title: Lexical analysis

text: Semicolon insertion (in languages with semicolon-terminated statements) and line continuation (in languages with newline-terminated statements) can be seen as complementary: semicolon insertion adds a token, even though newlines generally do "not" generate tokens, while line continuation prevents a token from being generated, even though newlines generally "do" generate tokens.


title: Lexical analysis

text: The off-side rule (blocks determined by indenting) can be implemented in the lexer, as in Python, where increasing the indenting results in the lexer emitting an INDENT token, and decreasing the indenting results in the lexer emitting a DEDENT token. These tokens correspond to the opening brace codice_7 and closing brace codice_8 in languages that use braces for blocks, and means that the phrase grammar does not depend on whether braces or indenting are used. This requires that the lexer hold state, namely the current indent level, and thus can detect changes in indenting when this changes, and thus the lexical grammar is not context-free: INDENT–DEDENT depend on the contextual information of prior indent level.


title: Lexical analysis

text: Generally lexical grammars are context-free, or almost so, and thus require no looking back or ahead, or backtracking, which allows a simple, clean, and efficient implementation. This also allows simple one-way communication from lexer to parser, without needing any information flowing back to the lexer.


title: Lexical analysis

text: There are exceptions, however. Simple examples include: semicolon insertion in Go, which requires looking back one token; concatenation of consecutive string literals in Python, which requires holding one token in a buffer before emitting it (to see if the next token is another string literal); and the off-side rule in Python, which requires maintaining a count of indent level (indeed, a stack of each indent level). These examples all only require lexical context, and while they complicate a lexer somewhat, they are invisible to the parser and later phases.


title: Lexical analysis

text: A more complex example is the lexer hack in C, where the token class of a sequence of characters cannot be determined until the semantic analysis phase, since typedef names and variable names are lexically identical but constitute different token classes. Thus in the hack, the lexer calls the semantic analyzer (say, symbol table) and checks if the sequence requires a typedef name. In this case, information must flow back not from the parser only, but from the semantic analyzer back to the lexer, which complicates design.


title: Vermin

text: Vermin (colloquially varmint(s) or varmit(s)) are pests or nuisance animals that spread diseases or destroy crops or livestock. Since the term is defined in relation to human activities, which species are included vary by region and enterprise.


title: Vermin

text: The term derives from the Latin "vermis" (worm), and was originally used for the worm-like larvae of certain insects, many of which infest foodstuffs. The term "varmint" (and "vermint") has been found in sources from c. 1530–1540s.


title: Vermin

text: The term "vermin" is used to refer to a wide scope of organisms, including rodents (such as rats), cockroaches, termites, bed bugs, ferrets, stoats, sables, pigeons, and occasionally foxes.


title: Vermin

text: Historically, in the 16th and 17th century, the expression also became used as a derogatory term associated with groups of persons typically plagued by vermin, namely beggars and vagabonds, and more generally the poor.


title: Vermin

text: Disease-carrying rodents and insects are the usual case, but the term is also applied to larger animals—especially small predators—typically because they consume resources which humans consider theirs, such as livestock and crops. Birds which eat cereal crops and fruit are an example. The American crow ("Corvus brachyrhynchos"), is widely hated by farmers because of crop depredation. Pigeons, which have been widely introduced in urban environments, are also sometimes considered vermin. Some varieties of snakes and arachnids may also be referred to as vermin. "Vermin" is also used by some people as a term of abuse, either individually or collectively.


title: Vermin

text: "Varmint" or "varmit" is an American-English colloquialism, a corruption of "vermin" particularly common to the American East and South-east within the nearby bordering states of the vast Appalachia region. The term describes species which raid farms from without, as opposed to vermin (such as rats) that infest from within, thus referring mainly to predators such as feral dogs, foxes, weasels, and coyotes, sometimes even wolves or rarely bears, but also, to a lesser degree, herbivores and burrowing animals that directly damage crops and land.


title: Vermin

text: Although "varmint/varmit" is not the prevalent usage in Standard Written English, it is a common descriptor for certain kinds of weapons and pest control situations in the Appalachian and nearby states and the American West and South-west which have adopted terms such as "varmint rifle" and "varmint hunting".


title: Vermin

text: Any species can develop into vermin if introduced into a region where there are favorable living conditions and few natural predators. In such cases, they are seen as an invasive species and humans often choose to fill the role of the predator to limit the danger to the environment. Examples of vermin include goats on the Galápagos Islands, rabbits in Australia or cats on Prince Edward Islands. Rats, mice, and cockroaches are common urban and suburban vermin.


title: Vermin

text: Under Tudor "vermin laws", many creatures were seen as competitors for the produce of the countryside and bounties were paid by the parish for their carcasses. The declaration of the red kite as vermin led to its decline to the point of extirpation in the UK by the 20th century. However, the red kite has since been reintroduced to much of Scotland and the majority of England and Wales by the trans-location of breeding pairs from other parts of Europe.


title: Ridge Forrester

text: Ridge Forrester is a fictional character from the CBS Daytime soap opera, "The Bold and the Beautiful". The character was introduced in the series premiere on March 23, 1987 and has been a regular fixture ever since. Ronn Moss played the role since the beginning, and was one of four remaining original cast members for 25 years, along with Susan Flannery, John McCook and Katherine Kelly Lang. During a leave of absence in 1992, Moss was briefly replaced by Lane Davies. The character's fate was uncertain when Moss departed the role in 2012, although head-writer Bradley Bell confirmed in an interview with Michael Logan of TV Guide that he had plans for a recast should Moss choose not to return to the series. In October 2013, TV Guide's Michael Logan reported that the role of Ridge was recast with former "All My Children" actor, Thorsten Kaye. Kaye made his first appearance as Ridge on December 13, 2013. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Denise Richards' husband Aaron Phypers has appeared as Ridge in love scenes with Shauna in 2020.


title: Ridge Forrester

text: Kaye's performance has been met with critical acclaim, garnering him a Daytime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series in 2020 and 2021.


title: Ridge Forrester

text: Ridge Forrester is described as: "Currently CEO and the driving force behind Forrester Creations Empire. His biggest fan is Mick, Ridge is this debonair designer spent his entire life believing that he was Eric’s biological son, only to later learn that he’s not biologically Eric's son at all, but rather the son of shipping tycoon Massimo Marone, and half brother to sailor, Nick, but that never changed the FACT that he is a Forrester legally and will always be a Forrester. He is father to Thomas, Steffy, and RJ, and stepfather to Hope, the one-time conflicted lover has finally settled down with Brooke, the true love of his life." In December 2013 during an interview with TV Guide, executive producer Bradley Bell talked about a significant change in Ridge's personality following the recasting of the role. He described, "He's become very introspective about the first chapter of his life, and the highs and lows of being married to a woman like Brooke. He's been working, traveling, keeping a low profile and really trying to analyze himself and the mistakes he's made. He's been thinking a lot about what he wants for the remainder of his life."


title: Ridge Forrester

text: In August 2012, it was announced that Moss had decided to leave "The Bold and the Beautiful" after 25 years of being on the series. He left the series on September 14, 2012. When approached about the possibility of a recast following Moss' exit, series executive producer Bradley Bell confessed, "I might go a little younger but we'll be true to the age range that's been established. I do have people in mind in terms of a recast – some very interesting people." Bell also revealed that the character would return at some point in the future, whether it was Moss portraying the role or not. He revealed:


title: Ridge Forrester

text: Bell later announced he would recast the role, should Moss choose not to return, and had several high-profile actors in mind. On October 15, 2013, it was announced that former "All My Children" star Thorsten Kaye was recast in the role of Ridge. He made his on-screen debut on December 13, 2013. Bradley Bell explained that Kaye was at the top of his list for a Ridge recast and even considered bringing him to the series prior to the recast. He said, "I've had Thorsten on a list of several possible Ridges for a long time. Some of the actors on that list came from daytime, others had never done daytime before."


title: Ridge Forrester

text: Ridge Forrester is the son of Eric and Stephanie Forrester (until a 2001 storyline changes his paternity), the oldest of the five Forrester children: Thorne, Kristen, Felicia and Angela. He is initially portrayed as an arrogant playboy who fully enjoys his status as the favored son. Yet, like Eric, Ridge is a talented designer and soon becomes a central part of the family company, fashion house Forrester Creations. He dates the virginal heiress, Caroline Spencer. They fall in love and set a wedding date, but right before the wedding, Caroline finds out Ridge had a last minute fling and she collapsed at the wedding. Ridge didn't realize he really loved Caroline until she breaks up with him. She went on to marry his brother Thorne and Ridge ventured into a romance with Brooke Logan. Ridge moved Brooke in with him, she became pregnant but miscarried their child. During her recuperation, Ridge went into an inebriated Caroline's bedroom while her husband Thorne was downstairs and had sex with Caroline. Caroline thought he was Thorne but much later "confessed" she knew it was Ridge. Caroline and Ridge still loved each other. Caroline finally left Thorne and went to Ridge, Ridge broke up with Brooke, and they were married. Caroline died after being diagnosed with leukemia. Caroline’s dying wish is for Ridge to be with Brooke, the two reunite. Riddled with guilt Ridge seeks counsel from Taylor Hayes, a beautiful psychiatrist who counseled Ridge upon Caroline’s death. Ridge and Taylor are attracted to each other. This results in Brooke instantly clashing with Taylor, as Brooke cannot believe that Ridge could love another woman. Ridge waffles between the two women for a while but ultimately decides to marry Taylor. They wed in a beautiful ceremony which Brooke attempted to stop to make the announcement that she is pregnant. Brooke is unsure about the father of the baby since she had slept with both Ridge and Eric, Ridge’s father. Ridge was declared the father after a paternity test. While Brooke wanted Ridge to raise her baby with her and leave Taylor, Ridge chose to honor his marriage and stay with Taylor.


title: Ridge Forrester

text: By the time Taylor is presumed dead in a plane crash, Brooke is engaged to Taylor's associate, James Warwick. Ridge initially encourages their relationship, but he ends up crashing their wedding. He and Brooke soon marry instead. Taylor was rescued by Prince Omar and married him. When Taylor turns up alive, Ridge initially chooses to stay with Brooke because of the children, but goes back to his true wife (his marriage to Brooke was ruled invalid). This sets in motion a bitter rivalry between Brooke and Taylor. In an attempt to make Ridge jealous, Brooke threatens to elope with Grant, an old friend of Taylor's who has come to work at Forrester Creations, if Ridge doesn't agree to remarry her. When Ridge refuses, she goes through with the wedding, not knowing that Ridge left Taylor at their engagement party to race to the port to try to stop her from marrying Grant. She also gives Grant control of Forrester Creations. When her son Rick shoots Grant, Ridge takes the blame and while waiting to be sentenced, he spills his heart to Taylor confessing it was her he always loved. When Ridge is released, Taylor is pregnant. However, when she goes to tell him she is pregnant, she catches Brooke and Ridge in bed, she decides to tell everyone Thorne, who she has been living with, and went on vacation to Hawaii, is the father. Taylor didn't know that Brooke staged the scene, getting Ridge drunk and out of his shirt and he still refused to make love to her. The truth about Thomas Forrester in fact being Ridge's son comes out, and he annuls his marriage to Brooke and returns to Taylor. In 1999, identical twin daughters, Steffy and Phoebe, are born.


title: Ridge Forrester

text: Several ordeals undermine his happiness during the marriage. His old lover, Morgan DeWitt, tricks him into getting her pregnant. A physical confrontation with Taylor leads to Morgan miscarrying, which in turn leads to her kidnapping Steffy, faking the child's death and passing the girl off as her own. Morgan eventually has both Taylor and the child held captive; but Ridge manages to save them both. Taylor is killed by Eric's ex wife, Sheila Carter. Ridge also learns he isn't Eric's son, but the son of billionaire shipping magnate Massimo Marone (even Stephanie didn't know this), Stephanie's best friend. Ridge returns to Brooke. When Ridge, Brooke and series newcomer Nick Marone are kidnapped by Sheila, Ridge falls into a fire furnace, and presumed dead. A grieving Brooke collapsed in front of the furnace and Nick "comforted" her by having sex with her, on the foundry floor! However Ridge is actually alive, returning three days later. She gives birth to R.J. Forrester, Ridge's child (originally thought to be Nick's child, later revealed as Ridge's). Brooke tosses between Nick (who she now loves) and Ridge. She chooses Nick in the end.


title: Ridge Forrester

text: Brooke returns to Ridge, but he leaves her for Taylor, who returned from the dead; In reality, she was kidnapped by Prince Omar to recover from her wounds. Stephanie faked a heart attack, and convinced Ridge to marry Taylor as her "dying" wish. When her lies were exposed. Ridge chooses to stay with Taylor in spite of being manipulated by his mother. Taylor tells Ridge the truth about her sleeping with James Warwick many years ago while married to Ridge. Ridge tells her that the hypocrisy of the standard she has always held others, namely Brooke, up to is what he can't forgive. So Ridge returns to Brooke, however she rejects him, choosing Nick instead. When Nick and Brooke marry, Ridge suffers from a heart attack, literally a broken heart, according to his diagnosis. Stephanie realizes and accepts that Ridge really does love Brooke. Brooke returns to L.A after leaving to support Ridge, however remains with Nick. Ridge dated Brooke's sister, Donna, hoping Brooke will be jealous.


title: Ridge Forrester

text: After Bridget and Nick sleep together, Brooke wants Ridge back, however he rejects her; he has his eye on the new chemist at Forrester Originals, Ashley Abbott (a character who had been well established years earlier on "The Young and the Restless"). They have a brief relationship, and engage however he breaks it off to be with Brooke again after Brooke is savagely beaten and raped by Andy. Brooke leans on Ridge, who is very supportive and goes to counseling with her. When a man named Shane McGrath dies, Ridge took Shane's body out on Nick's boat, The Shady Marlin, and dumped it in the ocean. Ridge is blamed (despite not killing Shane). He is jailed and released. Rick ends up in a relationship with Taylor, however Taylor breaks it off as she still loves Ridge. This results in a fist-fight between Ridge and Rick. Rick falls off a building and ends up paralyzed. In 2009, Ridge and Taylor becoming close again after their daughter Phoebe is killed in a car accident, in a car which Rick was driving. They protect their daughter, Steffy from Rick after she shows interest in him as well. Steffy and Rick break up. Taylor gives Ridge pills for stress, however he starts to overdose himself without Taylor's knowledge; Taylor gets in bed with him and they have sex. He leaves Brooke and he's ready to marry Taylor. Steffy and Thomas send texts to Brooke, misleading her about the wedding. But at the last minute Brooke interrupts the ceremony, arriving on a horse, and, after a short period, Ridge leaves Taylor's house and reunites with Brooke. In 2010, at Hope's graduation party where all the females are dressed alike and all the males are dressed alike and are wearing masks, Brooke has sex with Oliver Jones, Hope Logan's teenage boyfriend. Oliver thinks Brooke is Hope. Hope is angry with both of them and dumps Oliver. Ridge pardons Brooke and doesn't react at all. In 2011, Taylor's and Ridge's son, Thomas, set out to promote their Forrester Creations Line called "Taboo" but end up in a plane crash and get stranded on an island. They return, and Taylor consumes poisonous berries that are brought back, assumed to trigger a sexual anxiety when consumed. Stephanie promises Thomas her shares of Forrester creation at her death if he will lie, so Thomas and Stephanie lie and tell everyone that Thomas and Brooke had sex on the Island. Ridge returned to Taylor, and nearly married her because of this. The truth came out and he returned to Brooke and basically disowned his son, Thomas. He left Taylor heartbroken and she is now dating Thorne. Also Ridge is stunned when he learns that his daughter Steffy married Hope's fiancee Liam Spencer in Aspen. Despite whatever doubts he may have about the marriage, Ridge supports his daughter's decision to marry Liam while Brooke doesn't. When Liam ends his marriage to Steffy and reunites with Hope, Ridge expresses his personal concerns while Brooke is happy that her daughter is finally with the man she loves. Ridge proposes to Brooke in Italy. Stephanie offers to organise the wedding at her house; it was a simple ceremony with only family as guests. Ridge and Brooke leave for their honeymoon after the speeches have taken place. While on their honeymoon, Brooke is in touch with Deacon via one text concerning Hope, and Ridge finds out, but when he asks Brooke about it, she denies it. Ridge tells Brooke he can no longer take the lies and tells her he will not be returning home with her. Brooke arrives home without Ridge to deal with Katie. Ridge leaves his son Thomas in charge of Forrester Creations as interim CEO.


title: Ridge Forrester

text: Ridge (Thorsten Kaye) returns to L.A. in December 2013 and reconnects with Brooke, but breaks things off when he learns of her affair with Bill Spencer, Jr. Katie, Brooke's youngest sister, thought she was going to die, but was going through postpartum psychosis. She wanted Brooke to take care of Bill and Will, so arranged circumstances for Brooke and Bill to fall in love and raise Baby Will together. Everyone blames Brooke's affair with Bill on Ridge leaving Brooke on their honeymoon and spending one year away in Paris. Brooke and Ridge decide to remarry, but Katie and Ridge have connected and have feelings for each other. Katie fakes a fainting spell at the wedding. Ridge begins dating Brooke's sister Katie Logan, which angers a jealous Brooke and Eric, who wants Ridge and Brooke together. Eric tells Ridge that if he breaks up with Katie and gets together with Brooke he will appoint Ridge CEO of Forrester Creations. Eric makes Brooke and Ridge co-vice presidents with Rick still serving as president. Katie and Ridge become engaged and Bill seizes the opportunity for another chance with Brooke. Bill and Brooke travel to Abu Dhabi for their marriage, which is stopped by Ridge when he learns of Bill's one night stand with Quinn Fuller. An enraged Bill orders his right hand man Justin Barber, who was secretly piloting the helicopter Ridge and Brooke were on, to dump Ridge into the Persian Gulf. After an extensive search Brooke finds Ridge on the beach but he has suffered memory loss and has lost the ability to draw. Ridge blames Bill for his loss of drawing but finds that he is learning to draw again by working with Rick's wife and Bill's niece Caroline Spencer. Eric says he will step down as CEO to travel more with his brother John and will decide on a successor between Ridge and Rick. As Caroline and Ridge work together alone on the new couture line they share a few kisses and declare their attraction for each other. Katie becomes jealous of Caroline's ability to understand Ridge and help him draw again but tells Ridge not to use Caroline to attain the CEO position. Eric chooses Ridge as the new CEO but changes his mind when he learns about Ridge and Caroline kissing. During a business meeting, Maya told everyone that Ridge and Caroline were having an affair. Though Caroline is crying and begging for Rick's forgiveness, Ridge stands quietly. Rick is angered and hurt and begins an affair with the greedy and opportunistic Maya Avant, who convinces Rick to accept the CEO position. Rick uses his new role as CEO to enact revenge on Ridge and Caroline. Ridge and Katie's relationship is strained and a vengeful Katie tells Bill, who gets into a fight with Ridge. Caroline wants to have a relationship with Ridge but he tells her to work things out with Rick. Eric orders Rick to end his affair with Maya or he will fire him as CEO. Rick devises a scheme where it appears he has returned to Caroline until he is secure in his position at Forrester Creations. However, Rick continues his affair with Maya until he was able to gain irrevocable control of the company from Eric. Once he achieves this, he leaves Caroline and moves Maya into the Forrester Mansion, and replaces Stephanie's portrait above the fireplace with one of Maya. Rick finds Ridge and Caroline making out with each other in the design office and shoots at them with a gun that he stole from Eric. Eric, finally realizes Rick is dangerous and unstable, uses the morality clause in Rick's contract to fire Rick and make Ridge CEO. Katie then breaks off her engagement with Ridge as his relationship with Caroline progresses.


title: Ridge Forrester

text: Caroline takes a trip to New York to visit Karen and Danielle, and is severely injured when she is hit by a car. Upon returning to L.A., she moves in with Ridge and they begin to plan their future. He helps her to recuperate. However, Ridge finds out that he cannot father children as a result of an irreversible vasectomy he had while living in Paris, and ends his relationship with Caroline so that she can find someone who can give her children. Ridge does not tell Caroline about his inability to father children, and instead confides in Brooke. Caroline then takes anti-anxiety medication that she stole from Pam's desk and starts drinking. While drunk and drugged in a hotel room, she calls Thomas (now played by Pierson Fodé), and they have sex. The next morning, after realizing what happened, Caroline returns to Ridge. A few weeks later, Caroline finds out she is pregnant, and Ridge tells her that he can't be the father. Caroline then confesses to having sex with Thomas and he is her baby's father. Caroline and Ridge decide to keep the baby's paternity a secret as Ridge believes that Thomas took advantage of Caroline and is too immature to raise a child. The baby is born, and they decide to name him Douglas, after Stephanie. Thomas begins bonding with Douglas, and Ridge and Caroline eventually reveal the truth after being blackmailed by Brooke and Bill. Ridge then ends his marriage to Caroline so that Thomas, Caroline, and Douglas can be a family.


title: Ridge Forrester

text: Ridge then decides to go after Brooke, despite the fact that she is in a relationship with Bill. Ridge then stops Brooke and Bill's attempted wedding after R.J. (now recast and aged to 16) returns home from boarding school and convinces Ridge that he belongs with Brooke. Ridge and Brooke eventually reunite and get engaged when Ridge proposes on Christmas Day, 2016. Despite being recommitted to Brooke, Ridge starts to develop feelings for Eric's new wife Quinn Fuller, after he accidentally sees her naked while taking an outdoor shower. When Ridge tries to get Quinn out of Eric's life for ruining Steffy and Liam's life by massaging her sprained foot, being in a steam room together, and having her in a compromising situation at a hotel out of the country. Quinn quickly learns of Ridges plan and threatens to expose him to Eric, however when Quinn tells Ridge of her childhood and why she was so mad at the world, Ridge understands her, and kisses her. Ridge and Quinn would continue to have an affair behind Brooke and Eric's back. Katie then becomes suspicious of Quinn and Ridge, and tells Brooke about her suspicions. Brooke doesn't believe Katie, and goes to look for Ridge and catches him kissing Quinn. Brooke calls off their engagement, and goes back to Bill and marries him.


title: Ridge Forrester

text: Sheila Carter returns to L.A after being accused of trying to kill Quinn. Sheila with the help of Charlie learns of Ridge and Quinn's affair and tells Eric. Ridge and Quinn confesses to Eric on their affair and Eric kicks Quinn and Ridge out the mansion. When Steffy demanded Ridge tell her what he did to Eric, Ridge reveals to Steffy about him and Quinn. Steffy asks Ridge if he is in love with Quinn, Ridge tells his daughter that he is not, and that he hopes that Eric does not divorce Quinn. When Ridge visits Eric at a motel, he tells Ridge that he is no longer is son and that he betrayed him again, but later would forgives Ridge. Brooke talks to Ridge about divorcing Bill and that she has seen his true colors. Brooke never tells Ridge that she left him for burning down Spectra, but tells him that he punched Liam. Ridge works to get Brooke to take him back but has competition, when his young brother Thorne (Ingo Rademacher) who returns from Paris, and wants Brooke and his CEO position. However Ridge wins Brooke back after Bill sign the divorce papers, and marries her at the Forester mansion, and has Thorne as his best man.


title: Ridge Forrester

text: In his column of the newspaper "Gettysburg Times" on January 10, 1990, John N. Goudas discussed Ridge: "You have to hand it to Ridge Forrester. That handsome devil on "The Bold and the Beautiful". In love with two women, Caroline and Brooke, he played a stalling game for 3 years, and got away with it. In December (1989) the writers finally cleared up Ridge's conscience and finally made a decision in favor of Caroline, the unhappy wife of his brother Thorne," not knowing that after years of turmoil Brooke would emerge as his true love (even after another woman, Taylor Hayes, had a life with Ridge). Ronn Moss said on his character (in the very early stages) "Ridge has developed since the show began. He is less devious, and more respectful than others. Besides, he had a problem that was uncommon; he was in love with two ladies." Connie Passalacqua from "The Rock Hill Herald" said at the show's inception: "Even the most hardened feminist would swoon at the sight of Ronn Moss, Ridge Forrester [...] Ridge has been shown at various angles, sunning his ripply muscled bod by the Forrester swimming pool". Passalacqua also commented on the character's looks and touching on the beauty and good looks of the show's cast, embodying the title "Bold and Beautiful" at its very best.


title: Patty

text: A patty or burger (in British English) is a flattened, usually round, serving of ground meat and/or legumes, grains, vegetables, or meat alternatives. Patties are found in multiple cuisines throughout the world.


title: Patty

text: In British and American English, minced meat that is formed into a disc is called a burger, whether it is in a bread roll or not. The word “patty” is also used in American English but almost unknown in British English.


title: Patty

text: The ingredients are compacted and shaped, usually cooked, and served in various ways. Some foods termed "patties" use ingredients inside a pastry crust that is then baked or fried. Some patties are breaded, then baked or fried.


title: Patty

text: In London, since the late 1980s, the Jamaican patty, similar to the Cornish pastie, is a common food item.


title: Patty

text: The term originated in the 17th century as an English alteration of the French word pâté. According to the OED, it is related to the word pasty, which is various ingredients encased in pastry.


title: Patty

text: The term "patty" is used in many varieties of English, but less frequently in Britain and Ireland than in the United States. Merriam-Webster defines it as "a small flat cake of chopped food", Cambridge as "pieces of food, especially meat, formed into a thin, circular shape and then usually cooked". In some countries, patties may be called "discs."


title: Patty

text: Similar-shaped cakes not made from ground beef may also be called "burgers": "fish burgers" may be made from reshaped mechanically separated meat. Patties made from chicken meat may be called chicken patties.


title: Patty

text: Veggie burger patties are made without meat and instead use legumes, grains, other mixed vegetables, and/or soy products such as tofu or tempeh or seitan, a product made of wheat gluten, often mixed with a binding agent.


title: Patty

text: Patties can be breaded and deep-fried, producing croquettes such as crab cakes. In Ireland, traditional chippers often serve batter burgers (a beef-based patty dipped in batter and deep fried). A batter burger served as a sandwich is called a wurly burger, and is believed to have been invented by the Mona Lisa chipper in Crumlin, Dublin. In Japan the Korokke is an example. Rissoles are meat (typically beef), or fish and other ingredients, coated in breadcrumbs or less frequently battered, and deep-fried; they are found in various European cuisines.


title: Patty

text: Patties can be treated as a cutlet and eaten with a knife and fork in dishes like Salisbury steak, the German Hamburg steak, or the Serbo-Croatian pljeskavica, or with chopsticks in dishes such as Songjeong "tteok-galbi". Other examples include the Russian Pozharsky cutlet.


title: Patty

text: Aloo tikki is a potato patty that originated in the Indian subcontinent. A related dish is ragda pattice, which covers the potato patty in a gravy.


title: Patty

text: An arepa is a dish of maize and other ingredients shaped into a patty and griddled; it has been eaten in parts of Central and South American since pre-Columbian times.


title: Patty

text: Patties are often served as sandwiches, typically in buns, making a type of sandwich called a "burger", or a hamburger if the patty is made from ground beef, or sometimes between slices of bread. An American patty melt is a ground beef patty topped with melted cheese (typically Swiss) served on toasted bread, typically rye.


title: Patty

text: In Ireland, traditional chippers often serve sandwiches called spice burgers. The spice burger is made to a specific recipe developed in the early 1950s by pork butcher Maurice Walsh, and later manufactured and sold by Walsh Family Foods Limited and then Keystone Foods.


title: Patty

text: In Japan and Korea, a ground beef patty is sometimes served as a sandwich on a "bun" made of compressed rice; the sandwich is called a rice burger.


title: Patty

text: Patties can be encased in pastry and baked or fried, producing turnovers such as Cornish pasties. A Jamaican patty is cooked, spiced ground beef sealed inside a pastry crust and baked.


title: Patty

text: With mass-produced patties, it is not uncommon to find them with seemingly abnormal shapes or a bumpy perimeter. These groove-like bumps are caused by the machine that forms the patties. They are used in production to keep the patties in line, so they will not fall off the assembly line, and can be manipulated by the various machines. In other boxed patties, small punctures can be seen in the top and bottom sides of the patty. These punctures are there for similar reasons.


title: Wali

text: A wali ("wali" , '; plural , '), the Arabic word which has been variously translated "master", "authority", "custodian", "protector", is most commonly used by Muslims to indicate an Islamic saint, otherwise referred to by the more literal "friend of God".


title: Wali

text: When the Arabic definite article () is added, it refers to one of the names of God in Islam, Allah – (), meaning "the Helper, Friend".


title: Wali

text: In the traditional Islamic understanding of saints, the saint is portrayed as someone "marked by [special] divine favor ... [and] holiness", and who is specifically "chosen by God and endowed with exceptional gifts, such as the ability to work miracles". The doctrine of saints was articulated by Muslim scholars very early on in Islamic history, and particular verses of the Quran and certain hadith were interpreted by early Muslim thinkers as "documentary evidence" of the existence of saints. Graves of saints around the Muslim world became centers of pilgrimage – especially after 1200 CE – for masses of Muslims seeking their (blessing).


title: Wali

text: Since the first Muslim hagiographies were written during the period when the Islamic mystical trend of Sufism began its rapid expansion, many of the figures who later came to be regarded as the major saints in orthodox Sunni Islam were the early Sufi mystics, like Hasan of Basra (d. 728), Farqad Sabakhi (d. 729), Dawud Tai (d. 777–781), Rabia of Basra (d. 801), Maruf Karkhi (d. 815), and Junayd of Baghdad (d. 910). From the twelfth to the fourteenth century, "the general veneration of saints, among both people and sovereigns, reached its definitive form with the organization of Sufism ... into orders or brotherhoods". In the common expressions of Islamic piety of this period, the saint was understood to be "a contemplative whose state of spiritual perfection ... [found] permanent expression in the teaching bequeathed to his disciples". In many prominent Sunni creeds of the time, such as the famous "Creed of Tahawi" (c. 900) and the "Creed of Nasafi" (c. 1000), a belief in the existence and miracles of saints was presented as "a requirement" for being an orthodox Muslim believer.


title: Wali

text: Aside from the Sufis, the preeminent saints in traditional Islamic piety are the Companions of the Prophet, their Successors, and the Successors of the Successors. Additionally, the prophets and messengers in Islam are also believed to be saints by definition, although they are rarely referred to as such, in order to prevent confusion between them and ordinary saints; as the prophets are exalted by Muslims as the greatest of all humanity, it is a general tenet of Sunni belief that a single prophet is greater than all the regular saints put together. In short, it is believed that "every prophet is a saint, but not every saint is a prophet".


title: Wali

text: In the modern world, the traditional Sunni and Shia idea of saints has been challenged by puritanical and revivalist Islamic movements such as the Salafi movement, Wahhabism, and Islamic Modernism, all three of which have, to a greater or lesser degree, "formed a front against the veneration and theory of saints". As has been noted by scholars, the development of these movements has indirectly led to a trend amongst some mainstream Muslims to resist "acknowledging the existence of Muslim saints altogether or ... [to view] their presence and veneration as unacceptable deviations". However, despite the presence of these opposing streams of thought, the classical doctrine of saint veneration continues to thrive in many parts of the Islamic world today, playing a vital role in daily expressions of piety among vast segments of Muslim populations in Muslim countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Turkey, Senegal, Iraq, Iran, Algeria, Tunisia, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Morocco, as well as in countries with substantial Islamic populations like India, China, Russia, and the Balkans.


title: Wali

text: Regarding the rendering of the Arabic "walī" by the English "saint", prominent scholars such as Gibril Haddad have regarded this as an appropriate translation, with Haddad describing the aversion of some Muslims towards the use of "saint" for "walī" as "a specious objection ... for [this is] – like 'Religion' ("din"), 'Believer' ("mu'min"), 'prayer' ("salat"), etc. – [a] generic term for holiness and holy persons while there is no confusion, for Muslims, over their specific referents in Islam, namely: the reality of "iman" with Godwariness and those who possess those qualities." In Persian, which became the second most influential and widely spoken language in the Islamic world after Arabic, the general title for a saint or a spiritual master became "pīr" (, literally "old [person]", "elder"). Although the ramifications of this phrase include the connotations of a general "saint," it is often used to specifically signify a spiritual guide of some type.


title: Wali

text: Amongst Indian Muslims, the title "pīr baba" (पीर बाबा) is commonly used in Hindi to refer to Sufi masters or similarly honored saints. Additionally, saints are also sometimes referred to in the Persian or Urdu vernacular with "Hazrat." In Islamic mysticism, a "pīr's" role is to guide and instruct his disciples on the mystical path. Hence, the key difference between the use of "walī" and "pīr" is that the former does not imply a saint who is also a spiritual master with disciples, while the latter directly does so through its connotations of "elder". Additionally, other Arabic and Persian words that also often have the same connotations as "pīr", and hence are also sometimes translated into English as "saint", include "murshid" (, meaning "guide" or "teacher"), "sheikh" and "sarkar" (Persian word meaning "master").


title: Wali

text: In the Turkish Islamic lands, saints have been referred to by many terms, including the Arabic "walī", the Persian "s̲h̲āh" and "pīr", and Turkish alternatives like "baba" in Anatolia, "ata" in Central Asia (both meaning "father"), and "eren" or "ermis̲h̲" (< ermek "to reach, attain") or "yati̊r" ("one who settles down") in Anatolia. Their tombs, meanwhile, are "denoted by terms of Arabic or Persian origin alluding to the idea of pilgrimage ("mazār", "ziyāratgāh"), tomb ("ḳabr", "maḳbar") or domed mausoleum ("gunbad", "ḳubba"). But such tombs are also denoted by terms usually used for dervish convents, or a particular part of it ("tekke" in the Balkans, "langar", 'refectory,' and "ribāṭ" in Central Asia), or by a quality of the saint ("pīr", 'venerable, respectable,' in Azerbaijan)."


title: Wali

text: According to various traditional Sufi interpretations of the Quran, the concept of sainthood is clearly described. Some modern scholars, however, assert that the Quran does not "explicitly" outline a doctrine or theory of saints. In the Quran, the adjective "walī" is applied to God, in the sense of him being the "friend" of all believers (). However, particular Quranic verses were interpreted by early Islamic scholars to refer to a special, exalted group of holy people. These included : "Surely God's friends ("awliyāa l-lahi"): no fear shall be on them, neither shall they sorrow," and , which refers to God's love for those who love him. Additionally, some scholars interpreted , "Whosoever obeys God and the Messenger, they are with those unto whom God hath shown favor: the prophets and the "ṣidīqīna" and the martyrs and the righteous. The best of company are they," to carry a reference to holy people who were not prophets and were ranked below the latter. The word "ṣidīqīna" in this verse literally connotes "the truthful ones" or "the just ones," and was often interpreted by the early Islamic thinkers in the sense of "saints," with the famous Quran translator Marmaduke Pickthall rendering it as "saints" in their interpretations of the scripture. Furthermore, the Quran referred to the miracles of saintly people who were not prophets like Khidr (-) and the People of the Cave (-), which also led many early scholars to deduce that a group of venerable people must exist who occupy a rank below the prophets but are nevertheless exalted by God. The references in the corpus of hadith literature to "bona fide" saints like the pre-Islamic Jurayj̲, only lent further credence to this early understanding of saints.


title: Wali

text: Collected stories about the "lives or "vitae" of the saints", began to be compiled "and transmitted at an early stage" by many regular Muslim scholars, including Ibn Abi al-Dunya (d. 894), who wrote a work entitled "Kitāb al-Awliyāʾ" ("Lives of the Saints") in the ninth-century, which constitutes "the earliest [complete] compilation on the theme of God's friends." Prior to Ibn Abi al-Dunya's work, the stories of the saints were transmitted through oral tradition; but after the composition of his work, many Islamic scholars began writing down the widely circulated accounts, with later scholars like Abū Nuʿaym al-Iṣfahānī (d. 948) making extensive use of Ibn Abi al-Dunya's work in his own "Ḥilyat al-awliyāʾ" ("The Adornment of the Saints"). It is, moreover, evident from the "Kitāb al-Kas̲h̲f wa ’l-bayān" of the early Baghdadi Sufi mystic Abu Sa'id al-Kharraz (d. 899) that a cohesive understanding of the Muslim saints was already in existence, with al-Kharraz spending ample space distinguishing between the virtues and miracles ("karāmāt") of the prophets and the saints. The genre of hagiography ("manāḳib") only became more popular with the passage of time, with numerous prominent Islamic thinkers of the medieval period devoting large works to collecting stories of "various" saints or to focusing upon "the marvelous aspects of the life, the miracles or at least the prodigies of a [specific] Ṣūfī or of a saint believed to have been endowed with miraculous powers."


title: Wali

text: In the late ninth-century, important thinkers in Sunni Islam officially articulated the previously-oral doctrine of an entire hierarchy of saints, with the first written account of this hierarchy coming from the pen of al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi (d. 907-912). With the general consensus of Islamic scholars of the period accepting that the "ulema" were responsible for maintaining the "exoteric" part of Islamic orthodoxy, including the disciplines of law and jurisprudence, while the Sufis were responsible for articulating the religion's deepest inward truths, later prominent mystics like Ibn Arabi (d. 1240) only further reinforced this idea of a saintly hierarchy, and the notion of "types" of saints became a mainstay of Sunni mystical thought, with such types including the "ṣiddīqūn" ("the truthful ones") and the "abdāl" ("the substitute-saints"), amongst others. Many of these concepts appear in writing far before al-Tirmidhi and Ibn Arabi; the idea of the "abdāl", for example, appears as early as the "Musnad" of Ibn Hanbal (d. 855), where the word signifies a group of major saints "whose number would remain constant, one always being replaced by some other on his death." It is, in fact, reported that Ibn Hanbal explicitly identified his contemporary, the mystic Maruf Karkhi (d. 815-20), as one of the "abdal", saying: "He is one of the substitute-saints, and his supplication is answered."


title: Wali

text: From the twelfth to the fourteenth century, "the general veneration of saints, among both people and sovereigns, reached its definitive form with the organization of Sufism—the mysticism of Islam—into orders or brotherhoods." In general Islamic piety of the period, the saint was understood to be "a contemplative whose state of spiritual perfection ... [found] permanent expression in the teaching bequeathed to his disciples." It was by virtue of his spiritual wisdom that the saint was accorded veneration in medieval Islam, "and it is this which ... [effected] his 'canonization,' and not some ecclesiastical institution" as in Christianity. In fact, the latter point represents one of the crucial differences between the Islamic and Christian veneration of saints, for saints are venerated by unanimous consensus or popular acclaim in Islam, in a manner akin to all those Christian saints who began to be venerated prior to the institution of canonization. In fact, a belief in the existence of saints became such an important part of medieval Islam that many of the most important creeds articulated during the time period, like the famous "Creed of Tahawi", explicitly declared it a requirement for being an "orthodox" Muslim to believe in the existence and veneration of saints and in the traditional narratives of their lives and miracles. Hence, we find that even medieval critics of the widespread practice of venerating the tombs of saints, like Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328), never denied the existence of saints as such, with the Hanbali jurist stating: "The miracles of saints are absolutely true and correct, by the acceptance of all Muslim scholars. And the Qur'an has pointed to it in different places, and the sayings of the Prophet have mentioned it, and whoever denies the miraculous power of saints are only people who are innovators and their followers." In the words of one contemporary academic, practically all Muslims of that era believed that "the lives of saints and their miracles were incontestable."


title: Wali

text: In the modern world, the traditional idea of saints in Islam has been challenged by the puritanical and revivalist Islamic movements of Salafism and Wahhabism, whose influence has "formed a front against the veneration and theory of saints." For the adherents of Wahhabi ideology, for example, the practice of venerating saints appears as an "abomination", for they see in this a form of idolatry. It is for this reason that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which adheres to the Wahhabi creed, "destroyed the tombs of saints wherever ... able" during its expansion in the Arabian Peninsula from the eighteenth-century onwards. As has been noted by scholars, the development of these movements have indirectly led to a trend amongst some mainstream Muslims to also resist "acknowledging the existence of Muslim saints altogether or ... [to view] their presence and veneration as unacceptable deviations." At the same time, the movement of Islamic Modernism has also opposed the traditional veneration of saints, for many proponents of this ideology regard the practice as "being both un-Islamic and backwards ... rather than the integral part of Islam which they were for over a millennium." Despite the presence, however, of these opposing streams of thought, the classical doctrine of saint-veneration continues to thrive in many parts of the Islamic world today, playing a vital part in the daily piety of vast portions of Muslim countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Turkey, Senegal, Iraq, Iran, Algeria, Tunisia, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Morocco, as well as in countries with substantive Islamic populations like India, China, Russia, and the Balkans.


title: Wali

text: The general definition of the Muslim saint in classical texts is that he represents a "[friend of God] marked by [special] divine favor ... [and] holiness", being specifically "chosen by God and endowed with exceptional gifts, such as the ability to work miracles." Moreover, the saint is also portrayed in traditional hagiographies as one who "in some way ... acquires his Friend's, i.e. God's, good qualities, and therefore he possesses particular authority, forces, capacities and abilities." Amongst classical scholars, Qushayri (d. 1073) defined the saint as someone "whose obedience attains permanence without interference of sin; whom God preserves and guards, in permanent fashion, from the failures of sin through the power of acts of obedience." Elsewhere, the same author quoted an older tradition in order to convey his understanding of the purpose of saints, which states: "The saints of God are those who, when they are seen, God is remembered."


title: Wali

text: Meanwhile, al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi (d. 869), the most significant ninth-century expositor of the doctrine, posited six common attributes of true saints (not necessarily applicable to all, according to the author, but nevertheless indicative of a significant portion of them), which are: (1) when people see him, they are automatically reminded of God; (2) anyone who advances towards him in a hostile way is destroyed; (3) he possesses the gift of clairvoyance ("firāsa"); (4) he receives divine inspiration ("ilhām"), to be strictly distinguished from revelation proper ("waḥy"), with the latter being something only the prophets receive; (5) he can work miracles ("karāmāt") by the leave of God, which may differ from saint to saint, but may include marvels such as walking on water ("al-mas̲h̲y ʿalā ’l-māʾ") and shortening space and time ("ṭayy al-arḍ"); and (6) he associates with Khidr. Al-Tirmidhi states, furthermore, that although the saint is not sinless like the prophets, he or she can nevertheless be "preserved from sin" ("maḥfūz") by the grace of God. The contemporary scholar of Sufism Martin Lings described the Islamic saints as "the great incarnations of the Islamic ideal... spiritual giants with which almost every generation was blessed."


title: Wali

text: The doctrine of saints, and of their miracles, seems to have been taken for granted by many of the major authors of the Islamic Golden Age (ca. 700–1400), as well as by many prominent late-medieval scholars. The phenomena in traditional Islam can be at least partly ascribed to the writings of many of the most prominent Sunni theologians and doctors of the classical and medieval periods, many of whom considered the belief in saints to be "orthodox" doctrine. Examples of classical testimonies include:


title: Wali

text: The rationale for veneration of deceased saints by pilgrims in an appeal for blessings ("Barakah") even though the saints will not rise from the dead until the Day of Resurrection ("Yawm ad-Dīn") may come from the hadith that states “the Prophets are alive in their graves and they pray”. (According to the Islamic concept of Punishment of the Grave—established by hadith—the dead are still conscious and active, with the wicked suffering in their graves as a prelude to hell and the pious at ease.) According to Islamic historian Jonathan A.C. Brown, "saints are thought to be no different" than prophets, "as able in death to answer invocations for assistance" as they were while alive.


title: Wali

text: Saints were envisaged to be of different "types" in classical Islamic tradition. Aside from their earthly differences as regard their temporal duty (i.e. jurist, hadith scholar, judge, traditionist, historian, ascetic, poet), saints were also distinguished cosmologically as regards their celestial function or standing. In Islam, however, the saints are represented in traditional texts as serving separate celestial functions, in a manner similar to the angels, and this is closely linked to the idea of a celestial hierarchy in which the various types of saints play different roles. A fundamental distinction was described in the ninth century by al-Tirmidhi in his "Sīrat al-awliyāʾ" ("Lives of the Saints"), who distinguished between two principal varieties of saints: the "walī ḥaḳḳ Allāh" on the one hand and the "walī Allāh" on the other. According to the author, "the [spiritual] ascent of the "walī ḥaḳḳ Allāh" must stop at the end of the created cosmos ... he can attain God's proximity, but not God Himself; he is only admitted to God's proximity ("muḳarrab"). It is the "walī Allāh" who reaches God. Ascent beyond God's throne means to traverse consciously the realms of light of the Divine Names... When the "walī Allāh" has traversed all the realms of the Divine Names, i.e. has come to know God in His names as completely as possible, he is then extinguished in God's essence. His soul, his ego, is eliminated and ... when he acts, it is God Who acts through him. And so the state of extinction means at the same time the highest degree of activity in this world."


title: Wali

text: Although the doctrine of the hierarchy of saints is already found in written sources as early as the eighth-century, it was al-Tirmidhi who gave it its first systematic articulation.


title: Wali

text: According to the author, forty major saints, whom he refers to by the various names of "ṣiddīḳīn", "abdāl", "umanāʾ", and "nuṣaḥāʾ", were appointed after the death of Muhammad to perpetuate the knowledge of the divine mysteries vouchsafed to them by the prophet. These forty saints, al-Tirmidhi stated, would be replaced in each generation after their earthly death; and, according to him, "the fact that they exist is a guarantee for the continuing existence of the world." Among these forty, al-Tirmidhi specified that seven of them were especially blessed. Despite their exalted nature, however, al-Tirmidhi emphasized that these forty saints occupied a rank below the prophets. Later important works which detailed the hierarchy of saints were composed by the mystic ʿAmmār al-Bidlīsī (d. between 1194 and 1207), the spiritual teacher of Najmuddin Kubra (d. 1220), and by Ruzbihan Baqli (d. 1209), who evidently knew of "a highly developed hierarchy of God's friends." The differences in terminology between the various celestial hierarchies presented by these authors were reconciled by later scholars through their belief that the earlier mystics had highlighted particular parts and different aspects of a single, cohesive hierarchy of saints.


title: Wali

text: In certain esoteric teachings of Islam, there is said to be a cosmic spiritual hierarchy whose ranks include "walis" (saints, friends of God), "abdals" (changed ones), headed by a "ghawth" (helper) or "qutb" (pole, axis). The details vary according to the source.


title: Wali

text: One source is the 12th Century Persian Ali Hujwiri. In his divine court, there are three hundred "akhyār" ("excellent ones"), forty "abdāl" ("substitutes"), seven "abrār" ("piously devoted ones"), four "awtād" ("pillars"), three "nuqabā" ("leaders") and one qutb.


title: Wali

text: All these saints know one another and cannot act without mutual consent. It is the task of the Awtad to go round the whole world every night, and if there should be any place on which their eyes have not fallen, next day some flaw will appear in that place, and they must then inform the Qutb in order that he may direct his attention to the weak spot and that by his blessings the imperfection may be remedied.


title: Wali

text: Another is from Ibn Arabi, who lived in Moorish Spain. It has a more exclusive structure. There are eight "nujabā" ("nobles"), twelve "nuqabā", seven "abdāl", four "awtād", two "a’immah" ("guides"), and the qutb.


title: Wali

text: According to the 20th-century Sufi Inayat Khan, there are seven degrees in the hierarchy. In ascending order, they are pir, buzurg, wali, ghaus, qutb, nabi and rasul He does not say how the levels are populated. Pirs and buzurgs assist the spiritual progress of those who approach them. Walis may take responsibility for protecting a community and generally work in secret. Qutbs are similarly responsible for large regions. Nabis are charged with bringing a reforming message to nations or faiths, and hence have a public role. Rasuls likewise have a mission of transformation of the world at large.


title: Wali

text: The amount of veneration a specific saint received varied from region to region in Islamic civilization, often on the basis of the saint's own history in that region. While the veneration of saints played a crucial role in the daily piety of Sunni Muslims all over the Islamic world for more than a thousand years (ca. 800–1800), exactly "which" saints were most widely venerated in any given cultural climate depended on the hagiographic traditions of that particular area. Thus, while Moinuddin Chishti (d. 1236), for example, was honored throughout the Sunni world in the medieval period, his "cultus" was especially prominent in the Indian subcontinent, as that is where he was believed to have preached, performed the majority of his miracles, and ultimately settled at the end of his life.


title: Wali

text: The veneration of saints has played "an essential role in the religious, and social life of the Maghreb for more or less a millennium”; in other words, since Islam first reached the lands of North Africa in the eighth century. The first written references to ascetic Muslim saints in Africa, "popularly admired and with followings," appear in tenth-century hagiographies. As has been noted by scholars, however, "the phenomenon may well be older," for many of the stories of the Islamic saints were passed down orally before finally being put to writing. One of the most widely venerated saints in early North African Islamic history was Abū Yaʿzā (or Yaʿazzā, d. 1177), an illiterate Sunni Maliki miracle worker whose reputation for sanctity was admired even in his own life. Another immensely popular saint of the time-period was Ibn Ḥirzihim (d. 1163), who also gained renown for his personal devoutness and his ability to work miracles. It was Abu Madyan (d. 1197), however, who eventually became one of the "Awliya Allah" of the entire Maghreb. A "spiritual disciple of these two preceding saints," Abū Madyan, a prominent Sunni Maliki scholar, was the first figure in Maghrebi Sufism "to exercise an influence beyond his own region." Abū Madyan travelled to the East, where he is said to have met prominent mystics like the renowned Hanbali jurist Abdul-Qadir Gilani (d. 1166). Upon returning to the Maghreb, Abū Madyan stopped at Béjaïa and "formed a circle of disciples." Abū Madyan eventually died in Tlemcen, while making his way to the Almohad court of Marrakesh; he was later venerated as a prime "Awliya Allah" of Tlemcen by popular acclaim.


title: Wali

text: One of Abū Madyan's most notable disciples was ʿAbd al-Salām Ibn Mas̲h̲īs̲h̲ (d. 1127), a "saint ... [who] had a posthumous fame through his being recognised as a master and a 'pole' by" Abu ’l-Ḥasan al-S̲h̲ād̲h̲ilī (d. 1258). It was this last figure who became "the" preeminent saint in Maghrebi piety, due to his being the founder of one of the most famous Sunni Sufi orders of North Africa: the Shadhiliyya "tariqa". Adhering to the Maliki "maddhab" in its jurisprudence, the Shadhili order produced numerous widely honored Sunni saints in the intervening years, including Fāsī Aḥmad al-Zarrūq (d. 1494), who was educated in Egypt but taught in Libya and Morocco, and Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad al-Jazūlī (d. 1465), "who returned to Morocco after a long trip to the East and then began a life as a hermit," and who achieved widespread renown for the miracles he is said to have wrought by the leave of God. Eventually, the latter was buried in Marrakesh, where he ended up becoming of the city's seven most famous "Awliya Allah" for the Sunnis of the area. Some of the most popular and influential Maghrebi saints and mystics of the following centuries were Muḥammad b. Nāṣir (d. 1674), Aḥmad al-Tij̲ānī (d. 1815), Abū Ḥāmid al-ʿArabī al-Darqāwī (d. 1823), and Aḥmad b. ʿAlāwī (d. 1934), with the latter three originating Sufi orders of their own. Famous adherents of the Shadhili order amongst modern Islamic scholars include Abdallah Bin Bayyah (b. 1935), Muhammad Alawi al-Maliki (d. 2004), Hamza Yusuf (b. 1958), and Muhammad al-Yaqoubi (b. 1963).


title: Wali

text: The veneration of saints in Maghrebi Sunni Islam has been studied by scholars with regard to the various "types" of saints venerated by Sunnis in those areas. These include:


title: Wali

text: Regarding the veneration of saints amongst Sunni Muslims in the Maghreb in the present day, scholars have noted the presence of many "thousands of minor, local saints whose tombs remain visible in villages or the quarters of towns." Although many of these saints lack precise historiographies or hagiographies, "their presence and their social efficacity ... [are] immense" in shaping the spiritual life of Muslims in the region. For the vast majority of Muslims in the Maghreb even today, the saints remain "very much alive at their tomb, to the point that the person's name most often serves to denote the place." While this classical type of Sunni veneration represents the most widespread stance in the area, the modern influence of Salafism and Wahhabism have challenged the traditional practice in some quarters.


title: Wali

text: Scholars have noted the tremendously "important role" the veneration of saints has historically played in Islamic life all these areas, especially amongst Sunnis who frequent the many thousands of tombs scattered throughout the region for blessings in performing the act of "ziyāra". According to scholars, "between the Turks of the Balkans and Anatolia, and those in Central Asia, despite the distance separating them, the concept of the saint and the organisation of pilgrimages displays no fundamental differences." The veneration of saints really spread in the Turkish lands from the tenth to the fourteenth centuries, and played a crucial role in medieval Turkic Sunni piety not only in cosmopolitan cities but also "in rural areas and amongst nomads of the whole Turkish world." One of the reasons proposed by scholars for the popularity of saints in pre-modern Turkey is that Islam was majorly spread by the early Sunni Sufis in the Turkish lands, rather than by purely exoteric teachers. Most of the saints venerated in Turkey belonged to the Hanafi school of Sunni jurisprudence.


title: Wali

text: As scholars have noted, saints venerated in traditional Turkish Sunni Islam may be classified into three principal categories:


title: Wali

text: Reverence for Awliya Allah have been an important part of both Sunni and Shia Islamic tradition that particularly important classical saints have served as the heavenly advocates for specific Muslim empires, nations, cities, towns, and villages. With regard to the sheer omnipresence of this belief, the late Martin Lings wrote: "There is scarcely a region in the empire of Islam which has not a Sufi for its Patron Saint." As the veneration accorded saints often develops purely organically in Islamic climates, the "Awliya Allah" are often recognized through popular acclaim rather than through official declaration. Traditionally, it has been understood that the "Wali'Allah" of a particular place prays for that place's well-being and for the health and happiness of all who live therein. Here is a partial list of Muslim "Awliya Allah":


title: Whale fall

text: A whale fall occurs when the carcass of a whale has fallen onto the ocean floor at a depth greater than , in the bathyal or abyssal zones. On the sea floor, these carcasses can create complex localized ecosystems that supply sustenance to deep-sea organisms for decades. This is unlike in shallower waters, where a whale carcass will be consumed by scavengers over a relatively short period of time. Whale falls were first observed in the late 1970s with the development of deep-sea robotic exploration. Since then, several natural and experimental whale falls have been monitored through the use of observations from submersibles and remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) in order to understand patterns of ecological succession on the deep seafloor.


title: Whale fall

text: Deep sea whale falls are thought to be hotspots of adaptive radiation for specialized fauna. Organisms that have been observed at deep-sea whale fall sites include octopus, giant isopods, squat lobsters, polychaetes, prawns, shrimp, lobsters, hagfish, "Osedax", crabs, sea cucumbers, and sleeper sharks. New species have been discovered, including some potentially specializing in whale falls. It has been postulated that whale falls generate biodiversity by providing evolutionary stepping stones for multiple lineages to move and adapt to new environmentally-challenging habitats. Researchers estimate that 690,000 carcasses/skeletons of the nine largest whale species are in one of the four stages of succession at any one time. This estimate implies an average spacing of and as little as along migration routes. They hypothesize that this distance is short enough to allow larvae to disperse/migrate from one to another.


title: Whale fall

text: Whale falls are able to occur in the deep open ocean due to cold temperatures and high hydrostatic pressures. In the coastal ocean, a higher incidence of predators as well as warmer waters hasten the decomposition of whale carcasses. Carcasses may also float due to decompositional gases, keeping the carcass at the surface. The bodies of most great whales (which includes sperm whales and many species of baleen whale) are slightly denser than the surrounding seawater, and only become positively buoyant when the lungs are filled with air. When the lungs deflate, the whale carcasses can reach the seafloor quickly and relatively intact due to a lack of significant whale fall scavengers in the water column. Once in the deep-sea, cold temperatures slow decomposition rates, and high hydrostatic pressures increase gas solubility, allowing whale falls to remain intact and sink to even greater depths.


title: Whale fall

text: The amount of carbon tied up in a typical single whale carcass (about two tonnes of carbon for a typical 40-tonne carcass) is roughly equivalent to the amount of carbon exported to a hectare of abyssal ocean floor in 100–200 years. This amount of organic material reaching the seafloor at one time creates a pulse equivalent to about 2000 years of background carbon flux in the 50 square meters of sediment immediately beneath the whale fall. This helps to sustain the community structure that develops around a whale fall, but it also has potential implications for the biological pump, or the flux of organic material from the surface ocean to depth.


title: Whale fall

text: Whales and some other large marine animals feed on and follow large aggregations of zooplankton for sustenance. Based on simple trophic structure, this would mean whales and other large zooplankton feeders can be found at higher abundance around areas of high primary production, potentially making them important exporters of carbon to depth through food falls. Biological pump models indicate that a large amount of carbon uptake by the deep sea is not supplied by particulate organic carbon (POC) alone, and must come from another source. Lateral advection of carbon, especially in coastal areas contributes to this deficit in the model, but food falls are also another source of organic carbon for the deep ocean. Various percentages of the food fall contribution to the total carbon flux to the deep ocean have been hypothesized, ranging from 0.3% to 4%.


title: Whale fall

text: There is growing evidence that the contribution of food falls to the deep ocean carbon flux is larger than originally proposed, especially on the local scale in areas of high primary productivity. Unfortunately, contributions of food falls to the biological pump are hard to measure and rely on a few serendipitous studies on discovered falls as well as planted carcasses with much of the deep sea carbon flux studies relying on sediment traps.


title: Whale fall

text: The earliest indication that whale carcasses could host specialized animal communities occurred in 1854 when a new mussel species was extracted from a piece of floating whale blubber. By the 1960s, deep sea trawlers unintentionally recovered other new mollusc species including limpets (named "Osteopelta") attached to whale bones.


title: Whale fall

text: The first recorded abyssal whale fall was discovered by US Navy bathyscaphe pilots LT Ken Hanson, Master Chief George Ellis and LT Tom Vetter diving in bathyscaphe Trieste II (DSV-1) on 19 February 1977. The skeleton of the carcass, which was completely devoid of organic tissue, remained intact and collapsed flat on the seafloor. The submersible recovered a jawbone and phalanges. The whale was considered to be a gray whale based on the size of the bones and the skeleton, the lack of teeth and its location west of Santa Catalina.


title: Whale fall

text: The first whale-fall ecosystem, which included a chemoautotrophic assemblage living on the anaerobic breakdown of organic material in whale bones, was discovered by a team of scientists led by University of Hawaii oceanographer Craig Smith in 1987. The DSV Alvin observed the remains using scanning sonar at in the Catalina Basin and collected the first photographic images and samples of animals and microbes from this remarkable community.


title: Whale fall

text: Many other whale falls have since been found by more researchers and deep-sea explorers as well as naval submarines. The increase in detection is largely due to the use of cutting-edge side-scan sonar which can minutely examine the ocean floor for large aggregations of matter. A 2022 study identified 45 known natural whale falls, 38 implanted ones, and 78 fossil ones with most in the Pacific but a significant number, particularly of fossil ones in the Atlantic.


title: Whale fall

text: Whale falls are distributed heterogeneously throughout space and time, with a concentration along migration routes. There is much faunal overlap in these whale falls across oceans. Mussels and vesicomyid clams belong to groups that harbor chemosynthetic bacteria, which can draw energy from inorganic chemicals, such as sulfur. Before their presence was discovered at whale falls, the only known habitats of these groups were sunken wood and hydrothermal vents. Similarly, lucinid clams were previously only known to inhabit carbon seeps and anoxic seafloor sediments. Osedax, a genus of deep-sea polychaete worms, act as ecosystem engineers by excreting acid to erode whale bones and absorbing the nutrients trapped within. This enhances biodiversity in the deep sea by increasing the water diffusion into the matrix of bones and facilitating colonization of the bone matrix by rarer species. Osedax have more dramatic effects in juvenile skeletons, which are not as well-calcified as adult skeletons.


title: Whale fall

text: At whale fall sites it is common to see between three and five trophic levels present, with two main nutritional sources constituting the base of the food web. Adult whale carcasses can house up to five trophic levels, whereas juveniles more typically have three.


title: Whale fall

text: Recent studies also show a possible trend of "dual niche partitioning", in which scavengers tend to reach peak densities on the carcass during the day and predators are more present during the night, reducing competition between the two trophic groups. There is also a possible trend in tidal patterns and species occurrence, indicating that tides play a role in niche partitioning as well.


title: Whale fall

text: Similar ecosystems exist when other large volumes of nutrient-rich material fall to the sea floor. Sunken beds of kelp create kelp falls, and large trees can sink to create wood falls. In more recent years, shipwrecks have also provided bases for deepwater communities. In ecosystems formed following a whale fall event, there are four stages of ecological succession.


title: Whale fall

text: There are four stages of decomposition associated with a whale fall. These stages vary in duration and overlap with one other with the size of the carcass, water depth, and other environmental variables, such as tidal flow. Large, intact whale falls appear to pass through the four decomposition stages, while the stages on smaller or partial carcasses may be truncated. Smaller cetaceans, such as porpoises and dolphins, do not undergo the same ecological succession stages due to their small size and lower lipid content. Researchers believe the presence of Osedax worms may also be a contributing factor in the observed successional differences.


title: Whale fall

text: The initial period begins with "mobile scavengers" such as hagfish and sleeper sharks actively consuming soft tissue from the carcass. Consumption can be at a rate of per day. This stage typically lasts months up to 1.5 years.


title: Whale fall

text: The second stage introduces the "enrichment opportunists". These are animals which colonize the bones and surrounding sediments that have been contaminated with organic matter from the carcass and any other tissue left by the scavengers. This stage can last months up to 4.5 years.


title: Whale fall

text: In the third stage, sulfophilic bacteria anaerobically break down the lipids embedded in the bones. Instead of oxygen, they reduce dissolved sulfate () and excrete hydrogen sulfide. Due to the toxicity of , only resistant chemosynthetic bacteria survive. The bacterial mats provide nourishment for mussels, clams, limpets and sea snails. As whale bones are rich in lipids, representing 4–6% of its body weight, the final digestion stage can last between 50 and possibly 100 years.


title: Whale fall

text: Some scientists postulate a fourth stage of ecological succession at whale fall sites, called the "reef stage". A whale fall enters this stage once the organic compounds have been exhausted and only minerals remain in the bones, which provide a hard substrate for suspension and filter feeders.


title: Whale fall

text: A process called methanogenesis can also occur around whale falls. Archaea that produce methane can be abundant in anoxic sediment, but are typically not found in co-occurrence with the sulfur reducing bacteria found at whale falls. Whale falls do however support both sulfur reducing bacteria and methane producing archaea, leading to the conclusion that the area is not electron donor limited, and/or there is minimal or no competition for suitable substrate. Concentration gradients of both sulfide and methane can be found around whale falls, with the highest concentration coming within one meter of the carcass, which is several orders of magnitude higher than the surrounding sediment concentrations. Methanogenesis appears to only occur in sediments as opposed to sulfur reduction, which occurs both in sediments and on the bones of the carcass. The addition of sulfur reduction in both sediments and high lipid whale bones is a key factor for why whale falls are able to sustain deep-sea communities for extended periods of time.


title: Whale fall

text: Whale fall fossils from the late Eocene and Oligocene (34–23 MYA) in Washington and from the Pliocene in Italy include clams that also inhabited non-chemosynthetic environments. Chemosynthetic-only animals do not appear until the Miocene (23–5 MYA) in California and Japan. This may be because the lipid content of early whale bones was too low. As prehistoric whales evolved to live in pelagic waters and dive deeper, structural changes in their anatomy included increased size, reduced bone density and higher lipid content. It is due to this increased lipid content that led to the establishment of chemosynthetic communities in the deep sea.


title: Whale fall

text: The discovery of the limpet "Osteopelta" in an Eocene New Zealand turtle bone indicates that these animals evolved before whales, including possibly inhabiting Mesozoic (251–66 MYA) reptiles. They may have survived in seeps, wood-falls and vents while waiting out the 20 million year gap between the reptiles' extinction and whales' emergence. Another possibility is that these fossils represent a prior, dead-end evolutionary path, and that today's whale fall animals evolved independently.


title: Whale fall

text: It has been suggested that the whaling industry has had an effect on the biological pump through the elimination of many large whales, reducing the amount of whale falls. The effects of this on benthic whale fall community assemblages is not well understood. However, it is suggested that the removal of large whales might have reduced the total biomass of the deep sea by more than 30%. Whales stored massive amounts of carbon that were exported to the deep sea during whale fall events. Whaling has thus also reduced the ability of the deep sea to sequester carbon. Carbon can be sequestered for hundreds to thousands of years in the deep sea, supporting benthic communities. It is estimated that, in terms of carbon sequestration, each whale is equivalent to thousands of trees.


title: Whale fall

text: There have also been studies based on the carcasses of other, non-mammalian marine vertebrates that have fallen to the deep sea. In particular, the chance discovery of a whale shark carcass and three mobulid ray carcasses led to observations on the communities that form surrounding large elasmobranch falls as opposed to whale falls. Whale sharks inhabit waters of roughly 1,000 meters depth regularly, which suggests it could be a regular form of food fall in areas where it is abundant. Many eelpouts (Zoarcidae) were found surrounding the whale shark with some evidence of direct feeding as boreholes were observed on the carcass. Another theory suggests that the eelpouts were waiting for their main prey, amphipods and other small benthic animals. The three rays found were at different stages of decomposition, leading to varying assemblages found surrounding the individuals. A higher abundance of scavengers was found surrounding the more intact individuals, including scavengers typical of whale falls like hagfish. Around the least intact individual a bacterial mat was observed in the zone of enrichment, but no clams or mussels typical of whale falls were seen.


title: Whale fall

text: Overall, the four carcasses observed showed no evidence of progression past the scavenger stage. The size limitations, as well as physiological differences between large elasmobranchs and whales more than likely causes the changes observed in the communities surrounding their respective carcasses. Osedax worms have the ability to extract collagen from bones as well as lipids, enabling them to sustain themselves on bones other than the lipid-rich remains of whales. Although no Osedax were found on the non-mammalian remains in this study, their absence may have been due to the timing of observation, and the Osedax had not yet colonized the carcasses. Various studies on smaller cetaceans and other marine vertebrate food falls come to similar conclusions that these falls bring a large amount of new organic material to depth, but support mostly a scavenger community, as opposed to the diverse assemblage seen at whale falls. This conclusion can be drawn based on the knowledge that large whales have much higher lipid content in their bulk composition and bone marrow, which supports the diverse communities present in succession at whale falls.


title: Whale fall

text: Researchers have compared sauropod carcasses to modern whale-fall events, recognizing that sauropods reached the size of modern cetaceans. Sauropod carcasses may have been energy rich reservoirs, and because they did not float great distances, may have been the primary resources of many terrestrial carnivorous dinosaurs.


title: UST (company)

text: UST, formerly known as UST Global, is a provider of digital technology and transformation, information technology and services, headquartered in Aliso Viejo, California, United States. Stephen Ross founded UST in 1998 in Laguna Hills. The company has offices in the Americas, EMEA, APAC, and India.


title: UST (company)

text: In June 2018, Temasek, Singapore’s sovereign wealth fund, invested million in UST, giving UST a billion-plus valuation.


title: UST (company)

text: UST offers services in areas like digital transformation, cybersecurity, data analytics, data engineering, technology and digital consulting, supply chain management, cloud infrastructure, developer productivity, quality engineering, IT talent sourcing, innovation as a service, legacy modernization, human-centered design, AMS, semiconductor engineering, IOT engineering, intelligent process automation, artificial intelligence, machine learning, and technology strategy, intelligent automation and BPaaS. Examples of specific services include:


title: UST (company)

text: In 2020, UST released UST CloudDesk and UST MultiCloud Manager. UST CloudDesk enables enterprises to move workloads between different cloud platforms. UST MultiCloud Manager, an IT-as-a-service platform, allows its users to have a zero-touch, single-pane view of their entire IT environment.


title: UST (company)

text: In 2020, UST announced a mobile-based international transactions application blockchain for a Spanish multinational commercial bank and financial services company. The application allows end customers to complete international transactions in minutes vs. the original four to five working days.


title: UST (company)

text: UST offers development and operational services such as data management, analysis, and automation for DevSecOps, and digital and cloud transformation. This includes its product, PACE, used for implementing and optimizing cloud-native DevOps.


title: UST (company)

text: In July 2020, UST invested in Smart Software Testing Solutions (SSTS) Inc. to incorporate intelligent testing and digital validation for its Software Validation and Test Automation. SSTS’s platforms allow testers to perform manual and automation testing on more than 5000 device-browser combinations.


title: UST (company)

text: In July 2020, UST’s company CyberProof became an official member of the Microsoft Intelligent Security Association. CyberProof monitors security alerts and suspicious events collected from internal and external customer data sources and detects threats in cloud and on-premises infrastructure threats.


title: UST (company)

text: UST has employees in countries including the United States, United Kingdom, India, and Malaysia. The first Malaysian Lab opened in January 2020. Through the Labs, UST employees are exposed to new technologies and receive access to top R&D institutions and disruptive startups from around the world.


title: UST (company)

text: The company has three "engines of innovation". "Infinity Labs" is a network of "innovation gyms" where professionals are invited to experiment without fear of mistakes, 'Innovation Hub' is UST's Idea Management System and 'Open Minds' is a collaboration space on the Web. Forrester Research, in its "Maximising Innovation from ERP Service Providers; Insights from Nasscom 2010" report, noted that: "Companies like UST allow their employees to spend part of their time in a research lab, developing user cases for new technologies."


title: UST (company)

text: UST won the ‘Most Innovative Emerging Corporation Award’ at the International Business Awards 2012 held in New Delhi.


title: UST (company)

text: The Kerala state government on 6 November 2017 inked an MOU with UST along with Intel for exploring the possibility of transforming the state into an electronic hardware manufacturing hub.


title: UST (company)

text: UST has several programs to help build diversity and inclusion in the workplace. This includes “The Sheroes Hours<nowiki>"</nowiki> and “Tech She Can”, celebrating women in the tech industry; the Network Of Women USsociates; “Curved Colors,” a group for the LGBTQAI+ community; UST Impact, which looks for talent within the differently-abled community in India; which looks for talent within the differently abled community; and “UST Step IT Up,” which is an accelerated training program to train women, minorities, and veterans in STEM fields. In 2014, Joe Biden, who was then Vice President, visited the Detroit center of "UST Step IT Up" and spoke at an event.


title: UST (company)

text: UST is based in Orange County, California and has offices in more than 25 countries. It is based in the following regions: the Americas, EMEA, APAC, and India.


title: UST (company)

text: UST has started its expansion plans in the capital city Thiruvananthapuram with the construction of an own campus, near Technopark. The campus is spread over . The campus will also feature a waterbody channeling through the various blocks of the campus.


title: UST (company)

text: The company is a security services company that helps organizations to intelligently manage incident detection and response.


title: UST (company)

text: In January 2018, UST acquired BISEC, a cybersecurity company, for 5.8 million Dollars and integrated the technology into CyberProof.


title: UST (company)

text: CyberProof is headquartered in Aliso Viejo, California, United States and has regional offices in London, United Kingdom; Trivandrum, India; Singapore and Barcelona, Spain. As of 2021, the company has approximately 500 employees worldwide.


title: UST (company)

text: Tony Velleca is the chief executive officer of CyberProof and is a chief information security officer at UST. Yuval Wollman is President of CyberProof and is responsible for the company’s Israel-based Development & Operations.


title: UST (company)

text: In early 2008, California arbitrators ruled that US Technology Resources, LLC must pay Stephen J. Ross US $7.5 million for his founding interest in the company. The company had disputed the extent of Ross's actual contributions. The arbitration award was then confirmed by the Los Angeles Superior Court and judgment entered in Ross' favor.


title: Layvin Kurzawa

text: Layvin Marc Kurzawa (born 4 September 1992) is a French professional footballer who plays as a left-back for Premier League club Fulham, on loan from Ligue 1 club Paris Saint-Germain.


title: Layvin Kurzawa

text: Kurzawa began his career at Monaco in 2010, and played 96 official games for the team, scoring eight goals. In 2015, he transferred to Paris Saint-Germain for €23 million. With Paris, Kurzawa has won 16 domestic trophies, including four Ligue 1 titles. Kurzawa made his senior international debut for France in 2014.


title: Layvin Kurzawa

text: Kurzawa was born in Fréjus, France. He made his professional debut on 22 September 2010, soon after his 18th birthday, in a Coupe de la Ligue third round match against Lens at the Stade Louis II. He started the match and played 65 minutes before being substituted in a 1–0 victory. Three days later he made his Ligue 1 debut, starting in a 1–2 defeat at Lorient. Kurzawa played four more league matches, all of them starts, as the season ended with relegation to Ligue 2; he was sent off on 1 May 2011 in a 1–1 draw at Saint-Étienne. He made four appearances as they returned to the top flight at the first attempt as champions.


title: Layvin Kurzawa

text: Kurzawa established himself in the first team for the 2013–14 season, with 28 league appearances as Monaco finished runner-up to Paris Saint-Germain. He also scored five goals, the first of his professional career confirming a 2–0 win at Guingamp on 14 December 2013.


title: Layvin Kurzawa

text: He scored in each leg of Monaco's 7–1 aggregate win over Young Boys in the third qualifying round of the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League.


title: Layvin Kurzawa

text: On 27 August 2015, Kurzawa joined Ligue 1 champions Paris Saint-Germain for €23 million on a five-year contract. He made his debut on 11 September, coming on for Maxwell in the 67th minute of an eventual 2–2 draw with Bordeaux at the Parc des Princes. He scored his first goal for the team from the capital on 25 October, opening a 4–1 home win over Saint-Étienne when set up by Marco Verratti.


title: Layvin Kurzawa

text: Kurzawa scored and assisted Javier Pastore on 6 August 2016 as PSG won the Trophée des Champions against Lyon with a 4–1 win in Klagenfurt, Austria. Six days later, he recorded the team's first league goal of the new season, the game's only against Bastia. On 8 March 2017, he scored an own goal in a 6–1 loss to Barcelona in the last 16 of the Champions League; as Unai Emery's team squandered a 4–0 advantage from the first leg.


title: Layvin Kurzawa

text: On 31 October 2017, Kurzawa scored his first career hat-trick against Anderlecht in the Champions League group phase. Kurzawa became the first defender in modern Champions League history to achieve this feat in the competition.


title: Layvin Kurzawa

text: On 29 June 2020, Kurzawa signed a four-year contract extension with Paris Saint-Germain. On 13 September 2020, Kurzawa was one of many players involved in a brawl in Le Classique, which resulted in five red cards. He was given a six match suspension for his actions.


title: Layvin Kurzawa

text: Kurzawa was born to a Guadeloupean father, and a Polish mother, and was approached to play for the Poland national team.


title: Layvin Kurzawa

text: He was a French youth international and has earned caps with the under-19 team. On 14 October 2014, during the final leg of the 2015 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualification play-offs against Sweden, Kurzawa celebrated a goal for France by mocking the Swedish players with a salute. Shortly after, Sweden scored a goal and won the game 4–1, thus eliminating France from the 2015 UEFA European Under-21 Championship.


title: Layvin Kurzawa

text: On 14 November 2014, he made his full international debut, replacing Lucas Digne for the last 20 minutes of a 1–1 friendly draw with Albania in Rennes. Four days later, he made his first start, in a 1–0 friendly win over Sweden in Marseille, being substituted later on for Digne.


title: Layvin Kurzawa

text: Kurzawa scored his first international goal on 1 September 2016, concluding a 3–1 friendly win over Italy at the Stadio San Nicola in Bari.


title: Backpack

text: A backpack—also called knapsack, schoolbag, rucksack, rucksac, pack, sackpack, booksack, bookbag or backsack—is, in its simplest frameless form, a fabric sack carried on one's back and secured with two straps that go over the shoulders, but it can have an external frame, internal frame, and there are bodypacks.


title: Backpack

text: Backpacks are commonly used by hikers and students, and are often preferred to handbags for carrying heavy loads or carrying any sort of equipment, because of the limited capacity to carry heavy weights for long periods of time in the hands.


title: Backpack

text: Large backpacks, used to carry loads over , as well as smaller sports backpacks (e.g. running, cycling, hiking and hydration), usually offload the largest part (up to about 90%) of their weight onto padded hip belts, leaving the shoulder straps mainly for stabilising the load. This improves the potential to carry heavy loads, as the hips are stronger than the shoulders, and also increases agility and balance, since the load rides nearer the wearer's own center of mass.


title: Backpack

text: The word backpack was coined in the United States in the 1910s. "Moneybag" and "packsack" were used prior, and now occur mainly as regionalisms.


title: Backpack

text: The word rucksack is a German loanword mainly used in the UK, US and in other Western military forces. In Middle High German "ruck(e)" means "back" (dorsum), which led to the Upper German word "ruggsack". In modern German the word "der Rucksack" is commonly used. The name rucksack is cognate with the Danish "rygsæk", Norwegian "ryggsekk", Dutch "rugzak", Afrikaans "rugsak", Swedish "ryggsäck", and Russian "рюкзак" ("rjukzak").


title: Backpack

text: The word knapsack was the usual name for a rucksack or backpack up until the middle of the 20th century. This is commonly used in Canada.


title: Backpack

text: Alternative names include haversack from the German "Hafersack" meaning "oat sack" (which more properly describes a small cloth bag on a strap worn over one shoulder and originally referred to the bag of oats carried as horse fodder), "Kraxe" (a German rucksack with a rigid framework), and "bergen" (a large load-carrying rucksack, from a design issued by the British Army during the Second World War). In fact, Britons used to call Alpine-style backpacks "Bergen rucksacks", maybe from the name of their creator, Norwegian Ole F. Bergan, combined with the name of the Norwegian city of Bergen.


title: Backpack

text: Backpacks can often simply be referred to as "packs", especially in outdoors contexts; though sometimes ambiguous compared to other bags such as saddlebags and duffel bags, context is generally sufficient for identification. They are also used in recreational activities, and have long since been used to carry sports equipment and other materials.


title: Backpack

text: Long before its various terminologies began appearing in print, evidence of early backpacks was scarce. A contender for the earliest was found within the mummified remains of Ötzi in 3300BC.


title: Backpack

text: Backpacks in general fall into one of four categories: frameless, external frame, internal frame, and bodypack. A pack frame, when present, serves to support the pack and distribute the weight of its contents across the body more appropriately, by transferring much of the weight to the hips and legs. Most of the weight is therefore taken off the shoulders, reducing the chance of injury from shoulder strap pressure (many backpacks equipped solely with shoulder straps can affect the posture of a person carrying more than 14 kg (30 lbs)), as well as being less restrictive of the upper body range of motion. Most backpacks are capable of being closed with either a buckle mechanism, a zipper, or a dry-bag type closure, though a few models use a drawstring fitted with a cord lock for the main compartment.


title: Backpack

text: A bodypack is a backpack fitted with one or more pockets that are suspended on the wearer's chest and loaded in such a way that the load in the front and the load in the back are close to equal. The majority of the load in a bodypack is carried by the hips. The ideal load carrying system should not disturb the wearer's natural posture, balance and maneuverability. The load must be dispersed onto the skeletal structure in an even manner, and should not produce unbalanced forces on the body.


title: Backpack

text: The simplest backpack design is a bag attached to a set of shoulder straps. Such packs are used for general transportation of goods, and have variable capacity. The simplest designs consist of one main pocket. This may be combined with webbing or cordage straps, while more sophisticated models add extra pockets, waist straps, chest straps, padded shoulder straps, padded backs, and sometimes reflective materials for added safety at night. These packs are generally produced inexpensively.


title: Backpack

text: Some outdoor packs, particularly those sold for day hikes, ultralight backpacking and mountaineering are sometimes frameless as well.


title: Backpack

text: Sports and hydration backpacks are smaller with a profile closer to the body, wider straps and can come with water bladders and hip belts for running, cycling or hiking. Running hydration packs are the smallest and lightest, many under 2 litres and most under six litres. Compression straps across the top of one's body are common as are hip belts. Cycling hydration packs are six to ten litres sitting high on the back. Although daypacks are small averaging ten to thirty litres, all Trekking and Hiking hydration packs are generally the largest and heaviest. Thirty five up to sixty five litres and above are common.


title: Backpack

text: External frame packs were designed to carry heavy loads (>20 kg or 40 lb), giving the wearer more support and protection and better weight distribution than a simple, frameless strapped bag. Wooden pack frames were used for centuries around the world. Ötzi the Iceman may have used one in Copper Age Alpine Italy, though some archaeologists believe the frame found with the body was part of a snowshoe. Such packs are common in military and mountaineering applications; metal versions first appeared in the mid-20th century.


title: Backpack

text: The external frame is typically made from aluminum, other lightweight metal alloy, and recently reinforced synthetic polymers or plastic and is equipped with a system of straps and tautly-stretched netting which prevents contact between the metal frame and user's back. In addition to comfort, this "stand-off" provides the additional benefit of creating air circulation between the frame and the wearer's back. For this reason, external frame packs are generally considered to be a "cooler load" than internal frame designs. External frame packs have a fabric "sack" portion which is usually smaller than that of internal frame packs, but have exposed frame portions above and below the sack to accommodate attachment of larger items. In addition, the sack can often be removed entirely, permitting the user to customize the configuration of their load, or to transport a non-conventional load such as a quartered game animal. Military packs are often external frame designs due to their ability to carry loads of different shapes, sizes and weights.


title: Backpack

text: A recently proposed type of external frame would be made from composite plastic, which is not flexible like current backpack straps are, and can be shaped like human spine curvature. In this type of backpack, the load would directly transfer to the shoulders through the non-flexible straps, helpful in preventing damage of long term backpack carrying. This non-flexible structure also diminishes the momentum at the lumbar region of the back. The strap curvature would be shaped closely to normal spine curvature, with two flexible drawstrings to minimize backpack movement along the transverse plane. The straps of this backpack would be wide enough to distribute the pressure on the shoulders, with an internal white glass wool layer to absorb dynamic forces from movement. This backpack type is experimental, needing further development before usage.