title: Osmanthus

text: Sweet osmanthus and osmanthus tea are particularly associated with the city of Guilin (桂林, literally "Forest of Sweet Osmanthus").


title: Osmanthus

text: Osmanthus wine is prepared by infusing whole "Osmanthus fragrans" flowers in huangjiu or other types of rice wine and is traditionally consumed during the Mid-Autumn Festival.


title: Osmanthus

text: PepsiCo makes Osmanthus flavored Pepsi for the Chinese domestic market (ref: The Economist, November 2022)


title: Science (journal)

text: Science, also widely referred to as Science Magazine, is the peer-reviewed academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and one of the world's top academic journals. It was first published in 1880, is currently circulated weekly and has a subscriber base of around 130,000. Because institutional subscriptions and online access serve a larger audience, its estimated readership is over 400,000 people.


title: Science (journal)

text: The major focus of the journal is publishing important original scientific research and research reviews, but "Science" also publishes science-related news, opinions on science policy and other matters of interest to scientists and others who are concerned with the wide implications of science and technology. Unlike most scientific journals, which focus on a specific field, "Science" and its rival "Nature" cover the full range of scientific disciplines. According to the "Journal Citation Reports", "Science"s 2020 impact factor was 47.728.


title: Science (journal)

text: Studies of methodological quality and reliability have found that some high-prestige journals including "Science" "publish significantly substandard structures", and overall "reliability of published research works in several fields may be decreasing with increasing journal rank".


title: Science (journal)

text: Although it is the journal of the AAAS, membership in the AAAS is not required to publish in "Science". Papers are accepted from authors around the world. Competition to publish in "Science" is very intense, as an article published in such a highly cited journal can lead to attention and career advancement for the authors. Fewer than 7% of articles submitted are accepted for publication.


title: Science (journal)

text: "Science" was founded by New York journalist John Michels in 1880 with financial support from Thomas Edison and later from Alexander Graham Bell. (Edison received favorable editorial treatment in return, without disclosure of the financial relationship, at a time when his reputation was suffering due to delays producing the promised commercially viable light bulb.) However, the journal never gained enough subscribers to succeed and ended publication in March 1882. Alexander Graham Bell and Gardiner Greene Hubbard bought the magazine rights and hired young entomologist Samuel H. Scudder to resurrect the journal one year later. They had some success while covering the meetings of prominent American scientific societies, including the AAAS. However, by 1894, "Science" was again in financial difficulty and was sold to psychologist James McKeen Cattell for .


title: Science (journal)

text: In an agreement worked out by Cattell and AAAS secretary Leland O. Howard, "Science" became the journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1900. During the early part of the 20th century important articles published in "Science" included papers on fruit fly genetics by Thomas Hunt Morgan, gravitational lensing by Albert Einstein, and spiral nebulae by Edwin Hubble. After Cattell died in 1944, the ownership of the journal was transferred to the AAAS.


title: Science (journal)

text: After Cattell's death in 1944, the journal lacked a consistent editorial presence until Graham DuShane became editor in 1956. In 1958, under DuShane's leadership, "Science" absorbed "The Scientific Monthly", thus increasing the journal's circulation by over from 38,000 to more than 61,000. Physicist Philip Abelson, a co-discoverer of neptunium, served as editor from 1962 to 1984. Under Abelson the efficiency of the review process was improved and the publication practices were brought up to date. During this time, papers on the Apollo program missions and some of the earliest reports on AIDS were published.


title: Science (journal)

text: Biochemist Daniel E. Koshland, Jr. served as editor from 1985 until 1995. From 1995 until 2000, neuroscientist Floyd E. Bloom held that position. Biologist Donald Kennedy became the editor of "Science" in 2000. Biochemist Bruce Alberts took his place in March 2008. Geophysicist Marcia McNutt became editor-in-chief in June 2013. During her tenure the family of journals expanded to include "Science Robotics" and "Science Immunology", and open access publishing with "Science Advances". Jeremy M. Berg became editor-in-chief on July 1, 2016.


title: Science (journal)

text: In February 2001, draft results of the human genome were simultaneously published by "Nature" and "Science" with "Science" publishing the Celera Genomics paper and "Nature" publishing the publicly funded Human Genome Project. In 2007 "Science "(together with "Nature") received the Prince of Asturias Award for Communications and Humanity. In 2015 Rush D. Holt, Jr., chief executive officer of the AAAS and executive publisher of "Science", stated that the journal was becoming increasingly international: "[I]nternationally co-authored papers are now the norm—they represent almost 60 percent of the papers. In 1992, it was slightly less than 20 percent."


title: Science (journal)

text: Former Washington University in St. Louis Provost Holden Thorp was named editor-in-chief on Monday, August 19, 2019.


title: Science (journal)

text: The latest editions of the journal are available online, through the main journal website, only to subscribers, AAAS members, and for delivery to IP addresses at institutions that subscribe; students, K–12 teachers, and some others can subscribe at a reduced fee. However, research articles published after 1997 are available for free (with online registration) one year after they are published i.e. delayed open access. Significant public-health related articles are also available for free, sometimes immediately after publication. AAAS members may also access the pre-1997 Science archives at the "Science" website, where it is called "Science Classic". Institutions can opt to add Science Classic to their subscriptions for an additional fee. Some older articles can also be accessed via JSTOR and ProQuest.


title: Science (journal)

text: The journal also participates in initiatives that provide free or low-cost access to readers in developing countries, including HINARI, OARE, AGORA, and Scidev.net.


title: Science (journal)

text: Other features of the "Science" website include the free "ScienceNow" section with "up to the minute news from science", and "ScienceCareers", which provides free career resources for scientists and engineers. Science Express (Sciencexpress) provides advance electronic publication of selected "Science" papers.


title: Science (journal)

text: "Science" received funding for COVID-19-related coverage from the Pulitzer Center and the Heising-Simons Foundation.


title: Royal Enfield Himalayan

text: The Royal Enfield Himalayan is an adventure touring motorcycle manufactured by Royal Enfield. It was revealed in February 2015 and launched in early 2016. Pierre Terblanche led the design team during Himalayan's development.


title: Royal Enfield Himalayan

text: The Himalayan was conceived by CEO Siddhartha Lal, as an adventure touring, or dual sport motorcycle. The Himalayan differs considerably from the other motorcycles offered by Royal Enfield - most of which are various incarnations of the Bullet utilising the same frame and engine - in terms of its chassis and powertrain. Pierre Terblanche, formerly of Ducati and Moto Guzzi among other companies, headed Royal Enfield's design team during development of the Himalayan.


title: Royal Enfield Himalayan

text: An early prototype was made in mid-2014, followed by a more complete version in 2015. The vehicle was released in India in early 2016, followed by a release in international markets such as Philippines, Australia and the United Kingdom later that year. Both domestic and export model now gets Electronic Fuel Injection and ABS as standard.


title: Royal Enfield Himalayan

text: The new 2021 model got significant upgrades like tripper navigation powered by Google maps (same unit offered in new meteor 350).and redesigned Jerry can Holder.


title: Royal Enfield Himalayan

text: Upon its introduction, the Himalayan was praised for its good suspension and off-road ability, while some criticism was directed to the relatively low power output of the engine. The motorcycle also has longer intervals between servicing and oil changes.


title: Royal Enfield Himalayan

text: The early Himalayan suffered some production issues. It was noted that the quality of parts was not up to the mark and in 2017 some users filed lawsuits to either demand compensation or return the bike for refund. The company responded and in 2018 it was reported that "Royal Enfield is taking proactive steps to ensure the quality of its adventure motorcycle, the Royal Enfield Himalayan, both in the domestic and in the international markets."


title: Royal Enfield Himalayan

text: The Himalayan's engine was designed and produced by Royal Enfield from the ground-up and shares little to no parts with other contemporaries in the company's line-up. The engine, named the LS410 indicating its long-stroke ratio, is a unit-construction 411 cc single-cylinder, oil-cooled 4-stroke SOHC engine. The motor generates a power output of 24.5 bhp at 6,500 rpm (18.02 KW) and a maximum torque of 32 Nm at 4,000-4,500 rpm. The engine also includes an oil cooler, a first among motorcycles manufactured by Royal Enfield India. The bike employs electronic fuel injection and the engine is mated to a 5-speed constant mesh transmission.


title: Royal Enfield Himalayan

text: This engine has a single overhead camshaft, thereby moving away from the traditional pushrod design that had been used by the company from 1955, starting with the original Bullet up to the contemporary Classic series.


title: Royal Enfield Himalayan

text: The Himalayan has a half-duplex split cradle frame. Suspension is telescopic in the front while the rear is provided with monoshock suspension. Front forks are 41 mm with 200 mm of travel and the rear suspension offers 180 mm of travel. The motorcycle has a ground clearance of 220 mm.


title: Royal Enfield Himalayan

text: Factory standard tyres measure 90/90 21-inch at the front and 120/90 17-inch at the rear. These are manufactured by CEAT. For units sold in the UK and North America, the tyres are manufactured by Pirelli (MT-60).


title: Royal Enfield Himalayan

text: The motorcycle has a 300 mm disc with a dual piston floating caliper at the front and a 240 mm single piston caliper disc at rear.


title: Royal Enfield Himalayan

text: The instrumentation console for this motorcycle is also modeled anew. It includes an analog speedometer and tachometer, with a digital display for the odometer, gear position indicator, trip-meter and Ambient temperature gauge. Also included is an analog fuel gauge and a digital compass. Also included is a windscreen, which can be manually adjusted for height via screws to two positions.


title: Royal Enfield Himalayan

text: The motorcycle was designed specifically with touring in mind and features an upright seating position, with a seat height of 800 mm, allowing the rider to be seated relatively low compared to the overall height of the motorcycle. The motorcycle also features mounts on either sides of the tank, which can serve as holders for jerrycans, as well as tank guards. The rear includes a luggage carrier, and mounts are also provided as well to install aluminium panniers both provided by Royal Enfield as accessories.


title: Combat!

text: Combat! is an American television drama series that originally aired on ABC from 1962 until 1967. The exclamation point in "Combat!" was depicted on-screen as a stylized bayonet. The show covered the grim lives of a squad of American soldiers fighting the Germans in France during World War II. The first-season episode "A Day In June" shows D-Day as a flashback, hence the action occurs during and after June 1944. The program starred Rick Jason as platoon leader Second Lieutenant Gil Hanley and Vic Morrow as Sergeant "Chip" Saunders. Jason and Morrow would play the lead in alternating episodes in "Combat!".


title: Combat!

text: Creator Robert Pirosh's early career in film was defined mainly by comedy films. After his service in World War II, his focus changed to telling the stories of lower-rank soldiers. He won an Academy Award for his 1949 screenplay "Battleground", and directed 1951's "Go for Broke!" Both were noted for their realistic depictions of war, accuracy and portraying soldiers grappling with human vulnerabilities and ethical dilemmas. Those factors were central to Pirosh when, in 1961, he approached producer Selig Seligman with an idea for a television series. His proposal for an hour-long drama, called "Men in Combat", would follow a small squad of enlisted men from their arrival in mainland Europe on D-Day to the liberation of Paris. Seligman's Selmur Productions was intrigued, and parent network ABC ordered a pilot.


title: Combat!

text: The Pirosh-written pilot, "A Day in June," was shot over six days in December 1961. Contemporary newspaper reports called the show "Combat Platoon". One day was spent shooting on location at Trancas Beach in Malibu, which stood in for Omaha Beach.


title: Combat!

text: Series leads Rick Jason and Vic Morrow were unimpressed by Pirosh's pilot, and Morrow pondered quitting the show, fearing it would damage his career. Between completion of the pilot and greenlighting a full season, Seligman and ABC made several changes, including dropping some characters and altering others. Seligman also dismissed Pirosh and brought in Robert Blees to be the series producer. Robert Altman was hired to direct, assigned to every other episode of the inaugural season.


title: Combat!

text: By April 1962, ABC announced it had picked up the series, now called "Combat!", for its fall primetime schedule. The network committed to a thirty-episode season, and said "Combat!" would be complemented by another World War II drama scheduled for Friday nights, called "The Gallant Men", where Altman had directed the pilot episode.


title: Combat!

text: The series went into production on June 2, 1962 and filming got underway on June 11. Episodes typically took six days to film, with a mix of soundstage shooting and heavy use of the MGM backlot for outdoor scenes. However, many scenes shot in the Hollywood Hills with parched grasses, eucalyptus trees and sandy soils were clearly unlike northern Europe, especially obvious in the color episodes. The first series opened with "Forgotten Front," telecast at 7:30 p.m. ET on Tuesday, October 2, 1962. Though it was the first to be broadcast, "Forgotten Front" was sixth in production order. The pilot, "A Day in June," would air as the eleventh episode, in December.


title: Combat!

text: According to Rick Jason, "Our budgets for the first year, including pre-production, production, and post-production, (that is, the entire cost of each negative) was $127,500. In the fifth year (in color) we delivered them for $183,000. Our time schedules were six shooting days. Therefore, on a five-day week, we took a week and one day to shoot a show. Here and there, a segment went to seven shooting days and everybody in the front offices got a little nervous."


title: Combat!

text: Jason said of the working conditions, "In the first year of the show, Vic and I were given dressing room suites in a building that hadn't been renovated in twenty-five years. We also had no dressing rooms on the outdoor sets (we were thankful just to have chairs). Vic went on strike the beginning of the second year and things got much better."


title: Combat!

text: Wesley Britton wrote, "The producers and directors of the series (including Robert Altman, whose work on the show included 10 defining episodes) went the extra mile for establishing credibility and realism. Then and now, viewers see motion picture quality photography as in the long shots very unlike most network television of the period. They had military advisors on hand to look over scripts and maps. The cast couldn't shave during the five day shoots to help the 'beard continuity.' Except for occasional dialogue, for the most part when the 'Krauts' or 'Jerries' spoke, they did so in German. Actor Robert Winston Mercy, who wrote one script and played a number of German officers, told me the uniforms were so precisely recreated with correct pipings and insignias that he would cause a stir among Jewish cafeteria workers when he strode in wearing his costume during lunch breaks."


title: Combat!

text: "Combat!" premiered on ABC on October 2, 1962, and was broadcast for five seasons to become TV's longest-running World War II drama. In total "Combat!" aired 152 hour-long episodes. The first 127 episodes, spanning four seasons, were produced in black and white. The fifth and final season produced 25 color episodes. The show was developed by Robert Pirosh, who wrote the pilot episode.


title: Combat!

text: Prior to portraying Pvt. McCall, William Bryant made three guest appearances throughout the first four seasons. Throughout the whole series, however, Paul Busch portrayed multiple characters, the majority of them being German. Conlan Carter (a newcomer) was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in 1964 for his portrayal of PFC "Doc".


title: Combat!

text: The majority of the guest stars appeared as additional squad members, French citizens or German soldiers. In the first season, the then little-known Ted Knight and Frank Gorshin made appearances. Other notable guest stars included:


title: Combat!

text: From Pirosh's original ideation of "Combat!", authenticity was considered important to the show. Most of the cast members were veterans of the armed services, with several having served during World War II. Dick Peabody and Shecky Greene served in the U.S. Navy, while Rick Jason served in the Army Air Corps. Vic Morrow served in the Navy in 1947. Jack Hogan served as a Staff Sergeant in the U.S. Air Force during the Korean War, and Conlan Carter served in the U.S. Air Force during the post–Korean War era. Steven Rogers served six months in the U.S. Army. Director Robert Altman served in the Army Air Corps during World War II, flying more than 50 bombing missions as a crewman on a B-24 Liberator in the South Pacific. Morrow's character often displays what appears to be a USMC cover on his helmet; it is actually a scrap from a camouflage parachute used in the D-Day invasion.


title: Combat!

text: In May 1962, before filming for the series began, Seligman had the principal cast (Jason, Morrow, Rogers, Jalbert and Greene) go through a week of basic training at the Army's Infantry Training Center at Fort Ord in northern California. "We did everything from crawling under barbed wire with live .50 calibre machine bullets whizzing over our heads, to swinging across a muddy pond on a rope, to pulling the pin on a live grenade and throwing it properly, to running an obstacle course," Jason later wrote. "It was much more than I’d had to do in [World War II] for my real basic training in the Air Corps."


title: Combat!

text: Morrow noted that the instructors who worked with the cast at Fort Ord had one common request: not to act like John Wayne. "Poor John," Morrow told a reporter. "I wonder if he knows he's almost a dirty word in the Army."


title: Combat!

text: Seligman also asked the Army to assign a technical advisor to review and offer critique of scripts—specifically, someone who had been present at D-Day and subsequent campaigns. The Army complied, assigning Maj. Homer Jones. He served with the 82nd Airborne's 508th Parachute Infantry, parachuted into northern France on D-Day and participated in four campaigns. Jones had access to, and conferred with, Seligman, producer Robert Blees and the show's various directors and technicians to ensure the show was staged accurately. He would also arrange for the show to borrow Army equipment that could not be furnished by the studio's props department.


title: Combat!

text: During the battle of Hue during the Vietnam war US troops trying to retake the city, not having been trained in urban combat, resorted to using tactics for assaulting buildings and clearing rooms they learned from watching "Combat!", reportedly to great effect.


title: Combat!

text: "Combat!" has been aired on and off since the 1970s in Greece, Iran, Japan, Mexico, Philippines, Brazil, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Chile, Perú, Indonesia, Colombia, Argentina, South Korea, Canada, Venezuela, Australia, Malaysia, Pakistan, and Taiwan.


title: Combat!

text: As of February 2020, the Heroes & Icons channel broadcasts the series as part of its Saturday night lineup.


title: Combat!

text: Wesley Britton, son of a World War II veteran, wrote, "Unless you watched "Combat!" during its original 1962–1967 run, you might not know just how popular and influential the program was... In a league of its own, "Combat!" was aptly titled as considerable time was spent with the American soldiers engaged in machine gun fire fights and explosions while the soundtrack was filled with the martial horns and drums of the rousing Leonard Rosenman score. "Combat!" was also distinguished by its grim and realistic stories that frequently had only the most minimal of dialogue, and that often being only quick orders from Sgt. Saunders to his unit while they were on the move."


title: Combat!

text: Britton added, "The 25 episodes of the fifth and final season of "Combat!", the only one broadcast in color, maintained the high-quality of the show so well established in the first four years. One major change was a move from MGM studios to CBS which meant, among other matters, a new sound crew and different props. Further, in this season the color was especially memorable as most viewers were accustomed to seeing World War II in black-and-white like the newsreels of the war years. However, using color resulted in a variety of production problems such as the lack of usable stock footage. But the show wasn't simply spectacular explosion fests, although most episodes opened and closed with violent skirmishes believably orchestrated by the special effects crew."


title: Combat!

text: Over the course of the series run, Lancer Books released three original paperback novels based on it by Harold Calin, a genre novelist who was concurrently building a catalog as one of the publisher's mainstay authors of WWII novels. The titles are Combat! (1963), Combat!: Men Not Heroes (1963) and Combat!: No Rest for Heroes (1965). The books represent their author's adaptive "take" on the TV series—a kind of "alternate storytelling universe" that was similar, if not exact—rather than strictly adhering to canonistic details and continuity. It's likely that Calin got the tie-in commission from Lancer before the series aired, and had to produce the first book to hit the stands shortly after the show debuted; thus he may have had little more to go on than some publicity material and/or a pilot script (and the series would change significantly from the pilot) and/or a show bible, and had to make best guesses without the opportunity to see an actual episode. In that pre-VCR era, even actual episodes would only have been available to him as they aired, with no way to preserve them for reference. And in that circumstance, a number of tie-in writers would likewise create similarly "approximate" novels, whose follow-ups might remain consistent to their own internal continuity.


title: Combat!

text: Interestingly, an original novel that more accurately presents the series tone and characters—whose author had clearly had time to absorb a number of aired episodes before writing—is one that was crafted for younger readers: Combat!: The Counterattack by Franklin M. Davis Jr (1964, Whitman Publishing, pulp pages, laminated cardboard hardcover), who himself had a long and distinguished military career and thereafter became an author of war novels and thrillers.


title: Golden syrup

text: Golden syrup or light treacle is a thick, amber-coloured form of inverted sugar syrup made by the process of refining sugar cane or sugar beet juice into sugar, or by treatment of a sugar solution with acid. It is used in a variety of baking recipes and desserts. It has an appearance and consistency similar to honey, and is often used as a substitute where honey is unavailable or prohibitively expensive.


title: Golden syrup

text: It is not to be confused with amber corn syrup or amber refined sugar. Regular molasses, or dark treacle (as well as cane syrup found in the southern US, such as Steen's cane syrup) has both a richer colour and a strong, distinctive flavour.


title: Golden syrup

text: Formulated by the chemists Charles Eastick and his brother John Joseph Eastick at the Abram Lyle & Sons (now part of Tate & Lyle) refinery in Plaistow, Newham, London, Lyle's Golden Syrup was first canned and sold in 1885. In 2006, it was recognised by "Guinness World Records" as having the world's oldest branding and packaging.


title: Golden syrup

text: In 1863, Abram Lyle, owner of a cooperage, became owner of the Glebe Sugar Refinery in Greenock, in lieu of a debt. He became aware of the fact that a by-product of the sugar refining was a syrup which was usually sold off cheaply as pig-food. He thought that, given some adjustment, this syrup could be adapted for human consumption. His company did well and expanded to London.


title: Golden syrup

text: In 1883, Charles Eastick, an English chemist at the Abram Lyle & Sons (now part of American Sugar Refining's Tate & Lyle licensed brand) refinery in Plaistow, east London, further formulated how sugar could be refined to make a preserve and sweetener for cooking, bringing it to its current recipe. Charles and his brother John Joseph Eastick experimented with the refining process of the bitter molasses-brown treacle—hitherto a waste by-product of sugar refining—into an eminently palatable syrup with the viscosity, hue, and sweetness of honey. The resulting product was marketed commercially in 1885 as "golden syrup". The name "golden syrup" in connection with molasses had occurred, however, as early as 1840 in an Adelaide newspaper, the "South Australian".


title: Golden syrup

text: The tin bears a picture of the rotting carcass of a lion with a swarm of bees and the slogan "Out of the strong came forth sweetness". This is a reference to the Biblical story in chapter 14 of the Book of Judges in which Samson was travelling to the land of the Philistines in search of a wife. During the journey he killed a lion, and when he passed the same spot on his return he noticed that a swarm of bees had formed a comb of honey in the carcass. Samson later turned this into a riddle at a wedding: "Out of the eater came forth meat and out of the strong came forth sweetness". While it is not known exactly why this image and slogan were chosen, Abram Lyle was a deeply religious man, and it has been suggested that they refer either to the strength of the Lyle company or the tins in which golden syrup is sold. In 1904, they were registered together as a trademark, and in 2006 "Guinness World Records" declared the mark to be the world's oldest branding and packaging. Lyle's golden syrup was awarded a Royal Warrant in 1911.


title: Golden syrup

text: In 1921, Lyle's business merged with Tate, a sugar-refining firm founded by Sir Henry Tate in 1859, to become Tate & Lyle. In 2010, Tate & Lyle sold its sugar refining and golden syrup business to American Sugar Refining.


title: Golden syrup

text: Originally, golden syrup was a product made at the white sugar refinery from the recovered mother liquor (recovered molasses) "washed" off the raw sugar crystals in the process of creating white sugar. This liquor is generally known as "refiners return syrup". Today most golden syrups are produced by a specialist manufacturer by inverting half the refiners return syrup to fructose and glucose and blending it back again; this ensures the product remains liquid and will never re-crystallise.


title: Golden syrup

text: The free glucose and fructose present in golden syrups are more water-soluble than the original sucrose. As a result, golden syrups are less likely to crystallize than a pure sucrose syrup. The free fructose content gives the syrup a taste sweeter than that of an equivalent solution of white sugar; when substituting golden syrup for white sugar, about 25% less golden syrup is needed for the same level of sweetness.


title: Golden syrup

text: The term "invert" comes from the method used for assessing sugar syrups. The plane of linear polarised light passed through a sample of pure sucrose solution is rotated to the right. As the solution is converted to a mixture of sucrose, fructose and glucose, the angle of rotation reduces, through zero and then increases in the opposite direction, thus the direction appears to have been inverted compared to light passed through the sucrose solution.


title: Golden syrup

text: Golden syrup is often made at home when unavailable. Water and sugar are stirred over heat until boiling, with citric acid added to enhance inversion of sucrose. Mixture is slowly boiled without stirring until it is thick and amber colored. At this point much of the sucrose will have inverted to fructose and glucose, and caramelization will have created other chemicals in addition to darkening the color.


title: Golden syrup

text: Refiners syrup begins as a high-Brix, pale sucrose syrup made from white sugar and water designed to loosen the dried molasses found on raw sugar crystals. The sucrose saturated content of the initial "green" syrup impedes sugar crystals from dissolving during the process of washing. The purpose is to mix the green syrup with raw sugar crystals to form a "magma" of 8–10% moisture content at around 60–65°C that is then washed with water in a centrifuge. After the first washing (often termed affination) the "washed off" molasses combines with the sucrose syrup to generate refiners return syrup, which is generally re-used several times until deemed spent. The spent refiners return syrup is sold off to manufacturers for golden syrup production or is sent to a recovery section of the refinery often called the remelt house or boil-out section. Here it is reheated to crystallize and recover the sucrose it contains and that is returned to the affination stage. The final spent syrup left after the recovery process is sold as treacle (often called refiners molasses in older texts).


title: Golden syrup

text: An equivalent golden syrup product may be made from beet sugar by processing the clarified, partially evaporated beet juice to break down (invert) most of the disaccharide sucrose into its constituents monosaccharides glucose and fructose. In this process none of the sucrose is ever crystallized from the beet juice. Inversion may be done by acid hydrolysis or by adding an enzyme, invertase. This produces a free flowing (invert) syrup that will not crystallize. Typically in acid hydrolysis, the disaccharides are split by hydrochloric acid, resulting in a solution which is acidic; neutrality is restored by the addition of lye, which is sodium hydroxide. As a result, syrup made by this method contains some common salt, sodium chloride.


title: Golden syrup

text: Lyle's Golden Syrup, made by American Sugar Refining under the licensed brand, Tate & Lyle, remains one of the best known UK brands. There are two other UK sugar refiners: British Sugar, which makes an equivalent product under its Silver Spoon brand; and Ragus Sugars, which makes the Eastick's & Ragus Golden Syrup brand.


title: Golden syrup

text: In South Africa, the most popular brands are the locally produced Illovo golden syrup and the imported Lyle's Golden Syrup. In addition to the classic golden syrup, several flavoured versions are also marketed, notably maple flavour.


title: Golden syrup

text: In Australia, CSR Limited is the major producer, but it is also produced by Bundaberg Sugar and Smith's.


title: Golden syrup

text: Rogers Golden Syrup and Lyle's golden syrup are available in Canada. In Canada, Lyle's Golden Syrup is available in either a glass jar or the traditional tin.


title: Golden syrup

text: King brand syrup, a mixture of corn syrup and invert syrup, is sold in many areas of the US, often grouped with table syrups like maple syrup. Speciality stores or those with international sections, such as Whole Foods Market and Cost Plus World Market, often stock Lyle's golden syrup from the UK in several different packs.


title: Golden syrup

text: In Germany, a similar product called "Zuckerrübensirup" (literally "sugar-beet syrup") is a popular spread, especially in the western part of the country around Cologne. The best known producer is the Grafschafter Krautfabrik which has produced "Zuckerrübensirup" for more than a hundred years. This syrup is almost always made from sugar-beet; golden syrup from sugar cane is extremely rare on the German market. There are two types of "Zuckerrübensirup" in Germany, a golden one, similar to golden syrup from sugar cane, and a brown syrup which is similar to dark treacle. The German company "Schneekoppe" makes a product called "Frühstücks-Sirup" (breakfast syrup), which is a golden syrup with some added natural flavor to imitate the taste of honey.


title: Golden syrup

text: Golden syrup is a Newtonian fluid. Its density is approximately 1430 kg·m at room temperature, and its viscosity is 210 Pa·s at 12 °C. It is useful in experimental fluid dynamics, being cheap, transparent and non-toxic.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: The Wnt signaling pathways are a group of signal transduction pathways which begin with proteins that pass signals into a cell through cell surface receptors. The name Wnt is a portmanteau created from the names Wingless and Int-1. Wnt signaling pathways use either nearby cell-cell communication (paracrine) or same-cell communication (autocrine). They are highly evolutionarily conserved in animals, which means they are similar across animal species from fruit flies to humans.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Three Wnt signaling pathways have been characterized: the canonical Wnt pathway, the noncanonical planar cell polarity pathway, and the noncanonical Wnt/calcium pathway. All three pathways are activated by the binding of a Wnt-protein ligand to a Frizzled family receptor, which passes the biological signal to the Dishevelled protein inside the cell. The canonical Wnt pathway leads to regulation of gene transcription, and is thought to be negatively regulated in part by the SPATS1 gene. The noncanonical planar cell polarity pathway regulates the cytoskeleton that is responsible for the shape of the cell. The noncanonical Wnt/calcium pathway regulates calcium inside the cell.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Wnt signaling was first identified for its role in carcinogenesis, then for its function in embryonic development. The embryonic processes it controls include body axis patterning, cell fate specification, cell proliferation and cell migration. These processes are necessary for proper formation of important tissues including bone, heart and muscle. Its role in embryonic development was discovered when genetic mutations in Wnt pathway proteins produced abnormal fruit fly embryos. Later research found that the genes responsible for these abnormalities also influenced breast cancer development in mice. Wnt signaling also controls tissue regeneration in adult bone marrow, skin and intestine.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: This pathway's clinical importance was demonstrated by mutations that lead to various diseases, including breast and prostate cancer, glioblastoma, type II diabetes and others. In recent years, researchers reported first successful use of Wnt pathway inhibitors in mouse models of disease.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: The discovery of Wnt signaling was influenced by research on oncogenic (cancer-causing) retroviruses. In 1982, Roel Nusse and Harold Varmus infected mice with mouse mammary tumor virus in order to mutate mouse genes to see which mutated genes could cause breast tumors. They identified a new mouse proto-oncogene that they named int1 (integration 1).


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Int1 is highly conserved across multiple species, including humans and "Drosophila". Its presence in "D. melanogaster" led researchers to discover in 1987 that the int1 gene in "Drosophila" was actually the already known and characterized "Drosophila" gene known as Wingless (Wg). Since previous research by Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric Wieschaus (which won them the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1995) had already established the function of Wg as a segment polarity gene involved in the formation of the body axis during embryonic development, researchers determined that the mammalian int1 discovered in mice is also involved in embryonic development.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Continued research led to the discovery of further int1-related genes; however, because those genes were not identified in the same manner as int1, the int gene nomenclature was inadequate. Thus, the int/Wingless family became the Wnt family and int1 became Wnt1. The name Wnt is a portmanteau of int and Wg and stands for "Wingless-related integration site".


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Wnt comprises a diverse family of secreted lipid-modified signaling glycoproteins that are 350–400 amino acids in length. The lipid modification of all Wnts is palmitoleoylation of a single totally conserved serine residue. Palmitoleoylation is necessary because it is required for Wnt to bind to its carrier protein Wntless (WLS) so it can be transported to the plasma membrane for secretion and it allows the Wnt protein to bind its receptor Frizzled Wnt proteins also undergo glycosylation, which attaches a carbohydrate in order to ensure proper secretion. In Wnt signaling, these proteins act as ligands to activate the different Wnt pathways via paracrine and autocrine routes.<ref name="doi10.1016/0092-8674(92)90630-U"></ref>


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: These proteins are highly conserved across species. They can be found in mice, humans, "Xenopus", zebrafish, "Drosophila" and many others.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Wnt signaling begins when a Wnt protein binds to the N-terminal extra-cellular cysteine-rich domain of a Frizzled (Fz) family receptor. These receptors span the plasma membrane seven times and constitute a distinct family of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). However, to facilitate Wnt signaling, co-receptors may be required alongside the interaction between the Wnt protein and Fz receptor. Examples include lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP)-5/6, receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), and ROR2. Upon activation of the receptor, a signal is sent to the phosphoprotein Dishevelled (Dsh), which is located in the cytoplasm. This signal is transmitted via a direct interaction between Fz and Dsh. Dsh proteins are present in all organisms and they all share the following highly conserved protein domains: an amino-terminal DIX domain, a central PDZ domain, and a carboxy-terminal DEP domain. These different domains are important because after Dsh, the Wnt signal can branch off into multiple pathways and each pathway interacts with a different combination of the three domains.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: The three best characterized Wnt signaling pathways are the canonical Wnt pathway, the noncanonical planar cell polarity pathway, and the noncanonical Wnt/calcium pathway. As their names suggest, these pathways belong to one of two categories: canonical or noncanonical. The difference between the categories is that a canonical pathway involves the protein beta-catenin (β-catenin) while a noncanonical pathway operates independently of it.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: The canonical Wnt pathway (or Wnt/β-catenin pathway) is the Wnt pathway that causes an accumulation of β-catenin in the cytoplasm and its eventual translocation into the nucleus to act as a transcriptional coactivator of transcription factors that belong to the TCF/LEF family. Without Wnt, β-catenin would not accumulate in the cytoplasm since a destruction complex would normally degrade it. This destruction complex includes the following proteins: Axin, adenomatosis polyposis coli (APC), protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) and casein kinase 1α (CK1α). It degrades β-catenin by targeting it for ubiquitination, which subsequently sends it to the proteasome to be digested. However, as soon as Wnt binds Fz and LRP5/6, the destruction complex function becomes disrupted. This is due to Wnt causing the translocation of the negative Wnt regulator, Axin, and the destruction complex to the plasma membrane. Phosphorylation by other proteins in the destruction complex subsequently binds Axin to the cytoplasmic tail of LRP5/6. Axin becomes de-phosphorylated and its stability and levels decrease. Dsh then becomes activated via phosphorylation and its DIX and PDZ domains inhibit the GSK3 activity of the destruction complex. This allows β-catenin to accumulate and localize to the nucleus and subsequently induce a cellular response via gene transduction alongside the TCF/LEF (T-cell factor/lymphoid enhancing factor) transcription factors. β-catenin recruits other transcriptional coactivators, such as BCL9, Pygopus and Parafibromin/Hyrax. The complexity of the transcriptional complex assembled by β-catenin is beginning to emerge thanks to new high-throughput proteomics studies. However, a unified theory of how β‐catenin drives target gene expression is still missing, and tissue-specific players might assist β‐catenin to define its target genes. The extensivity of the β-catenin interacting proteins complicates our understanding: β-catenin may be directly phosphorylated at Ser552 by Akt, which causes its disassociation from cell-cell contacts and accumulation in cytosol, thereafter 14-3-3ζ interacts with β-catenin (pSer552) and enhances its nuclear translocation. BCL9 and Pygopus have been reported, in fact, to possess several β-catenin-independent functions (therefore, likely, Wnt signaling-independent).


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: The noncanonical planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway does not involve β-catenin. It does not use LRP-5/6 as its co-receptor and is thought to use NRH1, Ryk, PTK7 or ROR2. The PCP pathway is activated via the binding of Wnt to Fz and its co-receptor. The receptor then recruits Dsh, which uses its PDZ and DIX domains to form a complex with Dishevelled-associated activator of morphogenesis 1 (DAAM1). Daam1 then activates the small G-protein Rho through a guanine exchange factor. Rho activates Rho-associated kinase (ROCK), which is one of the major regulators of the cytoskeleton. Dsh also forms a complex with rac1 and mediates profilin binding to actin. Rac1 activates JNK and can also lead to actin polymerization. Profilin binding to actin can result in restructuring of the cytoskeleton and gastrulation.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: The noncanonical Wnt/calcium pathway also does not involve β-catenin. Its role is to help regulate calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in order to control intracellular calcium levels. Like other Wnt pathways, upon ligand binding, the activated Fz receptor directly interacts with Dsh and activates specific Dsh-protein domains. The domains involved in Wnt/calcium signaling are the PDZ and DEP domains. However, unlike other Wnt pathways, the Fz receptor directly interfaces with a trimeric G-protein. This co-stimulation of Dsh and the G-protein can lead to the activation of either PLC or cGMP-specific PDE. If PLC is activated, the plasma membrane component PIP2 is cleaved into DAG and IP3. When IP3 binds its receptor on the ER, calcium is released. Increased concentrations of calcium and DAG can activate Cdc42 through PKC. Cdc42 is an important regulator of ventral patterning. Increased calcium also activates calcineurin and CaMKII. CaMKII induces activation of the transcription factor NFAT, which regulates cell adhesion, migration and tissue separation. Calcineurin activates TAK1 and NLK kinase, which can interfere with TCF/β-Catenin signaling in the canonical Wnt pathway. However, if PDE is activated, calcium release from the ER is inhibited. PDE mediates this through the inhibition of PKG, which subsequently causes the inhibition of calcium release.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: The binary distinction of canonical and non-canonical Wnt signaling pathways has come under scrutiny and an integrated, convergent Wnt pathway has been proposed. Some evidence for this was found for one Wnt ligand (Wnt5A). Evidence for a convergent Wnt signaling pathway that shows integrated activation of Wnt/Ca2+ and Wnt/β-catenin signaling, for multiple Wnt ligands, was described in mammalian cell lines.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Wnt signaling also regulates a number of other signaling pathways that have not been as extensively elucidated. One such pathway includes the interaction between Wnt and GSK3. During cell growth, Wnt can inhibit GSK3 in order to activate mTOR in the absence of β-catenin. However, Wnt can also serve as a negative regulator of mTOR via activation of the tumor suppressor TSC2, which is upregulated via Dsh and GSK3 interaction. During myogenesis, Wnt uses PA and CREB to activate MyoD and Myf5 genes. Wnt also acts in conjunction with Ryk and Src to allow for regulation of neuron repulsion during axonal guidance. Wnt regulates gastrulation when CK1 serves as an inhibitor of Rap1-ATPase in order to modulate the cytoskeleton during gastrulation. Further regulation of gastrulation is achieved when Wnt uses ROR2 along with the CDC42 and JNK pathway to regulate the expression of PAPC. Dsh can also interact with aPKC, Pa3, Par6 and LGl in order to control cell polarity and microtubule cytoskeleton development. While these pathways overlap with components associated with PCP and Wnt/Calcium signaling, they are considered distinct pathways because they produce different responses.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: In order to ensure proper functioning, Wnt signaling is constantly regulated at several points along its signaling pathways.<ref name="doi:10.1016/j.sbi.2014.10.003"></ref> For example, Wnt proteins are palmitoylated. The protein "porcupine" mediates this process, which means that it helps regulate when the Wnt ligand is secreted by determining when it is fully formed. Secretion is further controlled with proteins such as GPR177 (wntless) and evenness interrupted and complexes such as the retromer complex.<ref name="doi10.1016/j.devcel.2009.06.016"></ref>


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Upon secretion, the ligand can be prevented from reaching its receptor through the binding of proteins such as the stabilizers Dally and glypican 3 (GPC3), which inhibit diffusion. In cancer cells, both the heparan sulfate chains and the core protein of GPC3 are involved in regulating Wnt binding and activation for cell proliferation. Wnt recognizes a heparan sulfate structure on GPC3, which contains IdoA2S and GlcNS6S, and the 3-O-sulfation in GlcNS6S3S enhances the binding of Wnt to the heparan sulfate glypican. A cysteine-rich domain at the N-lobe of GPC3 has been identified to form a Wnt-binding hydrophobic groove including phenylalanine-41 that interacts with Wnt. Blocking the Wnt binding domain using a nanobody called HN3 can inhibit Wnt activation.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: At the Fz receptor, the binding of proteins other than Wnt can antagonize signaling. Specific antagonists include Dickkopf (Dkk), Wnt inhibitory factor 1 (WIF-1), secreted Frizzled-related proteins (SFRP), Cerberus, Frzb, Wise, SOST, and Naked cuticle. These constitute inhibitors of Wnt signaling. However, other molecules also act as activators. Norrin and R-Spondin2 activate Wnt signaling in the absence of Wnt ligand.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Interactions between Wnt signaling pathways also regulate Wnt signaling. As previously mentioned, the Wnt/calcium pathway can inhibit TCF/β-catenin, preventing canonical Wnt pathway signaling. Prostaglandin E2 is an essential activator of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway. Interaction of PGE2 with its receptors E2/E4 stabilizes β-catenin through cAMP/PKA mediated phosphorylation. The synthesis of PGE2 is necessary for Wnt signaling mediated processes such as tissue regeneration and control of stem cell population in zebrafish and mouse. Intriguingly, the unstructured regions of several oversized Intrinsically disordered proteins play crucial roles in regulating Wnt signaling.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Wnt signaling plays a critical role in embryonic development. It operates in both vertebrates and invertebrates, including humans, frogs, zebrafish, "C. elegans", "Drosophila" and others. It was first found in the segment polarity of Drosophila, where it helps to establish anterior and posterior polarities. It is implicated in other developmental processes. As its function in "Drosophila" suggests, it plays a key role in body axis formation, particularly the formation of the anteroposterior and dorsoventral axes. It is involved in the induction of cell differentiation to prompt formation of important organs such as lungs and ovaries. Wnt further ensures the development of these tissues through proper regulation of cell proliferation and migration. Wnt signaling functions can be divided into axis patterning, cell fate specification, cell proliferation and cell migration.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: In early embryo development, the formation of the primary body axes is a crucial step in establishing the organism's overall body plan. The axes include the anteroposterior axis, dorsoventral axis, and right-left axis. Wnt signaling is implicated in the formation of the anteroposterior and dorsoventral (DV) axes. Wnt signaling activity in anterior-posterior development can be seen in mammals, fish and frogs. In mammals, the primitive streak and other surrounding tissues produce the morphogenic compounds Wnts, BMPs, FGFs, Nodal and retinoic acid to establish the posterior region during late gastrula. These proteins form concentration gradients. Areas of highest concentration establish the posterior region while areas of lowest concentration indicate the anterior region. In fish and frogs, β-catenin produced by canonical Wnt signaling causes the formation of organizing centers, which, alongside BMPs, elicit posterior formation. Wnt involvement in DV axis formation can be seen in the activity of the formation of the Spemann organizer, which establishes the dorsal region. Canonical Wnt signaling β-catenin production induces the formation of this organizer via the activation of the genes twin and siamois. Similarly, in avian gastrulation, cells of the Koller's sickle express different mesodermal marker genes that allow for the differential movement of cells during the formation of the primitive streak. Wnt signaling activated by FGFs is responsible for this movement.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Wnt signaling is also involved in the axis formation of specific body parts and organ systems later in development. In vertebrates, sonic hedgehog (Shh) and Wnt morphogenetic signaling gradients establish the dorsoventral axis of the central nervous system during neural tube axial patterning. High Wnt signaling establishes the dorsal region while high Shh signaling indicates the ventral region. Wnt is involved in the DV formation of the central nervous system through its involvement in axon guidance. Wnt proteins guide the axons of the spinal cord in an anterior-posterior direction. Wnt is also involved in the formation of the limb DV axis. Specifically, Wnt7a helps produce the dorsal patterning of the developing limb.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: In the embryonic differentiation waves model of development Wnt plays a critical role as part a signalling complex in competent cells ready to differentiate. Wnt reacts to the activity of the cytoskeleton, stabilizing the initial change created by a passing wave of contraction or expansion and simultaneously signals the nucleus through the use of its different signalling pathways as to which wave the individual cell has participated in. Wnt activity thereby amplifies mechanical signalling that occurs during development.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Cell fate specification or cell differentiation is a process where undifferentiated cells can become a more specialized cell type. Wnt signaling induces differentiation of pluripotent stem cells into mesoderm and endoderm progenitor cells. These progenitor cells further differentiate into cell types such as endothelial, cardiac and vascular smooth muscle lineages. Wnt signaling induces blood formation from stem cells. Specifically, Wnt3 leads to mesoderm committed cells with hematopoietic potential. Wnt1 antagonizes neural differentiation and is a major factor in self-renewal of neural stem cells. This allows for regeneration of nervous system cells, which is further evidence of a role in promoting neural stem cell proliferation. Wnt signaling is involved in germ cell determination, gut tissue specification, hair follicle development, lung tissue development, trunk neural crest cell differentiation, nephron development, ovary development and sex determination. Wnt signaling also antagonizes heart formation, and Wnt inhibition was shown to be a critical inducer of heart tissue during development, and small molecule Wnt inhibitors are routinely used to produce cardiomyocytes from pluripotent stem cells.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: In order to have the mass differentiation of cells needed to form the specified cell tissues of different organisms, proliferation and growth of embryonic stem cells must take place. This process is mediated through canonical Wnt signaling, which increases nuclear and cytoplasmic β-catenin. Increased β-catenin can initiate transcriptional activation of proteins such as cyclin D1 and "c-myc", which control the G1 to S phase transition in the cell cycle. Entry into the S phase causes DNA replication and ultimately mitosis, which are responsible for cell proliferation. This proliferation increase is directly paired with cell differentiation because as the stem cells proliferate, they also differentiate. This allows for overall growth and development of specific tissue systems during embryonic development. This is apparent in systems such as the circulatory system where Wnt3a leads to proliferation and expansion of hematopoietic stem cells needed for red blood cell formation.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: The biochemistry of cancer stem cells is subtly different from that of other tumor cells. These so-called Wnt-addicted cells hijack and depend on constant stimulation of the Wnt pathway to promote their uncontrolled growth, survival and migration. In cancer, Wnt signaling can become independent of regular stimuli, through mutations in downstream oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes that become permanently activated even though the normal receptor has not received a signal. β-catenin binds to transcription factors such as the protein TCF4 and in combination the molecules activate the necessary genes. LF3 strongly inhibits this binding "in vitro," in cell lines and reduced tumor growth in mouse models. It prevented replication and reduced their ability to migrate, all without affecting healthy cells. No cancer stem cells remained after treatment. The discovery was the product of "rational drug design", involving AlphaScreens and ELISA technologies.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Cell migration during embryonic development allows for the establishment of body axes, tissue formation, limb induction and several other processes. Wnt signaling helps mediate this process, particularly during convergent extension. Signaling from both the Wnt PCP pathway and canonical Wnt pathway is required for proper convergent extension during gastrulation. Convergent extension is further regulated by the Wnt/calcium pathway, which blocks convergent extension when activated. Wnt signaling also induces cell migration in later stages of development through the control of the migration behavior of neuroblasts, neural crest cells, myocytes, and tracheal cells.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Wnt signaling is involved in another key migration process known as the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). This process allows epithelial cells to transform into mesenchymal cells so that they are no longer held in place at the laminin. It involves cadherin down-regulation so that cells can detach from laminin and migrate. Wnt signaling is an inducer of EMT, particularly in mammary development.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Insulin is a peptide hormone involved in glucose homeostasis within certain organisms. Specifically, it leads to upregulation of glucose transporters in the cell membrane in order to increase glucose uptake from the bloodstream. This process is partially mediated by activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling, which can increase a cell's insulin sensitivity. In particular, Wnt10b is a Wnt protein that increases this sensitivity in skeletal muscle cells.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Since its initial discovery, Wnt signaling has had an association with cancer. When Wnt1 was discovered, it was first identified as a proto-oncogene in a mouse model for breast cancer. The fact that Wnt1 is a homolog of Wg shows that it is involved in embryonic development, which often calls for rapid cell division and migration. Misregulation of these processes can lead to tumor development via excess cell proliferation.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Canonical Wnt pathway activity is involved in the development of benign and malignant breast tumors. The role of Wnt pathway in tumor chemoresistance has been also well documented, as well as its role in the maintenance of a distinct subpopulation of cancer-initiating cells. Its presence is revealed by elevated levels of β-catenin in the nucleus and/or cytoplasm, which can be detected with immunohistochemical staining and Western blotting. Increased β-catenin expression is correlated with poor prognosis in breast cancer patients. This accumulation may be due to factors such as mutations in β-catenin, deficiencies in the β-catenin destruction complex, most frequently by mutations in structurally disordered regions of APC, overexpression of Wnt ligands, loss of inhibitors and/or decreased activity of regulatory pathways (such as the Wnt/calcium pathway). Breast tumors can metastasize due to Wnt involvement in EMT. Research looking at metastasis of basal-like breast cancer to the lungs showed that repression of Wnt/β-catenin signaling can prevent EMT, which can inhibit metastasis.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Wnt signaling has been implicated in the development of other cancers. Changes in CTNNB1 expression, which is the gene that encodes β-catenin, can be measured in breast, colorectal, melanoma, prostate, lung, and other cancers. Increased expression of Wnt ligand-proteins such as Wnt1, Wnt2 and Wnt7A were observed in the development of glioblastoma, oesophageal cancer and ovarian cancer respectively. Other proteins that cause multiple cancer types in the absence of proper functioning include ROR1, ROR2, SFRP4, Wnt5A, WIF1 and those of the TCF/LEF family. Wnt signaling is further implicated in the pathogenesis of bone metastasis from breast and prostate cancer with studies suggesting discrete on and off states. Wnt is down-regulated during the dormancy stage by autocrine Dkk1 to avoid immune surveillance, as well as during the dissemination stages by intracellular Dact1. Meanwhile Wnt is activated during the early outgrowth phase by E-selectin.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: The link between PGE2 and Wnt suggests that a chronic inflammation-related increase of PGE2 may lead to activation of the Wnt pathway in different tissues, resulting in carcinogenesis.


title: Wnt signaling pathway

text: Diabetes mellitus type 2 is a common disease that causes reduced insulin secretion and increased insulin resistance in the periphery. It results in increased blood glucose levels, or hyperglycemia, which can be fatal if untreated. Since Wnt signaling is involved in insulin sensitivity, malfunctioning of its pathway could be involved. Overexpression of Wnt5b, for instance, may increase susceptibility due to its role in adipogenesis, since obesity and type II diabetes have high comorbidity. Wnt signaling is a strong activator of mitochondrial biogenesis. This leads to increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) known to cause DNA and cellular damage. This ROS-induced damage is significant because it can cause acute hepatic insulin resistance, or injury-induced insulin resistance. Mutations in Wnt signaling-associated transcription factors, such as TCF7L2, are linked to increased susceptibility.


title: Sharife Cooper

text: Sharife Omar Cooper (born June 11, 2001) is an American professional basketball player for the Cleveland Charge of the NBA G League. He played college basketball for the Auburn Tigers.


title: Sharife Cooper

text: In his freshman season in 2016–17, Cooper averaged 16 points and 4.4 assists per game, leading McEachern High School in Powder Springs, Georgia to a 29–1 record and an appearance in the Georgia High School Association (GHSA) Class 7A state semifinals. The following year, he led the Indians to a state quarterfinals appearance while posting a 26–3 record. He received considerable media attention in December 2017 for his 42-point performance against Jahvon Quinerly and nationally ranked Hudson Catholic Regional High School in the quarterfinals of the City of Palms Classic. He scored the game-winning buzzer-beater in an 83–81 overtime victory.


title: Sharife Cooper

text: As a junior in 2018–19, Cooper led McEachern to a perfect 32–0 record and the first state title in school history while averaging 27.2 points, 8.1 assists, 5.6 rebounds and 4.3 steals per game. In the title-game win over Meadowcreek, he scored 20 points and dished four assists as McEachern finished ranked No. 1 in three national polls. He picked up most valuable player (MVP) honors at several tournaments, including the City of Palms Classic and Tournament of Champions. After the season, he was named "USA Today" All-USA Player of the Year, MaxPreps National Player of the Year, Mr. Georgia Basketball, and Georgia's Gatorade Player of the Year. He also earned "USA Today" All-USA first team and Naismith All-American second team honors. Cooper was selected to play in the 2020 McDonald's All-American Boys Game on January 23, 2020. On May 6, 2021, Cooper's #2 high school jersey number was retired at McEachern where he was honored as the most decorated male basketball player in school history.


title: Sharife Cooper

text: On September 27, 2019, Cooper committed to play college basketball for Auburn. He became the highest-ranked recruit and the second five-star recruit in program history.


title: Sharife Cooper

text: Cooper missed the first 12 games of his freshman season due to a National Collegiate Athletic Association investigation into his eligibility. During that time, he explored professional options. On January 9, 2021, he made his Auburn debut, recording 26 points, nine assists and four rebounds in a 94–90 loss to Alabama. Four days later, Cooper posted a season-high 28 points, 12 assists and five rebounds in a 95–77 win over Georgia. As a freshman, he averaged 20.2 points, 8.1 assists and 4.3 rebounds per game through 12 appearances, earning Southeastern Conference All-Freshman Team honors. On April 2, 2021, Cooper declared for the 2021 NBA draft, forgoing his remaining college eligibility.


title: Sharife Cooper

text: Cooper was selected in the second round of the 2021 NBA draft with the 48th pick by the Atlanta Hawks. On August 5, 2021, he signed a two-way contract with the Hawks, splitting time with their G League affiliate, the College Park Skyhawks. He played for the Hawks in the 2021 NBA Summer League, recording 11 points on 5–11 shooting, and 6 assists in 28 minutes at his debut in a 85–83 loss against the Boston Celtics. Cooper made his NBA debut in the Hawks' season opener against the Dallas Mavericks, going 0-for-3 in field goals in a 113–87 win.


title: Sharife Cooper

text: Cooper joined the Hawks' 2022 NBA Summer League roster. On July 22, 2022, Cooper re-signed with the Hawks on another two-way deal. He was waived three days later.


title: Sharife Cooper

text: Cooper signed a training camp deal with the Cleveland Cavaliers on September 19, 2022. He did not make the team’s final roster.


title: Sharife Cooper

text: Cooper was born in Newark, New Jersey to Omar and Kindall Cooper, although the family moved to the Atlanta area when he was around the age of six. He has two sisters, Te'a and Mia, who both won state titles at McEachern, while Te'a continued on to play at Tennessee, South Carolina and Baylor before being drafted by the Phoenix Mercury in the 2020 WNBA draft. He also has a twin brother, Omar.


title: Biological pest control

text: Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, such as insects, mites, weeds, and plant diseases, using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human management role. It can be an important component of integrated pest management (IPM) programs.


title: Biological pest control

text: There are three basic strategies for biological pest control: classical (importation), where a natural enemy of a pest is introduced in the hope of achieving control; inductive (augmentation), in which a large population of natural enemies are administered for quick pest control; and inoculative (conservation), in which measures are taken to maintain natural enemies through regular reestablishment.


title: Biological pest control

text: Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control agents, include predators, parasitoids, pathogens, and competitors. Biological control agents of plant diseases are most often referred to as antagonists. Biological control agents of weeds include seed predators, herbivores, and plant pathogens.


title: Biological pest control

text: Biological control can have side-effects on biodiversity through attacks on non-target species by any of the above mechanisms, especially when a species is introduced without a thorough understanding of the possible consequences.


title: Biological pest control

text: The term "biological control" was first used by Harry Scott Smith at the 1919 meeting of the Pacific Slope Branch of the American Association of Economic Entomologists, in Riverside, California. It was brought into more widespread use by the entomologist Paul H. DeBach (1914–1993) who worked on citrus crop pests throughout his life. However, the practice has previously been used for centuries. The first report of the use of an insect species to control an insect pest comes from "Nanfang Caomu Zhuang" (南方草木狀 "Plants of the Southern Regions") (), attributed to Western Jin dynasty botanist "Ji Han" (嵇含, 263–307), in which it is mentioned that ""Jiaozhi people sell ants and their nests attached to twigs looking like thin cotton envelopes, the reddish-yellow ant being larger than normal. Without such ants, southern citrus fruits will be severely insect-damaged"". The ants used are known as "huang gan" ("huang" = yellow, "gan" = citrus) ants ("Oecophylla smaragdina"). The practice was later reported by Ling Biao Lu Yi (late Tang Dynasty or Early Five Dynasties), in "Ji Le Pian" by "Zhuang Jisu" (Southern Song Dynasty), in the "Book of Tree Planting" by Yu Zhen Mu (Ming Dynasty), in the book "Guangdong Xing Yu" (17th century), "Lingnan" by Wu Zhen Fang (Qing Dynasty), in "Nanyue Miscellanies" by Li Diao Yuan, and others.


title: Biological pest control

text: Biological control techniques as we know them today started to emerge in the 1870s. During this decade, in the US, the Missouri State Entomologist C. V. Riley and the Illinois State Entomologist W. LeBaron began within-state redistribution of parasitoids to control crop pests. The first international shipment of an insect as a biological control agent was made by Charles V. Riley in 1873, shipping to France the predatory mites "Tyroglyphus phylloxera" to help fight the grapevine phylloxera ("Daktulosphaira vitifoliae") that was destroying grapevines in France. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) initiated research in classical biological control following the establishment of the Division of Entomology in 1881, with C. V. Riley as Chief. The first importation of a parasitoidal wasp into the United States was that of the braconid "Cotesia glomerata" in 1883–1884, imported from Europe to control the invasive cabbage white butterfly, "Pieris rapae". In 1888–1889 the vedalia beetle, "Rodolia cardinalis", a lady beetle, was introduced from Australia to California to control the cottony cushion scale, "Icerya purchasi". This had become a major problem for the newly developed citrus industry in California, but by the end of 1889, the cottony cushion scale population had already declined. This great success led to further introductions of beneficial insects into the US.


title: Biological pest control

text: In 1905 the USDA initiated its first large-scale biological control program, sending entomologists to Europe and Japan to look for natural enemies of the spongy moth, "Lymantria dispar dispar", and the brown-tail moth, "Euproctis chrysorrhoea", invasive pests of trees and shrubs. As a result, nine parasitoids (solitary wasps) of the spongy moth, seven of the brown-tail moth, and two predators of both moths became established in the US. Although the spongy moth was not fully controlled by these natural enemies, the frequency, duration, and severity of its outbreaks were reduced and the program was regarded as successful. This program also led to the development of many concepts, principles, and procedures for the implementation of biological control programs.


title: Biological pest control

text: Prickly pear cacti were introduced into Queensland, Australia as ornamental plants, starting in 1788. They quickly spread to cover over 25 million hectares of Australia by 1920, increasing by 1 million hectares per year. Digging, burning, and crushing all proved ineffective. Two control agents were introduced to help control the spread of the plant, the cactus moth "Cactoblastis cactorum", and the scale insect "Dactylopius". Between 1926 and 1931, tens of millions of cactus moth eggs were distributed around Queensland with great success, and by 1932, most areas of prickly pear had been destroyed.


title: Biological pest control

text: The first reported case of a classical biological control attempt in Canada involves the parasitoidal wasp "Trichogramma minutum". Individuals were caught in New York State and released in Ontario gardens in 1882 by William Saunders, a trained chemist and first Director of the Dominion Experimental Farms, for controlling the invasive currantworm "Nematus ribesii". Between 1884 and 1908, the first Dominion Entomologist, James Fletcher, continued introductions of other parasitoids and pathogens for the control of pests in Canada.


title: Biological pest control

text: There are three basic biological pest control strategies: importation (classical biological control), augmentation and conservation.


title: Biological pest control

text: Importation or classical biological control involves the introduction of a pest's natural enemies to a new locale where they do not occur naturally. Early instances were often unofficial and not based on research, and some introduced species became serious pests themselves.


title: Biological pest control

text: To be most effective at controlling a pest, a biological control agent requires a colonizing ability which allows it to keep pace with changes to the habitat in space and time. Control is greatest if the agent has temporal persistence so that it can maintain its population even in the temporary absence of the target species, and if it is an opportunistic forager, enabling it to rapidly exploit a pest population.


title: Biological pest control

text: One of the earliest successes was in controlling "Icerya purchasi" (cottony cushion scale) in Australia, using a predatory insect "Rodolia cardinalis" (the vedalia beetle). This success was repeated in California using the beetle and a parasitoidal fly, "Cryptochaetum iceryae". Other successful cases include the control of "Antonina graminis" in Texas by "Neodusmetia sangwani" in the 1960s.


title: Biological pest control

text: Damage from "Hypera postica", the alfalfa weevil, a serious introduced pest of forage, was substantially reduced by the introduction of natural enemies. 20 years after their introduction the population of weevils in the alfalfa area treated for alfalfa weevil in the Northeastern United States remained 75 percent down.


title: Biological pest control

text: Alligator weed was introduced to the United States from South America. It takes root in shallow water, interfering with navigation, irrigation, and flood control. The alligator weed flea beetle and two other biological controls were released in Florida, greatly reducing the amount of land covered by the plant. Another aquatic weed, the giant salvinia ("Salvinia molesta") is a serious pest, covering waterways, reducing water flow and harming native species. Control with the salvinia weevil ("Cyrtobagous salviniae") and the salvinia stem-borer moth ("Samea multiplicalis)" is effective in warm climates, and in Zimbabwe, a 99% control of the weed was obtained over a two-year period.


title: Biological pest control

text: Small commercially reared parasitoidal wasps, "Trichogramma ostriniae", provide limited and erratic control of the European corn borer ("Ostrinia nubilalis"), a serious pest. Careful formulations of the bacterium "Bacillus thuringiensis" are more effective. The O. nubilalis integrated control releasing Tricogramma brassicae (egg parasitoiod) and later Bacillus thuringiensis subs. kurstaki (larvicidae effect) reduce pest damages as better than insecticide treatments


title: Biological pest control

text: The population of "Levuana iridescens", the Levuana moth, a serious coconut pest in Fiji, was brought under control by a classical biological control program in the 1920s.


title: Biological pest control

text: Augmentation involves the supplemental release of natural enemies that occur in a particular area, boosting the naturally occurring populations there. In inoculative release, small numbers of the control agents are released at intervals to allow them to reproduce, in the hope of setting up longer-term control and thus keeping the pest down to a low level, constituting prevention rather than cure. In inundative release, in contrast, large numbers are released in the hope of rapidly reducing a damaging pest population, correcting a problem that has already arisen. Augmentation can be effective, but is not guaranteed to work, and depends on the precise details of the interactions between each pest and control agent.


title: Biological pest control

text: An example of inoculative release occurs in the horticultural production of several crops in greenhouses. Periodic releases of the parasitoidal wasp, "Encarsia formosa", are used to control greenhouse whitefly, while the predatory mite "Phytoseiulus persimilis" is used for control of the two-spotted spider mite.


title: Biological pest control

text: The egg parasite "Trichogramma" is frequently released inundatively to control harmful moths. New way for inundative releases are now introduced i.e. use of drones. Egg parasitoids are able to find the eggs of the target host by means of several cues. Kairomones were found on moth scales. Similarly, "Bacillus thuringiensis" and other microbial insecticides are used in large enough quantities for a rapid effect. Recommended release rates for "Trichogramma" in vegetable or field crops range from 5,000 to 200,000 per acre (1 to 50 per square metre) per week according to the level of pest infestation. Similarly, nematodes that kill insects (that are entomopathogenic) are released at rates of millions and even billions per acre for control of certain soil-dwelling insect pests.


title: Biological pest control

text: The conservation of existing natural enemies in an environment is the third method of biological pest control.


title: Biological pest control

text: Natural enemies are already adapted to the habitat and to the target pest, and their conservation can be simple and cost-effective, as when nectar-producing crop plants are grown in the borders of rice fields. These provide nectar to support parasitoids and predators of planthopper pests and have been demonstrated to be so effective (reducing pest densities by 10- or even 100-fold) that farmers sprayed 70% less insecticides and enjoyed yields boosted by 5%. Predators of aphids were similarly found to be present in tussock grasses by field boundary hedges in England, but they spread too slowly to reach the centers of fields. Control was improved by planting a meter-wide strip of tussock grasses in field centers, enabling aphid predators to overwinter there.


title: Biological pest control

text: Cropping systems can be modified to favor natural enemies, a practice sometimes referred to as habitat manipulation. Providing a suitable habitat, such as a shelterbelt, hedgerow, or beetle bank where beneficial insects such as parasitoidal wasps can live and reproduce, can help ensure the survival of populations of natural enemies. Things as simple as leaving a layer of fallen leaves or mulch in place provides a suitable food source for worms and provides a shelter for insects, in turn being a food source for such beneficial mammals as hedgehogs and shrews. Compost piles and stacks of wood can provide shelter for invertebrates and small mammals. Long grass and ponds support amphibians. Not removing dead annuals and non-hardy plants in the autumn allow insects to make use of their hollow stems during winter. In California, prune trees are sometimes planted in grape vineyards to provide an improved overwintering habitat or refuge for a key grape pest parasitoid. The providing of artificial shelters in the form of wooden caskets, boxes or flowerpots is also sometimes undertaken, particularly in gardens, to make a cropped area more attractive to natural enemies. For example, earwigs are natural predators that can be encouraged in gardens by hanging upside-down flowerpots filled with straw or wood wool. Green lacewings can be encouraged by using plastic bottles with an open bottom and a roll of cardboard inside. Birdhouses enable insectivorous birds to nest; the most useful birds can be attracted by choosing an opening just large enough for the desired species.


title: Biological pest control

text: In cotton production, the replacement of broad-spectrum insecticides with selective control measures such as Bt cotton can create a more favorable environment for natural enemies of cotton pests due to reduced insecticide exposure risk. Such predators or parasitoids can control pests not affected by the Bt protein. Reduced prey quality and abundance associated with increased control from Bt cotton can also indirectly decrease natural enemy populations in some cases, but the percentage of pests eaten or parasitized in Bt and non-Bt cotton are often similar.


title: Biological pest control

text: Predators are mainly free-living species that directly consume a large number of prey during their whole lifetime. Given that many major crop pests are insects, many of the predators used in biological control are insectivorous species. Lady beetles, and in particular their larvae which are active between May and July in the northern hemisphere, are voracious predators of aphids, and also consume mites, scale insects and small caterpillars. The spotted lady beetle ("Coleomegilla maculata") is also able to feed on the eggs and larvae of the Colorado potato beetle ("Leptinotarsa decemlineata").


title: Biological pest control

text: The larvae of many hoverfly species principally feed upon aphids, one larva devouring up to 400 in its lifetime. Their effectiveness in commercial crops has not been studied.


title: Biological pest control

text: The running crab spider "Philodromus cespitum" also prey heavily on aphids, and act as a biological control agent in European fruit orchards.


title: Biological pest control

text: Several species of entomopathogenic nematode are important predators of insect and other invertebrate pests. Entomopathogenic nematodes form a stress–resistant stage known as the infective juvenile. These spread in the soil and infect suitable insect hosts. Upon entering the insect they move to the hemolymph where they recover from their stagnated state of development and release their bacterial symbionts. The bacterial symbionts reproduce and release toxins, which then kill the host insect. "Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita" is a microscopic nematode that kills slugs. Its complex life cycle includes a free-living, infective stage in the soil where it becomes associated with a pathogenic bacteria such as "Moraxella osloensis". The nematode enters the slug through the posterior mantle region, thereafter feeding and reproducing inside, but it is the bacteria that kill the slug. The nematode is available commercially in Europe and is applied by watering onto moist soil. Entomopathogenic nematodes have a limited shelf life because of their limited resistance to high temperature and dry conditions. The type of soil they are applied to may also limit their effectiveness.


title: Biological pest control

text: Species used to control spider mites include the predatory mites "Phytoseiulus persimilis", "Neoseilus californicus," and "Amblyseius cucumeris", the predatory midge "Feltiella acarisuga", and a ladybird "Stethorus punctillum". The bug "Orius insidiosus" has been successfully used against the two-spotted spider mite and the western flower thrips ("Frankliniella occidentalis").


title: Biological pest control

text: Predators including "Cactoblastis cactorum" (mentioned above) can also be used to destroy invasive plant species. As another example, the poison hemlock moth ("Agonopterix alstroemeriana)" can be used to control poison hemlock ("Conium maculatum"). During its larval stage, the moth strictly consumes its host plant, poison hemlock, and can exist at hundreds of larvae per individual host plant, destroying large swathes of the hemlock.


title: Biological pest control

text: For rodent pests, cats are effective biological control when used in conjunction with reduction of "harborage"/hiding locations. While cats are effective at preventing rodent "population explosions", they are not effective for eliminating pre-existing severe infestations. Barn owls are also sometimes used as biological rodent control. Although there are no quantitative studies of the effectiveness of barn owls for this purpose, they are known rodent predators that can be used in addition to or instead of cats; they can be encouraged into an area with nest boxes.


title: Biological pest control

text: In Honduras, where the mosquito "Aedes aegypti" was transmitting dengue fever and other infectious diseases, biological control was attempted by a community action plan; copepods, baby turtles, and juvenile tilapia were added to the wells and tanks where the mosquito breeds and the mosquito larvae were eliminated.


title: Biological pest control

text: Even amongst arthropods usually thought of as obligate predators of animals (especially other arthropods), floral food sources (nectar and to a lesser degree pollen) are often useful adjunct sources. It had been noticed in one study that adult "Adalia bipunctata" (predator and common biocontrol of "Ephestia kuehniella") could survive on flowers but never completed its life cycle, so a meta-analysis was done to find such an overall trend in previously published data, if it existed. In some cases floral resources are outright necessary. Overall, floral resources (and an imitation, i.e. sugar water) increase longevity and fecundity, meaning even predatory population numbers can depend on non-prey food abundance. Thus biocontrol population maintenance - and success - may depend on nearby flowers.


title: Biological pest control

text: Parasitoids lay their eggs on or in the body of an insect host, which is then used as a food for developing larvae. The host is ultimately killed. Most insect parasitoids are wasps or flies, and many have a very narrow host range. The most important groups are the ichneumonid wasps, which mainly use caterpillars as hosts; braconid wasps, which attack caterpillars and a wide range of other insects including aphids; chalcidoid wasps, which parasitize eggs and larvae of many insect species; and tachinid flies, which parasitize a wide range of insects including caterpillars, beetle adults and larvae, and true bugs. Parasitoids are most effective at reducing pest populations when their host organisms have limited refuges to hide from them.


title: Biological pest control

text: Parasitoids are among the most widely used biological control agents. Commercially, there are two types of rearing systems: short-term daily output with high production of parasitoids per day, and long-term, low daily output systems. In most instances, production will need to be matched with the appropriate release dates when susceptible host species at a suitable phase of development will be available. Larger production facilities produce on a yearlong basis, whereas some facilities produce only seasonally. Rearing facilities are usually a significant distance from where the agents are to be used in the field, and transporting the parasitoids from the point of production to the point of use can pose problems. Shipping conditions can be too hot, and even vibrations from planes or trucks can adversely affect parasitoids.


title: Biological pest control

text: "Encarsia formosa" is a small parasitoid wasp attacking whiteflies, sap-feeding insects which can cause wilting and black sooty moulds in glasshouse vegetable and ornamental crops. It is most effective when dealing with low level infestations, giving protection over a long period of time. The wasp lays its eggs in young whitefly 'scales', turning them black as the parasite larvae pupate. "Gonatocerus ashmeadi" (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) has been introduced to control the glassy-winged sharpshooter "Homalodisca vitripennis" (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in French Polynesia and has successfully controlled ~95% of the pest density.


title: Biological pest control

text: The eastern spruce budworm is an example of a destructive insect in fir and spruce forests. Birds are a natural form of biological control, but the "Trichogramma minutum", a species of parasitic wasp, has been investigated as an alternative to more controversial chemical controls.


title: Biological pest control

text: There are a number of recent studies pursuing sustainable methods for controlling urban cockroaches using parasitic wasps. Since most cockroaches remain in the sewer system and sheltered areas which are inaccessible to insecticides, employing active-hunter wasps is a strategy to try and reduce their populations.


title: Biological pest control

text: Pathogenic micro-organisms include bacteria, fungi, and viruses. They kill or debilitate their host and are relatively host-specific. Various microbial insect diseases occur naturally, but may also be used as biological pesticides. When naturally occurring, these outbreaks are density-dependent in that they generally only occur as insect populations become denser.


title: Biological pest control

text: The use of pathogens against aquatic weeds was unknown until a groundbreaking 1972 proposal by Zettler and Freeman. Up to that point biocontrol of any kind had not been used against any water weeds. In their review of the possibilities, they noted the lack of interest and information thus far, and listed what was known of pests-of-pests - whether pathogens or not. They proposed that this should be relatively straightfoward to apply in the same way as other biocontrols. And indeed in the decades since, the same biocontrol methods that are routine on land have become common in the water.


title: Biological pest control

text: Bacteria used for biological control infect insects via their digestive tracts, so they offer only limited options for controlling insects with sucking mouth parts such as aphids and scale insects. "Bacillus thuringiensis", a soil-dwelling bacterium, is the most widely applied species of bacteria used for biological control, with at least four sub-species used against Lepidopteran (moth, butterfly), Coleopteran (beetle) and Dipteran (true fly) insect pests. The bacterium is available to organic farmers in sachets of dried spores which are mixed with water and sprayed onto vulnerable plants such as brassicas and fruit trees. Genes from "B. thuringiensis" have also been incorporated into transgenic crops, making the plants express some of the bacterium's toxins, which are proteins. These confer resistance to insect pests and thus reduce the necessity for pesticide use. If pests develop resistance to the toxins in these crops, "B. thuringiensis" will become useless in organic farming also.


title: Biological pest control

text: The bacterium "Paenibacillus popilliae" which causes milky spore disease has been found useful in the control of Japanese beetle, killing the larvae. It is very specific to its host species and is harmless to vertebrates and other invertebrates.


title: Biological pest control

text: "Bacillus" spp., fluorescent Pseudomonads, and Streptomycetes are controls of various fungal pathogens.


title: Biological pest control

text: Entomopathogenic fungi, which cause disease in insects, include at least 14 species that attack aphids. "Beauveria bassiana" is mass-produced and used to manage a wide variety of insect pests including whiteflies, thrips, aphids and weevils. "Lecanicillium" spp. are deployed against white flies, thrips and aphids. "Metarhizium" spp. are used against pests including beetles, locusts and other grasshoppers, Hemiptera, and spider mites. "Paecilomyces fumosoroseus" is effective against white flies, thrips and aphids; "Purpureocillium lilacinus" is used against root-knot nematodes, and 89 "Trichoderma" species against certain plant pathogens. "Trichoderma viride" has been used against Dutch elm disease, and has shown some effect in suppressing silver leaf, a disease of stone fruits caused by the pathogenic fungus "Chondrostereum purpureum".


title: Biological pest control

text: Pathogenic fungi may be controlled by other fungi, or bacteria or yeasts, such as: "Gliocladium" spp., mycoparasitic "Pythium" spp., binucleate types of "Rhizoctonia" spp., and "Laetisaria" spp.


title: Biological pest control

text: The fungi "Cordyceps" and "Metacordyceps" are deployed against a wide spectrum of arthropods. "Entomophaga" is effective against pests such as the green peach aphid.


title: Biological pest control

text: Several members of Chytridiomycota and Blastocladiomycota have been explored as agents of biological control. From Chytridiomycota, "Synchytrium solstitiale" is being considered as a control agent of the yellow star thistle ("Centaurea solstitialis") in the United States.


title: Biological pest control

text: Baculoviruses are specific to individual insect host species and have been shown to be useful in biological pest control. For example, the Lymantria dispar multicapsid nuclear polyhedrosis virus has been used to spray large areas of forest in North America where larvae of the spongy moth are causing serious defoliation. The moth larvae are killed by the virus they have eaten and die, the disintegrating cadavers leaving virus particles on the foliage to infect other larvae.


title: Biological pest control

text: A mammalian virus, the rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus was introduced to Australia to attempt to control the European rabbit populations there. It escaped from quarantine and spread across the country, killing large numbers of rabbits. Very young animals survived, passing immunity to their offspring in due course and eventually producing a virus-resistant population. Introduction into New Zealand in the 1990s was similarly successful at first, but a decade later, immunity had developed and populations had returned to pre-RHD levels.


title: Biological pest control

text: "Lagenidium giganteum" is a water-borne mold that parasitizes the larval stage of mosquitoes. When applied to water, the motile spores avoid unsuitable host species and search out suitable mosquito larval hosts. This mold has the advantages of a dormant phase, resistant to desiccation, with slow-release characteristics over several years. Unfortunately, it is susceptible to many chemicals used in mosquito abatement programmes.


title: Biological pest control

text: The legume vine "Mucuna pruriens" is used in the countries of Benin and Vietnam as a biological control for problematic "Imperata cylindrica" grass: the vine is extremely vigorous and suppresses neighbouring plants by out-competing them for space and light. "Mucuna pruriens" is said not to be invasive outside its cultivated area. "Desmodium uncinatum" can be used in push-pull farming to stop the parasitic plant, witchweed ("Striga").


title: Biological pest control

text: The Australian bush fly, "Musca vetustissima", is a major nuisance pest in Australia, but native decomposers found in Australia are not adapted to feeding on cow dung, which is where bush flies breed. Therefore, the Australian Dung Beetle Project (1965–1985), led by George Bornemissza of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, released forty-nine species of dung beetle, to reduce the amount of dung and therefore also the potential breeding sites of the fly.


title: Biological pest control

text: In cases of massive and severe infection of invasive pests, techniques of pest control are often used in combination. An example is the emerald ash borer, "Agrilus planipennis", an invasive beetle from China, which has destroyed tens of millions of ash trees in its introduced range in North America. As part of the campaign against it, from 2003 American scientists and the Chinese Academy of Forestry searched for its natural enemies in the wild, leading to the discovery of several parasitoid wasps, namely "Tetrastichus planipennisi", a gregarious larval endoparasitoid, "Oobius agrili", a solitary, parthenogenic egg parasitoid, and "Spathius agrili", a gregarious larval ectoparasitoid. These have been introduced and released into the United States of America as a possible biological control of the emerald ash borer. Initial results for "Tetrastichus planipennisi" have shown promise, and it is now being released along with "Beauveria bassiana", a fungal pathogen with known insecticidal properties.


title: Biological pest control

text: "Botrytis cinerea" on lettuce, by "Fusarium" spp. and "Penicillium claviforme", on grape and strawberry by "Trichoderma" spp., on strawberry by "Cladosporium herbarum", on Chinese cabbage by "Bacillus brevis", and on various other crops by various yeasts and bacteria. "Sclerotinia sclerotiorum" by several fungal biocontrols. Fungal pod infection of snap bean by "Trichoderma hamatum" if before or concurrent with infection. "Cryphonectria parasitica", "Gaeumannomyces graminis", "Sclerotinia" spp., and "Ophiostoma novo-ulmi" by viruses. Various powdery mildews and rusts by various "Bacillus" spp. and fluorescent Pseudomonads. "Colletotrichum orbiculare" will suppress further infection by itself if manipulated to produce plant-induced systemic resistance by infected the lowest leaf.


title: Biological pest control

text: Many of the most important pests are exotic, invasive species that severely impact agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and urban environments. They tend to arrive without their co-evolved


title: Biological pest control

text: parasites, pathogens and predators, and by escaping from these, populations may soar. Importing the natural enemies of these pests may seem a logical move but this may have unintended consequences; regulations may be ineffective and there may be unanticipated effects on biodiversity, and the adoption of the techniques may prove challenging because of a lack of knowledge among farmers and growers.


title: Biological pest control

text: Biological control can affect biodiversity through predation, parasitism, pathogenicity, competition, or other attacks on non-target species. An introduced control does not always target only the intended pest species; it can also target native species. In Hawaii during the 1940s parasitic wasps were introduced to control a lepidopteran pest and the wasps are still found there today. This may have a negative impact on the native ecosystem; however, host range and impacts need to be studied before declaring their impact on the environment.