July 2004. In his first season, Magath was able to lead his team to victory in both the league and cup, completing the double, a feat which would be repeated in 2005–06, the first time ever in the competition's history.


title: Felix Magath

text: However, after a slow start to the 2006–07 season, with the team mired in fourth place which would not qualify them for the Champions League, Magath was sacked on 31 January 2007. He finished with a record of 84 wins, 25 draws, and 22 losses.


title: Felix Magath

text: In June 2007, Magath signed a contract with VfL Wolfsburg, as head coach and director of football. Magath lead the "Wolves" to play in the 2008–09 UEFA Cup and the following season's Champions League, the latter as league champions for the first time. He finished with a record of 46 wins, 18 draws, and 21 losses.


title: Felix Magath

text: Before the season 2008–09 had ended, Magath agreed on a four-year contract with Schalke 04, again as both head coach and director of football, starting on 1 July 2009. Schalke finished Magath's first season in charge as runners-up, but after a series of disappointing domestic performances and growing player discontent, Magath was sacked by Schalke in March 2011. the following day, Magath claimed that he had not been informed of his dismissal. He finished with a record of 42 wins, 16 draws, and 21 losses.


title: Felix Magath

text: Only 48 hours later, on 18 March, Magath once again signed with now relegation-battling VfL Wolfsburg, the side he had previously led to the league title in 2009. Magath steered the club to safety, avoiding the relegation play–off by two points, but though the club invested heavily, Magath could only achieve a mid-table finish in the following 2011–12 season. After only five points in eight matches (and no goals and points in the last four games) in the 2012–13 season, Magath left the club by mutual consent on 25 October 2012. He finished with a record of 18 wins, 10 draws, and 24 losses.


title: Felix Magath

text: On 14 February 2014, Fulham released a statement that Magath would be their new first team manager effective immediately on an eighteen-month contract. Magath brought in Tomas Oral as first team coach and Werner Leuthard as the person in charge of conditioning while the club dismissed manager Rene Meulensteen, assistant coach Ray Wilkins, technical director Alan Curbishley, and first team coaches Mick Priest and Jonathan Hill. The role was Magath's first in two years and at the time his only venture outside of his native Germany. Magath believed that he could save Fulham from relegation and that 12 matches was enough to save the club. Fulham played their first match under Magath on 22 February 2014. The match ended in a 1–1 draw with Ashkan Dejagah, Magath's former player at VfL Wolfsburg, being the first Fulham goalscorer of Magath's tenure.


title: Felix Magath

text: On 15 March, Fulham won their first match with Magath in charge against Newcastle United, with Dejagah being the lone scorer. Magath picked up four points from his first six matches and answered questions about a potential resignation. On 3 May 2014, Fulham were relegated from the Premier League after a 4–1 loss to Stoke City. Magath believed that Fulham could earn immediate promotion. He started the 2014–15 season with four consecutive losses to Ipswich Town, Millwall, Wolverhampton Wanderers and Derby County. On 18 September 2014 Magath was sacked as Fulham manager after a run of eleven league games without a win. He finished with a record of four wins, four draws, and 12 losses.


title: Felix Magath

text: After Gerald Baumgartner was sacked by Austria Wien, Magath eventually became the "preferred" choice. Spartak Moscow also offered Magath a contract. Thorsten Fink and Dmitriy Alenichev took the coaching jobs. He eventually took the job at Shandong Luneng Taishan, replacing former Brazil national football team manager Mano Menezes. He took the job on 8 June 2016. He made his debut on 12 June 2016 in a 2–1 loss against Hebei China Fortune. His first win was a 2–1 win against Jiangsu Suning on 9 July 2016. Four days later, he got his second win against Shijiazhuang Ever Bright, a 4–0 win.


title: Felix Magath

text: He led Luneng throughout the 2017 Chinese Super League, finishing 6th, but left the club shortly after the end of the season.


title: Felix Magath

text: In January 2020, Magath revealed that his time as a coach was over and that he wanted to "help football in a different way". In step with this, he introduced himself as the new boss of FLYERALARM Global Soccer. Magath became responsible for FLYERALARM's commitment to the clubs Würzburger Kickers in Germany and Flyeralarm Admira, formerly known as FC Admira Wacker Mödling.


title: Felix Magath

text: On 13 March 2022, Magath became Hertha BSC's third head coach of the 2021–22 season after he replaced Tayfun Korkut, who had replaced Pál Dárdai in November 2021. On 17 March 2022, Magath tested positive for COVID-19 and had to postpone his debut match.


title: Felix Magath

text: As a manager, Magath quickly gained respect and became known for his hard, grinding training methods, laying heavy emphasis on discipline, fitness and conditioning. Players gave him nicknames like "Saddam" (Saddam Hussein) or "Quälix", a rhyming mash of his first name Felix and the German verb "quälen" (to torture). He was once described by former Eintracht Frankfurt player Bachirou Salou as the "last dictator in Europe".


title: Felix Magath

text: After leaving Fulham in September 2014, bizarre stories emerged about how Magath had suggested that Brede Hangeland rub cheese on a thigh injury. Magath stated that Hangeland did not have a thigh injury but an inflammation of the knee, and that he suggested the additional use of an alternative treatment with a bandage (dressing) consisting of Quark. Fulham player Sascha Riether later said that the story was greatly exaggerated and that Magath had suggested he use a traditional topfen curd.


title: Felix Magath

text: Magath is the son of a Puerto Rican former soldier in the United States Army stationed in Aschaffenburg and a German mother. In 1954, Magath's father abandoned Magath and his mother to return to his homeland. The adolescent Magath first heard from his father when he was 15 years old, after he wrote a letter to Puerto Rico.


title: Felix Magath

text: Magath is also a chess enthusiast, an interest which he developed during the 1978 World Chess Championship while he was bedridden due to hepatitis. In 1985, he played in a simultaneous exhibition against Garry Kasparov.


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: The Buddy Holly Story is a 1978 American biographical film which tells the life and career of rock and roll musician Buddy Holly. It features an Academy Award-winning musical score, adapted by Joe Renzetti and Oscar-nominated lead performance by Gary Busey. The film also stars Don Stroud, Charles Martin Smith, Conrad Janis, William Jordan, and Maria Richwine, who played Maria Elena Holly.


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: It was adapted by Robert Gittler from "Buddy Holly: His Life and Music", the 1975 biography of Holly by John Goldrosen, and was directed by Steve Rash.


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: In 1956, Buddy Holly and his friends, drummer Jesse Charles and bass player Ray Bob Simmons, regularly performed at a local roller rink in Lubbock, Texas, as The Crickets. A local radio station broadcasts the show. Buddy plays a country song, then switches to a rock and roll song, exciting the teens but drawing the ire of the radio station's sponsor. Station manager Riley tells Buddy that Coral Records vice president wants the band to make a recording in Nashville, Tennessee.


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: At the recording studio, Buddy walks out when his rock-and-roll vision clashes with the producers, who want The Crickets to play country music. Later, Riley says he sent a tape of the Cricket's roller rink performance to New York City music producer Ross Turner. Believing the demo tape is a master copy, Turner releases it without realizing the band has not yet signed a contract. The record is a hit and Buddy can now pursue music full time. In New York City, the Crickets meet with Turner; after initial resistance, he agrees that Buddy can make music how he wants.


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: Sol Gittler books the Crickets for the famous Apollo Theater in Harlem, assuming they are a black band. He is stunned when three white Texans show up, and he refuses to let them perform, fearing the all-black audience's reaction. Buddy points out that Gittler's telegram specifies that they only have to be in New York City for a week to be paid $1000, so Gittler nervously allows them to perform, the first white act to perform at the Apollo. After an uncomfortable start, Buddy's music soon wins over the audience and the Crickets are a hit.


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: Turner's secretary, Maria Elena Santiago, catches Buddy's eye, but their budding romance is nearly ended when her strict aunt refuses to allow them to date. Buddy convinces her to change her mind, and on their first date, Buddy proposes to Maria. She accepts and they are soon married.


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: After two years of success, Ray Bob, and Jesse, feeling overshadowed by Buddy and wanting to return to Texas, decide to quit while Buddy believes it is necessary to remain in New York to stay popular. After appearing on CBS TV on "The Ed Sullivan Show", Jesse and Ray Bob return to Lubbock with the agreement that they will retain the Crickets name. Though saddened by their departure, Buddy carries on writing. He initially fears performing without them despite his manager's emphasizing that touring is necessary to chart success. Buddy is delighted when Maria becomes pregnant, though she sees he is frustrated professionally and urges him to go on tour.


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: On February 2, 1959, preparing for a concert at Clear Lake, Iowa, Buddy charters a private plane to fly to Moorhead, Minnesota for the next concert after the tour bus has broken down. The Big Bopper and Ritchie Valens join him on the flight. Meanwhile, the Crickets, feeling nostalgic and wanting to revive the band, plan to join Buddy at his next tour stop. After playing his final song, "Not Fade Away", Holly bids the crowd farewell. A caption reveals that Holly, Valens, and the Bopper died in a plane crash that night "... and the rest is Rock 'n Roll."


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: The actors did their own singing and played their own instruments, with guitarist Jerry Zaremba overdubbing the guitar parts. Busey, in particular, was noted for recording the soundtrack music live and for losing a considerable amount of weight in order to portray the skinny Holly. According to Busey's biography, he lost 32 pounds to look more like Holly, who weighed 146 pounds at the time of his death.


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: The actor's accurate portrayal was aided by knowledge gained from a previous attempt to film part of the Holly life story, the ill-fated "Three-Sided Coin", in which he played Crickets drummer Jerry Allison. The film was cancelled by 20th Century Fox due to pressure from Fred Bauer and his company, who had made deals with the Holly estate. The screenplay of "Three-Sided Coin" (by Allison and Tom Drake) revealed many personal details about Holly, and Busey picked up more during off-set conversations with Allison.


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: While the story follows Buddy Holly from age 20 to 22 (1956 to February 1959), Busey was 33 when he played the role. Charles Martin Smith auditioned for the role of Buddy, but since Busey already had been cast, the producers cast Martin to play Ray Bob Simmons because they liked his audition. Simmons and Jesse Charles were character names used in place of Joe B. Mauldin and Jerry Allison, two of the actual Crickets (1956 to early 1958 Cricket Niki Sullivan, performing on 27 of the 32 songs Holly recorded, is not shown).


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: The incident in which a Buffalo disc jockey locked himself in a studio and repeatedly played the same song over and over was loosely based on real-life stunts orchestrated by disc jockey Tom Clay (and repeated a few years later by Danny Neaverth), who held up Buffalo's Shelton Square by playing Bill Haley & His Comets' "Rock Around the Clock" repeatedly from the top of a billboard, and by Joey Reynolds, who locked himself in a studio playing "Sherry" by The Four Seasons for several hours; those incidents, however, had no relation to Buddy Holly or his music.


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: The film had a special premiere in nine different Texas and Oklahoma cities on May 18, 1978, including Holly's hometown of Lubbock and Busey's hometown of Tulsa, before opening in Los Angeles on June 14.


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: Roger Ebert gave the film three and a half stars out of four and praised Busey's "remarkable performance as Buddy Holly. If you're a fan of Holly and his music, you'll be quietly amazed at how completely Busey gets into the character." Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" wrote, "There are a lot of actors in 'The Buddy Holly Story' — some of them very nice — but the movie is really a one-man show. It's Gary Busey's galvanizing solo performance that gives meaning to an otherwise shapeless and bland feature-length film about the American rock-and-roll star who was killed in a plane crash in 1959." Gene Siskel gave the film four stars out of four and wrote, "In a year in which we are inundated with films featuring rock music, 'The Buddy Holly Story' probably will turn out to be the best. That is because of Busey's galvanizing performance." Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "The heart and soul and power of 'The Buddy Holly Story' is the uncanny, marrow-deep, robust, exhilarating, likable, superlative, overwhelmingly convincing portrayal by Gary Busey ... For once there is no lip-synching to someone else's voice, no feigning with the fingers to somebody else's strumming. Busey does it all himself, and it is one of those rare and stunning performances in which the person of the actor himself is totally lost to sight in his creation of someone else." Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" wrote, "Gary Busey invests the title role with a personal charm so original and an emotional dedication so exhilarating that he seems to lift the material off its somewhat pedestrian feet."


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: "The Buddy Holly Story" holds a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 30 reviews, with a weighted average of 7.3/10. "The New York Times" placed the film on its "Best 1000 Movies Ever" list.


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: Peggy Sue Gerrow Allison Rackham, to whom the song "Peggy Sue" was written, called the film "typical Hollywood, gobbledygook fantasy". Ex-Beatle Paul McCartney wasn't positive about the film either. Being interviewed and involved in the production of director Richard Spence's documentary 'The Real Story of Buddy Holly', McCartney decided after seeing the film to make a more accurate account of what happened. In a "Rolling Stone" interview, executive producer Ed Cohen, director Steve Rash and producer Freddy Bauer defended inaccuracies in the movie, pointing out the budget of the movie was only two million dollars. "Whatever we put up there on the screen will be the truth", commented Bauer. "Ask moviegoers who invented the telephone. They'll tell you that Don Ameche did." According to "Rolling Stone", the three major complaints concerned the portrayal of Holly's family, the treatment of the Crickets and the omission of Norman Petty, Holly's producer.


title: The Buddy Holly Story

text: The film won the Academy Award for Best Adaptation Score by Joe Renzetti. Busey was nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role, and Tex Rudloff, Joel Fein, Curly Thirlwell and Willie D. Burton for Best Sound.


title: Zack Addy

text: Zachary "Zack" Uriah Addy, Ph.D, is a fictional character in the television series "Bones". He is portrayed by Eric Millegan. The character was introduced as Dr. Temperance Brennan's brilliant young assistant at the beginning of the series before he received his doctorate in forensic anthropology in Season 2. Millegan was a series regular for Seasons 1 to 3, appearing in all episodes. Since then, he has made guest appearances in Season 4's "The Perfect Pieces in the Purple Pond" and "The End in the Beginning" (dream sequence), Season 5's "The Parts in the Sum of the Whole" (flashback) and returned in the Season 11 finale "The Nightmare within the Nightmare", and had a recurring role in the series's final season. In the series penultimate episode "The Day in the Life", Zack is exonerated for the murder that left him locked up since the third season finale, opening the way for him to return to society in just over a year's time.


title: Zack Addy

text: The youngest in a large fictional Michigan family with three brothers and four sisters, Zack was a child prodigy, a genius with an I.Q. well above 163 with a supposed eidetic memory. According to his character bio on the DVD for Season 1, Zack graduated from college at the age of 16. It is revealed in the episode "The Boy in the Time Capsule" that Zack was physically bullied throughout high school. In "A Boy in a Tree," he is heard saying he "didn't have any friends" in high school and endured relentless physical and emotional abuse through his school life. Additionally, it is revealed that Zack is an excellent singer. At the beginning of the show, he had started two doctorates—one in Forensic Anthropology, the completion of which is shown on-screen in the episode "Judas on a Pole", and the other in Applied Engineering, the completion of which is referred to in "The Killer in the Concrete".


title: Zack Addy

text: His specialty, just like Dr. Brennan, is in the analysis of remains, especially identifying cause of death and weapons from marks on skeletal remains. It is usually his task to remove the flesh from the bones, a process known as "maceration". Because of his tremendous intellect, he has a strong broad-based knowledge of many of the specialties in the Jeffersonian lab.


title: Zack Addy

text: Zack's fictional best friend is Jack Hodgins. Although it at first appears Hodgins and Zack are roommates, it is later revealed he rents the apartment over Hodgins' garage. Zack also carpools with Hodgins because he can neither drive a car nor ride a bike. He once made a comment to Booth that, if Booth shared Zack's knowledge of Structural Engineering, he would be afraid to drive as well (Season 1 "The Man on Death Row"). In The Man in the Bear, Zack and Hodgins compete for the affections of a beautiful delivery lady until they realize in the end that she might be bisexual or homosexual, when she shows an attraction to forensic artist Angela Montenegro.


title: Zack Addy

text: Episodes towards the end of Season 1 reveal Zack's colleagues, especially Dr. Goodman, feel he has become too comfortable as Dr. Brennan's assistant and is therefore not completing any of his work towards his doctorate degrees to avoid having to move into a new position. Goodman and Hodgins conspire to make Zack less comfortable in his position to motivate him to complete his studies, thus encouraging him to fulfill his potential of more than just an assistant.


title: Zack Addy

text: Right before he was about to complete his doctorate, Zack asks the Jeffersonian's new forensics head, Dr. Camille Saroyan, if he can have a job working at the Jeffersonian. She replies she could not put him in front of a court to testify because people would not take him seriously. Zack then goes to ask Angela for fashion advice, and she gives him a complete makeover that includes a new haircut and a suit. After completing his doctorate and getting the makeover from Angela, Zack again asks Cam for a job; she gives it to him, saying, "Who am I to break up the team?"


title: Zack Addy

text: At the end of Season 2, Zack receives a request from the office of the fictional President to ship out to Iraq. His reason for being there is kept confidential, and he only tells Hodgins and Booth about it. He is indecisive and asks Booth for advice as Booth "knows more about duty and honor than anyone else I know". Zack also turns down the offer to be the best man at Hodgins and Angela's wedding in case he is killed in Iraq, as he does not want Hodgins' memories of the wedding to be tainted with sadness. However, Zack is later seen at the wedding. It is revealed in Episode 1 of Season 3 that Zack had just returned from a three-month stint in Iraq, having returned early because he "failed to assimilate."


title: Zack Addy

text: In "The Pain in the Heart", the final episode of Season 3, Zack receives third-degree burns and massive tissue damage on both hands after an explosion in the lab. It is later revealed he was working as the apprentice of the Gormogon, a cannibalistic serial killer, and the explosion was designed as a distraction so Gormogon could break into the lab and steal back the silver skeleton. Zack's weaker personality was easily manipulated by Gormogon so he believed his belief system irrefutable, even going as far as to divide the bones of a lobbyist among the 10,000 skeletons in the Jeffersonian's bone storage room, called Limbo. However, Zack still maintained a loyalty to his friends. As pointed out by Brennan, he was willing to injure himself to keep Hodgins safe. He gives up the location of Gormogon's house after Brennan makes him realize his logic is faulty.


title: Zack Addy

text: At the end of the episode, prosecutor Caroline Julian cuts Zack a deal. He pleaded guilty to killing the lobbyist and declared ""Non compos mentis"", thus committing him into a mental asylum rather than to prison.


title: Zack Addy

text: Zack is no longer a regular character on the show, but series creator Hart Hanson said he may become a recurring character to provide consults to the team with "certain talents we can use in a 'Hannibal Lecter' kind of way."


title: Zack Addy

text: The episode "The Perfect Pieces in the Purple Pond" reveals Zack is receiving psychological treatment from FBI psychologist Dr. Lance Sweets. It is also shown at least Hodgins and Angela have both been in contact with Zack during his confinement. Hodgins is shown bringing him a mathematical riddle to solve. In a session with Sweets, Zack admits to feeling guilty for killing the lobbyist but claims he was not actually crazy, arguing he committed the crime for what had appeared to be perfectly logical reasons at the time. "I was wrong, not delusional," he says. Sweets believes Zack should feel more guilty about killing the lobbyist and less about having been taken in by Gormogon's rhetoric.


title: Zack Addy

text: Towards the end of the episode, Zack escapes from the institution. It is revealed he could have escaped at any time but did not feel it was necessary to do so until that particular moment. After helping his co-workers solve the case, he willingly returns to the institution with Sweets. While returned to the asylum, Zack tells Sweets that, although he helped Gormogon find the lobbyist, he himself had not actually stabbed him. In other words, Zack believes he killed the lobbyist, but, from a legal standpoint, he is considered only an accessory or co-conspirator. Sweets insists Zack change his story, but Zack refuses. He fears, if his secret were to come out, he will find himself in prison, where he is sure to do very poorly. He reminds Sweets, as Zack's therapist, he must not reveal his secret because he would be violating doctor-patient confidentiality. The episode closes with Zack behind bars at the institution, and Sweets keeping his secret.


title: Zack Addy

text: In the Season 4 finale, Zack is considered a suspect when a man is murdered in a popular nightclub owned by Booth and Brennan. Zack is described by Vincent Nigel-Murray as "the type of moron who goes to jail for a murder he didn't commit", suggesting that, on some level, Booth knows Zack is innocent. At the end of the episode, it is shown that the entire thing was in fact a dream about an alternate time line that Booth had while unconscious and part of a new book Brennan was writing.


title: Zack Addy

text: Later on, Hodgins says that Zack will be in the asylum "forever", hinting that Zack would be in the asylum on a permanent basis and would never be released into the general public. Also, in the episode "The He in the She", Hodgins tells Vincent that Zack would be locked up for the rest of his life.


title: Zack Addy

text: After eight years from being absent from the show, Zack is mentioned in season 11 "The Movie in the Making." The episode was a "mockumentary" on The Jeffersonian and its partnership with the FBI. When the film crew begins asking Hodgins about Zack, Hodgins becomes visibly shaken.


title: Zack Addy

text: In "The Monster in the Closet", a serial killer has been discovered and named The Puppeteer, due to the nature of the crimes and how the killer would hang the victims from wires and use them as puppets. The following episode, "The Nightmare Within the Nightmare", which is the season 11 finale, a desiccated body is discovered in an abandoned warehouse. The clothes that the victim is dressed in are the same clothes that Dr. Brennan had donated a few months earlier. A mixtape is left with the body and the songs on the tape are from a songbook printed in Michigan. Over the past few weeks, Dr. Brennan has been having vivid nightmares about a burned attacker; in one dream, Wendell brings Brennan her coffee, something Zack used to do. In the dream, Wendell's hands are severely burned. Dr. Brennan begins to break down and sees a therapist to help interpret her dreams. The therapist makes Brennan realize that the attacker is someone she knows but doesn't want to accept who it is.


title: Zack Addy

text: After coming back to the lab, Brennan calls the team because everyone had left. The team, waiting for her at a nearby pub, tells her they left because of an email that was supposedly sent out by Dr. Brennan. It is soon revealed that the email was sent by The Puppeteer. While on the phone with the team, The Puppeteer comes into the room and disconnects Brennan's call. Booth takes the therapist's notes from Brennan's sessions to piece together the puzzle. Back at the lab, the team goes over all the clues about The Puppeteer. They realize that the dreams about Wendell is a symbol for someone who used to work at the lab. The team becomes silent as they realize who it is; Cam states, "Oh no, it can't be." Booth then races to the hospital where Zack is staying and discovers that Zack has escaped. Later on, as Brennan wakes up, she asks, "Zack?" Zack says, "Dr. Brennan, it is good to see you again. You and I, we have so much to talk about."


title: Zack Addy

text: The Season 12 premiere of Bones solves the mystery about Zack. He has taken Brennan to the old vault of the Gormogon, which is in the basement of the Jeffersonian, with the intention of protecting her from The Puppeteer and to reveal the truth about himself. Booth captures Zack and he is taken into custody. It is revealed that after the death of Lance Sweets, Zack harmed himself, leaving a large scar on his forehead and occasional blackouts from minor brain damage. After being allowed to consult the evidence files of the Puppeteer case with Brennan, he concludes that, while blacked out, he committed the crimes, and wishes to return to the mental institution that is his home. In a surprise turn of events, the team at the Jeffersonian find out that it is Zack's doctor from the institution, Dr. Mihir Roshan, that has been committing the murders and arranging the skeleton marionettes.


title: Zack Addy

text: Dr. Roshan intended to poison Zack, and Booth arrives at the institution in time to save him. While Zack was able to overpower Roshan, he was unable to find the strength of will to kill him. Booth shoots Roshan, and Zack survives. He concludes he could not have committed murder under the order of Gormogon, and confesses his innocence to Brennan and Booth. This convinces them to re-examine the evidence, and the episode ends with the idea that Zack may become free of the institution in the future.


title: Zack Addy

text: In "The Flaw in the Saw", Hodgins works to find evidence to exonerate Zack. Although he finds evidence, Cam fears that Hodgins is planting it to free Zack and refuses to consider it. However, Cam eventually decides to go through Hodgins' evidence. In "The Steal in the Wheels", the Jeffersonian team is able to locate the body of the Gormogon's former apprentice, the true killer, and match blood on it to the lobbyist Zack supposedly killed. In "The Day in the Life", Zack goes before a judge for his appeal. Based on this new evidence, Zack is exonerated of the murder charge but not of aiding a known killer. As a result, he will have to finish the remaining thirteen months on his sentence. While Brennan is sorry they couldn't get him released, Zack accepts this as thirteen months is nothing compared to the life sentence he was originally facing.


title: Zack Addy

text: Despite his intelligence, Zack is characterized as being unsure of himself, though he has provided crucial insights to some of the team's cases. He is unable to forcefully express his opinion to Dr. Brennan, possibly due to romantic feelings toward her. When he discovered Temperance's own Forensic Anthropology professor had become her lover, Zack repeatedly wondered aloud whether he might enter into a similar relationship with Dr. Brennan. His colleagues quickly dismissed this idea as nonsense. Zack appears to have an on and off-again relationship with "Naomi in Paleontology". In the third season, they accompany each other to the annual Jeffersonian Institute Halloween party, and he mentions her again in "The Parts in the Sum of the Whole".


title: Zack Addy

text: Although well-meaning, helpful, and friendly, when a situation calls for social interaction or intuition, he is often lost. Zack has no problem making inappropriate comments about others' personal lives, and has asked Agent Booth for advice on sex and women. At one point, Booth threatened to shoot Zack "between the eyes" if he continued to ask him those questions. He also asked Angela for advice, on one occasion even recommending him to "reap the benefits of [her] sexual wisdom", and Hodgins gave him a pocket-sized "Kama Sutra" to help him out. Further evidence of his social ineptitude can be seen in the frequent, on-screen coaching in social matters he gets from Jack and Angela. He is very literal-minded, and is often confused by colloquial expressions or metaphor, despite his high intelligence. His attempts to use such expressions are met with mixed success, such as referring to a skull he'd cleaned as being "clean enough to eat off of". His inability to pick up on pop culture references or jokes was often a source of comedy in the show. Other characters, especially Booth and Hodgins, were often annoyed or turned off by his lack of social skills. Hodgins once called him a "dull Vulcan" in exasperation.


title: Zack Addy

text: In the episode "The Killer in the Concrete", Booth is on the phone with Zack and Dr. Brennan while looking for "Icepick" at a model airplane enthusiasts gathering. Unaware of Zack's interest in planes, Booth comments every "airplane freak" in the area was at the event, and Zack corrects him by saying the enthusiasts prefer to be called "pilots." Zack mentions forensic anthropology is only one of his areas of study; he received a masters in applied engineering, and he is extremely adept in practical aeronautics.


title: Zack Addy

text: Even in the asylum, Zack apparently still has some degree of contact with his old colleagues. Hodgins occasionally visits him with puzzles for him to solve and Sweets becomes his therapist. The season 11 finale implied that Booth also may have had some contact with Zack in the seasons following his departure, as he knows an orderly at the institution where he is located, and knows exactly where his room is.


title: Jacob in Islam

text: Yaqub ibn Ishaq ibn Ibrahim (Arabic: يَعْقُوب ابْنُ إِسْحَٰق ابْنُ إِبْرَاهِيم, literally: ""Jacob, son of Isaac, son of Abraham"" ; also later "Israil", Arabic: إِسْرَآئِیل ["israaeel"]; Classical/Quranic Arabic: إِسْرَآءِیْل ["israaeel"]), also known as Jacob, is a prophet in Islam. He is acknowledged as a patriarch of Islam. Muslims believe that he preached the same monotheistic faith as did his forefathers: Abraham (Ibrahim), Ishmael (Ismail) and Isaac (Ishaq).


title: Jacob in Islam

text: Jacob is mentioned sixteen times in the Quran. Two further references to Isra'il are believed to be mentions of Jacob. In the majority of these references, Jacob is mentioned alongside fellow Hebrew prophets and patriarchs as an ancient and pious prophet who stayed in the "company of the elect". Muslims hold that Jacob was the son of Isaac and that he preached the Oneness of God throughout his life. As in Christianity and Judaism, Islam holds that Jacob had twelve sons, who would go on to father the Twelve Tribes of Israel. Jacob plays a significant role in the story of his son, Joseph (Yūsuf). The Quran further makes it clear that God made a covenant with Jacob and Jacob was made a faithful leader by God's command. His grandfather (Ibrahim), father (Ishaq), uncle (Ismail), son (Yusuf) and himself are all prophets of Islam.


title: Jacob in Islam

text: Jacob is mentioned by name in the Quran sixteen times. Although many of these verses praise him rather than recount an instance from his narrative, the Quran nonetheless records several significant events from his life. Muslim tradition and literature the earliest event involving Jacob in the Quran is that of the angels ("malāʾikah") giving "glad tidings" to Abraham and Sarah of the future birth of a prophetic son by the name of Isaac as well as a prophetic grandson by the name of Jacob. The Quran states:


title: Jacob in Islam

text: The Quran also mentions that Abraham taught the faith of pure monotheism to his sons, Ishmael and Isaac, as well as Jacob. The Quran records Abraham telling Ishmael, Isaac and Jacob: "Oh my sons! God hath chosen the Faith for you; then die not except in the Faith of Islam." The Quran also mentions the gifts given to Jacob as well as the strength of his faith, which became stronger as he became older. The Quran mentions that Jacob was "guided"; given "knowledge"; "inspired"; and was given a "tongue of truthfulness to be heard". The Quran later states the following regarding Jacob:


title: Jacob in Islam

text: Jacob's next significant mention in the Quran is in the narrative of the surah Yusuf. Joseph's story in the Quran opens with a dream that Joseph had one night, after which he ran to his father Jacob, saying: "Behold! Joseph said to his father: "O my father! I did see eleven planets and the sun and the moon: I saw them prostrate themselves to me!" " Jacob's face filled with delight at what he had heard from the young Joseph, and the ageing prophet immediately understood what the dream meant. Jacob could foresee that his son would grow up to be the next prophet in the line of Abraham and it would be Joseph who would keep the message of Islam alive in the coming years. Jacob's older sons, however, felt that their father loved Joseph and Benjamin, Jacob's youngest son, more than them. Jacob knew about their jealousy and warned the young Joseph about it. Joseph's ten older brothers then decided to kill him. As the Quran narrates their discussion:


title: Jacob in Islam

text: One of the brothers (usually understood to be Reuben) however, felt that instead of slaying Joseph(Yusuf) they should instead drop him into a well, so that a caravan may come and pick him up. Thus, they asked their father whether they could take the young Joseph out to play with them, on the condition that they would keep watch over him. Although Jacob feared that a "dhi’b" (, wolf) would devour his son, the rebellious older sons forcefully took Joseph away and threw him into the well. When the sons came back to Jacob that night, they pretended to weep and they further told him that the wolf had devoured Joseph. To trick their father, they stained Joseph's(Yusuf) shirt with false blood, but Jacob, who had been gifted with knowledge, knew this was a false concoction that they had devised. Although Jacob did worry over the loss of Joseph, he remained steadfast to God throughout his grief. As the years passed, the young Joseph grew up into a man in Egypt; Jacob, meanwhile, was back at home in Canaan, where his sons would constantly bother him about his repeated praying to God for the return of Joseph(Yusuf). Although Jacob frequently complained to God it was never for God's doings, but out of the distractions of his own mind and his occasional breaking out of the bounds of patience he had set for himself. He constantly ignored the wicked taunting of his sons and would forgive them and tried to give them sound advice. One day, Jacob decided to send his sons on an errand, telling them to go to Egypt in search of Joseph and Benjamin. His sons, for the first time, listened to him and departed for Egypt. When one of Jacob's sons returned to Canaan with the good news of Joseph and Benjamin in Egypt, he came with a shirt that Joseph had given him, which he had told him to cast over their father's face, to remove Jacob's blindness and grief. Thus, the son followed the instructions and did as Joseph said, restoring Jacob's physical and mental vision.


title: Jacob in Islam

text: Once Jacob's sight had been restored, the whole family began their trek to Egypt, to meet Joseph and the other sons again. Once they arrived, the father and son met each other with great love and were reunited in peace once again. The now powerful Joseph provided a home for his parents with himself and, as the Quran says, raised them high on a 'throne of dignity'. It was now that the whole family, together, could turn to God through the prophetic offices of both Jacob and Joseph.


title: Jacob in Islam

text: The whole of the Children of Israel were called to bow down to faith in Islam ("Submission to God") before Jacob died. Jacob wanted to make sure that his children die only in Islam, and, therefore, took one last promise from them. When he asked them who they would worship after his death, they replied that they would continue in Islam and bow down to and worship God. Although the death-bed scene relates to Jewish tradition, and mentioned in the Book of Genesis, the Quran mentions it to emphasize the notion that Abraham, Isaac, Ishmael, and Jacob were all Muslims, as they bowed down in full faith to God and God alone. The Quran narrates:


title: Jacob in Islam

text: Jacob is very special in Islam for carrying on the legacy left by his forefathers. Muslims believe God bestowed His utmost grace upon Jacob and chose him to be among the most exalted men. The Quran frequently mentions Jacob as a man of might and vision and stresses he was of the company of the good and elect. As the Quran says:


title: Jacob in Islam

text: Ali ibn Abi Talib, when asked about the prophets who were bestowed special names, narrates in Hadith that Ya'qub ibn Ishaq was known by his people as Isra'il.


title: Jacob in Islam

text: Instances in the Bible involving Jacob wrestling with an angel are not mentioned in the Quran, but are discussed in Muslim commentaries, as is the vision of Jacob's Ladder. Jacob tricking Isaac into blessing him by impersonating his twin, Esau, is also not in the Quran, but is in Muslim commentaries.


title: Jacob in Islam

text: Muslims, who do believe Jacob was a great patriarch, stress the belief that Jacob's main importance lay in his great submission to God and his firm faith in the right religion. As a patriarch, Jacob, alongside Abraham, may be the most fruitful according to tradition. From his twelve sons were to come many other great prophets, including Jonah (Yunus), David (Dawud), Solomon (Sulayman) and Jesus (Isa).


title: Jacob in Islam

text: Jacob is believed by Muslims and Jews alike to be buried in the Cave of the Patriarchs (known by Muslims as the "Sanctuary of Abraham"). The compound, located in the city of Hebron, is the second holiest site for Jews (after the Temple Mount in Jerusalem), and is also venerated by Christians and Muslims, both of whom have traditions that maintain that the site is the burial place of three Biblical couples: Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebecca, and Jacob and Leah.


title: Suits (South Korean TV series)

text: Suits () is a South Korean television series starring Jang Dong-gun and Park Hyung-sik. The drama is based on the American television series of the same name by Aaron Korsh. It aired on KBS2 starting April 25, 2018 on Wednesdays and Thursdays at 22:00 (KST) for 16 episodes.


title: Suits (South Korean TV series)

text: A capable and distinguished lawyer of the law firm "Kang & Ham" Choi Kang-Seok recruits a young man named Go Yeon-Woo who has a retentive memory but not a law degree. An adaptation from the American TV show "Suits".


title: Suits (South Korean TV series)

text: In the tables below, the blue numbers represent the lowest ratings and the red numbers represent the highest ratings.


title: Aggression

text: Aggression is overt or covert, often harmful, social interaction with the intention of inflicting damage or other harm upon another individual; although it can be channeled into creative and practical outlets for some. It may occur either reactively or without provocation. In humans, aggression can be caused by various triggers, from frustration due to blocked goals to feeling disrespected. Human aggression can be classified into direct and indirect aggression; whilst the former is characterized by physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm to someone, the latter is characterized by behavior intended to harm the social relations of an individual or group.


title: Aggression

text: In definitions commonly used in the social sciences and behavioral sciences, aggression is an action or response by an individual that delivers something unpleasant to another person. Some definitions include that the individual must intend to harm another person.


title: Aggression

text: In an interdisciplinary perspective, aggression is regarded as "an ensemble of mechanism formed during the course of evolution in order to assert oneself, relatives or friends against others, to gain or to defend resources (ultimate causes) by harmful damaging means ... These mechanisms are often motivated by emotions like fear, frustration, anger, feelings of stress, dominance or pleasure (proximate causes) ... Sometimes aggressive behavior serves as a stress relief or a subjective feeling of power." Predatory or defensive behavior between members of different species may not be considered aggression in the same sense.


title: Aggression

text: Aggression can take a variety of forms, which may be expressed physically, or communicated verbally or non-verbally: including anti-predator aggression, defensive aggression (fear-induced), predatory aggression, dominance aggression, inter-male aggression, resident-intruder aggression, maternal aggression, species-specific aggression, sex-related aggression, territorial aggression, isolation-induced aggression, irritable aggression, and brain-stimulation-induced aggression (hypothalamus). There are two subtypes of human aggression: (1) controlled-instrumental subtype (purposeful or goal-oriented); and (2) reactive-impulsive subtype (often elicits uncontrollable actions that are inappropriate or undesirable). Aggression differs from what is commonly called assertiveness, although the terms are often used interchangeably among laypeople (as in phrases such as "an aggressive salesperson").


title: Aggression

text: Dollard et al. (1939) proposed that aggression was due to frustration, which was described as an unpleasant emotion resulting from any interference with achieving a rewarding goal. Berkowitz extended this frustration–aggression hypothesis and proposed that it is not so much the frustration as the unpleasant emotion that evokes aggressive tendencies, and that all aversive events produce negative affect and thereby aggressive tendencies, as well as fear tendencies. Besides conditioned stimuli, Archer categorized aggression-evoking (as well as fear-evoking) stimuli into three groups; namely, pain, novelty, and frustration, although he also described "looming," which refers to an object rapidly moving towards the visual sensors of a subject, and can be categorized as "intensity."


title: Aggression

text: Aggression can have adaptive benefits or negative effects. Aggressive behavior is an individual or collective social interaction that is a hostile behavior with the intention of inflicting damage or harm. Two broad categories of aggression are commonly distinguished. One includes affective (emotional) and hostile, reactive, or retaliatory aggression that is a response to provocation, and the other includes instrumental, goal-oriented or predatory, in which aggression is used as a means to achieve a goal. An example of hostile aggression would be a person who punches someone who insulted him or her. An instrumental form of aggression would be armed robbery. Research on violence from a range of disciplines lend some support to a distinction between affective and predatory aggression. However, some researchers question the usefulness of a hostile versus instrumental distinction in humans, despite its ubiquity in research, because most real-life cases involve mixed motives and interacting causes.


title: Aggression

text: A number of classifications and dimensions of aggression have been suggested. These depend on such things as whether the aggression is verbal or physical; whether or not it involves relational aggression such as covert bullying and social manipulation; whether harm to others is intended or not; whether it is carried out actively or expressed passively; and whether the aggression is aimed directly or indirectly. Classification may also encompass aggression-related emotions (e.g. anger) and mental states (e.g. impulsivity, hostility). Aggression may occur in response to non-social as well as social factors, and can have a close relationship with stress coping style. Aggression may be displayed in order to intimidate.


title: Aggression

text: The operative definition of aggression may be affected by moral or political views. Examples are the axiomatic moral view called the non-aggression principle and the political rules governing the behavior of one country toward another. Likewise in competitive sports, or in the workplace, some forms of aggression may be sanctioned and others not (see Workplace aggression). Aggressive behaviors are associated with adjustment problems and several psychopathological symptoms such as Antisocial Personality Disorder, Borderline Personality Disorder, and Intermittent Explosive Disorder.


title: Aggression

text: Biological approaches conceptualize aggression as an internal energy released by external stimuli, a product of evolution through natural selection, part of genetics, a product of hormonal fluctuations. Psychological approaches conceptualize aggression as a destructive instinct, a response to frustration, an affect excited by a negative stimulus, a result of observed learning of society and diversified reinforcement, a resultant of variables that affect personal and situational environments.


title: Aggression

text: The term aggression comes from the Latin word "aggressio", meaning attack. The Latin was itself a joining of "ad"- and "gradi"-, which meant step at. The first known use dates back to 1611, in the sense of an unprovoked attack. A psychological sense of "hostile or destructive behavior" dates back to a 1912 English translation of Sigmund Freud's writing. Alfred Adler theorized about an "aggressive drive" in 1908. Child raising experts began to refer to aggression, rather than anger, from the 1930s.


title: Aggression

text: Ethologists study aggression as it relates to the interaction and evolution of animals in natural settings. In such settings aggression can involve bodily contact such as biting, hitting or pushing, but most conflicts are settled by threat displays and intimidating thrusts that cause no physical harm. This form of aggression may include the display of body size, antlers, claws or teeth; stereotyped signals including facial expressions; vocalizations such as bird song; the release of chemicals; and changes in coloration. The term agonistic behaviour is sometimes used to refer to these forms of behavior.


title: Aggression

text: Most ethologists believe that aggression confers biological advantages. Aggression may help an animal secure territory, including resources such as food and water. Aggression between males often occurs to secure mating opportunities, and results in selection of the healthier/more vigorous animal. Aggression may also occur for self-protection or to protect offspring. Aggression between groups of animals may also confer advantage; for example, hostile behavior may force a population of animals into a new territory, where the need to adapt to a new environment may lead to an increase in genetic flexibility.


title: Aggression

text: The most apparent type of interspecific aggression is that observed in the interaction between a predator and its prey. However, according to many researchers, predation is not aggression. A cat does not hiss or arch its back when pursuing a rat, and the active areas in its hypothalamus resemble those that reflect hunger rather than those that reflect aggression. However, others refer to this behavior as predatory aggression, and point out cases that resemble hostile behavior, such as mouse-killing by rats. In aggressive mimicry a predator has the appearance of a harmless organism or object attractive to the prey; when the prey approaches, the predator attacks.


title: Aggression

text: An animal defending against a predator may engage in either "fight or flight" or "tend and befriend" in response to predator attack or threat of attack, depending on its estimate of the predator's strength relative to its own. Alternative defenses include a range of antipredator adaptations, including alarm signals. An example of an alarm signal is nerol, a chemical which is found in the mandibular glands of "Trigona fulviventris" individuals. Release of nerol by T. fulviventris individuals in the nest has been shown to decrease the number of individuals leaving the nest by fifty percent, as well as increasing aggressive behaviors like biting. Alarm signals like nerol can also act as attraction signals; in T. fulviventris, individuals that have been captured by a predator may release nerol to attract nestmates, who will proceed to attack or bite the predator.


title: Aggression

text: Aggression between groups is determined partly by willingness to fight, which depends on a number of factors including numerical advantage, distance from home territories, how often the groups encounter each other, competitive abilities, differences in body size, and whose territory is being invaded. Also, an individual is more likely to become aggressive if other aggressive group members are nearby. One particular phenomenon – the formation of coordinated coalitions that raid neighbouring territories to kill conspecifics – has only been documented in two species in the animal kingdom: 'common' chimpanzees and humans.


title: Aggression

text: Aggression between conspecifics in a group typically involves access to resources and breeding opportunities. One of its most common functions is to establish a dominance hierarchy. This occurs in many species by aggressive encounters between contending males when they are first together in a common environment. Usually the more aggressive animals become the more dominant. In test situations, most of the conspecific aggression ceases about 24 hours after the group of animals is brought together. Aggression has been defined from this viewpoint as "behavior which is intended to increase the social dominance of the organism relative to the dominance position of other organisms". Losing confrontations may be called social defeat, and winning or losing is associated with a range of practical and psychological consequences.


title: Aggression

text: Conflicts between animals occur in many contexts, such as between potential mating partners, between parents and offspring, between siblings and between competitors for resources. Group-living animals may dispute over the direction of travel or the allocation of time to joint activities. Various factors limit the escalation of aggression, including communicative displays, conventions, and routines. In addition, following aggressive incidents, various forms of conflict resolution have been observed in mammalian species, particularly in gregarious primates. These can mitigate or repair possible adverse consequences, especially for the recipient of aggression who may become vulnerable to attacks by other members of a group. Conciliatory acts vary by species and may involve specific gestures or simply more proximity and interaction between the individuals involved. However, conflicts over food are rarely followed by post conflict reunions, even though they are the most frequent type in foraging primates.


title: Aggression

text: Other questions that have been considered in the study of primate aggression, including in humans, is how aggression affects the organization of a group, what costs are incurred by aggression, and why some primates avoid aggressive behavior. For example, bonobo chimpanzee groups are known for low levels of aggression within a partially matriarchal society. Captive animals including primates may show abnormal levels of social aggression and self-harm that are related to aspects of the physical or social environment; this depends on the species and individual factors such as gender, age and background (e.g. raised wild or captive).


title: Aggression

text: Within ethology, it has long been recognized that there is a relation between aggression, fear, and curiosity. A cognitive approach to this relationship puts aggression in the broader context of inconsistency reduction, and proposes that aggressive behavior is caused by an inconsistency between a desired, or expected, situation and the actually perceived situation (e.g., "frustration"), and functions to forcefully manipulate the perception into matching the expected situation. In this approach, when the inconsistency between perception and expectancy is small, learning as a result of curiosity reduces inconsistency by updating expectancy to match perception. If the inconsistency is larger, fear or aggressive behavior may be employed to alter the perception in order to make it match expectancy, depending on the size of the inconsistency as well as the specific context. Uninhibited fear results in fleeing, thereby removing the inconsistent stimulus from the perceptual field and resolving the inconsistency. In some cases thwarted escape may trigger aggressive behavior in an attempt to remove the thwarting stimulus.


title: Aggression

text: Like many behaviors, aggression can be examined in terms of its ability to help an animal itself survive and reproduce, or alternatively to risk survival and reproduction. This cost-benefit analysis can be looked at in terms of evolution. However, there are profound differences in the extent of acceptance of a biological or evolutionary basis for human aggression.


title: Aggression

text: According to the male warrior hypothesis, intergroup aggression represents an opportunity for men to gain access to mates, territory, resources and increased status. As such, conflicts may have created selection evolutionary pressures for psychological mechanisms in men to initiate intergroup aggression.


title: Aggression

text: Aggression can involve violence that may be adaptive under certain circumstances in terms of natural selection. This is most obviously the case in terms of attacking prey to obtain food, or in anti-predatory defense. It may also be the case in competition between members of the same species or subgroup, if the average reward (e.g. status, access to resources, protection of self or kin) outweighs average costs (e.g. injury, exclusion from the group, death). There are some hypotheses of specific adaptions for violence in humans under certain circumstances, including for homicide, but it is often unclear what behaviors may have been selected for and what may have been a byproduct, as in the case of collective violence.


title: Aggression

text: Although aggressive encounters are ubiquitous in the animal kingdom, with often high stakes, most encounters that involve aggression may be resolved through posturing, or displaying and trial of strength. Game theory is used to understand how such behaviors might spread by natural selection within a population, and potentially become 'Evolutionary Stable Strategies'. An initial model of resolution of conflicts is the hawk-dove game. Others include the Sequential assessment model and the Energetic war of attrition. These try to understand not just one-off encounters but protracted stand-offs, and mainly differ in the criteria by which an individual decides to give up rather than risk loss and harm in physical conflict (such as through estimates of resource holding potential).


title: Aggression

text: Gender plays an important role in human aggression. There are multiple theories that seek to explain findings that males and females of the same species can have differing aggressive behaviors. One review concluded that male aggression tended to produce pain or physical injury whereas female aggression tended towards psychological or social harm.


title: Aggression

text: In general, sexual dimorphism can be attributed to greater intraspecific competition in one sex, either between rivals for access to mates and/or to be chosen by mates. This may stem from the other gender being constrained by providing greater parental investment, in terms of factors such as gamete production, gestation, lactation, or upbringing of young. Although there is much variation in species, generally the more physically aggressive sex is the male, particularly in mammals. In species where parental care by both sexes is required, there tends to be less of a difference. When the female can leave the male to care for the offspring, then females may be the larger and more physically aggressive. Competitiveness despite parental investment has also been observed in some species. A related factor is the rate at which males and females are able to mate again after producing offspring, and the basic principles of sexual selection are also influenced by ecological factors affecting the ways or extent to which one sex can compete for the other. The role of such factors in human evolution is controversial.


title: Aggression

text: The pattern of male and female aggression is argued to be consistent with evolved sexually-selected behavioral differences, while alternative or complementary views emphasize conventional social roles stemming from physical evolved differences. Aggression in women may have evolved to be, on average, less physically dangerous and more covert or indirect. However, there are critiques for using animal behavior to explain human behavior. Especially in the application of evolutionary explanations to contemporary human behavior, including differences between the genders.


title: Aggression

text: According to the 2015 "International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences", sex differences in aggression is one of the most robust and oldest findings in psychology. Past meta-analyses in the encyclopedia found males regardless of age engaged in more physical and verbal aggression while small effect for females engaging in more indirect aggression such as rumor spreading or gossiping. It also found males tend to engage in more unprovoked aggression at higher frequency than females. This analysis also conforms with the "Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology" which reviewed past analysis which found men to use more verbal and physical aggression with the difference being greater in the physical type. There are more recent findings that show that differences in male and female aggression appear at about two years of age, though the differences in aggression are more consistent in middle-aged children and adolescence. Tremblay, Japel and Pérusse (1999) asserted that physically aggressive behaviors such as kicking, biting and hitting are age-typical expressions of innate and spontaneous reactions to biological drives such as anger, hunger, and affiliation. Girls' relational aggression, meaning non-physical or indirect, tends to increase after age two while physical aggression decreases. There was no significant difference in aggression between males and females before two years of age. A possible explanation for this could be that girls develop language skills more quickly than boys, and therefore have better ways of verbalizing their wants and needs. They are more likely to use communication when trying to retrieve a toy with the words "Ask nicely" or "Say please."


title: Aggression

text: According to the journal of "Aggressive Behaviour", an analysis across 9 countries found boys reported more in the use of physical aggression. At the same time no consistent sex differences emerged within relational aggression. It has been found that girls are more likely than boys to use reactive aggression and then retract, but boys are more likely to increase rather than to retract their aggression after their first reaction. Studies show girls' aggressive tactics included gossip, ostracism, breaking confidences, and criticism of a victim's clothing, appearance, or personality, whereas boys engage in aggression that involves a direct physical and/or verbal assault. This could be due to the fact that girls' frontal lobes develop earlier than boys, allowing them to self-restrain.


title: Aggression

text: One factor that shows insignificant differences between male and female aggression is in sports. In sports, the rate of aggression in both contact and non-contact sports is relatively equal. Since the establishment of Title IX, female sports have increased in competitiveness and importance, which could contribute to the evening of aggression and the "need to win" attitude between both genders. Among sex differences found in adult sports were that females have a higher scale of indirect hostility while men have a higher scale of assault. Another difference found is that men have up to 20 times higher levels of testosterone than women.


title: Aggression

text: Some studies suggest that romantic involvement in adolescence decreases aggression in males and females, but decreases at a higher rate in females. Females will seem more desirable to their mate if they fit in with society and females that are aggressive do not usually fit well in society. They can often be viewed as antisocial. Female aggression is not considered the norm in society and going against the norm can sometimes prevent one from getting a mate. However, studies have shown that an increasing number of women are getting arrested for domestic violence charges. In many states, women now account for a quarter to a third of all domestic violence arrests, up from less than 10 percent a decade ago. The new statistics reflect a reality documented in research: women are perpetrators as well as victims of family violence. However, another equally possible explanation is a case of improved diagnostics: it has become more acceptable for men to report female domestic violence to the authorities while at the same time actual female domestic violence has not increased at all. This can be the case when men have become less ashamed of reporting female violence against them, therefore an increasing number of women are arrested, although the actual number of violent women remains the same.


title: Aggression

text: In addition, males in competitive sports are often advised by their coaches not to be in intimate relationships based on the premises that they become more docile and less aggressive during an athletic event. The circumstances in which males and females experience aggression are also different. A study showed that social anxiety and stress was positively correlated with aggression in males, meaning as stress and social anxiety increases so does aggression. Furthermore, a male with higher social skills has a lower rate of aggressive behavior than a male with lower social skills. In females, higher rates of aggression were only correlated with higher rates of stress. Other than biological factors that contribute to aggression there are physical factors are well.


title: Aggression

text: Regarding sexual dimorphism, humans fall into an intermediate group with moderate sex differences in body size but relatively large testes. This is a typical pattern of primates where several males and females live together in a group and the male faces an intermediate number of challenges from other males compared to exclusive polygyny and monogamy but frequent sperm competition.


title: Aggression

text: Evolutionary psychology and sociobiology have also discussed and produced theories for some specific forms of male aggression such as sociobiological theories of rape and theories regarding the Cinderella effect. Another evolutionary theory explaining gender differences in aggression is the Male Warrior hypothesis, which explains that males have psychologically evolved for intergroup aggression in order to gain access to mates, resources, territory and status.


title: Aggression

text: Many researchers focus on the brain to explain aggression. Numerous circuits within both neocortical and subcortical structures play a central role in controlling aggressive behavior, depending on the species, and the exact role of pathways may vary depending on the type of trigger or intention.


title: Aggression

text: In mammals, the hypothalamus and periaqueductal gray of the midbrain are critical areas, as shown in studies on cats, rats, and monkeys. These brain areas control the expression of both behavioral and autonomic components of aggression in these species, including vocalization. Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus causes aggressive behavior and the hypothalamus has receptors that help determine aggression levels based on their interactions with serotonin and vasopressin. In rodents, activation of estrogen receptor-expressing neurons in the ventrolateral portion of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMHvl) was found to be sufficient to initiate aggression in both males and females. Midbrain areas involved in aggression have direct connections with both the brainstem nuclei controlling these functions, and with structures such as the amygdala and prefrontal cortex.


title: Aggression

text: Stimulation of the amygdala results in augmented aggressive behavior in hamsters, while lesions of an evolutionarily homologous area in the lizard greatly reduce competitive drive and aggression (Bauman et al. 2006). In rhesus monkeys, neonatal lesions in the amygdala or hippocampus results in reduced expression of social dominance, related to the regulation of aggression and fear. Several experiments in attack-primed Syrian golden hamsters, for example, support the claim of circuitry within the amygdala being involved in control of aggression. The role of the amygdala is less clear in primates and appears to depend more on situational context, with lesions leading to increases in either social affiliatory or aggressive responses. Amygdalotomy, which involves removing or destroying parts of the amygdala, has been performed on people to reduce their violent behaviour.


title: Aggression

text: The broad area of the cortex known as the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is crucial for self-control and inhibition of impulses, including inhibition of aggression and emotions. Reduced activity of the prefrontal cortex, in particular its medial and orbitofrontal portions, has been associated with violent/antisocial aggression. In addition, reduced response inhibition has been found in violent offenders, compared to non-violent offenders.


title: Aggression

text: The role of the chemicals in the brain, particularly neurotransmitters, in aggression has also been examined. This varies depending on the pathway, the context and other factors such as gender. A deficit in serotonin has been theorized to have a primary role in causing impulsivity and aggression. At least one epigenetic study supports this supposition. Nevertheless, low levels of serotonin transmission may explain a vulnerability to impulsiveness, potential aggression, and may have an effect through interactions with other neurochemical systems. These include dopamine systems which are generally associated with attention and motivation toward rewards, and operate at various levels. Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, may influence aggression responses both directly and indirectly through the hormonal system, the sympathetic nervous system or the central nervous system (including the brain). It appears to have different effects depending on the type of triggering stimulus, for example social isolation/rank versus shock/chemical agitation which appears not to have a linear relationship with aggression. Similarly, GABA, although associated with inhibitory functions at many CNS synapses, sometimes shows a positive correlation with aggression, including when potentiated by alcohol.


title: Aggression

text: The hormonal neuropeptides vasopressin and oxytocin play a key role in complex social behaviours in many mammals such as regulating attachment, social recognition, and aggression. Vasopressin has been implicated in male-typical social behaviors which includes aggression. Oxytocin may have a particular role in regulating female bonds with offspring and mates, including the use of protective aggression. Initial studies in humans suggest some similar effects.


title: Aggression

text: In human, aggressive behavior has been associated with abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body serotonin systems, catecholamine systems, and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. Abnormalities in these systems also are known to be induced by stress, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress


title: Aggression

text: Early androgenization has an organizational effect on the developing brains of both males and females, making more neural circuits that control sexual behavior as well as intermale and interfemale aggression become more sensitive to testosterone. There are noticeable sex differences in aggression. Testosterone is present to a lesser extent in females, who may be more sensitive to its effects. Animal studies have also indicated a link between incidents of aggression and the individual level of circulating testosterone. However, results in relation to primates, particularly humans, are less clear cut and are at best only suggestive of a positive association in some contexts.


title: Aggression

text: In humans, there is a seasonal variation in aggression associated with changes in testosterone. For example, in some primate species, such as rhesus monkeys and baboons, females are more likely to engage in fights around the time of ovulation as well as right before menstruation. If the results were the same in humans as they are in rhesus monkeys and baboons, then the increase in aggressive behaviors during ovulation is explained by the decline in estrogen levels. This makes normal testosterone levels more effective. Castrated mice and rats exhibit lower levels of aggression. Males castrated as neonates exhibit low levels of aggression even when given testosterone throughout their development.


title: Aggression

text: The challenge hypothesis outlines the dynamic relationship between plasma testosterone levels and aggression in mating contexts in many species. It proposes that testosterone is linked to aggression when it is beneficial for reproduction, such as in mate guarding and preventing the encroachment of intrasexual rivals. The challenge hypothesis predicts that seasonal patterns in testosterone levels in a species are a function of mating system (monogamy versus polygyny), paternal care, and male-male aggression in seasonal breeders. This pattern between testosterone and aggression was first observed in seasonally breeding birds, such as the song sparrow, where testosterone levels rise modestly with the onset of the breeding season to support basic reproductive functions. The hypothesis has been subsequently expanded and modified to predict relationships between testosterone and aggression in other species. For example, chimpanzees, which are continuous breeders, show significantly raised testosterone levels and aggressive male-male interactions when receptive and fertile females are present. Currently, no research has specified a relationship between the modified challenge hypothesis and human behavior, or the human nature of concealed ovulation, although some suggest it may apply.


title: Aggression

text: Another line of research has focused on the proximate effects of circulating testosterone on the nervous system, as mediated by local metabolism within the brain. Testosterone can be metabolized to estradiol by the enzyme aromatase, or to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by 5α-reductase.


title: Aggression

text: Aromatase is highly expressed in regions involved in the regulation of aggressive behavior, such as the amygdala and hypothalamus. In studies using genetic knockout techniques in inbred mice, male mice that lacked a functional aromatase enzyme displayed a marked reduction in aggression. Long-term treatment with estradiol partially restored aggressive behavior, suggesting that the neural conversion of circulating testosterone to estradiol and its effect on estrogen receptors influences inter-male aggression. In addition, two different estrogen receptors, ERα and ERβ, have been identified as having the ability to exert different effects on aggression in mice. However, the effect of estradiol appears to vary depending on the strain of mouse, and in some strains it reduces aggression during long days (16 h of light), while during short days (8 h of light) estradiol rapidly increases aggression.


title: Aggression

text: Another hypothesis is that testosterone influences brain areas that control behavioral reactions. Studies in animal models indicate that aggression is affected by several interconnected cortical and subcortical structures within the so-called social behavior network. A study involving lesions and electrical-chemical stimulation in rodents and cats revealed that such a neural network consists of the medial amygdala, medial hypothalamus and periaqueductal grey (PAG), and it positively modulates reactive aggression. Moreover, a study done in human subjects showed that prefrontal-amygdala connectivity is modulated by endogenous testosterone during social emotional behavior.


title: Aggression

text: In human studies, testosterone-aggression research has also focused on the role of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). This brain area is strongly associated with impulse control and self-regulation systems that integrate emotion, motivation, and cognition to guide context-appropriate behavior. Patients with localized lesions to the OFC engage in heightened reactive aggression. Aggressive behavior may be regulated by testosterone via reduced medial OFC engagement following social provocation. When measuring participants' salivary testosterone, higher levels can predict subsequent aggressive behavioral reactions to unfairness faced during a task. Moreover, brain scanning with fMRI shows reduced activity in the medial OFC during such reactions. Such findings may suggest that a specific brain region, the OFC, is a key factor in understanding reactive aggression.


title: Aggression

text: Scientists have for a long time been interested in the relationship between testosterone and aggressive behavior. In most species, males are more aggressive than females. Castration of males usually has a pacifying effect on aggressive behavior in males. In humans, males engage in crime and especially violent crime more than females. The involvement in crime usually rises in the early teens to mid teens which happen at the same time as testosterone levels rise. Research on the relationship between testosterone and aggression is difficult since the only reliable measurement of brain testosterone is by a lumbar puncture which is not done for research purposes. Studies therefore have often instead used more unreliable measurements from blood or saliva.


title: Aggression

text: "The Handbook of Crime Correlates", a review of crime studies, states most studies support a link between adult criminality and testosterone although the relationship is modest if examined separately for each sex. However, nearly all studies of juvenile delinquency and testosterone are not significant. Most studies have also found testosterone to be associated with behaviors or personality traits linked with criminality such as antisocial behavior and alcoholism. Many studies have also been done on the relationship between more general aggressive behavior/feelings and testosterone. About half the studies have found a relationship and about half no relationship.


title: Aggression

text: Studies of testosterone levels of male athletes before and after a competition revealed that testosterone levels rise shortly before their matches, as if in anticipation of the competition, and are dependent on the outcome of the event: testosterone levels of winners are high relative to those of losers. No specific response of testosterone levels to competition was observed in female athletes, although a mood difference was noted. In addition, some experiments have failed to find a relationship between testosterone levels and aggression in humans.


title: Aggression

text: The possible correlation between testosterone and aggression could explain the "roid rage" that can result from anabolic steroid use, although an effect of abnormally high levels of steroids does not prove an effect at physiological levels.


title: Aggression

text: Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is the most abundant circulating androgen hormone and can be rapidly metabolized within target tissues into potent androgens and estrogens. Gonadal steroids generally regulate aggression during the breeding season, but non-gonadal steroids may regulate aggression during the non-breeding season. Castration of various species in the non-breeding season has no effect on territorial aggression. In several avian studies, circulating DHEA has been found to be elevated in birds during the non-breeding season. These data support the idea that non-breeding birds combine adrenal and/or gonadal DHEA synthesis with neural DHEA metabolism to maintain territorial behavior when gonadal testosterone secretion is low. Similar results have been found in studies involving different strains of rats, mice, and hamsters. DHEA levels also have been studied in humans and may play a role in human aggression. Circulating DHEAS (its sulfated ester) levels rise during adrenarche (≈7 years of age) while plasma testosterone levels are relatively low. This implies that aggression in pre-pubertal children with aggressive conduct disorder might be correlated with plasma DHEAS rather than plasma testosterone, suggesting an important link between DHEAS and human aggressive behavior.


title: Aggression

text: Glucocorticoid hormones have an important role in regulating aggressive behavior. In adult rats, acute injections of corticosterone promote aggressive behavior and acute reduction of corticosterone decreases aggression; however, a chronic reduction of corticosterone levels can produce abnormally aggressive behavior. In addition, glucocorticoids affect development of aggression and establishment of social hierarchies. Adult mice with low baseline levels of corticosterone are more likely to become dominant than are mice with high baseline corticosterone levels.


title: Aggression

text: Glucocorticoids are released by the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis in response to stress, of which cortisol is the most prominent in humans. Results in adults suggest that reduced levels of cortisol, linked to lower fear or a reduced stress response, can be associated with more aggression. However, it may be that proactive aggression is associated with low cortisol levels while reactive aggression may be accompanied by elevated levels. Differences in assessments of cortisol may also explain a diversity of results, particularly in children.


title: Aggression

text: The HPA axis is related to the general fight-or-flight response or acute stress reaction, and the role of catecholamines such as epinephrine, popularly known as adrenaline.


title: Aggression

text: In many animals, aggression can be linked to pheromones released between conspecifics. In mice, major urinary proteins (Mups) have been demonstrated to promote innate aggressive behavior in males, and can be mediated by neuromodulatory systems. Mups activate olfactory sensory neurons in the vomeronasal organ (VNO), a subsystem of the nose known to detect pheromones via specific sensory receptors, of mice and rats. Pheremones have also been identified in fruit flies, detected by neurons in the antenna, that send a message to the brain eliciting aggression; it has been noted that aggression pheremones have not been identified in humans.


title: Aggression

text: In general, differences in a continuous phenotype such as aggression are likely to result from the action of a large number of genes each of small effect, which interact with each other and the environment through development and life.


title: Aggression

text: In a non-mammalian example of genes related to aggression, the fruitless gene in fruit flies is a critical determinant of certain sexually dimorphic behaviors, and its artificial alteration can result in a reversal of stereotypically male and female patterns of aggression in fighting. However, in what was thought to be a relatively clear case, inherent complexities have been reported in deciphering the connections between interacting genes in an environmental context and a social phenotype involving multiple behavioral and sensory interactions with another organism.


title: Aggression

text: In mice, candidate genes for differentiating aggression between the sexes are the Sry (sex determining region Y) gene, located on the Y chromosome and the Sts (steroid sulfatase) gene. The Sts gene encodes the steroid sulfatase enzyme, which is pivotal in the regulation of neurosteroid biosynthesis. It is expressed in both sexes, is correlated with levels of aggression among male mice, and increases dramatically in females after parturition and during lactation, corresponding to the onset of maternal aggression. At least one study has found a possible epigenetic signature (i.e. decreased methylation at a specific CpG site on the promoter region) of the serotonin receptor 5-HT3a that is associated with maternal aggression among human subjects.


title: Aggression

text: Mice with experimentally elevated sensitivity to oxidative stress (through inhibition of copper-zinc superoxide dismutase, SOD1 activity) were tested for aggressive behavior. Males completely deficient in SOD1 were found to be more aggressive than both wild-type males and males that express 50% of this antioxidant enzyme. They were also faster to attack another male. The causal connection between SOD1 deficiency and increased aggression is not yet understood.


title: Aggression

text: In humans, there is good evidence that the basic human neural architecture underpinning the potential for flexible aggressive responses is influenced by genes as well as environment. In terms of variation between individual people, more than 100 twin and adoption studies have been conducted in recent decades examining the genetic basis of aggressive behavior and related constructs such as conduct disorders. According to a meta-analysis published in 2002, approximately 40% of variation between individuals is explained by differences in genes, and 60% by differences in environment (mainly non-shared environmental influences rather than those that would be shared by being raised together). However, such studies have depended on self-report or observation by others including parents, which complicates interpretation of the results. The few laboratory-based analyses have not found significant amounts of individual variation in aggression explicable by genetic variation in the human population. Furthermore, linkage and association studies that seek to identify specific genes, for example that influence neurotransmitter or hormone levels, have generally resulted in contradictory findings characterized by failed attempts at replication. One possible factor is an allele (variant) of the MAO-A gene which, in interaction with certain life events such as childhood maltreatment (which may show a main effect on its own), can influence development of brain regions such as the amygdala and as a result some types of behavioral response may be more likely. The generally unclear picture has been compared to equally difficult findings obtained in regard to other complex behavioral phenotypes. For example, both 7R and 5R, ADHD-linked VNTR alleles of dopamine receptor D4 gene are directly associated with the incidence of proactive aggression in the men with no history of ADHD.


title: Aggression

text: Humans share aspects of aggression with non-human animals, and have specific aspects and complexity related to factors such as genetics, early development, social learning and flexibility, culture and morals.


title: Aggression

text: Konrad Lorenz stated in his 1963 classic, "On Aggression," that human behavior is shaped by four main, survival-seeking animal drives. Taken together, these drives—hunger, fear, reproduction, and aggression—achieve natural selection. E. O. Wilson elaborated in "On Human Nature" that aggression is, typically, a means of gaining control over resources. Aggression is, thus, aggravated during times when high population densities generate resource shortages. According to Richard Leakey and his colleagues, aggression in humans has also increased by becoming more interested in ownership and by defending his or her property. However, UNESCO adopted the Seville Statement of Violence in 1989 that refuted claims, by evolutionary scientists, that genetics by itself was the sole cause of aggression.


title: Aggression

text: Social and cultural aspects may significantly interfere with the distinct expression of aggressiveness. For example, a high population density, when associated with a decrease of available resources, might be a significant intervening variable for the occurrence of violent acts.


title: Aggression

text: Culture is one factor that plays a role in aggression. Tribal or band societies existing before or outside of modern states have sometimes been depicted as peaceful 'noble savages'. The ǃKung people were described as 'The Harmless People' in a popular work by Elizabeth Marshall Thomas in 1958, while Lawrence Keeley's 1996 War Before Civilization suggested that regular warfare without modern technology was conducted by most groups throughout human history, including most Native American tribes. Studies of hunter-gatherers show a range of different societies. In general, aggression, conflict and violence sometimes occur, but direct confrontation is generally avoided and conflict is socially managed by a variety of verbal and non-verbal methods. Different rates of aggression or violence, currently or in the past, within or between groups, have been linked to the structuring of societies and environmental conditions influencing factors such as resource or property acquisition, land and subsistence techniques, and population change.


title: Aggression

text: American psychologist Peter Gray hypothesizes that band hunter-gatherer societies are able to reduce aggression while maintaining relatively peaceful, egalitarian relations between members through various methods, such as fostering a playful spirit in all areas of life, the use of humor to counter the tendency of any one person to dominate the group, and non-coercive or "indulgent" child-rearing practices. Gray likens hunter-gatherer bands to social play groups, while stressing that such play is not frivolous or even easy at all times. According to Gray, "Social play—that is, play involving more than one player—is necessarily egalitarian. It always requires a suspension of aggression and dominance along with a heightened sensitivity to the needs and desires of the other players".


title: Aggression

text: Joan Durrant at the University of Manitoba writes that a number of studies have found physical punishment to be associated with "higher levels of aggression against parents, siblings, peers and spouses", even when controlling for other factors. According to Elizabeth Gershoff at the University of Texas at Austin, the more that children are physically punished, the more likely they are as adults to act violently towards family members, including intimate partners. In countries where physical punishment of children is perceived as being more culturally accepted, it is less strongly associated with increased aggression; however, physical punishment has been found to predict some increase in child aggression regardless of culture. While these associations do not prove causality, a number of longitudinal studies suggest that the experience of physical punishment has a direct causal effect on later aggressive behaviors. In examining several longitudinal studies that investigated the path from disciplinary spanking to aggression in children from preschool age through adolescence, Gershoff concluded: "Spanking consistently predicted increases in children's aggression over time, regardless of how aggressive children were when the spanking occurred". similar results were found by Catherine Taylor at Tulane University in 2010. Family violence researcher Murray A. Straus argues, "There are many reasons this evidence has been ignored. One of the most important is the belief that spanking is more effective than nonviolent discipline and is, therefore, sometimes necessary, despite the risk of harmful side effects".


title: Aggression

text: Analyzing aggression culturally or politically is complicated by the fact that the label 'aggressive' can itself be used as a way of asserting a judgement from a particular point of view. Whether a coercive or violent method of social control is perceived as aggression – or as legitimate versus illegitimate aggression – depends on the position of the relevant parties in relation to the social order of their culture. This in turn can relate to factors such as: norms for coordinating actions and dividing resources; what is considered self-defense or provocation; attitudes towards 'outsiders', attitudes towards specific groups such as women, disabled people or those with lower status; the availability of alternative conflict resolution strategies; trade interdependence and collective security pacts; fears and impulses; and ultimate goals regarding material and social outcomes.