title: Orthogonal group

text: In fact, has two irreducible components, that are distinguished by the sign of the determinant (that is or ). Both are nonsingular algebraic varieties of the same dimension . The component with is .


title: Orthogonal group

text: A maximal torus in a compact Lie group "G" is a maximal subgroup among those that are isomorphic to for some , where is the standard one-dimensional torus.


title: Orthogonal group

text: In and , for every maximal torus, there is a basis on which the torus consists of the block-diagonal matrices of the form


title: Orthogonal group

text: In and , the maximal tori have the same form, bordered by a row and a column of zeros, and 1 on the diagonal.


title: Orthogonal group

text: The Weyl group of is the semidirect product formula_14 of a normal elementary abelian 2-subgroup and a symmetric group, where the nontrivial element of each } factor of acts on the corresponding circle factor of } by inversion, and the symmetric group acts on both and } by permuting factors. The elements of the Weyl group are represented by matrices in }.


title: Orthogonal group

text: The factor is represented by block permutation matrices with 2-by-2 blocks, and a final 1 on the diagonal. The component is represented by block-diagonal matrices with 2-by-2 blocks either


title: Orthogonal group

text: The Weyl group of is the subgroup formula_16 of that of , where is the kernel of the product homomorphism } given by formula_17; that is, is the subgroup with an even number of minus signs. The Weyl group of is represented in by the preimages under the standard injection of the representatives for the Weyl group of . Those matrices with an odd number of formula_18 blocks have no remaining final coordinate to make their determinants positive, and hence cannot be represented in .


title: Orthogonal group

text: In terms of algebraic topology, for the fundamental group of is cyclic of order 2, and the spin group is its universal cover. For the fundamental group is infinite cyclic and the universal cover corresponds to the real line (the group is the unique connected 2-fold cover).


title: Orthogonal group

text: Generally, the homotopy groups of the real orthogonal group are related to homotopy groups of spheres, and thus are in general hard to compute. However, one can compute the homotopy groups of the stable orthogonal group (aka the infinite orthogonal group), defined as the direct limit of the sequence of inclusions:


title: Orthogonal group

text: Since the inclusions are all closed, hence cofibrations, this can also be interpreted as a union. On the other hand, is a homogeneous space for , and one has the following fiber bundle:


title: Orthogonal group

text: which can be understood as "The orthogonal group acts transitively on the unit sphere , and the stabilizer of a point (thought of as a unit vector) is the orthogonal group of the perpendicular complement, which is an orthogonal group one dimension lower." Thus the natural inclusion is -connected, so the homotopy groups stabilize, and for : thus the homotopy groups of the stable space equal the lower homotopy groups of the unstable spaces.


title: Orthogonal group

text: From Bott periodicity we obtain , therefore the homotopy groups of are 8-fold periodic, meaning , and one need only to list the lower 8 homotopy groups:


title: Orthogonal group

text: Via the clutching construction, homotopy groups of the stable space are identified with stable vector bundles on spheres (up to isomorphism), with a dimension shift of 1: . Setting (to make fit into the periodicity), one obtains:


title: Orthogonal group

text: The first few homotopy groups can be calculated by using the concrete descriptions of low-dimensional groups.


title: Orthogonal group

text: From the vector bundle point of view, is vector bundles over , which is two points. Thus over each point, the bundle is trivial, and the non-triviality of the bundle is the difference between the dimensions of the vector spaces over the two points, so is dimension.


title: Orthogonal group

text: Using concrete descriptions of the loop spaces in Bott periodicity, one can interpret the higher homotopies of in terms of simpler-to-analyze homotopies of lower order. Using π, and have two components, and have countably many components, and the rest are connected.


title: Orthogonal group

text: Let be any of the four division algebras , , , , and let be the tautological line bundle over the projective line , and its class in K-theory. Noting that , , , , these yield vector bundles over the corresponding spheres, and


title: Orthogonal group

text: From the point of view of symplectic geometry, can be interpreted as the Maslov index, thinking of it as the fundamental group of the stable Lagrangian Grassmannian as , so .


title: Orthogonal group

text: which is obtained by successively removing (killing) homotopy groups of increasing order. This is done by constructing short exact sequences starting with an Eilenberg–MacLane space for the homotopy group to be removed. The first few entries in the tower are the spin group and the string group, and are preceded by the fivebrane group. The homotopy groups that are killed are in turn ("O") to obtain "SO" from "O", ("O") to obtain "Spin" from "SO", ("O") to obtain "String" from "Spin", and then ("O") and so on to obtain the higher order branes.


title: Orthogonal group

text: Over the real numbers, nondegenerate quadratic forms are classified by Sylvester's law of inertia, which asserts that, on a vector space of dimension , such a form can be written as the difference of a sum of squares and a sum of squares, with . In other words, there is a basis on which the matrix of the quadratic form is a diagonal matrix, with entries equal to , and entries equal to . The pair called the "inertia", is an invariant of the quadratic form, in the sense that it does not depend on the way of computing the diagonal matrix.


title: Orthogonal group

text: The orthogonal group of a quadratic form depends only on the inertia, and is thus generally denoted . Moreover, as a quadratic form and its opposite have the same orthogonal group, one has .


title: Orthogonal group

text: The standard orthogonal group is . So, in the remainder of this section, it is supposed that neither nor is zero.


title: Orthogonal group

text: The subgroup of the matrices of determinant 1 in is denoted . The group has four connected components, depending on whether an element preserves orientation on either of the two maximal subspaces where the quadratic form is positive definite or negative definite. The component of the identity, whose elements preserve orientation on both subspaces, is denoted .


title: Orthogonal group

text: The group is the Lorentz group that is fundamental in relativity theory. Here the corresponds to space coordinates, and corresponds to the time coordinate.


title: Orthogonal group

text: Over the field of complex numbers, every non-degenerate quadratic form in variables is equivalent to formula_24. Thus, up to isomorphism, there is only one non-degenerate complex quadratic space of dimension , and one associated orthogonal group, usually denoted . It is the group of "complex orthogonal matrices", complex matrices whose product with their transpose is the identity matrix.


title: Orthogonal group

text: As in the real case, has two connected components. The component of the identity consists of all matrices of determinant in ; it is denoted .


title: Orthogonal group

text: The groups and are complex Lie groups of dimension over (the dimension over is twice that). For , these groups are noncompact.


title: Orthogonal group

text: As in the real case, is not simply connected: For , the fundamental group of is cyclic of order 2, whereas the fundamental group of is .


title: Orthogonal group

text: Over a field of characteristic different from two, two quadratic forms are "equivalent" if their matrices are congruent, that is if a change of basis transforms the matrix of the first form into the matrix of the second form. Two equivalent quadratic forms have clearly the same orthogonal group.


title: Orthogonal group

text: The non-degenerate quadratic forms over a finite field of characteristic different from two are completely classified into congruence classes, and it results from this classification that there is only one orthogonal group in odd dimension and two in even dimension.


title: Orthogonal group

text: More precisely, Witt's decomposition theorem asserts that (in characteristic different from two) every vector space equipped with a non-degenerate quadratic form can be decomposed as a direct sum of pairwise orthogonal subspaces


title: Orthogonal group

text: where each is a hyperbolic plane (that is there is a basis such that the matrix of the restriction of to has the form formula_26), and the restriction of to is anisotropic (that is, for every nonzero in ).


title: Orthogonal group

text: If the dimension of is odd, the dimension of is thus equal to one, and its matrix is congruent either to formula_27 or to formula_28 where is a non-square scalar. It results that there is only one orthogonal group that is denoted , where is the number of elements of the finite field (a power of an odd prime).


title: Orthogonal group

text: If the dimension of is two and is not a square in the ground field (that is, if its number of elements is congruent to 3 modulo 4), the matrix of the restriction of to is congruent to either or , where is the 2×2 identity matrix. If the dimension of is two and is a square in the ground field (that is, if is congruent to 1, modulo 4) the matrix of the restriction of to is congruent to formula_29 is any non-square scalar.


title: Orthogonal group

text: This implies that if the dimension of is even, there are only two orthogonal groups, depending whether the dimension of zero or two. They are denoted respectively and .


title: Orthogonal group

text: In characteristic two, the formulas are the same, except that the factor of formula_38 must be removed.


title: Orthogonal group

text: For orthogonal groups, the Dickson invariant is a homomorphism from the orthogonal group to the quotient group (integers modulo 2), taking the value in case the element is the product of an even number of reflections, and the value of 1 otherwise.


title: Orthogonal group

text: Algebraically, the Dickson invariant can be defined as , where is the identity . Over fields that are not of characteristic 2 it is equivalent to the determinant: the determinant is −1 to the power of the Dickson invariant.


title: Orthogonal group

text: Over fields of characteristic 2, the determinant is always 1, so the Dickson invariant gives more information than the determinant.


title: Orthogonal group

text: The special orthogonal group is the kernel of the Dickson invariant and usually has index 2 in . When the characteristic of is not 2, the Dickson Invariant is whenever the determinant is . Thus when the characteristic is not 2, is commonly defined to be the elements of with determinant . Each element in has determinant . Thus in characteristic 2, the determinant is always .


title: Orthogonal group

text: The Dickson invariant can also be defined for Clifford groups and pin groups in a similar way (in all dimensions).


title: Orthogonal group

text: Over fields of characteristic 2 orthogonal groups often exhibit special behaviors, some of which are listed in this section. (Formerly these groups were known as the hypoabelian groups, but this term is no longer used.)


title: Orthogonal group

text: The spinor norm is a homomorphism from an orthogonal group over a field to the quotient group (the multiplicative group of the field up to multiplication by square elements), that takes reflection in a vector of norm to the image of in .


title: Orthogonal group

text: For the usual orthogonal group over the reals, it is trivial, but it is often non-trivial over other fields, or for the orthogonal group of a quadratic form over the reals that is not positive definite.


title: Orthogonal group

text: In the theory of Galois cohomology of algebraic groups, some further points of view are introduced. They have explanatory value, in particular in relation with the theory of quadratic forms; but were for the most part "post hoc", as far as the discovery of the phenomena is concerned. The first point is that quadratic forms over a field can be identified as a Galois , or twisted forms (torsors) of an orthogonal group. As an algebraic group, an orthogonal group is in general neither connected nor simply-connected; the latter point brings in the spin phenomena, while the former is related to the determinant.


title: Orthogonal group

text: The 'spin' name of the spinor norm can be explained by a connection to the spin group (more accurately a pin group). This may now be explained quickly by Galois cohomology (which however postdates the introduction of the term by more direct use of Clifford algebras). The spin covering of the orthogonal group provides a short exact sequence of algebraic groups.


title: Orthogonal group

text: Here is the algebraic group of square roots of 1; over a field of characteristic not 2 it is roughly the same as a two-element group with trivial Galois action. The connecting homomorphism from , which is simply the group of -valued points, to is essentially the spinor norm, because is isomorphic to the multiplicative group of the field modulo squares.


title: Orthogonal group

text: There is also the connecting homomorphism from of the orthogonal group, to the of the kernel of the spin covering. The cohomology is non-abelian so that this is as far as we can go, at least with the conventional definitions.


title: Orthogonal group

text: The Lie algebra corresponding to Lie groups and consists of the skew-symmetric matrices, with the Lie bracket given by the commutator. One Lie algebra corresponds to both groups. It is often denoted by formula_40 or formula_41, and called the orthogonal Lie algebra or special orthogonal Lie algebra. Over real numbers, these Lie algebras for different are the compact real forms of two of the four families of semisimple Lie algebras: in odd dimension , where , while in even dimension , where .


title: Orthogonal group

text: Since the group is not simply connected, the representation theory of the orthogonal Lie algebras includes both representations corresponding to "ordinary" representations of the orthogonal groups, and representations corresponding to "projective" representations of the orthogonal groups. (The projective representations of are just linear representations of the universal cover, the spin group Spin("n").) The latter are the so-called spin representation, which are important in physics.


title: Orthogonal group

text: More generally, given a vector space formula_42 (over a field with characteristic not equal to 2) with a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form formula_43, the special orthogonal Lie algebra consists of tracefree endomorphisms formula_44 which are skew-symmetric for this form (formula_45). Over a field of characteristic 2 we consider instead the alternating endomorphisms. Concretely we can equate these with the alternating tensors formula_46. The correspondence is given by:


title: Orthogonal group

text: This description applies equally for the indefinite special orthogonal Lie algebras formula_48 for symmetric bilinear forms with signature formula_49.


title: Orthogonal group

text: Over real numbers, this characterization is used in interpreting the curl of a vector field (naturally a 2-vector) as an infinitesimal rotation or "curl", hence the name.


title: Orthogonal group

text: The orthogonal groups and special orthogonal groups have a number of important subgroups, supergroups, quotient groups, and covering groups. These are listed below.


title: Orthogonal group

text: The inclusions and are part of a sequence of 8 inclusions used in a geometric proof of the Bott periodicity theorem, and the corresponding quotient spaces are symmetric spaces of independent interest – for example, is the Lagrangian Grassmannian.


title: Orthogonal group

text: In physics, particularly in the areas of Kaluza–Klein compactification, it is important to find out the subgroups of the orthogonal group. The main ones are:


title: Orthogonal group

text: Being isometries, real orthogonal transforms preserve angles, and are thus conformal maps, though not all conformal linear transforms are orthogonal. In classical terms this is the difference between congruence and similarity, as exemplified by SSS (side-side-side) congruence of triangles and AAA (angle-angle-angle) similarity of triangles. The group of conformal linear maps of is denoted for the conformal orthogonal group, and consists of the product of the orthogonal group with the group of dilations. If is odd, these two subgroups do not intersect, and they are a direct product: , where } is the real multiplicative group, while if is even, these subgroups intersect in , so this is not a direct product, but it is a direct product with the subgroup of dilation by a positive scalar: .


title: Orthogonal group

text: As the orthogonal group is compact, discrete subgroups are equivalent to finite subgroups. These subgroups are known as point groups and can be realized as the symmetry groups of polytopes. A very important class of examples are the finite Coxeter groups, which include the symmetry groups of regular polytopes.


title: Orthogonal group

text: Dimension 3 is particularly studied – see point groups in three dimensions, polyhedral groups, and list of spherical symmetry groups. In 2 dimensions, the finite groups are either cyclic or dihedral – see point groups in two dimensions.


title: Orthogonal group

text: The orthogonal group is neither simply connected nor centerless, and thus has both a covering group and a quotient group, respectively:


title: Orthogonal group

text: Spin is a 2-to-1 cover, while in even dimension, is a 2-to-1 cover, and in odd dimension is a 1-to-1 cover; i.e., isomorphic to . These groups, , , and are Lie group forms of the compact special orthogonal Lie algebra, formula_55 – Spin is the simply connected form, while PSO is the centerless form, and SO is in general neither.


title: Orthogonal group

text: In dimension 3 and above these are the covers and quotients, while dimension 2 and below are somewhat degenerate; see specific articles for details.


title: Orthogonal group

text: The principal homogeneous space for the orthogonal group is the Stiefel manifold of orthonormal bases (orthonormal -frames).


title: Orthogonal group

text: In other words, the space of orthonormal bases is like the orthogonal group, but without a choice of base point: given an orthogonal space, there is no natural choice of orthonormal basis, but once one is given one, there is a one-to-one correspondence between bases and the orthogonal group. Concretely, a linear map is determined by where it sends a basis: just as an invertible map can take any basis to any other basis, an orthogonal map can take any "orthogonal" basis to any other "orthogonal" basis.


title: Orthogonal group

text: The other Stiefel manifolds for of "incomplete" orthonormal bases (orthonormal -frames) are still homogeneous spaces for the orthogonal group, but not "principal" homogeneous spaces: any -frame can be taken to any other -frame by an orthogonal map, but this map is not uniquely determined.


title: Machiavellianism (politics)

text: Machiavellianism is widely defined as the political philosophy of the Italian Renaissance diplomat Niccolò Machiavelli.


title: Machiavellianism (politics)

text: After his exile from political life in 1512, Machiavelli took to a life of writing, which led to the publishing of his most famous work, "The Prince." The book would become infamous for its recommendations for absolute rulers to be ready to act in unscrupulous ways, such as resorting to fraud and treachery, elimination of political opponents, and the usage of fear as a means of controlling subjects. Machiavelli's view that acquiring a state and maintaining it requires evil means has been noted as the chief theme of the treatise. He has become infamous for this advice, so much so that the adjective "Machiavellian" would later on describe a type of politics that is "marked by cunning, duplicity, or bad faith".


title: Machiavellianism (politics)

text: While Machiavelli has become widely popular for his work on principalities, his other major work, "The Discourses on Livy," focused mainly on republican statecraft, and his recommendations for a well ordered republic. Machiavelli noted how free republics have power structures that are better than principalities. He also notes how advantageous a government by a republic could be as opposed to just a single ruler. However, Machiavelli's more controversial statements on politics can also be found even in his other works. For example, Machiavelli notes that sometimes extraordinary means, such as violence, can be used in re-ordering a corrupt city. In one area, he praises Romulus, who murdered his brother and co-ruler in order to have power by himself to found the city of Rome. In a few passages he sometimes explicitly acts as an advisor of tyrants as well.


title: Machiavellianism (politics)

text: Some scholars have even asserted that the goal of his ideal republic does not differ greatly from his principality, as both rely on rather ruthless measures for aggrandizement and empire.


title: Machiavellianism (politics)

text: In one passage of "The Prince," Machiavelli subverts the advice given by Cicero to avoid duplicity and violence, by saying that the prince should "be the fox to avoid the snares, and a lion to overwhelm the wolves". It would become one of Machiavelli's most notable statements.


title: Machiavellianism (politics)

text: Because cruelty and deception play such important roles in his politics, it is not unusual for related issues—such as murder and betrayal—to rear their heads with regularity.


title: Machiavellianism (politics)

text: Machiavelli's own concept of virtue, which he calls "virtù", is original and is usually seen by scholars as different from the traditional viewpoints of other political philosophers. Virtú can consist of any quality at the moment that helps a ruler maintain his state, even being ready to engage in necessary evil when it is advantageous.


title: Machiavellianism (politics)

text: Due to the treatise's controversial analysis on politics, in 1559, the Catholic Church banned "The Prince", putting it on the "Index Librorum Prohibitorum".


title: Machiavellianism (politics)

text: Machiavelli criticized and rejected the classical biblical and Christian thought as he viewed that it celebrated humility and otherworldly things, and thus it made the Italians of his day "weak and effeminate". While Machiavelli's own religious allegiance has been debated, it is assumed that he had a low regard of contemporary Christianity.


title: Machiavellianism (politics)

text: Machiavelli creates a set of beliefs for gaining, accruing, and keeping power for the times he was living in, regardless of morals, religious proscriptions, and teachings. In fact he teaches his readers that you must learn to be realistic rather than moral, and that one should care for one's own position for pragmatic reasons alone. Machiavelli says: "You can never satisfy the nobles by acting honorably, but you can satisfy the people. Regardless of how a prince comes to power, he should make every effort to win the good will of the people or, in times of trouble, he will have no hope. A prince must not delude himself about the reliability of the people, but nonetheless, a prince who makes good preparations and knows how to command will never be betrayed by them. A wise ruler will contrive to keep all his citizens dependent on him and on the state, and then he will be able to trust them." In other words the masses or standard people, the nobility or "the middle" of the classes are closer to the prince, and thus closer to the seat of power and thus can get his seat of power at some point. So what Machiavelli says you must get the people on your side, thus you can by pandering to the people and get them on your side so as to out maneuver the nobles and get around the problem of the nobility. "The top" of society is pointing to a section of society by making everyone at "the bottom" or the peasants to believe "the middle" is one the source of their problems. Machiavelli also say that you can't pay a man to die for you, money will not get everything, men just won't do it and they may get in a bit of danger, they have no fidelity, they are unfaithful, lazy, will also work for the opposition, won't take big risks and will run from the foe, but its never as useful as men who are opposite who will face danger and commit to hard work for the prince and are willing to die for him, it's for the sake of hiring citizens that creates good armies. "He blamed the mercenaries for lacking the spirit of soldiers who were defending their own lands and homes" and thus since they have spirit, like their homeland and wish to protect it, will readily serve the prince and will gladly do hard work and face danger.


title: Machiavellianism (politics)

text: In the late 1530s, immediately following the publication of "The Prince", Machiavelli's philosophy was seen as an immoral ideology that corrupted European politics. Reginald Pole read the treatise while he was in Italy, and on which he commented: "I found this type of book to be written by an enemy of the human race. It explains every means whereby religion, justice and any inclination toward virtue could be destroyed". Machiavelli's works were received similarly by other popular European authors, especially in Elizabethan England. The English playwrights William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe incorporated their views into some of their works. Shakespeare's titular character, "Richard III", refers to Machiavelli in "Henry VI, Part III", as the "murderous Machiavel".


title: Machiavellianism (politics)

text: The "Anti-Machiavel" is an 18th-century essay by Frederick the Great, King of Prussia and patron of Voltaire, rebutting "The Prince". It was first published in September 1740, a few months after Frederick became king. Denis Diderot, the French philosopher, viewed Machiavellianism as "an abhorrent type of politics" and the "art of tyranny".


title: Photocopier

text: A photocopier (also called copier or copy machine, and formerly Xerox machine, the generic trademark) is a machine that makes copies of documents and other visual images onto paper or plastic film quickly and cheaply. Most modern photocopiers use a technology called "xerography", a dry process that uses electrostatic charges on a light-sensitive photoreceptor to first attract and then transfer toner particles (a powder) onto paper in the form of an image. The toner is then fused onto the paper using heat, pressure, or a combination of both. Copiers can also use other technologies, such as inkjet, but xerography is standard for office copying.


title: Photocopier

text: Commercial xerographic office photocopying was introduced by Xerox in 1959, and it gradually replaced copies made by Verifax, Photostat, carbon paper, mimeograph machines, and other duplicating machines.


title: Photocopier

text: Photocopying is widely used in the business, education, and government sectors. While there have been predictions that photocopiers will eventually become obsolete as information workers increase their use of digital document creation, storage, and distribution and rely less on distributing actual pieces of paper, as of 2015, photocopiers continue to be widely used. During the 1980s, a convergence began in some high-end machines towards what came to be called a multi-function printer: a device that combined the roles of a photocopier, a fax machine, a scanner, and a computer network-connected printer. Low-end machines that can copy and print in color have increasingly dominated the home-office market as their prices fell steadily during the 1990s. High-end color photocopiers capable of heavy-duty handling cycles and large-format printing remain a costly option found primarily in print and design shops.


title: Photocopier

text: Chester Carlson, the inventor of photocopying, was originally a patent attorney, as well as a part-time researcher and inventor. His job at the patent office in New York required him to make a large number of copies of important papers. Carlson, who was arthritic, found this a painful and tedious process. This motivated him to conduct experiments with photoconductivity. Carlson used his kitchen for his "electrophotography" experiments, and, in 1938, he applied for a patent for the process. He made the first photocopy using a zinc plate covered with sulfur. The words "10-22-38 Astoria" were written on a microscope slide, which was placed on top of more sulfur and under a bright light. After the slide was removed, a mirror image of the words remained. Carlson tried to sell his invention to some companies but failed because the process was still underdeveloped. At the time, multiple copies were most commonly made at the point of document origination, using carbon paper or manual duplicating machines. People did not see the need for an electronic machine. Between 1939 and 1944, Carlson was turned down by over 20 companies, including IBM and General Electric—neither of which believed there was a significant market for copiers.


title: Photocopier

text: In 1944, the Battelle Memorial Institute, a non-profit organization in Columbus, Ohio, contracted with Carlson to refine his new process. Over the next five years, the institute conducted experiments to improve the process of electrophotography. In 1947, Haloid Corporation (a small New York-based manufacturer and seller of photographic paper) approached Battelle to obtain a license to develop and market a copying machine based on this technology.


title: Photocopier

text: Haloid felt that the word "electrophotography" was too complicated and did not have good recall value. After consulting a professor of classical language at Ohio State University, Haloid and Carlson changed the name of the process to "xerography," which was derived from Greek words that meant "dry writing." Haloid called the new copier machines "Xerox Machines" and, in 1948, the term "Xerox" was trademarked. Haloid eventually changed its name to Xerox Corporation.


title: Photocopier

text: In the early 1950s, Radio Corporation of America (RCA) introduced a variation on the process called Electrofax, whereby images are formed directly on specially coated paper and rendered with a toner dispersed in a liquid.


title: Photocopier

text: During the 1960s and through the 1980s, Savin Corporation developed and sold a line of liquid-toner copiers that implemented a technology based on patents held by the company.


title: Photocopier

text: Before the widespread adoption of xerographic copiers, photo-direct copies produced by machines such as Kodak's Verifax were used. A primary obstacle associated with the pre-xerographic copying technologies was the high cost of supplies: a Verifax print required supplies costing US$0.15 in 1969, while a Xerox print could be made for $0.03, including paper and labor. The coin-operated Photostat machines still found in some public libraries in the late 1960s made letter-size copies for $0.25 each, when the minimum wage for a US worker was $1.65 per hour; the Xerox machines that replaced them typically charged $0.10.


title: Photocopier

text: Xerographic copier manufacturers took advantage of the high perceived value of the 1960s and early 1970s and marketed "specially designed" paper for xerographic output. By the end of the 1970s, paper producers made xerographic "runability" one of the requirements for most of their office paper brands.


title: Photocopier

text: Some devices sold as photocopiers have replaced the drum-based process with inkjet or transfer film technology.


title: Photocopier

text: Colored toner became available in the 1950s, although full-color copiers were not commercially available until 3M released the "Color-in-Color" copier in 1968, which used a dye sublimation process rather than conventional electrostatic technology. The first electrostatic color copier was introduced by Xerox (the 6500) in 1973. Color photocopying is a concern to governments, as it facilitates counterfeiting currency and other documents: for more information, see Counterfeiting section.


title: Photocopier

text: There is an increasing trend for new photocopiers to implement digital technology, thereby replacing the older analog technology. With digital copying, the copier effectively consists of an integrated scanner and laser printer. This design has several advantages, such as automatic image quality enhancement and the ability to "build jobs" (that is, to scan page images independently of printing them). Some digital copiers can function as high-speed scanners; such models typically offer the ability to send documents via email or make them available on file servers.


title: Photocopier

text: A significant advantage of digital copier technology is "automatic digital collation." For example, when copying a set of 20 pages 20 times, a digital copier scans each page only once, then uses the stored information to produce 20 sets. In an analog copier, either each page is scanned 20 times (a total of 400 scans), making one set at a time, or 20 separate output trays are used for the 20 sets.


title: Photocopier

text: Low-end copiers also use digital technology, but tend to consist of a standard PC scanner coupled to an inkjet or low-end laser printer, which are far slower than their counterparts in high-end copiers. However, low-end scanner-inkjets can provide color copying at a lower upfront purchase price but a much higher cost per copy. Combined digital scanner printers sometimes have built-in fax machines and are known as multifunction printers.


title: Photocopier

text: A negative photocopy inverts the document's colors when creating a photocopy, resulting in letters that appear white on a black background instead of black on a white background. Negative photocopies of old or faded documents sometimes produce documents that have better focus and are easier to read and study.


title: Photocopier

text: Photocopying material that is subject to copyright (such as books or scientific papers) is subject to restrictions in most countries. This is common practice, as the cost of purchasing a book for the sake of one article or a few pages can be excessive. The principle of fair use (in the United States) or fair dealing (in other Berne Convention countries) allows copying for certain specified purposes.


title: Photocopier

text: In certain countries, such as Canada, some universities pay royalties from each photocopy made at university copy machines and copy centers to copyright collectives out of the revenues from the photocopying, and these collectives distribute resulting funds to various scholarly publishers. In the United States, photocopied compilations of articles, handouts, graphics, and other information called "readers" often require texts for college classes. Either the instructor or the copy center is responsible for clearing copyright for every article in the reader, and attribution information must be clearly included in the reader.


title: Photocopier

text: To counter the risk of people using color copiers to create counterfeit copies of paper currency, some countries have incorporated anti-counterfeiting technologies into their currency. These include watermarks, microprinting, holograms, tiny security strips made of plastic (or other material), and ink that appears to change color as the currency is viewed at an angle. Some photocopying machines contain special software that can prevent copying currency that has a special pattern.


title: Photocopier

text: Color copying also raises concerns regarding the copying and/or forging of other documents, such as driver's licenses and university degrees and transcripts. Some driver's licenses are made with embedded holograms so that a police officer can detect a fake copy. Some university and college transcripts have special anti-copying watermarks in the background. If a copy is made, the watermarks will become highly visible, which allows the recipient to determine that they have a copy rather than a genuine original transcript.


title: Photocopier

text: Exposure to ultraviolet light is a concern. In the early days of photocopiers, the sensitizing light source was filtered green to match the optimal sensitivity of the photoconductive surface. This filtering conveniently removed all ultraviolet. Currently, a variety of light sources are used. As glass transmits ultraviolet rays between 325 and 400 nanometers, copiers with ultraviolet-producing lights such as fluorescent, tungsten halogen, or xenon flash, expose documents to some ultraviolet.


title: Photocopier

text: Concerns about emissions from photocopy machines have been expressed by some in connection with the use of selenium and emissions of ozone and fumes from heated toner.


title: Photocopier

text: Similar to forensic identification of typewriters, computer printers and copiers can be traced by imperfections in their output. The mechanical tolerances of the toner and paper feed mechanisms cause banding, which can reveal information about the individual device's mechanical properties. It is often possible to identify the manufacturer and brand, and, in some cases, the individual printer can be identified from a set of known printers by comparing their outputs.


title: Photocopier

text: Some high-quality color printers and copiers steganographically embed their identification code into the printed pages, as fine and almost invisible patterns of yellow dots. Some sources identify Xerox and Canon as companies doing this. The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) has investigated this issue and documented how the Xerox DocuColor printer's serial number, as well as the date and time of the printout, are encoded in a repeating 8×15 dot pattern in the yellow channel. EFF is working to reverse engineer additional printers. The EFF also reports that the US government has asked these companies to implement such a tracking scheme, so that counterfeiting can be traced. The EFF has filed a Freedom of Information Act request in order to look into privacy implications of this tracking.


title: Photocopier

text: Photocopying, using liquid developer, was developed by Ken Metcalfe and Bob Wright of Defence Standards Laboratory in Adelaide in 1952.


title: Photocopier

text: "Images from 'wet photocopying' do not last as long as dry toner images, but this is not due to acidity."


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge (George William Frederick Charles; 26 March 1819 – 17 March 1904) was a member of the British royal family, a grandson of King George III and cousin of Queen Victoria. The Duke was an army officer by profession and served as Commander-in-Chief of the Forces (military head of the British Army) from 1856 to 1895. He became Duke of Cambridge in 1850 and field marshal in 1862. Deeply devoted to the old Army, he worked with Queen Victoria to defeat or minimise every reform proposal, such as setting up a general staff. His Army became a moribund and stagnant institution. Its weaknesses were dramatically revealed by the poor organisation at the start of the Second Boer War.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: Prince George was born at Cambridge House. His father was Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge, the seventh son of King George III and Queen Charlotte. His mother was the Duchess of Cambridge (née Princess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel).


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: He was baptised at Cambridge House (94 Piccadilly, London) on 11 May 1819, by the Reverend John Sanford, his father's Domestic Chaplain. His godparents were the Prince Regent (represented by the Duke of Clarence and St Andrews), the Duke of Clarence and St Andrews (represented by the 4th Earl of Mayo) and the Dowager Queen of Württemberg (represented by the Countess of Mayo).


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: Prince George of Cambridge was educated in Hanover and from 1830 in England by the Rev. J. R. Wood, a canon of Worcester Cathedral. Like his father, he embarked upon a military career, initially becoming a colonel in the Hanoverian Army and then, on 3 November 1837, becoming a brevet colonel in the British Army. He was attached to the staff at Gibraltar from October 1838 to April 1839. After serving in Ireland with the 12th Royal Lancers (Prince of Wales's), he was appointed substantive lieutenant-colonel of the 8th Light Dragoons on 15 April 1842 and colonel of the 17th Lancers on 25 April 1842.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: From 1843 to 1845 he served as a colonel on the staff in the Ionian islands, then was promoted Major-General on 7 May 1845. He succeeded to his father's titles of Duke of Cambridge, Earl of Tipperary, and Baron Culloden on 8 July 1850.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: The Duke of Cambridge became Inspector of the Cavalry in 1852. In February 1854, at an early stage in the Crimean War of 1853–1856, he received command of the 1st Division (Guards and Highland brigades) of the British army in the East. On 19 June 1854, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: He was present at the battles of the Alma (September 1854), Balaclava (October 1854) and Inkerman (November 1854), and at the siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855).


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: In December 1854, owing to illness, the Earl of Cardigan returned first to Malta and then to England: before the conclusion of the Crimean campaign he was back in London. Meanwhile, Lord Raglan died at 9.30 pm on 28 June 1855 from dysentery; General Simpson succeeded Raglan in commanding in the Crimea, followed by General Codrington. Field Marshal Viscount Hardinge, the serving "general commanding-in-chief" since 1852, was forced to resign in July 1856 on grounds of ill-health. (The Crimean War had ended in March 1856.)


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: On 5 July 1856, the Duke was appointed "general commanding-in-chief" of the British Army, a post that was re-titled "field marshal commanding-in-chief" on 9 November 1862 and commander-in-chief of the forces by Letters Patent on 20 November 1887. In that capacity he served as the chief military advisor to the Secretary of State for War, with responsibility for the administration of the army and the command of forces in the field. He was promoted to the rank of general on 15 July 1856 and to the rank of field marshal on 9 November 1862.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: The Duke of Cambridge served as commander-in-chief for 39 years. Early in his term he encouraged the army to trial various breech-loading carbines for the cavalry, one of which—the Westley-Richards—proved so effective that it was decided to investigate the possibility of producing a version for the infantry. In 1861, 100 were issued to five infantry battalions; in 1863 an order of 2,000 was placed for further trials. The Duke was also involved in the formation of the Staff College and of the Royal Military School of Music, and became governor of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich: he further sought to improve the efficiency of the army by advocating a scheme of annual military manoeuvres. In 1860 he introduced a new system to restrict corporal punishment: soldiers became eligible for flogging only in cases of aggravated mutinous conduct during wartime, unless they committed an offence serious enough to degrade to the second class and make them once again subject to corporal punishment. A year's good behaviour would return them to the first class, meaning that only a hard core of incorrigible offenders tended to be flogged.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: Under the Duke's command, the British Army became a moribund and stagnant institution. There were no new ideas. He allegedly rebuked one of his more intelligent subordinates with the words: "Brains? I don't believe in brains! You haven't any, I know, Sir!" He was equally forthright on his reluctance to adopt change: "There is a time for everything, and the time for change is when you can no longer help it."


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: In the wake of the Prussian victories in the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War, the Liberal Party government of Prime Minister William Gladstone and Secretary of State for War Edward Cardwell called for the Army to undergo major reforms. Cardwell succeeded in pushing through a number of reforms, including one that made the commander-in-chief nominally report to the secretary of state for war.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: The Duke opposed most of the reforms because they struck at the heart of his view of the Army. According to Theo Aronson, he "stoutly resisted almost every attempt at reform or modernization." He feared that the newly created force of reservists would be of little use in a colonial conflict, and that expeditionary forces would have to strip the most experienced men from the home-based battalions in order to fill the gaps in their ranks. His fears seemed to be confirmed in 1873, when Wolseley raided battalions for the expedition against the Ashanti. In 1881, when the historic numbers of regiments were abolished and facing colours standardised for English, Welsh, Scottish, and Irish regiments, the Duke protested that regimental spirit would be degraded; the majority of facing colours were restored by the time of World War I, although the numbers of regiments were not.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: The reforming impetus, however, continued. Parliament passed the War Office Act 1870, which formally subordinated the Commander-in-Chief of the Forces to the Secretary of State for War and in 1871 Cardwell abolished the custom of purchasing an office which had done much to instil elitism in the form of discipline and training. The Duke of Cambridge strongly resented this move, a sentiment shared by a majority of officers, who would no longer be able to sell their commissions when they retired.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: Pressures for reform built up as the Duke of Cambridge aged; his strongest ally was his cousin, Queen Victoria. While the Queen insisted on reform, she was also protective of the Household brigades and their long association and traditions. An 1890 royal commission led by Lord Hartington (later the 8th Duke of Devonshire) criticised the administration of the War Office and recommended the devolution of authority from the Commander-in-Chief to subordinate military officers. A number of reformers opposed to the Duke banded together, including Campbell-Bannerman and Lansdowne, the Liberal and Conservative Secretaries for War between 1892 and 1900. The leading generals eager to replace the Duke were Wolseley, Buller (1802–1884), Roberts (1832–1914), and the Duke of Connaught (1850–1942). The Duke of Cambridge was forced to resign his post on 1 November 1895, and was succeeded by Lord Wolseley. On his resignation he was given the title of honorary colonel-in-chief to the Forces.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: Historian Correlli Barnett blames British failures in the Second Boer War of 1899–1902 on the Duke, stressing the Army's "[l]ack of organization, ignorant and casual officers, inferior human material in the ranks" as well as "soldiers drilled to machine-like movements [versus the Boer] with a rifle working on his own initiative."


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: During the Duke's long career he helped to further the career progress of Douglas Haig, a talented and able young officer, who succeeded through Staff College to gain promotion. As Commander-in-Chief, the Duke was able to admit any candidate to the college so long as they passed three out of eight of the tests. Haig, who was also acquainted with Sir Evelyn Wood, left for India in 1893 knowing that the Duke had also made a friend of Henrietta Jameson (née Haig), his older sister. The Duke's nomination was made in 1894 and 1895, but Haig did not take up the place until 15 January 1896 under Army Regulations Order 72 (1896). The Duke, who was replaced by Lord Wolseley, after 32 years was not the only patron of preferment. The Staff College was not intended to educate a "General Staff" until much later in its historical development. However the traditional system of informal patronage was gradually giving way to more than gifted amateurs.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: On 22 November 1909 the reforms to which Haig, as Director of Staff Duties was a part, abolished the post of Commander-in-Chief which the Duke had made his own. In setting up the Army Council, with its head being called the Chief of the General Staff by Order in Council, the Liberal government separated the army from the monarchy.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: It is believed, according to Roger Fulford, that William IV, who had been his godfather when Duke of Clarence, had George brought up at Windsor in hope of an eventual marriage to his cousin Princess Victoria of Kent, who was two months younger. This prospective match was favoured by George's own parents, but was forestalled by Victoria's maternal uncle Leopold I of Belgium. He secured Victoria's betrothal to his nephew, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, which became formal after she succeeded to the British throne. In 1839 Queen Victoria wrote to Albert about George's father: "The Duke told Lord Melbourne he had always greatly desired our marriage, and never thought of George: but that "I" don't believe." George was one of a range of suitors considered by Victoria, the most prominent of whom, Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, was openly favoured by William.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: The Duke of Cambridge made no secret of his view that "arranged marriages were doomed to failure." He was married privately and in contravention of the 1772 Royal Marriages Act at St John Clerkenwell, London, on 8 January 1847 to Sarah Fairbrother (1816 – 12 January 1890), the daughter of John Fairbrother, a servant in Westminster. Sarah Fairbrother (whose stage name was Louisa) had been an actress since 1827, performing at Drury Lane, the Lyceum, and Covent Garden Theatre. As the marriage was contrary to the Royal Marriages Act, the Duke's wife was not titled Duchess of Cambridge or accorded the style "Her Royal Highness", nor was their son born after the marriage eligible to succeed to the Duke's titles. Indeed, Sarah's very existence was ignored by the Queen. Instead, Sarah called herself "Mrs. Fairbrother" and later "Mrs. FitzGeorge". The Duke was a very weak man where women were concerned, and it seems likely that he had been cajoled into marriage by Sarah (then pregnant for the fifth time), she herself obtaining the licence. Legend has created for the couple an ideal relationship that is far from the reality; the Duke having other affairs.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: From 1837 the Duke had known Louisa Beauclerk, third daughter of Sir George Wombwell, 2nd Baronet, whom he later described as "the idol of my life and my existence." He saw much of her in 1847, and she was his mistress from at least 1849 until her death in 1882. As early as 1849 he had decided that he would be buried near Beauclerk and it was solely on her account that Sarah Fairbrother and he were deposited in the mausoleum in Kensal Green Cemetery, west of the main chapel, about sixty feet away from Beauclerk's grave.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: The Duke of Cambridge served as colonel-in-chief of the 17th Lancers, Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers; The Middlesex Regiment (Duke of Cambridge's Own) and King's Royal Rifle Corps; colonel of the Grenadier Guards; honorary colonel of the 10th (Duke of Cambridge's Own) Bengal Lancers, 20th Duke of Cambridge's Own Punjabis, 4 Battalion Suffolk Regiment, 1st City of London Volunteer Brigade and the Scots Fusilier Guards. He became the ranger of Hyde Park and St. James's Park in 1852, and of Richmond Park in 1857; governor of the Royal Military Academy in 1862, and its president in 1870. He was the patron of the Oxford Military College from 1876 to 1896.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: Cambridge's strength and hearing began to fade in his later years. He was unable to ride at Queen Victoria's funeral and had to attend in a carriage. He paid his last visit to Germany in August 1903. He died of a haemorrhage of the stomach in 1904 at Gloucester House, Piccadilly, London. His remains were buried five days later next to those of his wife in Kensal Green Cemetery, London.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: The Duke is today commemorated by an equestrian statue standing on Whitehall in central London; it is positioned outside the front door of the War Office that he so strongly resisted. He is also commemorated by two street names in Kingston Vale and Norbiton, in southwest London, George Road and Cambridge Road; the Duke inherited much of the land in the area from his father in 1850.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: As the male-line grandson of a King of Hanover, Prince George of Cambridge also bore the titles of 'Prince of Hanover' and 'Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg'.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: His title, 'Duke of Cambridge', fell into extinction upon his death. It was not revived until 107 years later, when Elizabeth II (Prince George's great-great-niece through his sister Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge) awarded the title to her grandson, Prince William, on 29 April 2011, the day of his wedding.


title: Prince George, Duke of Cambridge

text: The Duke of Cambridge and Mrs. FitzGeorge had three sons, two of whom were born before their marriage in contravention to the Royal Marriages Act 1772,


title: Dash Snow

text: Dashiell A. Snow (July 27, 1981 – July 13, 2009) was an American artist based in New York City. Snow's photographs included scenes of sex, drugs, violence, and art-world pretense; his work often depicted the decadent lifestyle of young New York City artists and their social circle.


title: Dash Snow

text: Dashiell A. Snow was born July 27, 1981 to Taya Thurman and Christopher Snow. He grew up on the Upper West Side in New York City. Snow and his siblings, Maxwell and Caroline, are descendants of the de Menil family, who are known for their philanthropy and collection of American art.


title: Dash Snow

text: At thirteen, he was admitted to Hidden Lake Academy, a residential treatment center specializing in the treatment of children with oppositional defiant disorder.


title: Dash Snow

text: As a teenager, Snow began taking photographs to document the places he might not remember the next day. In the 1990s, he was a member of the IRAK graffiti crew; the name of the group was meant to reference the Iraqi war that took place early in that decade. In order to sign his work, Snow used the tag "SACE" or "SACER".


title: Dash Snow

text: In 2006, "The Wall Street Journal" profiled Snow and nine other emerging American artists, including Rosson Crow, Ryan Trecartin, Zane Lewis, Barney Kulok, Jordan Wolfson, and Keegan McHargue. The same year he was included in the Whitney Biennial.


title: Dash Snow

text: In 2007, Snow and Dan Colen co-created an installation of shredded phone books in Jeffrey Deitch's SoHo gallery; the exhibit was named “Nest” or “Hamster Nest”.


title: Dash Snow

text: In his later collage-based work, Snow used his semen as a material applied to or splashed across newspaper photographs of police officers and/or other authority figures.


title: Dash Snow

text: Snow's parents were Christopher Snow and Taya Thurman. His maternal grandparents were Buddhist scholar Robert Thurman, the father of actress Uma Thurman, and artist Marie-Christophe de Menil. He was the great-grandson of John de Menil and Dominique de Menil, the founders of the Menil Collection and Museum located in Houston, Texas.


title: Dash Snow

text: In July 2007, his partner, Jade Berreau, gave birth to the couple's daughter, Secret Midnight Magic Nico.


title: Dash Snow

text: In 2016, his family sued McDonald's after they refused to remove the tag "SACE" from the graffiti-themed interior design used in some European and Asian restaurants; the case was later dismissed.


title: Dash Snow

text: A documentary film about the life of Dashiell Snow, "Moments Like This Never Last", was released in 2020.


title: Bestseller (company)

text: Bestseller A/S is a privately held family-owned clothing and accessories company founded in Denmark in 1975. The company provides affordable fashion for women, men and children. They market their products in 70 markets across most of Europe, the Middle East, Canada, India and globally via E-commerce. They operate almost 9,000 shops worldwide, 6,000 in China and the rest mainly in Europe.


title: Bestseller (company)

text: The company was founded in 1975 by Troels Holch Povlsen in Brande, Denmark. Originally its focus was on women's fashion. It introduced children's clothing in 1986 and menswear in 1988. Bestseller is family-owned and the company employs around 17,000 people.


title: Bestseller (company)

text: Bestseller has a number of different brands under which it sells its clothing. The brands are listed below and are sold both in the company's own stores and through independent retailers.


title: Bestseller (company)

text: Bestseller has shops in most European countries, the Middle East, India, China, Uruguay, and Canada (over 45 countries in total). Bestseller is one of the biggest European fashion companies in China with more than 1,200 shops and is said to be "one of the only foreign clothing companies successful at penetrating the middle price range Chinese consumer market". Shops sell either clothing of one single brand or of all brands of the company. There are more than 800 shops selling Vero Moda around the globe. The Jack & Jones brand is sold in approximately 2,000 retail shops, of which 270 are Jack & Jones franchises.


title: Bestseller (company)

text: Bestseller, via its parent holding company Heartland, is the largest shareholder at 29.5% of British e-commerce firm ASOS.com, and owns 10% of German retailer Zalando. In July 2018, Heartland invested $300m in German fashion startup About You.


title: Bestseller (company)

text: In November 2012, Bestseller bought 10% of SmartGuy Group, when they became quoted on the Danish stock exchange Nasdaq OMX.


title: Bestseller (company)

text: Bestseller Tower was a planned high-rise building in Brande, a rural town in Denmark. The proposed 320-metre (1,050 ft) skyscraper would house the headquarters of fashion company Bestseller and was announced in 2017 with a design by Dorte Mandrup. The tower was scheduled to be completed in 2023 and would have been the tallest building in Western Europe. In 2020 the project was shelved by the company.


title: Roy Acuff

text: Roy Claxton Acuff (September 15, 1903 – November 23, 1992) was an American country music singer, fiddler, and promoter. Known as the "King of Country Music", Acuff is often credited with moving the genre from its early string band and "hoedown" format to the singer-based format that helped make it internationally successful. In 1952, Hank Williams told Ralph Gleason, "He's the biggest singer this music ever knew. You booked him and you didn't worry about crowds. For drawing power in the South, it was Roy Acuff, then God."


title: Roy Acuff

text: Acuff began his music career in the 1930s and gained regional fame as the singer and fiddler for his group, the Smoky Mountain Boys. He joined the Grand Ole Opry in 1938, and although his popularity as a musician waned in the late 1940s, he remained one of the Opry's key figures and promoters for nearly four decades. In 1942, Acuff and Fred Rose founded Acuff-Rose Music, the first major Nashville-based country music publishing company, which signed such artists as Hank Williams, Roy Orbison, and the Everly Brothers. In 1962, Acuff became the first living inductee into the Country Music Hall of Fame.


title: Roy Acuff

text: Acuff was born on September 15, 1903 in Maynardville, Tennessee, to Ida Florence (née Carr) and Simon E. Neill Acuff, the third of their five children. Acuff is of Scottish ancestry, and his ancestors came to North America during the colonial era, settling in the mountains of Virginia and the Carolinas. The Acuffs were a fairly prominent family in Union County. Roy's paternal grandfather, Coram Acuff, had been a Tennessee state senator, and his maternal grandfather was a local physician. Roy's father was an accomplished fiddler and a Baptist preacher, his mother was proficient on the piano, and during Roy's early years the Acuff house was a popular place for local gatherings. At such gatherings, Roy would often amuse people by balancing farm tools on his chin. He also learned to play the harmonica and jaw harp at an early age.


title: Roy Acuff

text: In 1919, the Acuff family relocated to Fountain City (now a suburb of Knoxville), a few miles south of Maynardville. Roy attended Central High School, where he sang in the school chapel's choir and performed in "every play they had." His primary passion, however, was athletics. He was a three-sport standout at Central, and after graduating in 1925, was offered a scholarship to Carson-Newman University, but turned it down. He played with several small baseball clubs around Knoxville, worked at odd jobs, and occasionally boxed.


title: Roy Acuff

text: In 1929, Acuff tried out for the Knoxville Smokies, a minor-league baseball team then affiliated with the New York Giants. A series of collapses in spring training following a sunstroke, however, ended his baseball career. The effects left him ill for several years, and he suffered a nervous breakdown in 1930. "I couldn't stand any sunshine at all," he later recalled. While recovering, Acuff began to hone his fiddle skills, often playing on the family's front porch after the sun went down. His father gave him several records of regionally renowned fiddlers, such as Fiddlin' John Carson and Gid Tanner, which were important influences on his early style.


title: Roy Acuff

text: In 1932, Dr. Hauer's medicine show, which toured the southern Appalachian region, hired Acuff as one of its entertainers. Acuff began his career as a blackface performer. The purpose of the entertainers was to draw a large crowd to whom Hauer could sell patent medicines (of suspect quality) for various ailments. While on the medicine show circuit, Acuff met the legendary Appalachian banjoist Clarence Ashley, from whom he learned "The House of the Rising Sun" and "Greenback Dollar", both of which Acuff later recorded. As the medicine show lacked microphones, Acuff learned to sing loud enough to be heard above the din, a skill that later helped him stand out on early radio broadcasts.


title: Roy Acuff

text: In 1934, Acuff left the medicine show circuit and began playing at local shows with various musicians in the Knoxville area, where he had become a celebrity and fixture in local newspaper columns. That year, guitarist Jess Easterday and Hawaiian guitarist Clell Summey joined Acuff to form the Tennessee Crackerjacks, who performed regularly on the Knoxville radio stations WROL and WNOX (the band moved back and forth between stations as Acuff bickered with their managers about compensation). Within a year, the group had added bassist Red Jones and changed its name to the Crazy Tennesseans after being introduced as such by a WROL announcer named Alan Stout. Fans often remarked to Acuff how "clear" his voice was coming through over the radio, important in an era when singers were often drowned out by string-band cacophony. The popularity of Acuff's rendering of the song "The Great Speckled Bird" helped the group land a contract with American Record Corporation, (ARC) for which they recorded several dozen tracks (including the band's best-known track, "Wabash Cannonball") in 1936. Needing to complete a 20-song commitment, the band recorded two ribald tunes—including "When Lulu's Gone"—but released them under a pseudonym, the Bang Boys. The group split from ARC in 1937 over a separate contract dispute.


title: Roy Acuff

text: In 1938, the Crazy Tennesseans moved to Nashville to audition for the Grand Ole Opry. Although their first audition went poorly, the band's second audition impressed Opry founder George D. Hay and producer Harry Stone, and they offered the group a contract later that year. On Hay and Stone's suggestion, Acuff changed the group's name to the Smoky Mountain Boys, referring to the mountains near where his bandmates and he grew up. Shortly after the band joined the Opry, Clell Summey left the group and was replaced by dobro player Beecher (Pete) Kirby—best known by his stage name Bashful Brother Oswald—whom Acuff had met in a Knoxville bakery earlier that year. Acuff's powerful lead vocals and Kirby's dobro playing and high-pitched backing vocals gave the band its distinctive sound. By 1939, Jess Easterday had switched to bass to replace Red Jones, and Acuff had added guitarist Lonnie "Pap" Wilson and banjoist Rachel Veach to fill out the band's lineup. Within a year, Roy Acuff and the Smoky Mountain Boys rivaled long-time Opry banjoist Uncle Dave Macon as the troupe's most popular act.


title: Roy Acuff

text: In spring 1940, Acuff and his band traveled to Hollywood, where they appeared with Hay and Macon in the motion picture "Grand Ole Opry". Acuff appeared in several subsequent B movies, including "O, My Darling Clementine" (1943), in which he played a singing sheriff; "Night Train to Memphis" (1946), the title of which comes from a song Acuff recorded in 1940; and "Home in San Antone" (1949), in which he starred with Lloyd Corrigan and William Frawley.


title: Roy Acuff

text: Acuff and his band also joined Macon and other Opry acts at various tent shows held throughout the Southeast in the early 1940s. The crowds at these shows were so large that roads leading into the venues were jammed with traffic for miles. Starting in 1939, Acuff hosted the Opry's "Prince Albert" segment. He left the show in 1946 after a dispute with management.


title: Roy Acuff

text: In 1942, Acuff and songwriter Fred Rose (1897–1954) formed Acuff-Rose Music. Acuff originally sought the company to publish his own music, but soon realized that demand from other country artists existed, many of whom had been exploited by larger publishing firms. Due in large part to Rose's ASCAP connections and gifted ability as a talent scout, Acuff-Rose quickly became the most important publishing company in country music. In 1946, the company signed Hank Williams, and in 1950, published their first major hit, Patti Page's rendition of "Tennessee Waltz".


title: Roy Acuff

text: In 1943, Acuff was initiated into the East Nashville Freemasonic Lodge in Tennessee, of which he would remain a lifelong member. Later that same year, Acuff invited Tennessee Governor Prentice Cooper to be the guest of honor at a gala held to mark the nationwide premiere of the Opry's "Prince Albert" show. Cooper rejected the offer, however, and lambasted Acuff and his "disgraceful" music for making Tennessee the "hillbilly capital of the United States." A Nashville journalist reported the governor's comments to Acuff and suggested Acuff run for governor himself. While Acuff initially did not take the suggestion seriously, he did accept the Republican Party nomination for governor in 1948.


title: Roy Acuff

text: Acuff's nomination caused great concern for E. H. Crump, the head of a Memphis Democratic Party political machine that had dominated Tennessee state politics for nearly a quarter-century. Crump was not worried so much about losing the governor's office—in spite of Acuff's name recognition—but did worry that Acuff would draw large crowds to Republican rallies and bolster other statewide candidates. While Acuff did relatively well and helped reinvigorate Tennessee's Republicans, his opponent, Gordon Browning, still won with 67% of the vote.


title: Roy Acuff

text: After leaving the Opry, Acuff spent several years touring the Western United States, although demand for his appearances dwindled with the lack of national exposure and the rise of musicians such as Ernest Tubb and Eddy Arnold, who were more popular with younger audiences. He eventually returned to the Opry, although by the 1960s, his record sales had dropped off considerably. After nearly losing his life in an automobile accident outside of Sparta, Tennessee, in 1965, Acuff pondered retiring, making only token appearances on the Opry stage and similar shows, and occasionally performing duos with long-time bandmate Bashful Brother Oswald.


title: Roy Acuff

text: In 1972, Acuff's career received a brief resurgence in the folk-revival movement after he appeared on the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band album, "Will the Circle Be Unbroken". The appearance paved the way for one of the defining moments of Acuff's career, which came on the night of March 16, 1974, when the Opry officially moved from the Ryman Auditorium to the Grand Ole Opry House at Opryland. The first show at the new venue opened with a huge projection of a late-1930s image of Roy Acuff and the Smoky Mountain Boys onto a large screen above the stage. A recording from one of the band's 1939 appearances was played over the sound system, with the iconic voice of George Hay introducing the band, followed by the band's performance of "Wabash Cannonball". That same night, Acuff showed President Richard Nixon, an honored guest at the event, how to yo-yo, and convinced the president to play several songs on the piano.


title: Roy Acuff

text: In the early 1980s, after the death of his wife, Mildred, Acuff, then in his 80s, moved into a small house on the Opryland grounds and continued performing daily on stage. He arrived early most days at the Opry before the shows and performed odd jobs, such as stocking soda in backstage refrigerators. He made a cameo appearance in the music video for Moe Bandy and Joe Stampley's 1984 parody hit song "Where's The Dress?" In 1988, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 1991, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts, and given a lifetime achievement award by the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, the first country music act to receive the esteemed honor.


title: Roy Acuff

text: Roy Acuff died at the Baptist Hospital in Nashville on November 23, 1992, of congestive heart failure at the age of 89. He is buried in the Hillcrest section (grave 6, lot 9) of Spring Hill Cemetery on Gallatin Road in Nashville.


title: Roy Acuff

text: Many of Acuff's songs show a strong Christian influence, most notably "Great Speckled Bird", "The Prodigal Son", and "Lord, Build Me a Cabin". Such songs were typically set to a traditional Anglo-Celtic melody, which is most apparent on "Great Speckled Bird" and the 1940 recording "The Precious Jewel". Acuff performed popular songs of the day, including Pee Wee King's "Tennessee Waltz" and Dorsey Dixon's "I Didn't Hear Nobody Pray", the latter of which he appropriated and renamed "Wreck on the Highway". He also recorded a version of the Cajun fiddler Harry Choates's "Jole Blon". Traditional recordings included "Greenback Dollar", which he probably learned from Clarence Ashley while on the medicine-show circuit, and "Lonesome Old River Blues", which he recorded with the Smoky Mountain Boys in the 1940s. Acuff and the Crazy Tennesseans recorded "Wabash Cannonball"—another traditional song—in 1936, although Acuff did not provide the vocals on this early recording. The better-known version of the song with Acuff providing the vocals was recorded in 1947.


title: Roy Acuff

text: In 1979, Opryland opened the Roy Acuff Theatre, which was dedicated in Acuff's honor (it was demolished in 2011 after suffering extensive damage in the 2010 Tennessee floods). Dunbar Cave State Natural Area was established in 1973 from a recreational area the state had purchased from Mrs. McKay King. The cave was owned by Acuff from 1948 to 1963. Two museums have been named in Acuff's honor—the Roy Acuff Museum at Opryland (now closed) and the Roy Acuff Union Museum and Library in his hometown of Maynardville. Acuff has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 1541 Vine Street. He is pictured with other country singers at the new Smoky Mountain Opera in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee.


title: Chicken paprikash

text: Chicken paprikash ( or "csirkepaprikás") or paprika chicken is a popular dish of Hungarian origin and one of the most famous variations on the "paprikás" preparations common to Hungarian tables. The name is derived from the ample use of paprika, a spice commonly used in Hungarian cuisine. The meat is typically simmered for an extended period in a sauce that begins with a paprika-infused roux.


title: Chicken paprikash

text: The "édes nemes" (sweet paprika) is the preferred kind of paprika; it adds a rosy color as well as flavor. Sometimes olive oil and sweet red or yellow peppers, and a small amount of tomato paste are used. The dish bears a "family resemblance" to goulash, another paprika dish.


title: Chicken paprikash

text: The dish is traditionally served with "dumpling-like boiled egg noodles" (nokedli), a broad noodle similar to the German spätzle. Other side dishes that it may be served with include tagliatelle (boiled ribbon noodles), rice, or millet.


title: Chicken paprikash

text: Food columnist Iles Brody's recipe called for chicken, onions, butter or lard, sweet paprika, green peppers, tomatoes, clove garlic, flour, and sour cream. Other recipes are similar. While quartered chicken parts are more traditional, modern interpretations of the recipe may call for boneless, skinless chicken thighs.


title: Chicken paprikash

text: A version of paprikash (паприкаш) exists in Bulgarian cuisine; however, it includes smaller amounts of paprika being added to the sautéed onion at the beginning of the cooking and then adding cubed, usually green, sweet peppers. The dish is centered on the latter.


title: Chicken paprikash

text: Chicken paprikash was adopted as a Sabbath dish by the Jews of Hungary and Czechoslovakia and remains popular today amongst Ashkenazim. Tomatoes are often included, and in Romania the dish was traditionally served with mămăligă. When cooked by Jews, chicken paprikash typically does not include any dairy products, due to the Jewish prohibition against mixing meat and dairy.


title: All You Zombies

text: "'—All You Zombies—'" is a science fiction short story by American writer Robert A. Heinlein. It was written in one day, July 11, 1958, and first published in the March 1959 issue of "Fantasy and Science Fiction" magazine after being rejected by "Playboy".


title: All You Zombies

text: The story involves a number of paradoxes caused by time travel. In 1980, it was nominated for the Balrog Award for short fiction.


title: All You Zombies

text: —All You Zombies— further develops themes explored by the author in a previous work: "By His Bootstraps", published some 18 years earlier. Some of the same elements also appear later in "The Cat Who Walks Through Walls" (1985), including the Circle of Ouroboros and the Temporal Corps.


title: All You Zombies

text: The unusual title of the story, which includes both the quotation marks and dashes shown above, is a quotation from a sentence near the end of the story; the quotation is taken from the middle of the sentence, hence the dashes indicating elided text before and after the title.


title: All You Zombies

text: —All You Zombies— chronicles a young man (later revealed to be intersex) taken back in time and tricked into impregnating his younger, female self (before he underwent sexual reassignment surgery); he turns out to be the offspring of that union, with the paradoxical result that he is his own mother and father. As the story unfolds, all the major characters are revealed to be the same person, at different stages of their life.


title: All You Zombies

text: The story involves an intricate series of time-travel journeys (see diagram). It begins with a young man speaking to the narrator, the Bartender, in 1970. The two of them relate in that both of them are from unmarried parents. The Bartender remarks that no one in his family ever gets married, including him. He wears an Ouroboros ring. The young man is called the Unmarried Mother, because he writes stories for confession magazines, many of them presumably from the point of view of an unmarried mother.


title: All You Zombies

text: Cajoled by the Bartender, the Unmarried Mother explains why he understands the female viewpoint so well: he was born a girl, in 1945, and raised in an orphanage. While a fairly ugly teenager in 1963, she was seduced, impregnated, and abandoned by an older man. During the delivery of her child, doctors discovered she was intersex, with internalized male sex organs as well as female sex organs. Complications during delivery, by Caesarean section, rendered the female organs unviable and the physicians gave her a gender reassignment. The baby was kidnapped by a mysterious older gentleman, and not seen again. The Unmarried Mother then had to adjust to life as a man, despite an upbringing that left him unqualified for "men's" jobs; he had planned to get into space as a sex worker for male workers and colonists. Instead, he used his secretarial skills to type manuscripts and eventually began writing.


title: All You Zombies

text: Professing sympathy, the Bartender offers to take him to the abandoning seducer, whom the Unmarried Mother wishes revenge on. The Bartender guides him into a back room, where he (Bartender) uses a time machine to take them to 1963, and sets the young man loose. The Bartender goes forward eleven months, kidnaps a one-month-old baby, and takes her to 1945, leaving her at an orphanage. He returns to 1963 one month later and picks up the Unmarried Mother, who was instinctively attracted to his younger female self and has seduced and impregnated her. The Bartender nudges him to connect the dots and realize that the seducer, the young woman, the baby, and the time traveler are all "him".


title: All You Zombies

text: The Bartender then drops the Unmarried Mother in 1985 at an outpost of the Temporal Bureau, a time-traveling secret police force that manipulates events in history, to protect the human race. He has just created and recruited himself.


title: All You Zombies

text: Finally, the Bartender returns to 1970, arriving a short time after he left the bar. He allows a customer to play "I'm My Own Grandpa" on the jukebox, having yelled at the customer for playing the song before he left. Closing the bar, he time travels again to his home base in 1993. As he beds down for a much-deserved rest, he contemplates the scar left over from the Caesarean section performed when he gave birth to his daughter, father, mother, and entire history. He thinks, "I "know" where "I" came from—but "where did all you zombies come from?"


title: All You Zombies

text: As the story is told as a disjointed point of view reference by several other points thereafter, this is the actual chronological history of "Jane" according to the story, although the story itself is still a classic example of a time paradox.


title: All You Zombies

text: Philosopher David Lewis considered " '—All You Zombies—' " and "By His Bootstraps" to be examples of "perfectly consistent" time travel stories. Stating that it and other Heinlein time-travel stories "force the reader into contemplations of the nature of causality and the arrow of time", Carl Sagan listed "All You Zombies" as an example of how science fiction "can convey bits and pieces, hints and phrases, of knowledge unknown or inaccessible to the reader".


title: All You Zombies

text: The Spierig brothers directed the Australian science fiction film "Predestination" (2014) based on the story. The film starred Ethan Hawke and Sarah Snook.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: Nathaniel Edwin Clyne (born 5 April 1991) is an English professional footballer who plays as a right-back for Premier League club Crystal Palace.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: Clyne began his career at Crystal Palace, playing regularly in four Championship seasons, before a move to Southampton in 2012, where he spent three seasons in the Premier League and racked up 104 matches and scored five goals in all competitions. He joined Liverpool in July 2015 for a fee of £12.5 million. After having amassed 103 appearances and two goals, he left Liverpool in July 2020 as a free agent. Clyne re-joined former club Crystal Palace in October 2020.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: Formerly an international at under-19 and under-21 level, Clyne made his senior international debut for England in November 2014. He was selected for Euro 2016 and made a total of 14 appearances for his country.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: Clyne was born in Stockwell, Greater London. He made his first-team debut for Crystal Palace in a 3–0 Championship win against Barnsley at Selhurst Park on 18 October 2008. He signed a three-year professional contract with the club two days later, with manager Neil Warnock stating that Clyne "has a bright future in the game". His first career goal came on 8 December 2009, when he opened the scoring in a 4–2 win at Reading in the seventh minute. In February 2010 he was offered a move to Premier League club Wolverhampton Wanderers, but rejected it without even entering talks with manager Mick McCarthy.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: In the 2010–11 season, Clyne was the youngest player in the Football League to play every single match of that campaign, and won Crystal Palace's Player of the Year award.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: On 19 July 2012, Clyne signed a four-year deal with newly promoted Premier League club Southampton. He made his debut on 19 August, in a 3–2 defeat against Manchester City at the City of Manchester Stadium. His first match at St Mary's came six days later in a 0–2 defeat by Wigan Athletic. He scored his first goal for the club on 22 September, in a 4–1 win at home against Aston Villa, set up by Gastón Ramírez with England under-21 coach Stuart Pearce in attendance at St Mary's. His second goal for the club came in the FA Cup third round against Burnley on 4 January 2014, opening an eventual 4–3 home victory with a 25-yard strike past Tom Heaton.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: Clyne scored in Southampton's first match of the 2014–15 season, a 2–1 defeat against Liverpool at Anfield on 17 August. He scored his second goal of the campaign on 23 September, with a long-range effort which gave Southampton a 2–1 victory at Arsenal in the League Cup third round. On 24 November, he finished Ryan Bertrand's 81st-minute cross to earn a 1–1 draw away to Aston Villa.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: On 1 July 2015, Liverpool confirmed the signing of Clyne from Southampton for £12.5 million on a five-year contract, with his former club, Crystal Palace receiving a payment of £2.5M. Clyne made his debut in a Liverpool shirt against the True Thai Premier League All Stars in Bangkok on 14 July as part of the club's pre-season tour. He made his competitive debut on 9 August in a 1–0 away win against Stoke City in the first match of the 2015–16 Premier League season. On 28 October, Clyne scored his first Liverpool goal in a 1–0 League Cup fourth round victory over AFC Bournemouth; the team's first win under Jürgen Klopp. His first league goal came on 14 February 2016, in a 6–0 win away to Aston Villa.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: In March 2016, in Liverpool's first European matches against rivals Manchester United, Clyne won a penalty that Daniel Sturridge converted in the first leg, and conceded a penalty scored by Anthony Martial in the second, as Liverpool won 3–1 on aggregate in the last 16 of the UEFA Europa League. On 18 May, he played the full 90 minutes in the final, a 3–1 loss to Sevilla in Basel.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: Prior to the 2017–18 season, Clyne suffered a back injury expected to rule him out until February 2018. On 31 March 2018, having missed the entire campaign up to this point, he made his first appearance on the team sheet as an unused substitute in Liverpool's 2–1 league victory away to former club Crystal Palace. A week later on 7 April, he made his return, keeping a clean sheet in a 0–0 draw against Everton in a Merseyside derby.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: Clyne joined fellow Premier League club Bournemouth on 4 January 2019 on loan for the remainder of the 2018–19 season. He made his debut the next day in a 3–1 FA Cup third round defeat at home to Brighton & Hove Albion.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: On 20 July 2019, Clyne sustained an anterior cruciate ligament injury in a pre-season friendly against Borussia Dortmund. On 25 June 2020, after having made no appearances during the 2019–20 season due to continuing injury problems, Liverpool confirmed that his contract would not be renewed and Clyne would leave the club.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: After leaving Liverpool, Clyne trained with Crystal Palace in an attempt to regain fitness and was registered as a triallist in order to make appearances for the under-23 team. On 14 October 2020, he joined the club on a short-term contract. He made his debut ten days later in a 2–1 win at Fulham. On 25 January 2021, Clyne signed a contract extension to remain at the club until the end of the 2020–21 season.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: On 6 August 2021, Clyne signed a new one-year contract with Crystal Palace and in June 2022, he signed a further contract extension keeping him at the club until 2023.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: On 2 October 2014, Clyne was named in the England squad for the UEFA Euro 2016 qualifiers against San Marino and Estonia later that month. He was an unused substitute in both matches. Clyne said "My aim, now, is to try to make myself first choice for Euro 2016. That's what I'm going to keep pushing for." On 15 November, he made his full international debut in a home qualifier against Slovenia, playing the full 90 minutes of a 3–1 victory. Clyne went on to establish himself as first-choice right-back for England, appearing in five of their last six qualifiers.


title: Nathaniel Clyne

text: Clyne has many tattoos, including of London landmarks. These include the Houses of Parliament, the London Eye and Stockwell tube station, the nearest to his childhood home.


title: Cracker (food)

text: A cracker is a flat, dry baked food typically made with flour. Flavorings or seasonings, such as salt, herbs, seeds, or cheese, may be added to the dough or sprinkled on top before baking. Crackers are often branded as a nutritious and convenient way to consume a staple food or cereal grain.


title: Cracker (food)

text: Crackers can be eaten on their own, but can also accompany other food items such as cheese or meat slices, fruits, dips, or soft spreads such as jam, butter, peanut butter, pâté, or mousse. Bland or mild crackers are sometimes used as a palate cleanser in food product testing or flavor testing, between samples. Crackers may also be crumbled and added to soup. The modern cracker is somewhat similar to nautical ship's biscuits, military hardtack, chacknels, and sacramental bread. Other early versions of the cracker can be found in ancient flatbreads, such as lavash, pita, matzo, flatbrød, and crisp bread. Asian analogues include papadum and senbei.


title: Cracker (food)

text: The characteristic holes found in many crackers are called "docking" holes. The holes are poked in the dough to stop overly large air pockets from forming in the cracker while baking.


title: Cracker (food)

text: In American English, the name "cracker" usually refers to savory or salty flat biscuits, whereas the term "cookie" is used for sweet items. Crackers are also generally made differently: crackers are made by layering dough, while cookies, besides the addition of sugar, usually use a chemical leavening agent, may contain eggs, and in other ways are made more like a cake. In British English, crackers are sometimes called water biscuits, or savory biscuits.


title: Cracker (food)

text: Crackers come in many shapes and sizes, such as round, rectangular, triangular, or irregular. Crackers sometimes have cheese or spices as ingredients, or even chicken stock, such as In a Biskit, which is sold internationally with various flavors.


title: Cracker (food)

text: Saltines and oyster crackers are often used in or served with soup. Similar crackers include cream crackers and water biscuits.


title: Cracker (food)

text: Cheese crackers are prepared using cheese as a main ingredient. Commercial examples include Cheez-It, Cheese Nips and Goldfish.


title: Cracker (food)

text: Graham crackers and digestive biscuits are also treated more like cookies than crackers, although they were both invented for their supposed health benefits, and graham crackers are sweet.


title: Cracker (food)

text: Cracker brands include Bremner Wafers, Captain's Wafers, Cheese Nips, Club Crackers, Goldfish crackers, In a Biskit, Jacob's, Ritz Crackers, Town House crackers, Triscuit, TUC, and Wheat Thins, among others.


title: The Haçienda

text: The Haçienda was a nightclub and music venue in Manchester, North West England, which became famous during the Manchester years of the 1980s and early 1990s. It was run by the record label Factory Records.


title: The Haçienda

text: The club opened in 1982, eventually fostering the Manchester acid house and rave scene in the late 1980s. The early success of Factory band New Order, particularly with their 1983 dance hit "Blue Monday", helped to subsidise the club even as it lost considerable amounts of money (in part due to clubbers' embrace of the street drug ecstasy, which drove down traditional alcohol sales).


title: The Haçienda

text: The club's subculture was noted by the Chief Constables of Merseyside & Greater Manchester as reducing football hooliganism. Crime and financial troubles plagued its later years, and it finally closed in 1997. It was subsequently demolished and replaced by apartments.


title: The Haçienda

text: The former warehouse occupied by the club was at 11–13, Whitworth Street West on the south side of the Rochdale Canal: the frontage was curved and built of red Accrington brick. Before it was turned into a club, The Haçienda was a yacht builder's shop and warehouse.


title: The Haçienda

text: Originally conceived by Rob Gretton, it was largely financed by the record label Factory Records and the band New Order along with label boss Tony Wilson. It was on the corner of Whitworth Street West and Albion Street, close to Castlefield, on the edge of the city centre. FAC 51 was its official designation in the Factory catalogue. New Order, Tony Wilson and Howard (Ginger) Jones were directors of the club.


title: The Haçienda

text: Designed by Ben Kelly, upon recommendation by Factory graphic designer Peter Saville, upstairs consisted of a stage, dance area, bar, cloakroom, cafeteria area and balcony with a DJ booth. Downstairs was a cocktail bar called The Gay Traitor, which referred to Anthony Blunt, a British art historian who spied for the Soviet Union. The two other bars, The Kim Philby and Hicks, were named after Blunt's fellow spies. From 1995 onwards, the lower cellar areas of the venue were converted to create the 5th Man, a smaller music venue.


title: The Haçienda

text: The Sound & Lighting design & installation for the Hacienda was done by Martin Disney Associates and later by Eddie Akka from Akwil Ltd.


title: The Haçienda

text: The name comes from a slogan of the radical group Situationist International: "The Hacienda Must Be Built", from "Formulary for a New Urbanism" by Ivan Chtcheglov. A "hacienda" is a large homestead in a ranch or estate usually in places where Colonial Spanish culture has had architectural influence. Even though the cedilla is not used in Spanish, the spelling "Haçienda" was decided on for the club because the cedilla makes the "çi" resemble "51", the club's catalogue number.


title: The Haçienda

text: The Haçienda was opened on 21 May 1982, when the comedian Bernard Manning remarked to the audience, "I've played some shit-holes during my time, but this is really something." His jokes did not go down well with the crowd and he returned his fee.


title: The Haçienda

text: A wide range of musical acts appeared at the club. One of the earliest was the German EBM band Liaisons Dangereuses, which played there on 7 July 1982. The Smiths performed there three times in 1983. It served as a venue for Madonna on her first performance in the United Kingdom, where the renowned music photographer Kevin Cummins took photos of the evening on 27 January 1984. She was invited to appear as part of a one-off, live television broadcast by Channel 4 music programme "The Tube "with then-resident Haçienda DJ Greg Wilson live mixing on the show"." Madonna performed "Holiday" whilst at The Haçienda and the performance was described by Norman Cook (better known as Fatboy Slim) as one that "mesmerised the crowd".


title: The Haçienda

text: At one time, the venue also included a hairdressing salon. As well as club nights there were regular concerts, including one in which Einstürzende Neubauten drilled into the walls that surrounded the stage. The venue was instrumental in the careers of Happy Mondays, Oasis, The Stone Roses, 808 State, Chemical Brothers and Sub Sub.


title: The Haçienda

text: In 1986, it became one of the first British clubs to start playing house music, with DJs Hewan Clarke, Greg Wilson and later Mike Pickering (of Quando Quango and M People) and Little Martin (later with Graeme Park) hosting the visionary "Nude" night on Fridays. This night quickly became legendary, and helped to turn around the reputation and fortunes of The Haçienda, which went from making a consistent loss to being full every night of the week by early 1987.


title: The Haçienda

text: The growth of the 'Madchester' scene had little to do with the healthy house music scene in Manchester at the time but it was boosted by the success of The Haçienda's pioneering Ibiza night, "Hot", an acid house night hosted by Pickering and Jon DaSilva in July 1988.


title: The Haçienda

text: However, drug use became a problem. On 14 July 1989, the UK's first ecstasy-related death occurred at the club; 16-year-old Clare Leighton collapsed and died after her boyfriend gave her an ecstasy tablet. The police clampdown that followed was opposed by Manchester City Council, which argued that the club contributed to an "active use of the city centre core" in line with the government's policy of regenerating urban areas. The resulting problems caused the club to close for a short period in early 1991, before reopening with increased security later the same year.


title: The Haçienda

text: Haçienda DJs made regular and guest appearances on radio and TV shows like Granada TV's "Juice", Sunset 102 and BBC Radio 1. Between 1994 and 1997 "Hacienda FM" was a weekly show on Manchester dance station Kiss 102.


title: The Haçienda

text: Security was frequently a problem, particularly in the club's latter years. There were several shootings inside and outside the club, and relations with the police and licensing authorities became troubled. When local magistrates and police visited the club in 1997, they witnessed a near-fatal assault on a man in the streets outside when 18-year-old Andrew Delahunty was hit over the head from behind with what looked like a metal bar before being pushed into the path of an on-coming car.


title: The Haçienda

text: Although security failures at the club were one of the contributing factors to the club eventually closing, the most likely cause was its finances. The club simply did not make enough money from the sale of alcohol, and this was mainly because many patrons instead turned to drug use. As a result, the club rarely broke even as alcohol sales are the main source of income for nightclubs. Ultimately, the club's long-term future was crippled and, with spiralling debts, The Haçienda eventually closed definitively in the summer of 1997. Peter Hook stated in 2009 that The Haçienda lost up to £18 million in its latter years.


title: The Haçienda

text: The Haçienda lost its entertainments licence in June 1997. The last night of the club was 28 June 1997, a club night called "Freak" featuring Elliot Eastwick and Dave Haslam (the final live performance was by Spiritualized on 15 June 1997). The club remained open for a short period as an art gallery before finally going bankrupt and closing for good. After The Haçienda officially closed, it was used as a venue for two free parties organised by the Manchester free party scene. One of the parties ended in a police siege of the building while the party continued inside. These parties resulted in considerable damage and the application of graffiti to the Ben Kelly-designed interior.


title: The Haçienda

text: Following a number of years standing empty, the Whitworth Street West site was purchased from the receivers by Crosby Homes. They chose to demolish the nightclub, and reuse the site for the construction of domestic flats. The old name was kept for the new development, with The Haçienda name licensed from Peter Hook, who owns the name and trademark. The nightclub was demolished in 2002—Crosby Homes had acquired the property some time before that and, on Saturday 25 November 2000, had held a charity auction of the various fixtures and fittings from the nightclub. Clubgoers and enthusiasts from across the country attended to buy memorabilia ranging from the DJ booth box and radiators to emergency exit lights. The DJ booth was bought by Bobby Langley, ex-Haçienda DJ and Head of Merchandise for Sony Music London for an undisclosed fee.


title: The Haçienda

text: Crosby Homes were widely criticised for using The Haçienda brand name—and featuring the strapline "Now the party's over...you can come home" in the promotional material. Another controversial feature of the branding campaign was the appropriation of many of the themes which ran through the original building. One of these was the yellow and black hazard stripe motif which was a powerful element in the club's original design, featuring as it did on the club's dominant supporting pillars and later in much of the club's literature and flyers.