title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: this place while Sir Walter makes arrangements with Scotland Yard. They find an area near the shore with several sets of steps, one of them having 39, and an anchored yacht nearby. They approach the boat posing as fishermen and discover that the officer on board looks, and seems very German. Hannay then watches three men playing tennis in the villa with the 39-steps staircase. They match the description of his pursuers, but their extraordinarily normal behaviour causes him to doubt their involvement. Despite his anguish and fear of being utterly mistaken, he confronts the men. They are totally surprised and invite him to join their game of cards. Hannay grows increasingly uncomfortable, yet by chance spots a subtle gesture that he had seen his host make when he was interrogating him at his cottage on the moor. This reassures him that they are his pursuers. Furthermore, one of his hosts suddenly explains that he has to leave. Masks are down. Hannay blows a whistle and his men enter to arrest them, but the man in a hurry escapes, bound for the yacht at sea. Hannay reveals they have already taken the boat, and all three men are arrested. The United Kingdom enters World War I three weeks later, its secret naval defense plans intact, and Hannay commissioned captain.


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: "The Thirty-Nine Steps" is one of the earliest examples of the '"man-on-the-run" thriller archetype subsequently adopted by film makers as a much-used plot device. In "The Thirty-Nine Steps", Buchan holds up Richard Hannay as an example to his readers of an ordinary man who puts his country's interests before his own safety. The story was a great success with the men in the First World War trenches. One soldier wrote to Buchan, "The story is greatly appreciated in the midst of mud and rain and shells, and all that could make trench life depressing."


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: Hannay continued his adventures in four subsequent books. Two were set during the war, when he continued his undercover work against the Germans and their allies the Turks in "Greenmantle" (1916) and "Mr Standfast" (1919). The other two stories, "The Three Hostages" (1924) and "The Island of Sheep" (1936) were set in the postwar period, when Hannay's opponents were criminal gangs.


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: The novel has been adapted for multiple media; many of these versions depart significantly from the text—for example, by introducing a love interest absent from the original novel and inspired by Hitchcock's film. In most cases, the title is often abbreviated to "The 39 Steps", but the full title is more commonly used for the book and 1978 film adaptation.


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: The 1935 black and white film directed by Alfred Hitchcock deviates substantially from the book. It stars Robert Donat as Hannay and Madeleine Carroll as a woman he meets on the train. It is regarded by many critics as the best film version. This was one of several Hitchcock films based upon the idea of an "innocent man on the run", such as "Saboteur" and "North by Northwest". In 1999, it came 4th in a BFI poll of British films and in 2004 "Total Film" named it the 21st greatest British film of all time.


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: The 1959 film directed by Ralph Thomas was the first colour version, starring Kenneth More as Hannay and Taina Elg as Miss Fisher. It is closely based on Hitchcock's adaptation, including the music-hall finale with "Mr. Memory" and Hannay's escape from a train on the Forth Bridge, scenes not present in the book. It features a musical score by Clifton Parker.


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: The 1978 version was directed by Don Sharp and starred Robert Powell as Hannay, Karen Dotrice as Alex, John Mills as Colonel Scudder. It is generally regarded as the closest to the book, being set at the same time as the novel, pre-Great War, but still bears little resemblance to Buchan's original story. Its climax bore no relation to the novel's denouement, instead seeing Hannay hanging from the hands of Big Ben. The film was followed by a spin-off television series, "Hannay", also starring Powell and featuring adventures occurring prior to the events in "The Thirty-Nine Steps".


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: The BBC commissioned a new television adaptation of the novel, scripted by Lizzie Mickery and produced by BBC Scotland's drama unit. The 90-minute film stars Rupert Penry-Jones, Lydia Leonard, Patrick Malahide and Eddie Marsan, and was first broadcast on 28 December 2008 A romantic subplot was added to the story, featuring Lydia Leonard. The storyline only very tenuously follows that of the book, many characters being renamed, or omitted altogether. The film ends with a scene involving a submarine in a Scottish loch, rather than the original setting off the Kent coast, and the apparent death of one character.


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: There were numerous American radio adaptations during the two decades following the release of Hitchcock's film, most of which were based on its heavily altered plot. It remains a popular subject for modern live productions done in a similar, old-time radio style.


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: There have been many full cast adaptations for BBC Radio and all are based directly on Buchan's novel.


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: In 2014, BBC Radio 3 broadcast "Landmark: The Thirty-Nine Steps and World War I", a 45-minute documentary on the novel's initial impact at home and abroad.


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: A comic theatrical adaptation by Simon Corble and Nobby Dimon for a cast of four actors premiered in 1995 at the Georgian Theatre Royal in Richmond, North Yorkshire, before embarking on a tour of village halls across the north of England. In 2005, Patrick Barlow rewrote the script, keeping the scenes, staging and small-scale feel, and in June 2005 this re-adaptation premiered at the West Yorkshire Playhouse, The play then opened in London's Tricycle Theatre, and after a successful run transferred to the Criterion Theatre in Piccadilly where it became the fifth longest running play until it closed in September 2015. Although drawing on Buchan's novel, it is strongly influenced by Hitchcock's 1935 film adaptation. On 15 January 2008, the show made its US Broadway premiere at the American Airlines Theatre; it transferred to the Cort Theatre on 29 April 2008 and then moved to the Helen Hayes Theatre on 21 January 2009, where it ended its run on 10 January 2010. It reopened on Stage One of New York's Off-Broadway venue New World Stages on 25 March 2010 and closed on 15 April 2010. The Broadway production received six Tony Award nominations, winning two—Best Lighting Design and Best Sound Design with the London show winning an Olivier in 2007 and two Tony Awards in 2008. The play also won the Drama Desk Award, Unique Theatrical Experience.


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: Whilst not essentially an adaptation of "The 39 Steps", a prequel television series named "Hannay", was spawned from the 1978 feature film version. Both the film and the series featured Robert Powell as Hannay.


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: A planned television adaptation for Netflix as limited series will be produced by Anonymous Content and starring Benedict Cumberbatch was reported in April 2021. The team will include Edward Berger as director and Mark L. Smith as writer.


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: A digital adaptation of the novel, created with Unity, was made by Scottish developer The Story Mechanics and released on 25 April 2013, for Windows, OS X, Linux and iPad.


title: The Thirty-Nine Steps

text: In 2008, Penguin Books adapted the story as interactive fiction under the authorship of Charles Cumming calling it "The 21 Steps".


title: Veneration of the dead

text: The veneration of the dead, including one's ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, and may possess the ability to influence the fortune of the living. Some groups venerate their direct, familial ancestors. Certain sects and religions, in particular the Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church, venerate saints as intercessors with God; the latter also believes in prayer for departed souls in Purgatory. Other religious groups, however, consider veneration of the dead to be idolatry and a sin.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In European, Asian, Oceanian, African and Afro-diasporic cultures, the goal of ancestor veneration is to ensure the ancestors' continued well-being and positive disposition towards the living, and sometimes to ask for special favours or assistance. The social or non-religious function of ancestor veneration is to cultivate kinship values, such as filial piety, family loyalty, and continuity of the family lineage. Ancestor veneration occurs in societies with every degree of social, political, and technological complexity, and it remains an important component of various religious practices in modern times.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Ancestor reverence is not the same as the worship of a deity or deities. In some Afro-diasporic cultures, ancestors are seen as being able to intercede on behalf of the living, often as messengers between humans and God. As spirits who were once human themselves, they are seen as being better able to understand human needs than would a divine being. In other cultures, the purpose of ancestor veneration is not to ask for favors but to do one's filial duty. Some cultures believe that their ancestors actually need to be provided for by their descendants, and their practices include offerings of food and other provisions. Others do not believe that the ancestors are even aware of what their descendants do for them, but that the expression of filial piety is what is important.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Most cultures who practice ancestor veneration do not call it "ancestor worship". In English, the word "worship" usually but not always refers to the reverent love and devotion accorded a deity (god) or God. However, in other cultures, this act of worship does not confer any belief that the departed ancestors have become some kind of deity. Rather, the act is a way to express filial duty, devotion and respect and look after ancestors in their afterlives as well as seek their guidance for their living descendants. In this regard, many cultures and religions have similar practices. Some may visit the graves of their parents or other ancestors, leave flowers and pray to them in order to honor and remember them, while also asking their ancestors to continue to look after them. However, this would not be considered as worshiping them since the term "worship" may not always convey such meaning in the exclusive and narrow context of certain Western European Christian traditions.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In that sense the phrase "ancestor veneration" may but from the limited perspective of certain Western European Christian traditions, convey a more accurate sense of what practitioners, such as the Chinese and other Buddhist-influenced and Confucian-influenced societies, as well as the African and European cultures see themselves as doing. This is consistent with the meaning of the word "veneration" in English, that is great respect or reverence caused by the dignity, wisdom, or dedication of a person.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Although there is no generally accepted theory concerning the origins of ancestor veneration, this social phenomenon appears in some form in all human cultures documented so far. David-Barrett and Carney claim that ancestor veneration might have served a group coordination role during human evolution, and thus it was the mechanism that led to religious representation fostering group cohesion.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Ancestor veneration is prevalent throughout Africa, and serves as the basis of many religions. It is often augmented by a belief in a supreme being, but prayers and/or sacrifices are usually offered to the ancestors who may ascend to becoming a kind of minor deities themselves. Ancestor veneration remains among many Africans, sometimes practiced alongside the later adopted religions of Christianity (as in Nigeria among the Igbo people), and Islam (among the different Mandé peoples and the Bamum and the Bakossi people) in much of the continent. In orthodox Serer religion, the pangool is venerated by the Serer people.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: The Seereer people of Senegal, The Gambia and Mauritania who adhere to the tenets of A ƭat Roog (Seereer religion) believe in the veneration of the pangool (ancient Seereer saints and/or ancestral spirits). There are various types of pangool (singular: "fangol"), each with its own means of veneration.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Veneration of ancestors is prevalent throughout the island of Madagascar. Approximately half of the country's population of 20 million currently practice traditional religion, which tends to emphasize links between the living and the "razana" (ancestors). The veneration of ancestors has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of the "famadihana", whereby a deceased family member's remains may be exhumed to be periodically re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds before being replaced in the tomb. The famadihana is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are typically served and a hiragasy troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present. Veneration of ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to "fady", taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them. It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. Conversely, misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice of zebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. Small, everyday gestures of respect include throwing the first capful of a newly opened bottle of rum into the northeast corner of the room to give the ancestors their due share.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: During Pchum Ben and the Cambodian New Year people make offerings to their ancestors. Pchum Ben is a time when many Cambodians pay their respects to deceased relatives of up to seven generations. Monks chant the suttas in Pali language overnight (continuously, without sleeping) in prelude to the gates of hell opening, an event that is presumed to occur once a year, and is linked to the cosmology of King Yama originating in the Pali Canon. During this period, the gates of hell are opened and ghosts of the dead (preta) are presumed to be especially active. In order to combat this, food-offerings are made to benefit them, some of these ghosts having the opportunity to end their period of purgation, whereas others are imagined to leave hell temporarily, to then return to endure more suffering; without much explanation, relatives who are not in hell (who are in heaven or otherwise reincarnated) are also generally imagined to benefit from the ceremonies.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In China, ancestor veneration (敬祖, pinyin: "jìngzǔ") and ancestor worship (拜祖, pinyin: "bàizǔ") seek to honour and recollect the actions of the deceased; they represent the ultimate homage to the dead. The importance of paying respect to parents (and elders) lies with the fact that all physical bodily aspects of one's being were created by one's parents, who continued to tend to one's well-being until one was on firm footing. The respect and homage to parents is to return this gracious deed to them in life and after. The "shi" (尸; "corpse, personator") was a Zhou dynasty () sacrificial representative of a dead relative. During a "shi" ceremony, the ancestral spirit supposedly would enter the personator, who would eat and drink sacrificial offerings and convey spiritual messages.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In traditional Chinese culture, sacrifices are sometimes made to altars as food for the deceased. This falls under the modes of communication with the Chinese spiritual world concepts. Some of the veneration includes visiting the deceased at their graves, and making or buying offerings for the deceased in the Spring, Autumn, and Ghost Festivals. Due to the hardships of the late 19th- and 20th-century China, when meat and poultry were difficult to come by, sumptuous feasts are still offered in some Asian countries as a practice to the spirits or ancestors. However, in the orthodox Taoist and Buddhist rituals, only vegetarian food would suffice. For those with deceased in the afterlife or hell, elaborate or even creative offerings, such as servants, refrigerators, houses, car, paper money and shoes are provided so that the deceased will be able to have these items after they have died. Often, paper versions of these objects are burned for the same purpose. Originally, real-life objects were buried with the dead. In time these goods were replaced by full size clay models which in turn were replaced by scale models, and in time today's paper offerings (including paper servants).


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Ancestors are widely revered, honoured, and venerated in India and China. The spirit of a dead person is called Pitrs, which is venerated. When a person dies, the family observes a thirteen-day mourning period, generally called "śrāddha". A year thence, they observe the ritual of Tarpan, in which the family makes offerings to the deceased. During these rituals, the family prepares the food items that the deceased liked and offers food to the deceased. They offer this food to crows as well on certain days as it is believed that the soul comes in the form of a bird to taste it. They are also obliged to offer "śrāddha", a small feast of specific preparations, to eligible Brahmins. Only after these rituals are the family members allowed to eat. It is believed that this reminds the ancestor's spirits that they are not forgotten and are loved, so it brings them peace. On Shradh days, people pray that the souls of ancestors be appeased, forget any animosity and find peace. Each year, on the particular date (as per the Hindu calendar) when the person had died, the family members repeat this ritual.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Indian and Chinese practices of ancestor-worship are prevalent throughout Asia as a result of the large Indian and Chinese populations in countries such as Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, and elsewhere across the continent. Furthermore, the large Indian population in places such as Fiji and Guyana has resulted in these practices spreading beyond their Asian homeland.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: The Ahom religion is based on ancestor-worship. The Ahoms believe that a man after his death remains as ‘Dam’(ancestor) only for a few days and soon he becomes ‘Phi’ (God). They also believe that the soul of a man which is immortal unites with the supreme soul, possesses the qualities of a spiritual being and always blesses the family. So every Ahom family in order to worship the dead establish a pillar on the opposite side of the kitchen (Barghar) which is called ‘Damkhuta’ where they worship the dead with various offerings like homemade wine, mah-prasad, rice with various items of meat and fish. Me-Dam-Me-Phi, a ritual centred on commemorating the dead, is celebrated by the Ahom people on 31 January every year in memory of the departed. It is the manifestation of the concept of ancestor worship that the Ahoms share with other peoples originating from the Tai-Shan stock. It is a festival to show respect to the departed ancestors and remember their contribution to society. On the day of Me-Dam Me Phi worship is offered only to Chaufi and Dam Chaufi because they are regarded as gods of heaven.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: At Rakhigarhi, an Indus Valley civilization (IVC) site in Haryana, the lover's skeletons of a man between 35 and 40 years old and women in early 20s were found who were likely married to each other and buried together, their grave contained pots which likely carried food and water as offering to the dead.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: The "Paliya" memorial stones are associated with ancestral worship in western India. These memorials are worshiped by people of associated community or decedents of a person on special days such as death day of person, event anniversaries, festivals, auspicious days in Kartika, Shraavana or Bhadrapada months of Hindu calendar. These memorials are washed with milk and water on these days. They are smeared with sindoor or kumkum and flowers are scattered over it. The earthen lamp is lighted near it with sesame oil. Sometimes a flag is erected over it.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Apart from this, there is also a fortnight-long duration each year called "Pitru Paksha" ("fortnight of ancestors"), when the family remembers all its ancestors and offers "Tarpan" to them. This period falls just before the Navratri or Durga Puja falling in the month of Ashwin. Mahalaya marks the end of the fortnight-long Tarpan to the ancestors.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In Indonesia ancestor worship has been a tradition of some of the indigenous people. Podom of the Toba Batak, Waruga of the Minahasans and the coffins of the Karo people (Indonesia) are a few examples of the forms the veneration takes.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Before the introduction of Buddhism to Japan, ancestor worship and funerary rites were not common, especially for non-elites. In the Heian Period, abandonment was a common method of disposing of the dead. Following the advent of Buddhism, rituals were sometimes performed at the gravesite after burial or cremation.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In Korea, ancestor veneration is referred to by the generic term "jerye" (hangul: 제례; hanja: ) or "jesa" (hangul: 제사; hanja: ). Notable examples of "jerye" include "Munmyo jerye" and "Jongmyo jerye", which are performed periodically each year for venerated Confucian scholars and kings of ancient times, respectively. The ceremony held on the anniversary of a family member's death is called "charye" (차례). It is still practiced today.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: The majority of Catholics, Buddhists and nonbelievers practice ancestral rites, although Protestants do not. The Catholic ban on ancestral rituals was lifted in 1939, when the Catholic Church formally recognized ancestral rites as a civil practice.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Ancestor worship in modern-day Myanmar is largely confined to some ethnic minority communities, but mainstream remnants of it still exist, such as worship of Bo Bo Gyi (literally "great grandfather"), as well as of other guardian spirits such as nats, all of which may be vestiges of historic ancestor worship.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Ancestor worship was present in the royal court in pre-colonial Burma. During the Konbaung dynasty, solid gold images of deceased kings and their consorts were worshiped three times a year by the royal family, during the Burmese New Year ("Thingyan"), at the beginning and at the end of Vassa. The images were stored in the treasury and worshiped at the Zetawunzaung (, "Hall of Ancestors"), along with a book of odes.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Some scholars attribute the disappearance of ancestor worship to the influence of Buddhist doctrines of anicca and anatta, impermanence and rejection of a 'self'.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In the animistic indigenous religions of the precolonial Philippines, ancestor spirits were one of the two major types of spirits ("anito") with whom shamans communicate. Ancestor spirits were known as "umalagad" (lit. "guardian" or "caretaker"). They can be the spirits of actual ancestors or generalized guardian spirits of a family. Ancient Filipinos believed that upon death, the soul of a person travels (usually by boat) to a spirit world. There can be multiple locations in the spirit world, varying in different ethnic groups. Which place souls end up in depends on how they died, the age at death, or conduct of the person when they were alive. Souls reunite with deceased relatives in the underworld and lead normal lives in the underworld as they did in the material world. In some cases, the souls of evil people undergo penance and cleansing before they are granted entrance into a particular spirit realm. Souls would eventually reincarnate after a period of time in the spirit world.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Souls in the spirit world still retain a degree of influence in the material world, and vice versa. "Paganito" rituals may be used to invoke good ancestor spirits for protection, intercession, or advice. Vengeful spirits of the dead can manifest as apparitions or ghosts ("mantiw") and cause harm to living people. "Paganito" can be used to appease or banish them. Ancestor spirits also figured prominently during illness or death, as they were believed to be the ones who call the soul to the underworld, guide the soul (a psychopomp), or meet the soul upon arrival.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Ancestor spirits are also known as "kalading" among the Cordillerans; "tonong" among the Maguindanao and Maranao; "umboh" among the Sama-Bajau; "ninunò" among Tagalogs; and "nono" among Bicolanos. Ancestor spirits are usually represented by carved figures called "taotao". These were carved by the community upon a person's death. Every household had a "taotao" stored in a shelf in the corner of the house.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: The predominantly Roman Catholic Filipino people still hold ancestors in particular esteem—though without the formality common to their neighbours—despite having been Christianised since coming into contact with Spanish missionaries in 1521. In the present day, ancestor veneration is expressed in having photographs of the dead by the home altar, a common fixture in many Filipino Christian homes. Candles are often kept burning before the photographs, which are sometimes decorated with garlands of fresh sampaguita, the national flower. Ancestors, particularly dead parents, are still regarded as psychopomps, as a dying person is said to be brought to the afterlife (Tagalog: "sundô", "fetch") by the spirits of dead relatives. It is said that when the dying call out the names of deceased loved ones, they can see the spirits of those particular people waiting at the foot of the deathbed.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Filipino Catholic and Aglipayan veneration of the dead finds its greatest expression in the Philippines is the Hallowmas season between 31 October and 2 November, variously called "Undás" (based on the word for "[the] first", the Spanish "andas" or possibly "honra"), "Todos los Santos" (literally "All Saints"), and sometimes "Áraw ng mga Patáy" (lit. "Day of the Dead"), which refers to the following solemnity of All Souls' Day. Filipinos traditionally observe this day by visiting the family dead, cleaning and repairing their tombs. Common offerings are prayers, flowers, candles, and even food, while many also spend the remainder of the day and ensuing night holding reunions at the graveyard, playing games and music or singing.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Chinese Filipinos, meanwhile, have the most apparent and distinct customs related to ancestor veneration, carried over from traditional Chinese religion and most often melded with their current Catholic faith. Many still burn incense and kim at family tombs and before photos at home, while they incorporate Chinese practises into Masses held during the All Souls' Day period.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In Sri Lanka, making offerings to one's ancestors is conducted on the sixth day after death as a part of traditional Sri Lankan funeral rites.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In rural northern Thailand, a religious ceremony honoring ancestral spirits known as "Faun Phii" (, lit. "spirit dance" or "ghost dance") takes place. It includes offerings for ancestors with spirit mediums sword fighting, spirit-possessed dancing, and spirit mediums cock fighting in a spiritual cockfight.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Ancestor veneration is one of the most unifying aspects of Vietnamese culture, as practically all Vietnamese, regardless of religious affiliation (Buddhist, Catholic or animist) have an ancestor altar in their home or business.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In Vietnam, traditionally people did not celebrate birthdays (before Western influence), but the death anniversary of one's loved one was always an important occasion. Besides an essential gathering of family members for a banquet in memory of the deceased, incense sticks are burned along with hell notes, and great platters of food are made as offerings on the ancestor altar, which usually has pictures or plaques with the names of the deceased. In the case of missing persons, believed to be dead by their family, a Wind tomb is made.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: These offerings and practices are done frequently during important traditional or religious celebrations, the starting of a new business, or even when a family member needs guidance or counsel and is a hallmark of the emphasis Vietnamese culture places on filial duty.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: A significant distinguishing feature of Vietnamese ancestor veneration is that women have traditionally been allowed to participate and co-officiate ancestral rites, unlike in Chinese Confucian doctrine, which allows only male descendants to perform such rites.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In Catholic countries in Europe (continued later with the Anglican Church in England), November 1 (All Saints' Day), became known and is still known as the day to specifically venerate those who have died, and who have been deemed official saints by the Church. November 2, (All Souls Day), or "The Day of the Dead", is the day when all of the faithful dead are remembered. On that day, families go to cemeteries to light candles for their dead relatives, leave them flowers, and often to picnic. The evening before All Saints'—"All Hallows Eve" or "Hallowe'en"—is unofficially the Catholic day to remember the realities of Hell, to mourn the souls lost to evil, and to remember ways to avoid Hell . It is commonly celebrated in the United States and parts of the United Kingdom in a spirit of light-hearted horror and fear, which is marked by the recounting of ghost stories, bonfires, wearing costumes, carving jack-o'-lanterns, and "trick-or-treating" (going door to door and begging for candy).


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In Cornwall and Wales, the autumn ancestor festivals occur around November 1. In Cornwall the festival is known as "Kalan Gwav", and in Wales as "Calan Gaeaf." Modern-day Halloween is derived from these festivals.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: During "Samhain", November 1 in Ireland and Scotland, the dead are thought to return to the world of the living, and offerings of food and light are left for them. On the festival day, ancient people would extinguish the hearth fires in their homes, participate in a community bonfire festival, and then carry a flame home from the communal fire and use it to light their home fires anew. This custom has continued to some extent into modern times, in both the Celtic nations and the diaspora. Lights in the window to guide the dead home are left burning all night. On the Isle of Man the festival is known as "old Sauin" or "Hop-tu-Naa".


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In the United States and Canada, flowers, wreaths, grave decorations and sometimes candles, food, small pebbles, or items the dead valued in life are put on graves year-round as a way to honor the dead. These traditions originate in the diverse cultural backgrounds of the current populations of both countries. In the United States, many people honor deceased loved ones who were in the military on Memorial Day. Days with religious and spiritual significance like Easter, Christmas, Candlemas, and All Souls' Day, Day of the Dead, or Samhain are also times when relatives and friends of the deceased may gather at the graves of their loved ones. In the Catholic Church, one's local parish church often offers prayers for the dead on their death anniversary or All Souls' Day.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In the United States, Memorial Day is a Federal holiday for remembering the deceased men and women who served in the nation's military, particularly those who died in war or during active service. In the 147 National Cemeteries, like Arlington and Gettysburg, it is common for volunteers to place small American flags at each grave. Memorial Day is traditionally observed on the last Monday in May, allotting for a 3-day weekend in which many memorial services and parades take place not only across the country, but in 26 American cemeteries on foreign soil (in France, Belgium, the United Kingdom, the Philippines, Panama, Italy, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, and Tunisia). It is also common practice among veterans to memorialize fallen service members on the dates of their death. This practice is also common in other countries when remembering Americans who died in battles to liberate their towns in the World Wars. One example of this is on 16 August (1944) Colonel Griffith, died of wounds from enemy action sustained in Lèves, the same day he is credited with saving Chartres Cathedral from destruction.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: In Judaism, when a grave site is visited, a small pebble is placed on the headstone. While there is no clear answer as to why, this custom of leaving pebbles may date back to biblical days when individuals were buried under piles of stones. Today, they are left as tokens that people have been there to visit and to remember.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Americans of various religions and cultures may build a shrine in their home dedicated to loved ones who have died, with pictures of their ancestors, flowers and mementos. Increasingly, many roadside shrines may be seen for deceased relatives who died in car accidents or were killed on that spot, sometimes financed by the state or province as these markers serve as potent reminders to drive cautiously in hazardous areas. The Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C., is particularly known for the leaving of offerings to the deceased; items left are collected by the National Park Service and archived.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints perform posthumous baptisms and other rituals for their dead ancestors, along with those of other families.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Native Americans were not heavily concerned with the veneration of the dead, though they were known to bury the dead with clothes and tools as well as occasionally leave food and drink at the gravesite; Pueblo Indians supported a cult of the dead which worshipped or petitioned the dead through ritualistic dances.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Islam has a complex and mixed view on the idea of grave shrines and ancestor worship. The graves of many early Islamic figures are holy sites for Muslims, including Ali, and a cemetery with many companions and early caliphs. Many other mausoleums are major architectural, political, and cultural sites, including the National Mausoleum in Pakistan and the Taj Mahal in India. However, the religious movement of Wahhabism disputes the concept of saint veneration. Followers of this movement have destroyed many gravesite shrines, including in Saudi Arabia and in territory controlled by the Islamic State.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Iman Ahmad, Al-Hakim, and others narrated about Marwan Ibn al-Hakam–an unjust ruler–that he once passed by the grave of the Prophet and saw a man with his cheek on the grave of the Prophet. Marwan Ibn al-Hakam asked: “Do you know what you are doing?” Nearing the grave, Marwan Ibn al-Hakam realized it was Abu Ayyub al-Ansariyy, one of the greatest companions of the Prophet. Abu Ayyub al-Ansariyy replied, “Yes, I know what I am doing. I came here for the Messenger of Allah–not for the stone.” By this he meant he was seeking the blessings from the presence of the Prophet, not for the stone covering his grave. Abu Ayyub al-Ansariyy continued his response with what he heard the Messenger of Allah say: “Do not cry over the Religion of Islam if the rulers are ruling correctly. Rather, cry over this Religion if the rulers are ruling incorrectly.” By his response, Abu Ayyub was telling Marwan Ibn al-Hakam: “You are not one of those rulers who are correctly ruling by the rules of Islam."


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Some followers of Islam are at odds with the concept of saint veneration, but this practice is retained in Turkey, particularly through Alevi Muslims.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Although some historians claim that ancient Egyptian society was a "death cult" because of its elaborate tombs and mummification rituals, it was the opposite. The philosophy that "this world is but a vale of tears" and that to die and be with God is a better existence than an earthly one was relatively unknown among the ancient Egyptians. This was not to say that they were unacquainted with the harshness of life; rather, their ethos included a sense of continuity between this life and the next. The Egyptian people loved the culture, customs and religion of their daily lives so much that they wanted to continue them in the next—although some might hope for a better station in the Beautiful West (Egyptian afterlife).


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Tombs were housing in the Hereafter and so they were carefully constructed and decorated, just as homes for the living were. Mummification was a way to preserve the corpse so the "ka" (soul) of the deceased could return to receive offerings of the things s/he enjoyed while alive. If mummification was not affordable, a "ka-statue" in the likeness of the deceased was carved for this purpose. The Blessed Dead were collectively called the "akhu", or "shining ones" (singular: "akh"). They were described as "shining as gold in the belly of Nut" (Gr. Nuit) and were indeed depicted as golden stars on the roofs of many tombs and temples.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: The process by which a "ka" became an "akh" was not automatic upon death; it involved a 70-day journey through the "duat", or Otherworld, which led to judgment before Wesir (Gr. Osiris), Lord of the Dead where the "ka’"s heart would be weighed on a scale against the Feather of Ma’at (representing Truth). However, if the "ka" was not properly prepared, this journey could be fraught with dangerous pitfalls and strange demons; hence some of the earliest religious texts discovered, such as the Papyrus of Ani (commonly known as The Book of the Dead) and the Pyramid Texts were actually written as guides to help the deceased successfully navigate the "duat".


title: Veneration of the dead

text: If the heart was in balance with the Feather of Ma'at, the "ka" passed judgment and was granted access to the Beautiful West as an "akh" who was "ma’a heru" ("true of voice") to dwell among the gods and other "akhu". At this point only was the "ka" deemed worthy to be venerated by the living through rites and offerings. Those who became lost in the "duat" or deliberately tried to avoid judgment became the unfortunate (and sometimes dangerous) "mutu", the Restless Dead. For the few whose truly evil hearts outweighed the Feather, the goddess Ammit waited patiently behind Wesir's judgment seat to consume them. She was a composite creature resembling three of the deadliest animals in Egypt: the crocodile, the hippopotamus and the lion. Being fed to Ammit was to be consigned to the Eternal Void, to be "unmade" as a "ka".


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Besides being eaten by Ammit, the worst fate a "ka" could suffer after physical death was to be forgotten. For this reason, ancestor veneration in ancient Egypt was an important rite of remembrance in order to keep the "ka" "alive" in this life as well as in the next. Royals, nobles and the wealthy made contracts with their local priests to perform prayers and give offerings at their tombs. In return, the priests were allowed to keep a portion of the offerings as payment for services rendered. Some tomb inscriptions even invited passers-by to speak aloud the names of the deceased within (which also helped to perpetuate their memory), and to offer water, prayers or other things if they so desired. In the private homes of the less wealthy, niches were carved into the walls for the purpose of housing images of familial "akhu" and to serve as altars of veneration.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: Many of these same religious beliefs and ancestor veneration practices are still carried on today in the religion of Kemetic Orthodoxy.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: The Romans, like many Mediterranean societies, regarded the bodies of the dead as polluting. During Rome's Classical period, the body was most often cremated, and the ashes placed in a tomb outside the city walls. Much of the month of February was devoted to purifications, propitiation, and veneration of the dead, especially at the nine-day festival of the Parentalia during which a family honored its ancestors. The family visited the cemetery and shared cake and wine, both in the form of offerings to the dead and as a meal among themselves. The Parentalia drew to a close on February 21 with the more somber Feralia, a public festival of sacrifices and offerings to the Manes, the potentially malevolent spirits of the dead who required propitiation. One of the most common inscriptional phrases on Latin epitaphs is "Dis Manibus", abbreviated "D.M," "for the Manes gods", which appears even on s. The Caristia on February 22 was a celebration of the family line as it continued into the present.


title: Veneration of the dead

text: A noble Roman family displayed ancestral images ("imagines") in the tablinium of their home "(domus)". Some sources indicate these portraits were busts, while others suggest that funeral masks were also displayed. The masks, probably modeled of wax from the face of the deceased, were part of the funeral procession when an elite Roman died. Professional mourners wore the masks and regalia of the dead person's ancestors as the body was carried from the home, through the streets, and to its final resting place.


title: Renan Barão

text: Renan Mota do Nascimento Pegado (born 31 January 1987), better known as Renan Barão, is a Brazilian professional mixed martial artist and the former UFC Bantamweight Champion. He held one of the longest unbeaten streaks in MMA history - following a loss in his professional debut, he recorded 32 straight fights without a loss (31 victories and 1 no contest) over a span of 9 years. During his championship reign, he was ranked as a top 3 pound for pound fighter and regarded as one of the best mixed martial artists in the world. His nickname "Barão" (baron), which predates his athletic career, was given to him by his grandmother after a character in the 1986 Brazilian soap opera "Sinhá Moça".


title: Renan Barão

text: He started his career in Kimura Nova União, a sports school in Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil. Since turning professional in 2005, Barão has competed for Shooto Brazil and other smaller organizations in his native country of Brazil, having fought Rony Mariano Bezerra and Anistavio "Gasparzinho" Medeiros both former contestants. He is a teammate and training partner of former WEC Featherweight Champion and former UFC Featherweight Champion José Aldo at Nova União. He received his Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu black belt from André Pederneiras in September 2011 becoming the 100th black belt under Pederneiras in the process.


title: Renan Barão

text: In January 2010, Sherdog named him their top prospect in their list of "10 Brazilians to watch in 2010"


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão was expected to make his North American, as well as WEC debut in a Bantamweight bout against Clint Godfrey on 20 June 2010 at WEC 49, but Godfrey was forced from the card with an injury. Barão instead faced fellow WEC newcomer Anthony Leone at an agreed 142 lb catchweight. Barão defeated Leone via submission (armbar) in the third round.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão defeated Chris Cariaso by rear-naked choke submission in the first round on 16 December 2010 at WEC 53.


title: Renan Barão

text: In October 2010, the WEC merged with the UFC. As part of the merger, all WEC fighters were transferred to the UFC.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão was expected to make his UFC debut on 28 May 2011 against Demetrious Johnson at UFC 130, but an undisclosed injury forced Brad Pickett out of his fight with Miguel Torres on the same card. Johnson moved up to fight Torres, while Barão faced Cole Escovedo. Barão won his debut fight in the organization via unanimous decision.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão faced Brad Pickett on 5 November 2011 at UFC 138. He defeated Pickett by rear-naked choke submission in the first round, also winning "Fight of the Night" honors.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão was expected to face Ivan Menjivar on 7 July 2012 at UFC 148 to possibly determine the number one contender. Barão instead faced Urijah Faber for the Interim Bantamweight title after current champion Dominick Cruz was injured. It was originally scheduled to take place at UFC 148 however, due to an injury to headliner José Aldo (who was supposed to make a title defence in the event's main event fight), the Faber/Barão bout was moved to 21 July 2012 and headlined for the Interim Bantamweight Championship. He won the fight via unanimous decision to become the Interim UFC Bantamweight Champion. He was expected to face Dominick Cruz for the unified UFC Bantamweight Championship at a later date. However, it was announced on 4 December 2012 that Dominick Cruz suffered a second ACL tear that would require surgery, leaving Cruz now sidelined for 6–9 months.


title: Renan Barão

text: In his first title defense, Barão retained the UFC Interim Bantamweight Championship against Michael McDonald on 16 February 2013 at . McDonald was competitive with capable take-down defense and crisp boxing - particularly - in the first two rounds, but was worn down by Barão's more diverse skill-set as he mixed in knees and kicks standing, and often looked to take the fight to the floor (with success). Upon executing a strong take-down in the fourth round, McDonald tried to explode to his feet but instead gave Barão opportunity to expertly secure an arm-triangle choke while passing into side control: McDonald tapped at 3:57 in the fourth round. The win also won him his first "Submission of the Night" honors.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão was scheduled to make his second interim title defense against Eddie Wineland on 15 June 2013 at UFC 161. However, on 21 May it was confirmed that Barão had pulled out of the bout, citing a foot injury.


title: Renan Barão

text: The bout with Wineland was rescheduled for 21 September 2013 at UFC 165. Barão retained the title with a second-round TKO victory via spinning back kick and subsequent punches to the face. With this victory Barão made history as the first and only fighter ever to defend an interim title more than once in the UFC. The win also resulted in Barão receiving his first "Knockout of the Night" bonus award.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão was expected to face Dominick Cruz to unify the UFC Bantamweight Championship on 1 February 2014 at UFC 169. However, on a 6 January episode of SportsCenter, UFC president Dana White announced that Dominick Cruz had torn his groin, therefore being stripped of the UFC Bantamweight Championship, and Barão would become the undisputed UFC Bantamweight Champion, with his first unified title defense against Urijah Faber at UFC 169. Barão successfully defended his title by defeating Faber via TKO in the first round.


title: Renan Barão

text: For his second title defense, Barão faced T.J. Dillashaw in the main event at UFC 173 on 24 May 2014. Barão was a huge favorite, but Dillashaw won the fight in dominant fashion out striking Barão in all five rounds, Dillashaw won via TKO in the fifth round to become the new UFC Bantamweight Champion. It was one of the greatest upsets in UFC history. The fight earned the "Fight of the Night" award.


title: Renan Barão

text: An immediate rematch with Dillashaw was scheduled to take place on 30 August 2014 at UFC 177. However, the day of the weigh-ins, Barão had to be admitted to the hospital as a result of his attempts to cut weight, and was removed from the card. Dillashaw eventually fought UFC newcomer Joe Soto whom he defeated by 5th-round knockout.


title: Renan Barão

text: In his first fight since losing the title, Barão faced Mitch Gagnon on 20 December 2014 at UFC Fight Night 58. He won the fight via arm-triangle submission in the third round. The win also earned Barão his first "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: Renan Barão

text: A rematch with Dillashaw was rescheduled and was expected to take place on 25 April 2015 at UFC 186. However a month before the event, Dillashaw was forced out of the bout after sustaining a broken rib while training.


title: Renan Barão

text: The rematch with Dillashaw eventually took place at UFC on Fox 16 on 25 July 2015. Barão lost the fight via TKO in the opening moments of the fourth round.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão next faced Jeremy Stephens in a featherweight bout on 29 May 2016 at UFC Fight Night 88. He lost the back and forth fight by unanimous decision. Both participants were awarded "Fight of the Night" honors for their performance.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão faced Phillipe Nover on 24 September 2016 at UFC Fight Night 95. He won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão was briefly linked to a bout with Doo Ho Choi which was expected to take place on 15 April 2017 at UFC on Fox 24. However, as the announcement of the pairing began to circulate, Choi declined the bout, and as a result, Barão is expected to be rescheduled against a different opponent, possibly at another event.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão faced Aljamain Sterling on 29 July 2017 at UFC 214. The fight was initially contracted to be contested at bantamweight, however on 28 June, the CSAC announced that they would not license Barão to compete at that weight due to his past struggle to make the required weight at UFC 177. The bout with Sterling proceeded as scheduled at a catchweight of 140 lbs. Barão lost the bout by unanimous decision.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão faced Brian Kelleher on 24 February 2018 at UFC on Fox 28. He lost the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão faced Andre Ewell on 22 September 2018 at UFC Fight Night 137. At weigh-ins, Barão weighted five pounds over bantamweight non-title fight limit of 136 and he was fined 30 percent of his purse to Ewell. Barão lost the fight via split decision.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão faced Luke Sanders on 17 February 2019 at . At the weigh-ins, Barão weighed in at 138 pounds, 2 pounds over the bantamweight non-title fight upper limit of 136 pounds. As a result, the bout proceeded at catchweight and Barão was fined 20% of his purse which went to his opponent, Sanders. Barão lost the fight via knockout in the second round.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão faced Douglas Silva de Andrade in a featherweight bout on 16 November 2019 at UFC on ESPN+ 22. He lost the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Renan Barão

text: On 3 August 2020, news surfaced that Barão had signed a three-fight contract with Taura MMA. He was expected to make his promotional debut against Bobby Moffett at Taura MMA 12 on 21 November 2020. However, the event was postponed due to COVID-19 pandemic related issues.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão was scheduled to face Tyson Duckworth on November 19, 2021, at Premier FC 32 for the Premier FC Featherweight Championship. However Duckworth pulled out of the bout the day before, not getting on his flight.


title: Renan Barão

text: Barão was scheduled to face William Gomis at ARES FC 7 on June 25, 2022. He later pulled out of the bout.


title: Flat Stanley

text: Flat Stanley is an American children's book series written by author Jeff Brown (January 1, 1926 – December 3, 2003). The idea for the book began as a bedtime story for Brown’s sons, which Brown turned into the first Flat Stanley book. The first book featured illustrations by Tomi Ungerer and was published in 1964. Brown did not continue the series until more than two decades later, when he published five more books: "Stanley and the Magic Lamp", "Stanley in Space", "Stanley’s Christmas Adventure", "Invisible Stanley", and "Stanley, Flat Again!"


title: Flat Stanley

text: By 2003, the Flat Stanley series had sold almost a million copies in the United States, and the stories had been translated into French, German, Spanish, Italian, Japanese, and Hebrew.


title: Flat Stanley

text: Since Brown's death in 2003, other children's book authors, including Sara Pennypacker and Josh Greenhut, have continued the series under a new name, "Flat Stanley's Worldwide Adventures".


title: Flat Stanley

text: In 2009, a musical adaptation, also entitled "Flat Stanley", opened at the Djanogly Theatre, Nottingham. It featured a script by Mike Kenny and songs by Julian Butler. The musical was well received and was revived in 2014 for a short tour.


title: Flat Stanley

text: The book recounts the adventures of Stanley Lambchop after he is squashed flat by a bulletin board while sleeping. He survives and decides to make the best of being flat. Soon, he discovers that he is able to enter locked rooms by sliding under the door. Over the course of the story, he also rolls up to go out to a park, and he is used as a kite by his brother. Another special advantage of being flat is that Flat Stanley can visit his friends in California by mailing himself in an envelope. Stanley even helps catch art museum thieves by disguising himself as a painting on the wall. Eventually, Stanley becomes tired of his flatness, and his brother restores his proper shape with a bicycle pump.


title: Flat Stanley

text: At the time of his death, Brown was in the process of re-writing the original book. The rewrite was published by Scholastic in 2006. Since then, other authors have continued the series under the name "Flat Stanley's Worldwide Adventures."


title: Flat Stanley

text: The Flat Stanley Project began in 1995 under the direction of Dale Hubert, a third grade school teacher in London, Ontario, Canada. The project is meant to facilitate letter-writing between schoolchildren as they document where Flat Stanley has accompanied them around the world. The goal of the project is to increase reading and writing skills, as well as teaching children about people and cultures from different places. Dale Hubert received the Prime Minister's Award for Teaching Excellence in 2001 for his work in creating the Flat Stanley Project.


title: Flat Stanley

text: The Flat Stanley Project provides an opportunity for students to make connections with students from other member schools who have signed up for the project. Students begin by reading the book and becoming familiar with Flat Stanley's story. Then, they create paper "Flat Stanleys" (representative drawings of the Stanley Lambchop character) and keep a journal for a few days, documenting the places and activities in which Flat Stanley is involved. Each student's Flat Stanley and its respective journal are then mailed to students at other schools. The students at those schools are asked to treat the Flat Stanley as a visiting guest and add to the respective journal, then return them both after a short period of time. The project has many similarities to the traveling gnome prank, except that the Flat Stanley Project focuses more on literacy.


title: Flat Stanley

text: As a part of the project, students may plot Flat Stanley's travels on maps and share the contents of their journals. Additionally, Flat Stanleys often return with a photo or postcard from its visit. Despite the project's traditional reliance on letters, some teachers prefer to use e-mail due to its quicker travel time.


title: Flat Stanley

text: Teachers can register and arrange exchanges with other classrooms on the Flat Stanley Project website. Another option is for teachers to ask students to get their parents' permission to address an envelope and send the paper doll to a friend or relative in another state.


title: Flat Stanley

text: The Flat Stanley Project uses blogs for teachers, parents, and students to publish stories, describe local traditions and scenery, and post photos. Flat Stanley photos are also archived in an online Picture Gallery.


title: Flat Stanley

text: The project was featured in a 2004 episode of the animated TV series "King of the Hill", in which Nancy Gribble receives a Flat Stanley in the mail. Peggy Hill and Luanne Platter photograph it in a number of dangerous situations, resulting in the school's Flat Stanley Project being canceled.


title: Flat Stanley

text: According to the February 26, 2009 broadcast of "Countdown with Keith Olbermann", Flat Stanley was on board the US Airways Flight 1549, which landed safely in the Hudson River. He was carried to safety in the briefcase of his traveling companion.


title: Flat Stanley

text: In early 2010, Darren Haas, a Flat Stanley advocate and applications architect, approached Dale Hubert with the idea of turning the Flat Stanley Project concept into an app for the iPhone. The app was released in late 2010, but is no longer available in the App Store.


title: Flat Stanley

text: Also in 2010, fans of the baseball team St. Louis Cardinals were asked (via the team website) to petition US President Barack Obama to award the Presidential Medal of Freedom to Baseball Hall of Famer Stan Musial. A "Flat Stan" downloadable cutout figure was made available to encourage Cardinals fans to take a photo with Musial's caricature and send them in as petitions.


title: Flat Stanley

text: In 2022, cast member Sarah Sherman held up a Flat Stanley during the closing credits of an episode of Saturday Night Live.


title: Flat Stanley

text: Dog Man Unleashed - the second in the series of Dog Man novels - contains a homage to Flat Stanley: the antagonist feigns a crush by cutting out a cardboard likeness of himself, and inserts it under a bulletin board.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: Yakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov (; 3 June [O. S. 22 May]] 1885 – 16 March 1919) was a Bolshevik Party administrator and chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee from 1917 to 1919. He is sometimes regarded as the first head of state of the Soviet Union, although it was not established until 1922, three years after his death.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: Born in Nizhny Novgorod to a Jewish family active in revolutionary politics, Sverdlov joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1902 and supported Vladimir Lenin's Bolshevik faction during an ideological split. He was active in the Urals during the failed Revolution of 1905, and in the next decade, he was subjected to constant imprisonment and exile. After the 1917 February Revolution overthrew the monarchy, Sverdlov returned to Petrograd and was appointed chairman of the Party Secretariat. In that capacity, he played a key role in planning of the October Revolution.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: Sverdlov was elected chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee in November 1917. He worked to consolidate Bolshevik control of the new regime and supported the Red Terror campaign and the decossackization policies. He is also considered to have played a major role in authorising the execution of the Romanov family in July 1918.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: Sverdlov died in March 1919 during the Spanish flu at the age of 33 and was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis. The city of Yekaterinburg was renamed Sverdlovsk in 1924 in his honour.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: Sverdlov was born in Nizhny Novgorod as Yakov-Aaron Mikhailovich Sverdlov to Jewish parents, Mikhail Izrailevich Sverdlov and Elizaveta Solomonova. His father was a politically active engraver who produced forged documents and stored arms for the revolutionary underground. The Sverdlov family had six children: two daughters (Sophia and Sara) and four sons (Zinovy, Yakov, Veniamin, and Lev). After his wife's death in 1900, Mikhail converted with his family to the Russian Orthodox Church, married Maria Aleksandrovna Kormiltseva, and had two more sons, Herman and Alexander. Sverdlov's father was sympathetic to his children's socialist tendencies and 5 out of his 6 children would become involved in revolutionary politics at some point. Mikhail watched as his household slowly became a revolutionary hotspot, where the Novgorod Social Democrats would meet, write pamphlets, and even forge stamps for false passports. Yakov's eldest brother Zinovy was adopted by Maxim Gorky, who was a frequent guest at the house. Zinovy was the only Sverdlov to reject revolutionary politics and had little to no contact with Yakov after the revolution.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: Yakov excelled at school, and after 4 years in gymnasium left to become a pharmacist's apprentice and a "professional revolutionary," Sverdlov joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1902, and then later the Bolshevik faction, supporting Vladimir Lenin.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: In his youth, Sverdlov became friends with a fellow revolutionary Vladimir Lubotsky (later known as Zagorsky). He was involved in the 1905 revolution while living in the Ural Mountains. Though never actually attending college, Sverdlov adopted the garb of the radical students at the time – "With his medium height, unruly brown hair, glasses continually perched on his nose, and Tolstoy shirt worn under his jacket, Sverdlov looked like a student, and for us...a student meant a revolutionary."


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: Sverdlov became a major activist and speaker in Nizhny Novgorod. In 1906, Sverdlov was arrested and held in the Yekaterinburg prison until his release. During his time in prison, Sverdlov continued to educate himself and others, reading Lenin, Marx, Kautsky, Heine, and more. Sverdlov attempted to live by the motto: "I put books to the test of life, and life to the test of books." For most of the time from his arrest in June 1906 until 1917 he was either imprisoned or exiled. In March 1911, Sverdlov was held in the St. Petersburg House of Pretrial Detention.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: Sverdlov married, a second time, with Bolshevik party member and meteorologist named Klavdia Novgorodtseva. In 1911, their first child, Andrei Yakovlevich Sverdlov, was born. In 1913, their second child, Vera, was born and in 1915 Klavdia joined Yakov in exile in the village of Monastyrskoe. Sverdlov and his wife ran a Bolshevik reading circle in the town, which, though illegal, escaped the notice of the local authorities.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: During the period 1914–1916 he was in internal exile in Turukhansk, Siberia, along with Joseph Stalin (then known as Dzhugashvili). Both had been betrayed by the Okhrana agent Roman Malinovsky. Of Stalin, Sverdlov wrote "The comrade I was with turned out to be such a person, socially, that we didn't talk or see each other. It was terrible." Like Stalin, he was co-opted "in absentia" to the 1912 Prague Conference. In 1914, Sverdlov moved to a different village, moving in with his friend Filipp Goloshchyokin, known as Georges. In early 1917, Sverdlov received news of the Putilov strike of 1917 in Petrograd. Alongside Goloshchyokin, he set out at once, arriving to Petrograd on 29 March 1917.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: After the 1917 February Revolution Sverdlov returned to Petrograd from exile as head of the Urals Delegation and found his way into Lenin's inner circle. He first met Lenin in April 1917 and subsequently usurped Elena Stasova as the chairman of the Central Committee Secretariat, and became the secretary of the Central Committee of the Party. According to Podvoisky, the chairperson of the Military Revolutionary Committee, "The person who did more than anyone to help Lenin with the practicalities of translating convictions into votes was Sverdlov." As chairman of the Central Committee, Yakov played an important role in planning the October Revolution and helped make the decision to stage an armed uprising. In November as the Bolsheviks debated whether to postpone or hold elections, Sverdlov advocated for immediate elections as promised. When the results came back showing that the Socialist Revolutionaries had won, Sverdlov, Lenin, and Bukharin dissolved the assembly, leading to a civil war.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: Sverdlov is sometimes regarded as the first head of state of the Soviet Union, although it was not established until 1922, three years after his death. Sverdlov had a prodigious memory and was able to retain the names and details of fellow revolutionaries in exile. He promoted his friend and suite-mate Varlam Avanesov to second-in-command at the Central Executive Committee, and would later become a top official of the secret police. He also installed Vladimir Volodarsky as commissar of print, propaganda, and agitation until his assassination in 1918. His organizational capability was well-regarded, and during his chairmanship, thousands of local party committees were initiated. One of his comrades recalled that,


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: [He] could tell you everything you needed to know about a comrade: where he was working, what kind of person he was, what he was good at, and what job he should be assigned to in the interests of the cause and for his benefit. Moreover, Sverdlov had a very precise impression of all the comrades: they were so firmly stamped in his memory that he could tell you all about the company each one kept. It is hard to believe, but true.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: Sverdlov was elected chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee in November 1917, of which his wife was also a part, becoming thereby "de jure" head of state of the Russian SFSR until his death. He played important roles in the decision in January 1918 to end the Russian Constituent Assembly and the subsequent signing on 3 March of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. In March 1918 Sverdlov along with most prominent Bolsheviks fled Petrograd and moved the government headquarters to Moscow – the Sverdlovs moved into a room in the Kremlin.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: In March 1918, Sverdlov and the Central Executive Committee discussed how to best remove the "ulcers that socialism has inherited from capitalism" and Yakov advocated for a concentrated effort to turn the poorest peasants in the villages against their kulak brethren. Alongside Bukharin, the party began a campaign of "concentrated violence" against many members of the landowning, capitalist, and tradesman classes of Russian society.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: A number of sources claim that Sverdlov, alongside Lenin and Goloshchyokin, played a major role in the execution of Tsar Nicholas II and his family on 17 July 1918.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: A book written in 1990 by the Moscow playwright Edvard Radzinsky claims that Sverdlov ordered their execution on 16 July 1918. This book and other Radzinsky books were characterized as "folk history" by journalists and academic historians. However Yuri Slezkine in his book "The Jewish Century" expressed a slightly different opinion: "Early in the Civil War, in June 1918, Lenin ordered the killing of Nicholas II and his family. Among the men entrusted with carrying out the orders were Sverdlov, Filipp Goloshchyokin and Yakov Yurovsky".


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: The 1922 book by a White Army general, Mikhail Diterikhs, "The Murder of the Tsar's Family and members of the House of Romanov in the Urals", sought to portray the murder of the royal family as a Jewish plot against Russia. It referred to Sverdlov by his Jewish nickname "Yankel" and to Goloshchekin as "Isaac". This book in turn was based on an account by one Nikolai Sokolov, special investigator for the Omsk regional court, whom Diterikhs assigned with the task of investigating the disappearance of the Romanovs while serving as regional governor under the White regime during the Russian Civil War. The investigating magistrate in Ekaterinburg in 1918 saw the signed telegraphic instructions to execute the Imperial Family came from Sverdlov. These details were published in 1966.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: According to Leon Trotsky's diaries, after returning from the front (of the Russian Civil War) he had the following dialogue with Sverdlov:


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: Following the assassination of Moisei Uritsky and the assassination attempt on Lenin in August 1918, Sverdlov drafted a document that called for "merciless mass terror against all the enemies of the revolution". Under his and Lenin's leadership, the Central Executive Committee adopted Sverdlov's resolution calling for "mass red terror against the bourgeoisie and its agents." During Lenin's recovery Sverdlov moved into Lenin's office in the Kremlin and took over some of Lenin's official obligations. He oversaw the interrogation of Lenin's would-be assassin, Fanny Kaplan, and even moved Kaplan from the Cheka headquarters to be held in a basement room underneath Sverdlov's apartment. Sverdlov's deputy Avanesov gave the order for Kaplan's execution and Sverdlov himself personally ordered that the body be "destroyed without a trace."


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: Sverdlov supported the Red Terror campaign, specifically when it came to the policy of decossackization that was started in 1917 as a part of the Russian Civil War. This policy resulted in the deaths of thousands of Cossacks, while the Soviet government confiscated land and food produced by the Cossack population. Sverdlov wrote that "not a single crime against the revolutionary military spirit will remain unpunished," and that the release of Cossack prisoners was unacceptable. This policy was temporarily suspended in March 1919 while Sverdlov was in Ukraine overseeing the election of the Ukrainian Communist Party's central committee.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: There are various theories on how he died and none can be proven officially such as poisoning, beating or flu. He is most commonly attributed to have died of either typhus or more likely the Spanish flu, after a political visit to the Ukraine and Oryol. Kremlin doctors diagnosed him with the Spanish flu. Even as his illness progressed, he continued to perform his duties as chairman of the Central Committee. On 14 March 1919 Sverdlov lost consciousness and on the 16th he died at the age of 33.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: He is buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis in Moscow. Today his grave is one of the twelve individual tombs located between the Lenin Mausoleum and the Kremlin wall.


title: Yakov Sverdlov

text: He was succeeded in an interim capacity by Mikhail Vladimirsky, and eventually by Mikhail Kalinin as Chairman of the Central Executive Committee, and by Elena Stasova as Chairwoman of the Secretariat.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: Dwight Devon Boyd Gayle (born 17 October 1989) is an English professional footballer who plays as a striker for EFL Championship club Stoke City.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: Gayle played in the Arsenal academy as a youth, but was released in 2007, after which he began his career with Ryan of the Essex Olympian Football League. In subsequent seasons, he would work his way back up through the English football pyramid via stints at Stansted, Bishop's Stortford, Dagenham & Redbridge and Peterborough United, before establishing himself in the Premier League with Crystal Palace. In 2016, he signed for Newcastle United Where he spent six years scoring 34 goals in 122 games. Gayle joined Stoke City in July 2022.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: Gayle was born in Walthamstow, London and attended Chingford Foundation School. He started his career with youth club Ridgeway Rovers and spent time with the Arsenal academy but was released at the age of 12 due to his height. After leaving Arsenal, Gayle concentrated on his education taking courses in carpentry and later got a job refurbishing offices. He played semi-professional football in the Essex Olympian Football League with Ryan, before moving up to join Essex Senior League club Stansted in 2009, where he went on to score 57 goals in the 2010–11 season.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: In the summer of 2011, he signed for League Two club Dagenham & Redbridge. In August 2011, he was sent out to Bishop's Stortford on a season-long loan, during which he scored 29 goals in 42 appearances in the Conference North. He then signed a three-year professional contract with Dagenham & Redbridge in July 2012. He made his professional debut for the Daggers on 18 August 2012, in a 2–0 defeat to Cheltenham Town.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: In November 2012, Gayle joined Peterborough United on loan with an option to make the move permanent in January 2013. At the time of his signing, he was described as an "energetic, hardworking, pacey striker" and a "natural finisher". His Peterborough debut came on 24 November as a 53rd-minute substitute for Saido Berahino in a 1–1 away draw with Ipswich Town. Gayle's first Peterborough goal was on 1 December: he picked up a poor backpass by Blackpool's Alex Baptiste to score what was only a consolation goal in a 4–1 home defeat. Peterborough manager Darren Ferguson said of Gayle: "He listens. He picks up things quickly, which is always a sign of a good player."


title: Dwight Gayle

text: On 24 December, after scoring five goals in six matches during his loan spell, Gayle agreed to sign permanently for Peterborough. He joined on 2 January 2013 on a four-and-a-half-year contract for a fee of £500,000 which could rise to £750,000. On 2 March, he scored a hat-trick in a 3–2 win against Blackburn Rovers.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: On 3 July 2013, Gayle signed a four-year contract for newly promoted Premier League club Crystal Palace for an undisclosed fee, reported as a club record £4.5 million. His former club Dagenham & Redbridge received £1 million of the initial transfer fee plus 20% of any extra payments made due to a sell-on clause added when he signed for Peterborough United. He made his Palace debut playing 90 minutes in a home match against Tottenham Hotspur on 18 August in a 1–0 loss. On 31 August, Gayle scored his first goal for the club and his first in the Premier League by successfully converting a penalty against Sunderland after he was fouled by John O'Shea. On 5 October, he scored in a 3–1 defeat against Liverpool at Anfield. On 26 December, he scored the only goal in a 1–0 away win against Aston Villa in added time at the end of the match. In part due to injury, he found first team appearance opportunities limited for the remainder of the season. He returned towards the end of the season scoring two goals as Palace came back from 3–0 down to draw 3–3 at home to Liverpool, which effectively ended their chances of the league title.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: On 26 August 2014, Gayle scored his first hat-trick for Crystal Palace, scoring three times in the first half to give Palace a 3–0 win over Walsall in the second round of the League Cup. Four days later, he scored his first goal of the Premier League season in the opening minute of a 3–3 draw at Newcastle United. On 23 November, Gayle scored in the home fixture against Liverpool for the second consecutive season as Palace defeated the Merseyside team 3–1. On 4 January, Gayle scored his first goal of 2015 in a 4–0 win over Dover Athletic in the third round of the FA Cup. He then scored three goals in the team's next two matches; a 2–1 home win over Tottenham Hotspur and a 3–2 defeat of Burnley at Turf Moor. Gayle ended the season as top scorer in all competitions for Crystal Palace, despite, like the season before, struggling to hold down a consistent place in the starting eleven.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: On 11 August 2015, Bristol City manager Steve Cotterill confirmed that Crystal Palace had accepted an undisclosed bid for Gayle. On 15 August, the transfer broke down as it was confirmed that Bristol City were no longer interested in signing Gayle. Gayle failed to hold down a regular first-team place, due to a series of injuries throughout the season. On 12 April 2016, Gayle signed a contract with Crystal Palace to keep him at the club until 2019. On 7 May 2016, the penultimate match of the season, Gayle scored two goals in a 2–1 victory over Stoke City to confirm Crystal Palace's safety in the Premier League. For the third season in a row Gayle, despite being unable to hold down a consistent place in the team, finished the season as top scorer in all competitions for Crystal Palace.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: On 1 July 2016, Gayle signed a five-year contract for newly relegated Championship club Newcastle United. He made his debut for the club on 5 August, in a 1–0 defeat to Fulham. He scored his first goal for the club on 13 August, in a 2–1 defeat to Huddersfield Town. After having his spot kick saved, he scored from the rebound with his head. Gayle would score in the next two matches for Newcastle, with a brace in a 4–1 win over Reading, and the only goal of the game against Bristol City. It was not until over a month later when he found the net again, scoring a hat-trick against Norwich City, coming back from 3–1 down to win 4–3 in stoppage time. During October, Gayle scored braces in consecutive victories against Brentford and Barnsley, and on 20 November, Gayle scored another brace, this time against Leeds United. On 10 December, Gayle scored a hat-trick against Birmingham City. He would later score in matches against Burton Albion and Nottingham Forest, ending 2016 as the league's top scorer with 19 goals.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: On 14 January 2017, Gayle scored the opening goal in an eventual 2–1 win over Brentford, and in doing so, became the first Newcastle player since Alan Shearer to score 20 league goals in a season. A few minutes later however, he sustained a hamstring injury, and had to be substituted off. This injury kept him out for the next four matches; he would make his return against Norwich City, and started the match against Aston Villa, but once again, had to leave the pitch early. It would become a recurring problem for Gayle, and on three occasions from February to April, he had to be substituted off in the first half. Unsurprisingly, his goal tally also suffered, as he scored twice during this period, netting against Huddersfield Town and Wigan Athletic. Gayle was absent for the rest of April, and made his return on the final day of the season, scoring in a 3–0 win over Barnsley, as Newcastle edged out Brighton & Hove Albion by a point to win the Championship.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: On 18 November 2017, Gayle scored the opening goal in an eventual 4–1 loss to Manchester United. His goal was the first that the "Red Devils" had conceded from open play since 31 December 2016. On 2 December, Gayle again scored the opening goal, this time, in a 3–1 loss to Chelsea. On 9 December, Gayle was involved in both Newcastle goals in a 3–2 loss to Leicester City, assisting Joselu for the first and then scoring the equaliser. In the second half of the season, Gayle remained a first team regular, but only scored three more goals for Newcastle – a brace against AFC Bournemouth in a 2–2 draw on 24 February 2018, and a goal against Chelsea in a 3–0 win, the final day of the season.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: On 6 August 2018, Gayle joined newly relegated Championship club West Bromwich Albion on a season-long loan deal from Newcastle. The deal included Salomón Rondón going the other way for the 2018–19 season. On 11 August, Gayle drew a foul from his former Newcastle teammate Tim Krul, now of Norwich City, with the resulting penalty scored by Jay Rodriguez. On 18 August, Gayle scored his first goal for the club, the fourth goal in an emphatic 7–1 win over Queens Park Rangers. He was also the fouled player for both of Rodriguez's penalties. During September, Gayle scored four times in three consecutive home match wins over Stoke City, Bristol City and Millwall. On 29 September, he scored the third goal, a free-kick, in a 3–2 win over Preston North End. For his performances, he was awarded with the Championship Player of the Month by the EFL. On 6 October, Gayle scored a brace in a 4–1 win over Reading.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: On 14 February 2019, Gayle was suspended for two matches after accepting a charge of "successful deception of a match official", following an incident in the match against Nottingham Forest earlier that week when he "won" a late penalty enabling his team to take a 2–2 draw. He finished the regular season with 23 goals as joint fourth place goalscorer in the Championship, including two hat-tricks against Preston and Rotherham. The "Baggies" finished the season in fourth place, setting up a derby playoff with Aston Villa. In the first leg on May 11, Gayle opened the scoring, but was later sent off after challenging Villa's goalkeeper, Jed Steer, resulting in a second yellow card. This would turn out to be Gayle's final appearance as a "Baggies" player. Gayle ended the season as the club's Supporter's Player of the Season, whilst also picking up the club's Goal of the Season with his first goal in a 2–1 home victory against Stoke City.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: Gayle suffered a calf injury during Newcastle's pre-season tour of China, and would go on to miss Newcastle's first eight matches (in all competitions) of the 2019–20 season. He returned to the matchday squad against Manchester United, and then made his first appearance of the season against Chelsea, coming on as a late substitute. On 11 January 2020, Gayle assisted Miguel Almirón for the opening goal against Wolverhampton Wanderers, but was substituted off in the first half. A thigh injury kept him out for the next six weeks, and he returned to the side in a 1–0 loss to Crystal Palace. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Premier League was suspended and resumed in June behind closed doors. Gayle played in eight matches during this period, scoring four times and assisting once, as Newcastle finished the season in thirteenth place.


title: Dwight Gayle

text: On 26 August 2020, Gayle suffered a knee injury in a friendly with York City, and would go on to miss Newcastle's first thirteen matches (in all competitions) of the 2020–21 season. He scored on his return against his former club West Bromwich Albion, but this proved to be his only goal as he found himself in and out of the team throughout the season. The other significant contribution he made was against Liverpool on 24 April 2021, where he provided the assist for Joe Willock's last-minute equalising goal. On 7 July, Gayle signed a contract extension with Newcastle.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: Artistic gymnastics is a discipline of gymnastics in which athletes perform short routines on different apparatuses. The sport is governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG), which designs the Code of Points and regulates all aspects of elite international competition. Within individual countries, gymnastics is regulated by national federations like British Gymnastics and USA Gymnastics. Artistic gymnastics is a popular spectator sport at many competitions, including the Summer Olympic Games.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The gymnastic system was mentioned in writings by ancient authors, including Homer, Aristotle, and Plato. It included many disciplines that later became independent sports, such as swimming, racing, wrestling, boxing, and horse riding. It was also used for military training.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: In its present form, gymnastics evolved in Bohemia and what is now known as Germany at the beginning of the 19th century. The term "artistic gymnastics" was introduced to distinguish freestyle performances from those used by the military. The German educator Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, who was known as the father of gymnastics, invented several apparatuses, including the horizontal bar and parallel bars that are used to this day. Two of the first gymnastics clubs were Turnvereins and Sokols.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The FIG was founded in 1881, and it remains the governing body of international gymnastics. The organization initially included only three countries and was called the European Gymnastics Federation until 1921, when the first non-European countries joined and it was reorganized into its present form.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: Gymnastics was included in the 1896 Summer Olympics, but female gymnasts were not allowed to participate in the Olympics until 1928. The World Artistic Gymnastics Championships, held since 1903, were only open to men until 1934. Since then, two branches of artistic gymnastics have developed: women's artistic gymnastics (WAG) and men's artistic gymnastics (MAG). Unlike men's and women's branches of many other sports, WAG and MAG differ significantly in technique and in apparatuses used at major competitions.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: As a team event, women's gymnastics entered the Olympics in 1928 and the World Championships in 1950. Individual women were recognized in the all-around as early as the 1934 World Championships. The current women's program—all-around and event finals on the vault, uneven bars, balance beam, and floor exercise—was introduced at the 1950 World Championships and at the 1952 Summer Olympics.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The earliest champions in women's gymnastics tended to be in their 20s, and most had studied ballet for years before entering the sport. Larisa Latynina, the first great Soviet gymnast, won her first Olympic all-around medal at age 22 and her second at 26; she became world champion in 1958 while pregnant. Věra Čáslavská of Czechoslovakia, who followed Latynina and became a two-time Olympic all-around champion, was 22 when she won her first Olympic gold medal.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: In the 1970s, the average age of Olympic gymnasts began to decrease. While it was not unheard of for teenagers to compete in the 1960s - Ludmilla Tourischeva was 16 at her first Olympics in 1968 - younger female gymnasts slowly became the norm as the sport's difficulty increased. Smaller, lighter girls generally excelled in the more challenging acrobatic elements required by the redesigned Code of Points. The 58th Congress of the FIG — held in July 1980, just before the Olympics — decided to raise the minimum age for senior international competition from 14 to 15. However, the change, which came into effect two years later, did not eliminate the problem. By the time of the 1992 Summer Olympics, elite gymnasts consisted almost exclusively of "pixies" — underweight young teenagers — and concerns were raised about athletes' welfare.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: In 1997, the FIG responded to this trend by raising the minimum age for international elite competition to 16. This, combined with changes in the Code of Points and evolving popular opinion in the sport, led to the return of older gymnasts. While the average elite female gymnast is still in her mid to late teens, and below-average height and weight, it is now common to see gymnasts competing well into their 20s. At the 2004 Olympics, both the second-place American team and the third-place Russians were captained by women in their mid-20s; several other teams, including those from Australia, France, and Canada, included older gymnasts as well. At the 2008 Olympics, the silver medalist on vault, Oksana Chusovitina, was a 33-year-old mother.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: Both male and female gymnasts are judged for execution, degree of difficulty, and overall presentation. In many competitions, especially high-level ones sanctioned by the FIG, gymnasts compete in "Olympic order", which has changed over time but has stayed consistent for at least a few decades.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The vault is both an event and the primary piece of equipment used in that event. Unlike most of the gymnastic events employing apparatuses, the vault is common to both men's and women's competition, with little difference between the two. A gymnast sprints down a runway, which is a maximum of in length, before leaping onto a springboard. Harnessing the energy of the spring, the gymnast directs his or her body hands-first toward the vault. Body position is maintained while "popping" (blocking using only a shoulder movement) the vaulting platform. The gymnast then rotates his or her body to land in a standing position on the far side of the vault. In advanced gymnastics, multiple twists and somersaults may be added before landing. Successful vaults depend on the speed of the run, the length of the hurdle, the power the gymnast generates from the legs and shoulder girdle, kinesthetic awareness in the air, and the speed of rotation in the case of more difficult and complex vaults.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: In 2004, the traditional vaulting horse was replaced with a new apparatus, sometimes known as a tongue or table. It is more stable, wider, and longer than the older vaulting horse—about in length and width, giving gymnasts a larger blocking surface—and is therefore safer than the old vaulting horse. This new, safer apparatus led gymnasts to attempt more difficult vaults.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: On the men's side, the gymnasts who have won the most Olympic and/or World Championship titles on vault are Marian Drăgulescu of Romania and Ri Se-gwang of North Korea, with four titles each. Yang Hak-seon, Eugen Mack, Alexei Memo, Vitaly Scherbo, Li Xiaopeng, and Lou Yun have each won three titles.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: On the women's side, Věra Čáslavská of Czechoslovakia has won the most titles, with four. Simona Amânar, Simone Biles, Cheng Fei, and Elena Zamolodchikova have each won three.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The floor event occurs on a carpeted square consisting of hard foam over a layer of plywood, which is supported by springs or foam blocks. This provides a firm surface that will respond with force when compressed, allowing gymnasts to achieve extra height and a softer landing than would be possible on a regular floor.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: Men perform without music for 60 to 70 seconds and are required to touch each corner of the floor at least once during their routine. Their routines include tumbling passes to demonstrate flexibility, strength, balance, and power. They must also show non-acrobatic skills, including circles, scales, and press handstands.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: Women perform a 90-second choreographed routine to instrumental music. Their routines consist of tumbling passes, jumps, dance elements, acrobatic skills, and turns. Elite gymnasts may perform up to four tumbling passes.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: On the men's side, the gymnasts who have won the most Olympic and/or World Championship titles on floor are Marian Drăgulescu of Romania, with four (along with Roland Brückner, if the Alternate Olympics are included). Ihor Korobchynskyi, Vitaly Scherbo, and Kenzō Shirai have three titles each.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: On the women's side, Simone Biles of the United States has the most titles (6), followed by Larisa Latynina of the Soviet Union (4). Gina Gogean, Daniela Silivaș, and Nellie Kim have three titles each.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: A typical pommel horse exercise involves both single leg and double leg work. Single leg skills are generally found in the form of "scissors". In double leg work, the gymnast swings both legs in a circular motion (clockwise or counterclockwise depending on preference). To make the exercise more challenging, gymnasts will often include variations on typical circling skills by turning ("moores" and "spindles") or by straddling their legs ("flares"). Routines end when the gymnast performs a dismount, either by swinging his body over the horse or landing after a handstand.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The gymnasts who have won the most Olympic and/or World Championship titles on pommel horse are Miroslav Cerar of Yugoslavia, Zoltán Magyar of Hungary, and Max Whitlock of Great Britain, with five titles each. Krisztián Berki, Dmitry Bilozerchev, Pae Gil-su, Xiao Qin, Boris Shakhlin, and Marius Urzică, have won at least three titles apiece.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The still rings are suspended on wire cable from a point off the floor and adjusted in height so the gymnast has room to hang freely and swing. Gymnasts must demonstrate balance, strength, power, and dynamic motion while preventing the rings themselves from swinging. At least one static strength move is required, but some gymnasts include two or three.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The gymnasts who have won the most Olympic and/or World Championship titles on still rings are Jury Chechi of Italy (6) and Chen Yibing of China (5). Nikolai Andrianov, Albert Azaryan, Alexander Dityatin, Alois Hudec, Akinori Nakayama, and Eleftherios Petrounias each have at least three such titles, as does Dmitry Bilozerchev if the Alternate Olympics are included.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The parallel bars consist of two bars slightly further than shoulder-width apart and usually high. Gymnasts execute a series of swings, balancing moves, and releases that require strength and coordination.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The gymnasts who have won the most Olympic and/or World Championship titles on parallel bars are Vladimir Artemov of the Soviet Union (5, including the Alternate Olympics) and Li Xiaopeng of China (4). Li Jing, Vitaly Scherbo, and Zou Jingyuan have each won three titles.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The horizontal bar (also known as the high bar) is a thick steel bar raised above the ground. The gymnast performs 'giants' (360-degree revolutions around the bar), release skills, twists, and changes of direction. By using the momentum from giants, enough height can be achieved for spectacular dismounts, such as a triple-back somersault. Leather grips are usually used to help maintain a hold on the bar.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The gymnast who has won the most Olympic and World Championship titles on the horizontal bar is Epke Zonderland of the Netherlands, with four titles. Zou Kai, Leon Štukelj, and Takashi Ono have each won three, as has Dmitry Bilozerchev if the Alternate Olympics are included.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The uneven bars (known as asymmetric bars in the UK) were adapted by the Czechoslovakian Sokol from the men's parallel bars some time before World War I, and were shown in international exhibition for the first time at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. They consist of two horizontal bars set at different heights. Gymnasts perform swings, pirouettes, transition moves between the bars, and releases.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: Higher-level gymnasts usually wear leather grips to ensure a strong hold on the bars while protecting their hands from painful blisters and tears (known as rips). Gymnasts sometimes wet their grips with water from a spray bottle and may apply chalk to prevent the grips from slipping. Chalk may also be applied to the hands and bar if grips are not worn.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The gymnasts who have won the most Olympic and/or World Championship titles on uneven bars are Svetlana Khorkina of Russia (7), Aliya Mustafina 2 times uneven bars Olympic Champion London 2012, Rio 2016 and 7 time Olympic Medalist. Maxi Gnauck of East Germany (5, including the Alternate Olympics). Daniela Silivaș of Romania has won three titles, as has Ma Yanhong of China if the Alternate Olympics are included.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: The balance beam existed as early as the 1880s in the form of a "low beam" close to the floor. By the 1920s, the beam was raised much higher due to Swedish influence on the sport.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: Gymnasts perform routines ranging from 70 to 90 seconds in length, consisting of leaps, acrobatic skills, turns, and dance elements, on a padded spring beam. Apparatus norms set by the FIG specify that the beam must be high, long, and wide. The event requires balance, flexibility, and strength.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: Of all gymnastics apparatuses—men's or women's—balance beam has proven the most difficult on which to win multiple Olympic and World Championship titles. There are only three gymnasts to have won three Olympic or World Championship titles—Simone Biles of the United States, and Nadia Comăneci and Daniela Silivaș of Romania.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: In Olympic and World Championship competition, meets are divided into several sessions held on different days: qualifications, team finals, all-around finals, and event finals.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: During the "qualification" round (abbreviated TQ), gymnasts compete with their national squad on all four (WAG) or six (MAG) events. The scores from this session are not used to award medals, but rather to determine which teams advance to the team finals and which individual gymnasts advance to the all-around and event finals. For the 2020 Olympics, teams will consist of four gymnasts, with up to two additional gymnasts per country allowed to compete as individuals. The format of team qualifications is 4–4–3, meaning that all four gymnasts compete on each event, but only the top three scores count. Individual gymnasts may qualify to the all-around and event finals, but their scores do not count toward the team's total.


title: Artistic gymnastics

text: In the "team finals" (abbreviated TF), gymnasts compete with their national squad on all four or six events. The scores from the session determine the medalists in the team competition. The current format is 4–3–3, meaning that of the four gymnasts on the team, three compete on each event, and all three scores count.