title: Operation Citadel

text: The offensive continued in the southern part with the launch of Operation Roland on 14 July. But after three days, on 17 July, the II SS Panzer Corps was ordered to end its offensive operations and begin withdrawing. This marked the end of Operation Roland. One of the panzer corps' divisions was transferred to Italy and the other two were sent south to meet new Soviet offensives. The strength of the Soviet reserve formations had been greatly underestimated by German intelligence, and the Red Army soon went onto the offensive. In his post-war apologist memoirs "Lost Victories", Manstein was highly critical of Hitler's decision to call off the operation at the height of the tactical battle. The veracity of Manstein's claims of a near victory is debatable. The extent of Soviet reserves was far greater than he realised. These reserves were used to re-equip the mauled 5th Guards Tank Army, which launched Operation Rumyantsev a couple of weeks later. The result was a battle of attrition for which the Germans were ill-prepared and which they had little chance of winning.


title: Operation Citadel

text: During Operation Citadel, Luftwaffe units in the area made 27,221 flying sorties with 193 combat losses (0.709% loss rate per sortie). Soviet units from 5 July to 8 July made 11,235 flying sorties with combat losses of 556 aircraft (4.95% per sortie). From a tactical perspective this might have been viewed as a success for the Germans, as they were surely destroying Soviet armor and aircraft with a better kill ratio of 1:6. The problem was that then the Germans were lacking strategic reserves when Western air power began viciously devastating the Luftwaffe and penetrating into Italy. By the fall of 1943 just 25% of Luftwaffe day fighters were in the Eastern Front, ending any hopes of German air superiority in the east.


title: Recluse spider

text: The recluse spiders ("Loxosceles" (), also known as brown spiders, fiddle-backs, violin spiders, and reapers, is a genus of spiders that was first described by R. T. Lowe in 1832. They are venomous spiders known for their bite, which sometimes produces a characteristic set of symptoms known as loxoscelism.


title: Recluse spider

text: Recluse spiders are now identified as members of the family Sicariidae, having formerly been placed in their own family, the Loxoscelidae. Although recluse spiders are feared, they are usually not aggressive.


title: Recluse spider

text: Sicariidae are of the superfamily Scytodoidea. Other families in the Scytodoidea include Drymusidae, Scytodidae, and Periegopidae.


title: Recluse spider

text: "Loxosceles" is distributed nearly worldwide in warmer areas. All have six eyes arranged in three groups of two (dyads) and some are brownish with a darker brown characteristic violin marking on the cephalothorax. However, the "violin marking" cannot be used as a reliable way to identify the spider as many unrelated species of spider have similar markings. Recluses are typically about 7–12 mm long.


title: Recluse spider

text: The most common and most famous species in the United States is the brown recluse spider ("Loxosceles reclusa"). It is found in a large area of the Midwest, west to Colorado and the New Mexico state line and east to northern Georgia. Sporadic records from other locations only represent incidental introductions, not established populations. The brown recluse feeds on whatever small prey is available, and has been observed to prefer scavenging over actively hunting. Other notable members of this genus include the Chilean recluse spider ("L. laeta") and the Mediterranean recluse spider ("L. rufescens").


title: Recluse spider

text: Recently, concerns have been raised regarding recluses spreading faster due to warmer air carrying them farther as a result of changing climate. On the contrary, newly hatched recluses do not travel via ballooning and thus the populations are confined to very tight spaces with dense populations. Most "Loxosceles" can live for one and a half to two years. Many species of this genus can live for very long times without food or water. Insecticides often fail to kill the spider, instead intoxicating its nervous system and inducing erratic behavior.


title: Recluse spider

text: This genus is very hard to identify, as they have very simple coloration and morphology. Many other spiders have similar dorsal markings, leading to confusion and misidentification. They can be most readily distinguished by having 6 eyes, arranged in three pairs. None of the pairs of eyes touch each other, and are arranged in a U shape. The presence of two claws per foot and a rather flat cephalothorax further help distinguish them.


title: Recluse spider

text: "Loxosceles" spiders, like "Hexophthalma" species, have potent tissue-destroying venoms containing the dermonecrotic agent which is otherwise found only in a few pathogenic bacteria. Recent research has indicated the venom is composed largely of sulfated nucleosides, though these compounds are relatively new discoveries, so little is known about them. The venom of several species is capable of producing necrotic lesions that are slow to heal and may require skin grafts. Rarely, the venom is carried by the bloodstream, causing red blood cell destruction.


title: Recluse spider

text: The venom is identical in male and female spiders, but females can have almost twice the concentration of toxins. For unknown reasons, the toxicity of the venom to mammalian species varies; recluse bites may cause necrosis in humans, rabbits, and guinea pigs, but not in mice or rats.


title: Recluse spider

text: The Chilean recluse ("L. laeta") supposedly has a more potent venom, which results in systemic involvement more often. All "Loxosceles" species that have been tested have venoms similar to that of the brown recluse, and all should be avoided. In general, though, they are not aggressive and commonly occupy human dwellings without causing problems.


title: Recluse spider

text: Many types of skin wounds are mistaken for or assumed to be the result of a recluse spider bite. Several diseases can mimic the lesions of the bite, including Lyme disease, various fungal and bacterial infections, and the first sore of syphilis. It is important to associate the spider directly with the bite to avoid improper treatment, and to successfully treat common infections or other conditions if no spider was seen.


title: Recluse spider

text: Bites most often occur as a defense when the spider is trapped against the skin, in clothing, for example. The total volume of venom is minute (only 2 micrograms injected out of 4 microliters in the venom glands).


title: Recluse spider

text: it contains 143 species, found in Central America, the Caribbean, Oceania, Asia, Africa, North America, Europe, and South America:


title: Daly City, California

text: Daly City () is the second most populous city in San Mateo County, California, United States, with population of 104,901 according to the 2020 census. Located in the San Francisco Bay Area, and immediately south of San Francisco (sharing its northern border with almost all of San Francisco's southern border), it is named for businessman and landowner John Donald Daly.


title: Daly City, California

text: Archaeological evidence suggests the San Francisco Bay Area has been inhabited as early as 2700 BC. People of the Ohlone language group probably occupied Northern California from at least the year A.D. 500. Though their territory had been claimed by Spain since the early 16th century, they would have relatively little contact with Europeans until 1769, when, as part of an effort to colonize Alta California, an exploration party led by Don Gaspar de Portolá learned of the existence of San Francisco Bay. Seven years later, in 1776, an expedition led by Juan Bautista de Anza selected the site for the Presidio of San Francisco, which José Joaquín Moraga would soon establish. Later the same year, the Franciscan missionary Francisco Palóu founded the Mission San Francisco de Asís (Mission Dolores). As part of the founding, the priests claimed the land south of the mission for sixteen miles for raising crops and for fodder for cattle and sheep. In 1778, the priests and soldiers marked out a trail to connect San Francisco to the rest of California. At the top of Mission Hill, the priests named the gap between San Bruno Mountain and the hills on the coast "La Portezuela" ("The Little Door"). La Portezuela was later referred to as Daly's Hill, the Center of Daly City, and is now called Top of the Hill.


title: Daly City, California

text: During Spanish rule, the area between San Bruno Mountain and the Pacific remained uninhabited. Upon independence from Spain, prominent Mexican citizens were granted land parcels to establish large ranches, three of which covered areas now in Daly City and Colma. Rancho Buri Buri was granted to Jose Sanchez in 1835 and covered including parts of modern-day Colma, Burlingame, San Bruno, South San Francisco, and Millbrae. Rancho Laguna de la Merced was acres and covered the area around a lake of the same name. The third ranch covering parts of the Daly City–Colma area was named Rancho Cañada de Guadalupe la Visitación y Rodeo Viejo and stretched from the Visitacion Valley area in San Francisco, to the city of South San Francisco covering .


title: Daly City, California

text: Following the Mexican Cession of California at the end of the Mexican–American War the owners of Rancho Laguna de La Merced tried to claim land between San Bruno Mountain and Lake Merced. An 1853 US government survey declared that the contested area was in fact government property and could be acquired by private citizens. There was a brief land rush as settlers, mainly Irish established ranches and farms in parts of what is now the neighborhoods of Westlake, Serramonte, and the cities of Colma and Pacifica. A decade later, several families left as increase in the fog density killed grain and potato crops. The few remaining families switched to dairy and cattle farming as a more profitable enterprise. In the late 19th century as San Francisco grew and San Mateo County was established, Daly City also gradually grew including homes and schools along the lines for the Southern Pacific railroad. Daly City served as a location where San Franciscans would cross over county lines to gamble and fight. As tensions built in approach to the American Civil War, California was divided between pro-slavery, and Free Soil advocates. Two of the main figures in the debate were US Senator David C. Broderick, a Free Soil advocate, and David S. Terry, who was in favor of extension of slavery into California. Quarreling and political fighting between the two eventually led to a duel in the Lake Merced area at which Terry mortally wounded Broderick, who would die three days later. The site of the duel is marked with two granite shafts where the men stood, and is designated as California Historical Landmark number 19.


title: Daly City, California

text: On the morning of April 18, 1906, a major earthquake struck just off the coast of Daly City near Mussel Rock. After quake and subsequent fire destroyed many San Franciscans homes, they left to temporary housing on the ranches of the area to the south, including the large one owned by John Daly. Daly had come to the Bay Area in 1853 where he had worked on a dairy farm, and after several years married his bosses' daughter and acquired at the Top of the Hill area. Over the years Daly's business grew, as did his political clout. When a flood of refugees from the quake came, Daly and other local farmers donated milk and other food items. Daly later subdivided his property, from which several housing tracts emerged.


title: Daly City, California

text: As some of the refugees established homes in the area, the need for city services grew. This, combined with the fear of annexation by San Francisco and being ignored by San Mateo County, whose seat far to the south left residents feeling ignored, created a demand for incorporation. The first such attempt was proposed in 1908 for incorporation as the city of Vista Grande. Vista Grande would have spanned from the Pacific to the Bay, with San Francisco as its northern border and South San Francisco and the old Rancho Buri Buri as its southern border. The proposal was rejected over the scope of the planned city, which was too broad for many residents. The initial proposal also revealed rifts in the community among the various regions, including the area around the cemeteries, who were excluded from further plans of incorporation. On January 16, 1911, an incorporation committee filed a petition with San Mateo County supervisors to incorporate the City of Daly City. The city would run from San Francisco along the San Bruno Hills until Price and School streets with San Francisco and west to the summit of the San Bruno Hills. The city would have an estimated population of 2,900. On March 18, 1911, a special election was held, with incorporation narrowly succeeding by a vote of 132 to 130.


title: Daly City, California

text: It remained a relatively small community until the late 1940s, when developer Henry Doelger established Westlake, a major district of homes and businesses, including the Westlake Shopping Center. Beginning in the 1950's Filipino Americans began to purchase homes east of Junipero Serra Boulevard, as they were barred from the Westlake development due to racial covenants. On March 22, 1957, Daly City was again the epicenter of an earthquake, this one a 5.3 magnitude quake on the San Andreas Fault, which caused some structural damage in Westlake and closed State Route 1 along the Westlake Palisades. In 1963, Daly City annexed the city of Bayshore. The Cow Palace, located in Bayshore and now within the city limits of Daly City, was the site of the following year's Republican National Convention. The Daly City BART station opened on September 11, 1972, providing northern San Mateo County with rail service to downtown San Francisco and other parts of the Bay Area. The line was extended south to Colma in 1996 and then to Millbrae and the San Francisco International Airport in 2003.


title: Daly City, California

text: In October 1984, Taiwanese American writer Henry Liu was assassinated in his garage in Daly City, allegedly by Kuomintang agents.


title: Daly City, California

text: On April 7, 2021, Roger Allen, a black man from San Francisco, was killed by police. Allen was sitting in the passenger seat of a truck with a blown tire. The police investigated, and while the driver was out of the truck arranging with the police to have a tow truck called, another officer spotted what appeared to be a handgun in Allen's lap. Police attempted to seize the weapon, actually a replica BB gun, and Allen resisted. He was shot after an officer was shot in the face.


title: Daly City, California

text: Daly City is bordered by the cities of San Francisco, Brisbane, Pacifica, South San Francisco, and the town of Colma. The city borders several unincorporated areas of San Mateo County. It surrounds Broadmoor, and borders San Bruno Mountain State Park, the Olympic Club, Lake Merced, and unincorporated areas near Colma. Seismic faults in and near Daly City include the San Andreas Fault, Hillside Fault and Serra Fault.


title: Daly City, California

text: Neighborhoods of Daly City include Westlake, St. Francis Heights, Serramonte, Top of the Hill, Hillside, Crocker, Southern Hills, and Bayshore. Westlake is notable for its distinct architecture and for being among the earliest examples of a planned, large-tract suburb. It was the inspiration for Malvina Reynolds' 1962 song "Little Boxes", and later a coffee-table book and documentary "Little Boxes: The Architecture of a Classic Midcentury Suburb". Bayshore, the easternmost neighborhood of Daly City, was once an incorporated city, Bayshore City, until being annexed to Daly City in 1963. Several Daly City neighborhoods, such as Crocker, Southern Hills, and Bayshore, share a street grid and similar characteristics with adjacent San Francisco neighborhoods, such as Crocker-Amazon and Visitacion Valley.


title: Daly City, California

text: Several neighborhoods associated with Daly City lie outside of its city limits. Broadmoor is an unincorporated area completely surrounded by Daly City. Colma is an incorporated town sandwiched between Daly City, South San Francisco, and San Bruno Mountain. These enclaves are in charge of their own police and fire services, but also share some services with Daly City.


title: Daly City, California

text: Daly City's climate is similar to San Francisco's climate, with fog occurring in the spring and early-late summer. Summers are cool and dry, whereas winters are mild and wet.


title: Daly City, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that Daly City had a population of 101,123. The population density was , placing it 291st in population, among the top 50 in density when smaller populations are included, and 9th in density amongst cities with over 100,000 people.


title: Daly City, California

text: The racial makeup of Daly City was 56,267 (55.6%) Asian, 23,842 (23.6%) White, 3,600 (3.6%) African American, 805 (0.8%) Pacific Islander, 404 (0.4%) Native American, 11,236 (11.1%) from other races, and 4,969 (4.9%) from two or more races.


title: Daly City, California

text: Among the total population of Daly City, 33.2% were Filipino, 15.4% Chinese, 1.8% Burmese, 1.0% Vietnamese, 0.6% Indian, 0.6% Korean, 0.6% Japanese, 0.2% Indonesian, and 0.2% were Thai. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 23,929 persons (23.7%); 9.4% of Daly City's population is of Mexican origin; 4.9% is of Salvadoran, 2.7% Nicaraguan, 1.3% Guatemalan, 0.7% Peruvian, 0.7% Puerto Rican, and 0.5% Honduran heritage.


title: Daly City, California

text: The Census reported that 100,442 people (99.3% of the population) lived in households, 273 (0.3%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 408 (0.4%) were institutionalized.


title: Daly City, California

text: There were 31,090 households, out of which 11,050 (35.5%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 15,883 (51.1%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 4,667 (15.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 2,238 (7.2%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,632 (5.2%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 293 (0.9%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 5,855 households (18.8%) were made up of individuals, and 2,136 (6.9%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.23. There were 22,788 families (73.3% of all households); the average family size was 3.63.


title: Daly City, California

text: The population was spread out, with 19,614 people (19.4%) under the age of 18, 10,506 people (10.4%) aged 18 to 24, 29,663 people (29.3%) aged 25 to 44, 27,717 people (27.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 13,623 people (13.5%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.3 males.


title: Daly City, California

text: There were 32,588 housing units at an average density of , of which 17,565 (56.5%) were owner-occupied, and 13,525 (43.5%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.9%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.2%. 58,239 people (57.6% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 42,203 people (41.7%) lived in rental housing units.


title: Daly City, California

text: As of 2010 census figures, 40.7% of Daly City residents are of Filipino descent, the highest concentration of Filipino/Filipino Americans of any mid-sized city in North America. This partly explains Daly City's place in the vernacular as the "Pinoy Capital". Benito M. Vergara Jr. goes into the details of this history in his ethnography "Pinoy Capital: The Filipino Nation in Daly City".


title: Daly City, California

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 101,514 people, 29,843 households, and 21,847 families residing in the city. The population density was , making it among the most densely populated cities in the country. There were 31,876 housing units at an average density of .


title: Daly City, California

text: There were 29,843 households, out of which 35.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.5% were married couples living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.0% were non-families. Of all households 22.1% were made up of individuals, and 5.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 4.34 and the average family size was 4.78.


title: Daly City, California

text: In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 25.5% under the age of 18, 11.5% from 18 to 24, 32.2% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 10.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.3 males.


title: Daly City, California

text: The median income for a household in the city was $60,310, and the median income for a family was $66,365. Males had a median income of $36,227 versus $34,147 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,900. About 5.2% of families and 9.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.4% of those under age 18 and 6.3% of those age 65 or over.


title: Daly City, California

text: The Cow Palace arena grounds straddle the border with San Francisco and is the home for the annual Grand National Rodeo, Horse & Stock Show. It has hosted diverse events such as concerts by the Beatles, the now-Golden State Warriors and their early appearances in the NBA Finals, the NHL San Jose Sharks hockey team, two short-lived minor league hockey teams (the IHL San Francisco Spiders and ECHL San Francisco Bulls), and two Republican National Conventions (in 1956 and 1964).


title: Daly City, California

text: Century 20 Daly City is a modern megaplex movie theatre opened in 2002 as part of the Pacific Plaza business and retail development.


title: Daly City, California

text: Several golf courses are located within or straddle the border with San Francisco. The Olympic Club has hosted the USGA U.S. Open five times, most recently in 2012, and will host both the 2028 PGA Championship and the 2032 Ryder Cup. The private San Francisco Golf Club and Lake Merced Golf Club have part or all of their course in Daly City. The Golden Gate National Recreation Area includes the city's Thornton Beach. The topography of this area (due to the San Andreas fault) is conducive to paragliding and hang gliding.


title: Daly City, California

text: Daly City and neighboring Colma have emerged as shopping meccas for San Francisco residents. A combination of plentiful free parking space (compared to the constrained and expensive parking options in San Francisco) and San Mateo County's historically slightly lower state sales tax rate have contributed to this trend. Many big box retailers that are unable to operate in San Francisco due to real estate prices, space restrictions, or political / community opposition have opened stores in the Serramonte and Westlake neighborhoods. Daly City's shopping centers are Serramonte Center and Westlake Shopping Center.


title: Daly City, California

text: In the California State Legislature, Daly City is in , and in . In the United States House of Representatives, Daly City is in .


title: Daly City, California

text: The city council of Daly City is a five-member body composed of Mayor Dr. Rod Daus-Magbual, Vice Mayor Raymond A. Buenaventura, and Council members Pamela DiGiovanni, Juslyn C. Manalo, and Glenn R. Sylvester.


title: Daly City, California

text: According to the California Secretary of State, as of February 10, 2019, Daly City has 46,684 registered voters. Of those, 24,175 (51.8%) are registered Democrats, 4,479 (9.6%) are registered Republicans, and 16,487 (35.3%) have declined to state a political party.


title: Daly City, California

text: There are several public school districts in Daly City. The largest are the Jefferson Elementary School District and Jefferson Union High School District, both of which are headquartered in the city. In addition, there is the Bayshore Elementary School District (two schools), Brisbane School District (Panorama School in Daly City), and South San Francisco Unified School District (two schools in Daly City). Daly City has two high schools: Westmoor High School and Jefferson High School, plus a continuation school, Thornton High School and an adult school, Jefferson Adult Education. Daly City is also home to two Catholic parochial schools: Our Lady of Perpetual Help on Top-of-the-Hill and Our Lady of Mercy in Westlake. The city has four Peninsula Library System branches.


title: Daly City, California

text: Daly City's highway infrastructure includes State Routes 1, 35, and 82, and Interstate 280. Interstate 280, which bisects Daly City, is a primary transportation corridor linking San Francisco with San Mateo and Santa Clara counties.


title: Daly City, California

text: Daly City is a major hub for public transit. Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) serves Daly City at a namesake station as well as at Colma Station, which abuts the Daly City limits). In the 1980s planning was conducted for the BART extension south from San Francisco, the first step being the Daly City Tailtrack Project, upon which turnaround project the San Francisco Airport Extension would later build. Daly City station is the terminus of BART's Blue and Green lines, and the furthermost point in the BART network where every destination in the system can be reached without a transfer during normal hours.


title: Daly City, California

text: In addition to BART, Daly City station serves as the northern terminus of samTrans' ECR route and southern terminus of Muni's 14 Mission Rapid.


title: Daly City, California

text: Since 2016, the San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency has expressed interest in extending the Muni Metro to Daly City by extending the M Ocean View line, presently terminating at Balboa Park station.


title: Corpus luteum

text: The corpus luteum (Latin for "yellow body"; plural corpora lutea) is a temporary endocrine structure in female ovaries involved in the production of relatively high levels of progesterone, and moderate levels of estradiol, and inhibin A. It is the remains of the ovarian follicle that has released a mature ovum during a previous ovulation.


title: Corpus luteum

text: The corpus luteum is colored as a result of concentrating carotenoids (including lutein) from the diet and secretes a moderate amount of estrogen that inhibits further release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and thus secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). A new corpus luteum develops with each menstrual cycle.


title: Corpus luteum

text: The corpus luteum develops from an ovarian follicle during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle or oestrous cycle, following the release of a secondary oocyte from the follicle during ovulation. The follicle first forms a corpus hemorrhagicum before it becomes a corpus luteum, but the term refers to the visible collection of blood, left after rupture of the follicle, that secretes progesterone. While the oocyte (later the zygote if fertilization occurs) traverses the Fallopian tube into the uterus, the corpus luteum remains in the ovary.


title: Corpus luteum

text: The corpus luteum is typically very large relative to the size of the ovary; in humans, the size of the structure ranges from under 2 cm to 5 cm in diameter.


title: Corpus luteum

text: Its cells develop from the follicular cells surrounding the ovarian follicle. The follicular theca cells luteinize into small luteal cells (thecal-lutein cells) and follicular granulosa cells luteinize into large luteal cells (granulosal-lutein cells) forming the corpus luteum. Progesterone is synthesized from cholesterol by both the large and small luteal cells upon luteal maturation. Cholesterol-LDL complexes bind to receptors on the plasma membrane of luteal cells and are internalized. Cholesterol is released and stored within the cell as cholesterol ester. LDL is recycled for further cholesterol transport. Large luteal cells produce more progesterone due to uninhibited/basal levels of protein kinase A (PKA) activity within the cell. Small luteal cells have LH receptors that regulate PKA activity within the cell. PKA actively phosphorylates steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and translocator protein to transport cholesterol from the outer mitochondrial membrane to the inner mitochondrial membrane.


title: Corpus luteum

text: The development of the corpus luteum is accompanied by an increase in the level of the steroidogenic enzyme P450scc that converts cholesterol to pregnenolone in the mitochondria. Pregnenolone is then converted to progesterone that is secreted out of the cell and into the blood stream. During the bovine estrous cycle, plasma levels of progesterone increase in parallel to the levels of P450scc and its electron donor adrenodoxin, indicating that progesterone secretion is a result of enhanced expression of P450scc in the corpus luteum.


title: Corpus luteum

text: The mitochondrial P450 system electron transport chain including adrenodoxin reductase and adrenodoxin has been shown to leak electrons leading to the formation of superoxide radical. Apparently to cope with the radicals produced by this system and by enhanced mitochondrial metabolism, the levels of antioxidant enzymes catalase and superoxide dismutase also increase in parallel with the enhanced steroidogenesis in the corpus luteum.


title: Corpus luteum

text: Like the previous theca cells, the theca lutein cells lack the aromatase enzyme that is necessary to produce estrogen, so they can only perform steroidogenesis until formation of androgens. The granulosa lutein cells do have aromatase, and use it to produce estrogens, using the androgens previously synthesized by the theca lutein cells, as the granulosa lutein cells in themselves do not have the 17α-hydroxylase or 17,20 lyase to produce androgens.


title: Corpus luteum

text: The corpus luteum is essential for establishing and maintaining pregnancy in females. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which is a steroid hormone responsible for the decidualization of the endometrium (its development) and maintenance, respectively. It also produces relaxin, a hormone responsible for softening of the pubic symphysis which helps in parturition.


title: Corpus luteum

text: If the egg is not fertilised, the corpus luteum stops secreting progesterone and decays (after approximately 10 days in humans). It then degenerates into a corpus albicans, which is a mass of fibrous scar tissue.


title: Corpus luteum

text: The uterine lining (endometrium) is expelled through the vagina (in mammals that go through a menstrual cycle). In an estrous cycle, the lining regenerates back to normal size.


title: Corpus luteum

text: If the egg is fertilised and implantation occurs, the syncytiotrophoblast (derived from trophoblast) cells of the blastocyst secrete the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG, or a similar hormone in other species) by day 9 post-fertilisation.


title: Corpus luteum

text: Human chorionic gonadotropin signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick lining (endometrium) of the uterus and providing an area rich in blood vessels in which the zygote(s) can develop. From this point on, the corpus luteum is called the "corpus luteum graviditatis".


title: Corpus luteum

text: The introduction of prostaglandins at this point causes the degeneration of the corpus luteum and the abortion of the fetus. However, in placental animals such as humans, the placenta eventually takes over progesterone production and the corpus luteum degrades into a corpus albicans without embryo/fetus loss.


title: Corpus luteum

text: Luteal support refers to the administration of medication (generally progestins) for the purpose of increasing the success of implantation and early embryogenesis, thereby complementing the function of the corpus luteum.


title: Corpus luteum

text: The yellow color and name of the corpus luteum, like that of the macula lutea of the retina, is due to its concentration of certain carotenoids, especially lutein. In 1968, a report indicated that beta-carotene was synthesized in laboratory conditions in slices of corpus luteum from cows. However, attempts have been made to replicate these findings, but have not succeeded. The idea is not presently accepted by the scientific community. Rather, the corpus luteum concentrates carotenoids from the diet of the mammal.


title: Corpus luteum

text: Similar structures and functions of the corpus luteum exist in some reptiles. Dairy cattle also follow a similar cycle.


title: Cremona

text: Cremona (, ; ; ; ) is a city and "comune" in northern Italy, situated in Lombardy, on the left bank of the Po river in the middle of the "Pianura Padana" (Po Valley). It is the capital of the province of Cremona and the seat of the local city and province governments. The city of Cremona is especially noted for its musical history and traditions, including some of the earliest and most renowned luthiers, such as Giuseppe Guarneri, Antonio Stradivari, Francesco Rugeri, Vincenzo Rugeri, and several members of the Amati family.


title: Cremona

text: Cremona is first mentioned in history as a settlement of the Cenomani, a Gallic (Celtic) tribe that arrived in the Po valley around 400 BC. However, the name Cremona most likely dates back to earlier settlers and puzzled the ancients, who gave many fanciful interpretations.


title: Cremona

text: In 218 BC the Romans established on that spot their first military outpost (a colonia) north of the Po river, and kept the old name. Cremona and nearby Placentia (modern Piacenza, on the south bank of the Po), were founded in the same year, as bases for penetration into what became the Roman Province of "Gallia Cisalpina" (Cisalpine Gaul).


title: Cremona

text: Cremona quickly grew into one of the largest towns in northern Italy, as it was on the main road connecting Genoa to Aquileia, the Via Postumia. It supplied troops to Julius Caesar and benefited from his rule, but later supported Marcus Iunius Brutus and the Senate in their conflict with Augustus, who, having won, in 40 BC confiscated Cremona's land and redistributed it to his men. The famous poet Virgil, who went to school in Cremona, had to forfeit his ancestral farm ("too close to wretched Cremona"), but later regained it.


title: Cremona

text: The city's prosperity continued to increase until 69 AD, when it was sacked and destroyed in the Second Battle of Bedriacum by the troops of Vespasian under command of Marcus Antonius Primus, fighting to install him as Emperor against his rival Vitellius.


title: Cremona

text: Cremona was rebuilt with the help of the new emperor Vespasian, but it seems to have failed to regain its former prosperity as it disappeared from history.


title: Cremona

text: In the 6th century, it resurfaced as a military outpost of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire during the Gothic War.


title: Cremona

text: When the Lombards invaded much of Italy in the second half of the 6th century AD, Cremona remained a Byzantine stronghold as part of the Exarchate of Ravenna. The city expanded towards the north-west, with the creation of a great trenched camp outside the walls.


title: Cremona

text: In 603 AD, Cremona was conquered by the Lombard King Agilulf and again destroyed. Its territory was divided between the two duchies of Brescia and Bergamo.


title: Cremona

text: However, in 615 AD, Queen Theodelinda, a devout Roman Catholic intent on converting her people, had Cremona rebuilt and re-installed a bishop there.


title: Cremona

text: Control of the city fell increasingly to its bishop, who became a Holy Roman Empire vassal after Charlemagne's conquest of Italy. In this way, Cremona increased its power and its prosperity steadily and some of its bishops had important roles between the 10th and 11th centuries. Bishop Liutprand of Cremona was a member of the Imperial court under the Saxony dynasty and Olderic gained strong privileges for his city from emperor Otto III. Its economy was boosted by the creation of a river port out of the former Byzantine fortress.


title: Cremona

text: However, the two bishops Lambert and Ubaldo created discord with the city's people. Emperor Conrad II settled the quarrel by entering Cremona in 1037 together with the young Pope Benedict IX.


title: Cremona

text: Under Henry IV, Cremona refused to pay the oppressive taxes requested by the Empire and the bishop. According to a legend, the great "gonfaloniere" (mayor) Giovanni Baldesio of Cremona faced the emperor himself in a duel. As Henry was knocked from his horse, the city was saved the annual payment of the golden ball, which, for that year, was instead given to Berta, Giovanni's girlfriend, as her dowry.


title: Cremona

text: The first historical news about a free Cremona is from 1093, as it entered into an anti-Empire alliance led by Mathilde of Canossa, together with Lodi, Milan and Piacenza. The conflict ended with the defeat of Henry IV and his famous humiliation of Canossa to Pope Urban II in 1098. Cremona gained the "Insula Fulcheria", the area around the nearby city of Crema, as its territory.


title: Cremona

text: After that time, the new commune warred against nearby cities to enlarge its territory. In 1107 Cremona conquered Tortona, but four years later its army was defeated near Bressanoro.


title: Cremona

text: As in many northern Italian cities, the people were divided into two opposing parties, the Guelphs, who were stronger in the "new city", and the Ghibellines, who had their base in the "old city". The parties were so irreconcilable that the former built a second Communal Palace, the still existing Palazzo Cittanova ("new city's palace").


title: Cremona

text: When Frederick Barbarossa descended into Italy to assert his authority, Cremona sided with him in order to gain his support against Crema, which had rebelled with the help of Milan. The subsequent victory and its loyal imperial stance earned Cremona the right to create a mint for its own coinage in 1154.


title: Cremona

text: However, in 1167 the city changed sides and joined the Lombard League. Its troops were part of the army that, on 29 May 1176, defeated Barbarossa in the Battle of Legnano. However, the Lombard League did not survive this victory for long. In 1213, at Castelleone, the Cremonese defeated the League of Milan, Lodi, Crema, Novara, Como and Brescia.


title: Cremona

text: In 1232, Cremona allied itself with Emperor Frederick II, who was again trying to reassert the Empire's authority over Northern Italy. In the Battle of Cortenuova, the Cremonese were on the winning side. Thereafter Frederick often held his court in the city.


title: Cremona

text: In the Battle of Parma, however, the Ghibellines suffered a heavy defeat and up to two thousand Cremonese were made prisoners. Some years later, Cremona took its vengeance by defeating Parma's army. Its army, under the command of Umberto Pallavicino, captured Parma's carroccio and for centuries kept the enemy's trousers hanging from the Cathedral's ceiling as a sign of the rival's humiliation.


title: Cremona

text: In 1301 the troubadour Luchetto Gattilusio was podestà of Cremona. During this period Cremona flourished and reached a population of up to 80,000, larger than the 69,000 of 2001.


title: Cremona

text: In 1266, Pallavicino was expelled from Cremona, and the Ghibelline rule ended after his successor Buoso da Dovara relinquished control to a consortium of citizens. In 1271 the position of "Capitano del Popolo" ("People's Chieftain") was created.


title: Cremona

text: In 1276 the Signoria passed to marquis Cavalcabò Cavalcabò; in 1305 he was succeeded by his son Guglielmo Cavalcabò, who held power until 1310. During this period many edifices were created or restored including the belfry of the Torrazzo, the Romanesque church of San Francis, the cathedral's transepts and the Loggia dei Militi. Moreover, agriculture was boosted with a new network of canals.


title: Cremona

text: After some foreign invasions (notably that of Emperor Henry VII in 1311), the Cavalcabò lasted until 29 November 1322, when a more powerful family, the Visconti of Galeazzo I, came to prominence that in Cremona was to last for a century and a half. The Visconti's signoria (lordship) was interrupted in 1327 by Ludwig the Bavarian, in 1331 by John of Bohemia, and in 1403 by a short-lived return of the Cavalcabò. On 25 July 1406, captain Cabrino Fondulo killed his employer Ubaldo Cavalcabò along with all the male members of his family, and assumed control over Cremona. However, he was unable to face the task, and ceded the city back to the Visconti for a payment of 40,000 golden florins.


title: Cremona

text: Thus Filippo Maria Visconti made his signoria hereditary. Cremona became part of the Duchy of Milan, following its fate until the unification of Italy. Under the Visconti and later the Sforza, Cremona underwent high cultural and religious development. In 1411 Palazzo Cittanova become the seat of the university of fustian merchants.


title: Cremona

text: In 1441 the city hosted the marriage of Francesco I Sforza and Bianca Maria Visconti in the temple built by the Benedictines, which today is the church of Saint Sigismund. For that occasion a new sweet was devised, which evolved into the famous torrone. Ludovico il Moro assisted in the financing of several building projects for the cathedral, the church of St. Agatha and the Communal Palace.


title: Cremona

text: In 1446, Cremona was encircled by the condottieri troops of Francesco Piccinino and Luigi dal Verme. The siege was raised after the arrival of Scaramuccia da Forlì from Venice.


title: Cremona

text: However, Cremona was assigned to Spain under the Treaty of Noyon (1513). Cremona fell to the new rulers only in 1524 when the Castle of Santa Croce surrendered. The French were finally expelled from the duchy two years later, with the Treaty of Madrid, and subsequently Cremona remained a Spanish dominion for many years. During that time several building improvements or additions were made, including the Loggia of the cathedral's Porch by Lorenzo Trotti (1550) and the new church of San Siro and Sepolcro by Antonio Gialdini (1614).


title: Cremona

text: The duchy, after a short-lived French conquest in 1701 during the War of the Spanish Succession, passed to Austria on 10 April 1707.


title: Cremona

text: The Cathedral of Cremona with the annexed Baptistery constitutes one of the most notable sites for Romanesque-Gothic art in northern Italy.


title: Cremona

text: The economy of Cremona is deeply linked to the agricultural production of the countryside. Food industries include salted meat, sweets (torrone), vegetable oils, grana padano, provolone and "mostarda" (candied fruit in spicy mustard-flavored syrup, served with meats and cheese). Heavy industries include steel, oil and one electric plant. The river-port is a base for the barges transporting goods along the Po river.


title: Cremona

text: Cremona has a distinguished musical history. The 12th-century cathedral was a focus of organized musical activity in the region in the late Middle Ages. By the 16th century the town had become a famous musical centre. Nowadays there are important "ensembles" for Renaissance and Baroque music, i.e. Choir & Consort "Costanzo Porta", and festivals which maintain Cremona as one of the most important towns in Italy for music. Composer Marc'Antonio Ingegneri taught there; Claudio Monteverdi was his most famous student, before leaving for Mantua in 1591. Cremona was the birthplace of Pierre-Francisque Caroubel, a collaborator with noted German composer Michael Praetorius. The bishop of Cremona, Nicolò Sfondrati, a fervent supporter of the Counter-Reformation, became Pope Gregory XIV in 1590. Since he was an equally fervent patron of music, the renown of the town as a musical destination grew accordingly.


title: Cremona

text: Beginning in the 16th century, Cremona became renowned as a centre of musical instrument manufacture, with the violins of the Amati and Rugeri families, and later the products of the Guarneri and Stradivari workshops. To the present day, their handmade work is widely considered to be the summit of achievement in string instrument making. Cremona is still renowned for producing high-quality instruments, rare examples of which can be seen when visiting the local Museo del Violino. In 2012 the ""Traditional violin craftsmanship in Cremona"" was declared an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO. Internationally, the city's craftsmen are renowned for the unique process used in crafting bowed stringed instruments which are assembled and moulded by hand without using any industrial materials.


title: Cremona

text: Cremona had a band tradition linked to the "Guardia nazionale" founded under Napoleonic influence. In 1864, native son Amilcare Ponchielli became its leader and created what might be considered one of the greatest bands of all time. In his role as "capobanda", Ponchielli founded a band school and a tradition that waned only at the onset of World War I.


title: Cremona

text: Cremona railway station, opened in 1863, is a terminus of six railway lines, all of which are regional (semi-fast) or local services.


title: Cremona

text: Cremona's favourite sport is football. The U.S. Cremonese played for several years in Serie A, its most renowned players being Aristide Guarneri, Emiliano Mondonico, Antonio Cabrini and Gianluca Vialli — all born in or near Cremona. The brightest page in the more than one-century-old history of Cremonese was written in the early 1990s, when the president of the team was Domenico Luzzara and the coach was Gigi Simoni; the team managed to stay in Serie A for three consecutive years, ending one championship at tenth place. By defeating English team Derby County in the Final to win the Anglo-Italian Cup (27 March 1993), Cremonese became the second Italian team in football history to win at Wembley.


title: Cremona

text: Cremona, by the 1980s, had built a strong basketball tradition, now brought on by Vanoli Basket, a team from Soresina which however usually plays in Cremona.


title: Cremona

text: There is a century-old tradition in rowing and canoe racing, with three different clubs, located along the Po river, that trained many world and Olympic champions.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Fashion is a 2008 Indian Hindi-language drama film directed and co-produced by Madhur Bhandarkar starring Priyanka Chopra, Kangana Ranaut and Mugdha Godse in lead roles, and Arjan Bajwa, Samir Soni and Arbaaz Khan in supporting roles. The film's screenplay was co-written by Ajay Monga, Bhandarkar and Anuraadha Tewari and principal photography occurred in Mumbai and Chandigarh. Its music was composed by Salim–Sulaiman and the songs' lyrics were written by Irfan Siddiqui and Sandeep Nath. Development of the film began in 2006 with a budget of .


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: The story revolves around Meghna Mathur, an aspiring fashion model; it follows her transformation from small-town girl to supermodel, the Indian fashion industry and the careers of several other models. "Fashion" also explores feminism and female power in Indian fashion. The cast also features several professional fashion models playing themselves. The film was a turning point in Chopra's career after several consecutive flops prior to this film.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: "Fashion" released on 29 October 2008 to highly positive reviews, with praise for its direction, screenplay, cinematography, soundtrack and performances of the cast, with major praise directed towards Chopra's and Ranaut's performances. In its theatrical run the film performed moderately well grossing globally.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: At the 56th National Film Awards, "Fashion" won 2 awards – Best Actress (Chopra) and Best Supporting Actress (Ranaut). At the 54th Filmfare Awards, the film received 7 nominations including Best Director (Bhandarkar) and Best Female Debut (Godse), and won 2 awards – Best Actress (Chopra) and Best Supporting Actress (Ranaut).


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Since its release, several publications listed "Fashion" as one of the "best women-centric films in Bollywood".


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Aspiring model Meghna Mathur (Priyanka Chopra Jonas) wants to go to Mumbai and become a supermodel. Against her father's wishes who wants her to become a Chartered Accountant, Meghna leaves her home to find success in the modelling world. Meghna meets an old acquaintance, Rohit (Ashwin Mushran)—an aspiring designer who assists Vinay Khosla (Harsh Chhaya). Meghna experiences difficulties during her early days; she auditions several times and is rejected. Meghna meets and befriends another struggling model, Manav (Arjan Bajwa).


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: At Rahul Arora's (Samir Soni) fashion show, Meghna meets supermodel Shonali Gujral (Kangana Ranaut) and is ridiculed by the show's choreographer, Christine, and told to have her portfolio photographed by Kartik (Rohit Roy). To afford Kartik's fees, Meghna shoots a lingerie advertisement; she is mentored by another aspiring model, Janet (Mugdha Godse). Meghna's lingerie photos appear on the cover of a magazine; her relatives in Mumbai see the cover and ask her to leave the house. She moves into an apartment with Manav. Meghna is noticed by Anisha Roy (Kitu Gidwani), an executive at Panache, a major modeling agency. Anisha introduces her to her superior, Abhijit Sarin (Arbaaz Khan), who is impressed by Meghna's ambition and confidence. Panache's top model is Shonali, but her drug abuse becomes problematic. Abhijit includes Meghna in a fashion show organized by Vinay Khosla, but is replaced after a misunderstanding. Abhijit consoles her, and decides to replace Shonali with Meghna as Panache's new top model.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Meghna becomes an overnight success, ends her relationship with Manav and begins an affair with Abhijit. Meanwhile, Janet goes to work for designer Rahul Arora. Rahul's mother becomes increasingly concerned about his sexual orientation so he asks Janet to marry him. Shonali's drug abuse worsens and she attends a rehabilitation clinic. Meghna pays the price of her increasing fame by losing her close friends due to her changed attitude towards them. She becomes pregnant with Abhijit's child, and reluctantly has an abortion due to conditions in her contract. After realizing that she was deceived in her relationship, Meghna tells Abhijit's wife about their relationship, and Abhijit ends Meghna's contract with Panache. Upset at the turn of events, Meghna descends into alcoholism; at a rave party she uses cocaine and unwittingly has a one-night stand. When sober, she feels guilty and returns to her parents in Chandigarh.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Broken and depressed, Meghna lives in Chandigarh for over a year. Her father encourages her to return to Mumbai; Meghna rekindles her friendship with Janet and models for Rohit's show, where she freezes on the ramp after seeing the lights and cameras. She visits Manav (now an established model) to apologize and learns that he is engaged. Shonali appears on television as a mentally ill, homeless alcoholic; Meghna takes her in and tries to rehabilitate her. Meghna accepts an offer from Rahul to be the star model of his show, but a day before the show Shonali vanishes. Just before Meghna walks the ramp, she receives a call from the police telling her that Shonali is dead from a drug overdose. Meghna freezes; overcoming her grief, she walks the ramp, reviving her career and restoring her self-confidence. Meghna gives up drinking and smoking, and as the film closes she walks the ramp in Paris.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: In a 2006 interview with "CNN-IBN", Madhur Bhandarkar said that he was preparing to make a film about the fashion industry; he thought the lack of Indian films on this subject prompted him to do so. He said he was fascinated with the industry, the models and their lives outside the ramp walks, saying "I was amazed at the overwhelming attention given to the fashion industry by the media and the public. I thought the idea of delving deep into the fashion world was very interesting and intriguing." He was excited about depicting the people behind the ramp because most people are unfamiliar with the fashion world.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Bhandarkar, who is known for studying his subject matter to make his films as realistic as possible, researched the fashion industry for nearly eight months, attending fashion events and shows. He spoke with designers, buyers, choreographers and models. Several media publications reported that the film was inspired by the lives of fashion models such as Shivani Kapur, Geetanjali Nagpal, Kate Moss and Alicia Raut; however, Bhandarkar stated that the story is fictional and does not resemble anyone's life. The media also reported that the film revolved around two homosexual fashion designers; Bhandarkar denied these rumours, saying the film did not revolve around male characters but had female protagonists.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Casting began in October 2007, when Priyanka Chopra signed to play the lead role in the film. Chopra initially refused the role, feeling she would not be able to do it justice. 6 months later, she agreed to appear in the film because of Bhandarkar's confidence in her. The media reported that Chopra was unhappy with the first draft of the film and wanted script changes before signing the film. Bhandarkar was also unhappy with the first draft and agreed to rewrite the script. Kangana Ranaut was cast as the film's second lead; she was pleased with the script and found it challenging, interesting and exciting. In December 2007, Arbaaz Khan and Arjan Bajwa were cast opposite Chopra. After confirming the principal cast, the media reported that Bhandarkar was having difficulty casting the male roles, including that of a homosexual clothing designer. Samir Soni and Harsh Chhaya were cast as the homosexual designers, and model Mugdha Godse was cast in a parallel lead role alongside Chopra and Ranaut. According to Godse, Bhandarkar offered her a part when they were shooting a jewelery advertisement; a year later, she agreed to appear in the film. The "Hindustan Times" said that several models and designers played themselves, giving the film the appearance of a documentary.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Chopra said she studied method acting to make her character seem real. The actress said that her character is determined and added, "While her father wants her to become an accountant she aspires to become the leading model in fashion industry".<ref name="Chopra/OutlookIndia"></ref> Addressing rumors that the film was an exposé of the fashion industry, she said, "It is nothing like that. Whatever problems that come up to my character in the film are not because of the profession but because of the choices that my character makes in her life". Ranaut said, "In this script my character is such that you get to express you emotions, emotions that you have never delivered before in front of the camera. So when I heard the script, it was something new and much more challenging, more interesting and exciting." Godse said that she accepted her role in the film because she identified with her character, Janet Sequira, whom she described as "outgoing, vibrant, bold and outspoken". Arjan Bajwa described his character, an aspiring fashion model, as uncompromising, achieving success in his own way. Samir Soni found his role as a closeted fashion designer very challenging, requiring research to flesh out the character and his personality. Soni's greatest challenge was to avoid a stereotypical homosexual character, instead subtly expressing his sexuality in his personality and relationships with the film's other characters.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Rita Dhody and Narendra Kumar were chosen to style the film's characters. Dhody said it took nearly two months for UTV and Bhandarkar to persuade her to help design the film; she found the job challenging because she had to make everything as authentic as possible. Chopra had to wear 137 costumes in the film because her character passed through five phases. Initially, she was a "hep" character with brightly colored, matching attire. Her make-up becomes lighter as she becomes a model and later a supermodel. When her career falters, Chopra's look becomes softer, demonstrating her character's lack of concern about her appearance before she returns to Mumbai. According to Dhody, Chopra's look is "very contemporary and a very much today's look, but my idea was to streamline and take it to the classic side [rather] than making it trend-based".


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Ranaut's character was designed to make audiences feel sympathy for her. Dhody gave her short dresses with low necklines, conveying the image of a supermodel comfortable with her body; during her low phase, she is shown in long T-shirts.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Godse, whose character is a failed model, has a carefree look. Dhody said, "Godse's look in the film is a fusion of rock and a grunge to give her the survivor look as a B-grade model, making her more chic and glamorous." She wears low-waisted trousers, chains and ankle boots. Details of jewelery, clothes, color and accessories outline the characters; everything had to be synchronized and complement each other to create an authentic look. Dhody said, "We didn't try to sensationalize it by making it more bling- or costume-based. I had to restrain myself from going overboard due to Bhandarkar's reservations". The film's narrative included 11 character-based ramp shows.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Principal photography commenced in December 2007, and the film was shot extensively in Mumbai. The scene with Ranaut's wardrobe malfunction during a ramp walk was filmed in late January 2008 at Mehboob Studios, Bandra. While filming the scene, only essential cast and crew members—included Bhandarkar and his cinematographer—were present; according to Bhandarkar, it was a sensitive scene and a sensitive issue. Chopra had to gain as a girl from the Punjab, and then lose it as a model; she had five "looks" in the film, connoting the phases through which her character passes. Although the media spread rumours that Chopra was starving herself to reduce her weight to that of a supermodel, she said that her appearance was achieved with two months of training and a disciplined diet. The film's climactic scene in which Chopra walks the ramp at Paris Fashion Week was supposed to be filmed in Paris, with the Eiffel Tower as a backdrop, but Bhandarkar could not shoot there. Instead, the scene uses some footage from the actual fashion show. In mid-August 2008, key scenes with Chopra, Raj Babbar and Kiran Juneja—Chopra's character's parents—were filmed in Chandigarh for authenticity; Bhandarkar said, "we wanted to bring the essence of the city alive in the scenes". The director said the film took about 106 days to complete, compared with his 45-day average.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: "Fashion" is Bhandarkar's fourth women-centric film after "Chandni Bar" (2001), "Page 3" (2005) and "Corporate" (2006) to earn widespread praise for their strong, independent female characters. According to "The Times of India", "Fashion" "is not about cliches alone and manages to transcend them with its moving tale of three women who try to maintain their honor, dignity, [and] identity in a cruel world that spills over with grime behind the glamour. The film not only takes you behind the psychedelic ramp, it travels through the dark inner recesses of the three lead characters, laying bare their strengths and weaknesses; their fears and hopes; their dreams and nightmares". Ananya Bhattacharya of Zee News said that the film "went on to speak volumes about women, their aspirations and the dark side-effects of over-ambition". In an interview with the "Hindustan Times", Chopra said that the film is "an emotional tale and the story of three girls ... [which] shows female bonding in a beautiful way ... ".


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Reviewer Kriti Verma of "Headlines India" said that the movie "shows every bit about the life of models and bring the inside secrets of [the] fashion industry. It has everything—fashion weeks, casting couch, drugs, abuses, gay designers, bitching." Taran Adarsh from "Bollywood Hungama" wrote, "the narrative is inevitably filled with lots of glam-n-glitz moments. The fashion shows, the stunning models, the superb styling, the vibrant colors and the behind the scenes drama is worth every penny spent on the ticket." A reviewer from Sify.com found the film's depiction of fashion industry "superficial"; noting that the film does not talk about the clothing, the creativity, or the passion for work in the fashion industry. However, according to Bhandarkar the film was "not about [the] fashion industry as such. It only has fashion as a backdrop. The film is more about the story of models, designers and people. And it is on aspects like the personal story, the individual story, their ups and downs, their journey that I tried to capture." Critics also said that the film explores drug abuse, homosexuality and gay relationships. Designer Vineet Bahl complained about the male characters, most of whom are portrayed as "gay designers and exploitative agency owners". He said, "Bhandarkar could have done without gross generalizations. It makes the movie shallow and over-dramatic".


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: The film alludes several times to actual incidents, including a scene where Bhandarkar appears at a fashion show to research his upcoming film on the fashion industry. One of the models looking at him says, "Oh that's Madhur Bhandarkar, the realistic filmmaker. Now he is going to expose the fashion world." It is taken from the Bhandarkar's experiences while researching the subjects of his films. "The Indian Express" said that Chopra's character, who indulges in drug and alcohol abuse and undergoes rehabilitation, resembles the life of British-educated model Shivani Kapur, who had similar experiences. The scene in which Ranaut's character's top slips off during a ramp walk resembles the experience of Carol Gracias at the 2006 Lakme Fashion Week.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: The "Fashion" soundtrack album was composed by Salim–Sulaiman and the lyrics were written by Irfan Siddiqui. Sandeep Nath appeared as a guest lyricist for "Fashion Ka Jalwa". The soundtrack contains 4 original songs, 1 theme and 5 remixes. The music was released by Bhandarkar and the cast on 25 September 2008 at the Siddhivinayak Temple in Mumbai. The cast played the film's title song, offering their first CD to Lord Ganesha.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: "Fashion"s soundtrack received positive reviews from critics. "Hindustan Times" rated the album 3.5 out of 5 and said, "It's very hard to find anything wrong with the album. Salim-Suleiman have done a wonderful job as composers and have brought out the essence of the movie in a remarkable way. Irfan has come out with great lyrics and every singer has given his or her best shot". Joginder Tuteja of "Bollywood Hungama" described the album as "a winner all the way", and said, "Madhur Bhandarkar films haven't been known for their music, even though the albums of "Page 3" and "Corporate" still saw some sales on the stands. However, "Fashion" is all set to break the jinx while turning out to be the first Madhur Bhandarkar film ever to boast of a truly mass as well as class appealing score". Sukanya Verma of "Rediff.com" rated the album 3.5 out of 5, and said that the film offers a well-designed mix of trendy tunes and refined melodies.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: The film's trailer was unveiled on 17 July 2008 in Mumbai and was received warmly by critics and audiences. Emphasizing its theme, the lead female cast walked the ramp at fashion shows to promote the film. "Fashion" was also promoted at the Lakme Fashion Week, where Chopra, Ranaut and Godse walked the ramp. Made on a budget of , "Fashion" earned , and before release recouped half its cost from tie-ins with brands including Reebok, Lenovo, Sunsilk and LG Electronics. Products from these brands were showcased in the film and the brands promoted the film in their advertising.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Bhandarkar expressed disappointment about the Censor Board for Film Certification's decision to grant the film an "A" certificate—meant for viewers 18 years or older—instead of the "U/A" certificate that he had expected. His previous films received U/A certification despite adult content. According to them, their new guidelines did not allow "Fashion" a U/A certification. The board was willing to issue a U/A certificate after several cuts; Bhandarkar refused and accepted the A certificate since the scenes in question were crucial to the narrative. Before its release, the Delhi Commission for Women (DCW) asked Bhandarkar to screen the film before its release due to its concern that Ranaut's character was based on Geetanjali Nagpal—a former high-profile fashion model found begging, bedraggled and mentally unbalanced on the streets of Delhi in 2007.<ref name="Buncombe/Indie"></ref> Nagpal was helped by the DCW, which did not want anyone profiting from her life. Bhandarkar narrated a summary of the film's plot at the DCW office, which satisfied the commission that there was no reference to Nagpal. A screening of the film was also held for the commission.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: The film was originally scheduled for release on 14 November 2008, but that would've caused a box office with Chopra's "Dostana" and "Fashion" was released 29 October (Diwali) on 700 screens worldwide. The film was released in a two-disc, NTSC DVD package on 22 December 2008 in all regions. Distributed by Moser Baer Home Videos, one disc contains the film; the other disc has additional content on the making of the film and interviews with the stars and director. VCD and Blu-ray versions were released at the same time. The film's television premiere took place on UTV Movies on 15 March 2009.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: "Fashion" garnered highly positive reviews from critics, with praise for its direction, screenplay, cinematography, soundtrack and performances of the cast.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Kriti Verma of "Headlines India" rated the film 4 out of 5, describing it as "an outstanding film and a must watch for people who visit a theatre for something more than entertainment". Zee News gave the film a rating of 4 out of 5, called it "a must watch" and praised the sets, music, performances and storyline. Nikhat Kazmi rated the film 3.5 out of 5, describing it as " a sensitive parable on bonding and empowerment". Taran Adarsh rated the film 3.5 out of 5, praised the cinematography, screenplay, dialogue, costumes and styling, and called "Fashion" a "hard-hitting film that enlightens you, moves you, motivates and deflates you, even shocks and surprises you and of course, entertains you". Rajeev Masand gave the film a rating of 3 out of 5, and wrote, ""Fashion" is an easy watch because the very subject lends itself to so much interest. Like the director’s own film "Page 3", it is mostly sensational and on several occasions compromises authenticity for the sake of exaggerated drama". He praised the performances of the lead cast, writing that "Chopra turns in a respectable performance, one that will inevitably go down as her best. The truth is, it’s one of those by-the-book characters that she understands only too well and performs just as easily. Ditto for Kangana Ranaut who plays the eccentric superdiva with such a practiced hand, it almost seems like an effortless delivery. It's ... Godse who invests such sincerity into her role, that she makes the character a real flesh and blood person. Kitu Gidwani, as the agency head who mentors our protagonist, Kitu strikes all the right notes, never once slipping out of character."


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: Subhash K. Jha of the "I""ndo-Asian News Service" rated the film 3 out of 5, calling it "a truly outstanding film". He said, "Bhandarkar takes us through a labyrinth of emotions, some devastating in their gut-level directness. But at the end, we come away with a film that gives us something to hold on to permanently even as the characters on screen lose practically everything worth holding on to". Jha also wrote that the sequences between Chopra and Ranaut as the highlights of the film. Gaurav Malani from "The Economic Times" rated the film a 3 out of 5, praised Chopra's performance and wrote, "Chopra's character graph [is] skillfully sketched from an aspiring model to an ambitious showstopper to a brash supermodel and subsequently to a faded manikin, desperate to make her comeback. In each phase her character exudes [a] contrasting gamut of emotions". Khalid Mohamed rated "Fashion" 3 out of 5, called the film a "must-try", and wrote, "Excelling on the catwalk as well as in the moments of self-destruction, Ranaut’s is the terrific, show-stopping performance". Sonia Chopra of "Sify" criticized the film's superficial portrayal of the fashion industry and called the film a superficial take on the lives of models and a dumbed-down version of the workings of the fashion industry. However, she praised the performances.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: "Fashion" opened well at the box office, filling 90–100 percent of seats in most Indian multiplexes. The film competed with the opening of a popular comedy, "Golmaal Returns", but both films were box-office successes. "Fashion" earned approximately on its opening day, the highest for a Madhur Bhandarkar film to date. The film went on to gross at the box office. "Fashion" is noted for being a commercial success despite being a women-centric film without a male lead.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: The National Film Archive of India (NFAI—part of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting of the Government of India), which aims to safeguard the heritage of Indian cinema, preserved "Fashion" with others directed by Bhandarkar, including "Chandni Bar" (2001) and "Page 3" (2005). In 2013, "The Times of India" included the film on its list of "Top 10 path breaking women oriented films of Bollywood". For International Women's Day 2013, Zee News included the film on its list of best women-centric films.


title: Fashion (2008 film)

text: "Fashion" received a number of awards and nominations in categories ranging from the film itself to its direction, screenplay, soundtrack and acting. At 56th National Film Awards, the film won 2 awards: Best Actress (Chopra) and Best Supporting Actress (Ranaut). The film received 7 nominations at the 54th Filmfare Awards, including Best Director (Bhandarkar) and Best Screenplay and won Best Actress (Chopra) and Best Supporting Actress (Ranaut). It was nominated for 6 awards at the 4th Apsara Film & Television Producers Guild Awards, winning 3: Best Actress (Chopra), Best Supporting Actress (Ranaut) and Best Female Debut (Godse).


title: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS, EDX, EDXS or XEDS), sometimes called energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDXA or EDAX) or energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis (EDXMA), is an analytical technique used for the elemental analysis or chemical characterization of a sample. It relies on an interaction of some source of X-ray excitation and a sample. Its characterization capabilities are due in large part to the fundamental principle that each element has a unique atomic structure allowing a unique set of peaks on its electromagnetic emission spectrum (which is the main principle of spectroscopy). The peak positions are predicted by the Moseley's law with accuracy much better than experimental resolution of a typical EDX instrument.


title: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: To stimulate the emission of characteristic X-rays from a specimen a beam of electrons is focused into the sample being studied. At rest, an atom within the sample contains ground state (or unexcited) electrons in discrete energy levels or electron shells bound to the nucleus. The incident beam may excite an electron in an inner shell, ejecting it from the shell while creating an electron hole where the electron was. An electron from an outer, higher-energy shell then fills the hole, and the difference in energy between the higher-energy shell and the lower energy shell may be released in the form of an X-ray. The number and energy of the X-rays emitted from a specimen can be measured by an energy-dispersive spectrometer. As the energies of the X-rays are characteristic of the difference in energy between the two shells and of the atomic structure of the emitting element, EDS allows the elemental composition of the specimen to be measured.


title: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: Electron beam excitation is used in electron microscopes, scanning electron microscopes (SEM) and scanning transmission electron microscopes (STEM). X-ray beam excitation is used in X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometers. A detector is used to convert X-ray energy into voltage signals; this information is sent to a pulse processor, which measures the signals and passes them onto an analyzer for data display and analysis. The most common detector used to be Si(Li) detector cooled to cryogenic temperatures with liquid nitrogen. Now, newer systems are often equipped with silicon drift detectors (SDD) with Peltier cooling systems.


title: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: The excess energy of the electron that migrates to an inner shell to fill the newly created hole can do more than emit an X-ray. Often, instead of X-ray emission, the excess energy is transferred to a third electron from a further outer shell, prompting its ejection. This ejected species is called an Auger electron, and the method for its analysis is known as Auger electron spectroscopy (AES).


title: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is another close relative of EDS, utilizing ejected electrons in a manner similar to that of AES. Information on the quantity and kinetic energy of ejected electrons is used to determine the binding energy of these now-liberated electrons, which is element-specific and allows chemical characterization of a sample.


title: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: EDS is often contrasted with its spectroscopic counterpart, wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDS). WDS differs from EDS in that it uses the diffraction of X-rays on special crystals to separate its raw data into spectral components (wavelengths). WDS has a much finer spectral resolution than EDS. WDS also avoids the problems associated with artifacts in EDS (false peaks, noise from the amplifiers, and microphonics).


title: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: A high-energy beam of charged particles such as electrons or protons can be used to excite a sample rather than X-rays. This is called particle-induced X-ray emission or PIXE.


title: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: EDS can be used to determine which chemical elements are present in a sample, and can be used to estimate their relative abundance. EDS also helps to measure multi-layer coating thickness of metallic coatings and analysis of various alloys. The accuracy of this quantitative analysis of sample composition is affected by various factors. Many elements will have overlapping X-ray emission peaks (e.g., Ti K and V K, Mn K and Fe K). The accuracy of the measured composition is also affected by the nature of the sample. X-rays are generated by any atom in the sample that is sufficiently excited by the incoming beam. These X-rays are emitted in all directions (isotropically), and so they may not all escape the sample. The likelihood of an X-ray escaping the specimen, and thus being available to detect and measure, depends on the energy of the X-ray and the composition, amount, and density of material it has to pass through to reach the detector. Because of this X-ray absorption effect and similar effects, accurate estimation of the sample composition from the measured X-ray emission spectrum requires the application of quantitative correction procedures, which are sometimes referred to as matrix corrections.


title: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: There is a trend towards a newer EDS detector, called the silicon drift detector (SDD). The SDD consists of a high-resistivity silicon chip where electrons are driven to a small collecting anode. The advantage lies in the extremely low capacitance of this anode, thereby utilizing shorter processing times and allowing very high throughput. Benefits of the SDD include:


title: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: Because the capacitance of the SDD chip is independent of the active area of the detector, much larger SDD chips can be utilized (40 mm or more). This allows for even higher count rate collection. Further benefits of large area chips include:


title: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: Where the X-ray energies of interest are in excess of ~ 30 keV, traditional silicon-based technologies suffer from poor quantum efficiency due to a reduction in the detector stopping power. Detectors produced from high density semiconductors such as cadmium telluride (CdTe) and cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) have improved efficiency at higher X-ray energies and are capable of room temperature operation. Single element systems, and more recently pixelated imaging detectors such as the high energy X-ray imaging technology (HEXITEC) system, are capable of achieving energy resolutions of the order of 1% at 100 keV.


title: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: In recent years, a different type of EDS detector, based upon a superconducting microcalorimeter, has also become commercially available. This new technology combines the simultaneous detection capabilities of EDS with the high spectral resolution of WDS. The EDS microcalorimeter consists of two components: an absorber, and a superconducting transition-edge sensor (TES) thermometer. The former absorbs X-rays emitted from the sample and converts this energy into heat; the latter measures the subsequent change in temperature due to the influx of heat. The EDS microcalorimeter has historically suffered from a number of drawbacks, including low count rates and small detector areas. The count rate is hampered by its reliance on the time constant of the calorimeter's electrical circuit. The detector area must be small in order to keep the heat capacity small and maximize thermal sensitivity (resolution). However, the count rate and detector area have been improved by the implementation of arrays of hundreds of superconducting EDS microcalorimeters, and the importance of this technology is growing.


title: Dree Hemingway

text: Dree Louise Crisman Hemingway (born December 4, 1987) is an American fashion model and actress. She gained attention playing the lead in American director Sean Baker's feature "Starlet" (2012). She has since become known for her high-profile fashion campaigns and her extensive work in independent film.


title: Dree Hemingway

text: Dree Louise Crisman Hemingway was born in Sun Valley, Idaho. She is the daughter of actress Mariel Hemingway and Stephen Crisman as well as the niece of the late model and actress Margaux Hemingway. Author Ernest Hemingway is her great-grandfather on her mother's side. She has a younger sister named Langley Fox.


title: Dree Hemingway

text: She grew up in Ketchum, Idaho and attended Ernest Hemingway Elementary School. She later moved to California and lived in Westlake Village. She attended Oaks Christian High School for two and a half years and then dropped out to pursue her modelling career. She was presented as a debutante at the Bal des débutantes in Paris, France in 2003.


title: Dree Hemingway

text: In March 2009, Hemingway debuted at the fall/winter 09–10 catwalk show for Givenchy in Paris. In June 2009, she walked in the Calvin Klein resort show in New York. In September 2009, she opened the Topshop spring/summer 2010 show in London.


title: Dree Hemingway

text: In January 2010, she became the new face of the Gianfranco Ferré advertising campaign. Later that year, she fronted a new advertising campaign for the Salvatore Ferragamo perfume Attimo. She was photographed by Bryan Adams for the spring 2011 issue of Zoo Magazine.


title: Dree Hemingway

text: Hemingway has also walked for Shiatzy Chen, House of Holland, Karl Lagerfeld, Giles, Chanel, and Rue du Mail shows. She has also done campaigns for Gucci, Jean Paul Gaultier, Valentino, H&M, Chanel, Paco Rabanne, and A.Y. Not Dead. She has also done editorials for "Harper's Bazaar", "i-D", "V", "W", "Numéro", and multiple national editions of "Vogue".


title: Dree Hemingway

text: In January 2014, Hemingway was the first significant Instagram plug for a crochet bikini created in Brazil but claimed by a Turkish entrepreneur and branded as a "kiini".


title: Dree Hemingway

text: Hemingway is the Playboy Playmate in the March 2016 issue of "Playboy", making her a second-generation Playboy model.


title: Dree Hemingway

text: Hemingway followed in her mother and aunt's footsteps by launching her acting career. She has appeared predominantly in independent films. Her first lead role was in the independent film "Starlet" (2012), directed by Sean Baker. She, along with the rest of the ensemble cast, was awarded the Robert Altman Award for the film at the 2012 Independent Spirit Awards. She has had supporting roles in films such as "Listen Up Philip" (2014) and "While We're Young" (2014) and leading roles in "The People Garden" and "Live Cargo", the latter of which premiered at the 2016 Tribeca Film Festival.


title: Dree Hemingway

text: In 2017, Hemingway appeared in Michelle Morgan's "It Happened in L.A.", which premiered at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival, as well as Russell Harbaugh's "Love After Love", which premiered at the 2017 Tribeca Film Festival.


title: Digangana Suryavanshi

text: Digangana Suryavanshi (born 15 October 1997) is an Indian actor, singer and author who is known from Hindi and Telugu films. Suryavanshi debuted her career in Hindi television and went on to appear in films. Her breakthrough role was 'Veera' in the StarPlus TV series "Ek Veer Ki Ardaas...Veera". She also was in the reality show "Bigg Boss 9" in 2015. Her Hindi film debut was in "FryDay" (2018), Telugu film debut in "Hippi" (2019) and Tamil film debut in "Dhanusu Raasi Neyargale" (2019).


title: Digangana Suryavanshi

text: Suryavanshi is the only child of Neeraj Suryavanshi and Sarita Suryavanshi. She completed her 12th board at Mithibai College, where she appeared for the exams during the shooting of "Ek Veer Ki Ardaas...Veera." Digangana is pursuing an MBA at Narsee Monjee College in Mumbai.


title: Digangana Suryavanshi

text: Suryavanshi started her career at the age of seven as a child artist, debuting with the TV series "Kya Hadsaa Kya Haqeeqat" in 2002. When she was 14, Suryavanshi wrote, composed and sang a song, "I'm missing you", which she dedicated to her maternal grandmother. Suryavanshi also played supporting roles in shows like "Shakuntala" (2009), "Krisshna Arjun" and "Ruk Jaana Nahin" (2011–12). Suryavanshi landed her big break with StarPlus soap opera "Ek Veer Ki Ardaas...Veera" (2012–15), where she played the title role. In 2015, at the age of 17, she was the youngest celebrity contestant to have participated in the reality show "Bigg Boss". She was evicted from the show on 7 December 2015. Suryavanshi participated in the Indian sports reality television show Box Cricket League season I, played for "Mumbai Warriors" and season II, played for "Mumbai Tigers".


title: Digangana Suryavanshi

text: Suryavanshi debuted in Bollywood with two films, "FryDay" and "Jalebi". Both films were released on 12 October 2018. Suryavanshi acted in the lead role with Govinda in the film "Rangeela Raja", which was released on 18 January 2019.


title: Digangana Suryavanshi

text: Suryavanshi played the lead actress in the Telugu film "Hippi", which was directed by Krishnan K.T. Nagarajan. A writer for "Firstpost.com", Hemanth Kumar, wrote that Suryavanshi, "is good in her role and she might be the only one who took her role far too seriously in the film. Right from her introduction scene to the climax, she's consistently good in terms of her body language and her attitude that the role required."


title: Cocoa solids

text: Dry cocoa solids are the components of cocoa beans remaining after cocoa butter, the fatty component of the bean, is extracted from chocolate liquor, roasted cocoa beans that have been ground into a liquid state. Cocoa butter is 46% to 57% of the weight of cocoa beans and gives chocolate its characteristic melting properties. Cocoa powder is the powdered form of the dry solids with a small remaining amount of cocoa butter. Untreated cocoa powder is bitter and acidic. Dutch process cocoa has been treated with an alkali to neutralize the acid.


title: Cocoa solids

text: Cocoa powder contains flavanols, amounts of which are reduced if the cocoa is subjected to acid-reducing alkalization.


title: Cocoa solids

text: Natural cocoa powder is extracted with the Broma process where after the cocoa fats have been removed from the chocolate nibs the remaining dry cocoa beans are ground into cocoa powder, which is sold to consumers. Natural cocoa powder has a light-brown color and an extractable pH of 5.3 to 5.8.


title: Cocoa solids

text: Because of its acidity, natural cocoa is often paired in recipes with baking soda. This neutralizes the acidity and creates carbon dioxide which in cakes helps them rise.


title: Cocoa solids

text: "Dutch process cocoa" or "Dutched cocoa" is cocoa powder that has been treated with an alkalizing agent to modify its color, neutralize its pH and give it a milder taste compared to "natural cocoa". It forms the basis for much of modern chocolate, and is used in ice cream, hot chocolate, and baking.


title: Cocoa solids

text: The alkalization process reduces bitterness and improves solubility, which is important for beverage product applications. Alkalizing agents employed vary, but include potassium carbonate or sodium carbonate.


title: Cocoa solids

text: Cocoa powder is 58% carbohydrates, 14% fat, 20% protein, and 3% water (table). It contains several minerals in rich content (having a Daily Value of 20% or higher), including manganese, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, iron, and zinc, while calcium levels are moderate (table).


title: Cocoa solids

text: Cocoa powder is rich in flavonoids (especially flavan-3-ols), a subset of polyphenols. The amount of flavonoids depends on the amount of processing and manufacturing the cocoa powder undergoes. Alkalization, also known as Dutch processing, causes its content of flavonoids to be substantially reduced.


title: Cocoa solids

text: Cocoa powders may contain cadmium, a toxic heavy metal and probable carcinogen, found naturally in high levels in the soil of some regions of cocoa-producing countries. The European Union has imposed a limit (as of 1 January 2019) for cadmium in cocoa powder of 0.6 µg per gram of cocoa powder and 0.8 µg per gram for chocolate with ≥ 50% total dry cocoa solids. In Canada, a daily serving of a natural health product must contain no more than 6 µg of cadmium for an individual weighing and 3 µg for a individual. While the US government has not set a limit for cadmium in foods or health products, the state of California has established a maximum allowable daily level of oral cadmium exposure of 4.1 µg and requires products containing more than this amount per daily serving to bear a warning on the label. One investigation by an independent consumer testing laboratory found that seven of nine commercially available cocoa powders and nibs selected for testing contained more than 0.3 µg of cadmium per serving gram; five of these products exceeded the EU limit of 0.6 µg per gram.


title: Ozan Kabak

text: Ozan Muhammed Kabak (born 25 March 2000) is a Turkish professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for Bundesliga club 1899 Hoffenheim and the Turkey national team.


title: Ozan Kabak

text: Ozan trained with the Galatasaray youth academy, joining in 2011. He signed his first professional contract with Galatasaray on 1 July 2017. Ozan made his professional debut for Galatasaray in a 2–0 Süper Lig win over Yeni Malatyaspor on 12 May 2018. This made him the first footballer born in the 2000s to play in the Süper Lig. On 24 October 2018, he played his first Champions League match in a 0–0 home draw against Schalke 04 in the 2018–19 season.


title: Ozan Kabak

text: On 17 January 2019, Kabak moved to Bundesliga side VfB Stuttgart where he signed a contract until June 2024. On 3 March, he scored twice in a 5–1 win over Hannover 96, registering his first senior career goals. In doing so, at the age of 18 years, 11 months and 7 days, he became the youngest Turkish center-back, and third-youngest Stuttgart player to ever score twice in a single Bundesliga match.


title: Ozan Kabak

text: On 30 June 2019, Kabak joined Schalke 04 on a five-year contract for a fee of €15 million, after Schalke activated a release clause in his contract. He was a regular performer in his first season with the club, appearing in 28 matches and scoring three goals. In September 2020, he was banned for five games and hit with a €15,000 fine after being caught spitting at Werder Bremen’s Ludwig Augustinsson. Kabak apologised to Augustinsson via Twitter afterwards, insisting the incident, for which he was shown a red card, was an accident.


title: Ozan Kabak

text: On 1 February 2021, Kabak signed for Liverpool on loan for the remainder of the 2020–21 season. The deal was reportedly worth £1 million, plus potentially £500,000 in add-ons depending on appearances and Liverpool's performance in the Champions League. It also included an option to buy, which was set at approximately £18 million and could rise to £26.5m with add-ons. On 13 February 2021, he made his Liverpool debut in a Premier League game against Leicester City, ending in a 1–3 away defeat. On 16 February, he played in a 2–0 away win over RB Leipzig in the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League, becoming the first Turkish player to appear for an English club in the competition. At the end of the season, Liverpool declined to sign Kabak on a permanent basis.


title: Ozan Kabak

text: On 30 August 2021, Kabak returned to England to join newly promoted Norwich City on a season-long loan deal with the club having an option to make the deal permanent at the end of the season.


title: Ozan Kabak

text: Ozan is a youth international for Turkey. He captained the Turkey U17s at the 2017 UEFA European Under-17 Championship, and was listed as one of the 10 players to watch by UEFA. On 17 November 2019, Kabak made his debut in the Turkey senior team during the team's UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying match against Andorra, playing the full match which Turkey won 2–0. Kabak scored his first international goal on 16 November 2022 in a 2-1 friendly win over Scotland.


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: A Landing Craft Utility (LCU) is a type of boat used by amphibious forces to transport equipment and troops to the shore. They are capable of transporting tracked or wheeled vehicles and troops from amphibious assault ships to beachheads or piers.


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: The Golfo de Tribugá-class landing craft is an LCU developed by COTECMAR for the Colombian National Navy. The vessel class is also known as BDA () and an unarmored version for logistical and humanitarian services has also been developed, known as BALC ().


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: The Engin de débarquement amphibie rapide (EDA-R) landing catamaran or L-CAT, entered service in January 2011. They can carry a main battle tank like other European LCUs but are capable of much higher speeds, up to .


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: Germany has two Barbe-class utility landing craft (Type 520), dating from the mid-1960s, which remain in service under the SEK-M Naval Special Forces' command. Five Barbe landing crafts were transferred to Greece at the end of the Cold War.


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: India currently has 3 Kumbhir class LCU and 8 Mk IV class LCU. Last MK IV class of LCU was delivered by GRSE on Dec 31,2020.


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: With the launch of the amphibious transport ship in 1998 there was a need for LCUs. The Dutch LCUs are similar to the British LCU Mk.10 with the bridge being set to one side allowing for a roll-on roll-off design. Until 2005 the Netherlands Marine Corps used the LCU Mark I (NL).


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: In 2005 and 2006 the five vessels were modernized to the type Mark II. The vessels have been stretched by 9 meters to decrease their draft, which increased their load carrying capacity by 20 tons and allows them to come closer to shore. In addition they were fitted with a strengthened bow ramp, and they can now accommodate the Royal Netherlands Army Leopard 2 A6 main battle tank.


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: Because of the lengthening of the Mark II, the "Rotterdam" can take two LCUs (plus three LCVPs) in its dock. The dock of "Rotterdam"s sister ship, HNLMS "Johan de Witt", has the capacity to transport two LCUs, but carries four LCVPs in davits.


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: Sweden operates 16 small and fast (25 kt) water jet landing craft (Swedish: ) with a displacement of 65 tonnes. They are armed with one 12.7 mm machine gun but can also lay out mines and is equipped with depth charges for anti submarine warfare. The vessel type has been exported to the United Arab Emirates.


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: In addition, HSwMS "" (A344) is a larger vessel with a displacement of 305 tonnes, capable of carrying 150 tonnes. The ship has a crew of 7 and is armed with two 7.62 mm machine guns.


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: The LCU Mk.9 was built for use on the LPDs and where they were operated from the dock in the rear of the ships. Each ship carried four LCUs and four davit mounted LCVPs. The Mk.9 was to see many changes and upgrades during its service including a move from propeller to jet in many cases. The Mk.9 was capable of traveling as an ocean-going vessel and a number would be converted into a version, affectionately known as the "Black Pig", for use in Norway. The crew had full living quarters aboard with galley and heads. The opinion that the successful British amphibious operations during the Falklands War were only possible because of the two LPDs and their landing craft is well documented. In the Falklands War during the Bluff Cove Air Attacks LCU F4 from was bombed and sunk in Choiseul Sound by an Argentine Air Force A-4B Skyhawk of Grupo 5. The Mk.9, like the LPDs, served longer than ever anticipated, providing the backbone of Britain's amphibious assault capabilities.


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: Three Mk.9s, pennant numbers 701, 705, and 709, remained in service by 2012. However, by 2014, they had all been withdrawn from service.


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: The LCU Mk.10 class vessels are operated by the Royal Marines. They are intended for use on board the assault ships and and can also be used by the Bay class landing ships. Deliveries of the class started from 1998 and the fleet currently consists of ten vessels, bearing pennant numbers 1001 to 1010. Both Albion and Bulwark are capable of carrying four LCUs each. These vessels are capable of operating independently for up to 14 days with a range of 600 nautical miles. They are capable of operating worldwide, from Arctic operating areas to tropical operating areas. The Mk.10 differs greatly from the Mk.9 with the bridge being set to the side allowing for a roll-on roll-off design. This greatly increases efficiency over the old Mk.9 as loading of the rear LCUs can take place without the LCUs being launched, the LPD having to dock down to do so, to change over and load up, which was a problem prior to the Falklands landings. The LCU Mk.10 has a 7-man crew and can carry up to 120 Marines or alternatively 1 battle tank or 4 lorries. British assault ships also carry smaller LCVPs on davits to transport troops and light vehicles.


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: The LCU 1466, 1610 and 1627 class vessels are operated by the United States Navy at support commands. They are a self-sustaining craft complete with living accommodations and mess facilities for a crew of thirteen. They have been adapted for many uses including salvage operations, ferry boats for vehicles and passengers, and underwater test platforms. Each LCU is assigned a non-commissioned-officer-in-charge (NCOIC) (Craft Master) who is either a Chief Petty Officer or Petty Officer First Class in the Boatswain's Mate, Quartermaster or Operations Specialist rating. These vessels have bow ramps for onload/offload, and can be linked bow to stern gate to create a temporary pier-like structure. Its welded steel hull provides high durability with deck loads of 3,900 kg/m (800 pounds per square foot). Arrangement of machinery and equipment has taken into account built-in redundancy in the event of battle damage. The craft features two engine rooms separated by a watertight bulkhead to permit limited operation in the event that one engine room is disabled. An anchor system is installed on the starboard side aft to assist in retracting from the beach. These vessels are normally transported to their areas of operation onboard larger amphibious vessels such as LSDs, LHDs and LHAs. The 40-year-old craft will be replaced under LCU 1700 (ex-Surface Connector (X) Recapitalization, or SC(X)R), project starting in FY2017.


title: Landing Craft Utility

text: The Runnymede-class large landing craft or LCU 2000 class vessels are operated by the United States Army.