title: Hal Blaine

text: In addition to playing on 150 US top 10 singles, Blaine played drums on 39 recordings that hit number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The dates given are when each song reached number one:


title: Dodge Correctional Institution

text: Dodge Correctional Institution (DCI) is an adult male maximum-security correctional facility operated by the Wisconsin Department of Corrections Division of Adult Institutions in Waupun, Wisconsin, US. The facility was converted from the Central State Hospital for the Criminally Insane to an adult correctional facility in 1977 at a cost of $2.47 million of general obligation bonds, as authorized by Chapter 29 of the Laws of 1977. The first two inmates were transferred from the nearby Waupun Correctional Institution to DCI on May 15, 1978. On October 29, 1993, ground was broken for a $45 million expansion which more than doubled the size of the facility. On June 17, 1996, the first female was admitted to DCI making it the only reception center for both male and female adult felons committed to the Wisconsin Department of Corrections. DCI served as the reception center for both males and females until December 1, 2004, when the female reception center moved to the Taycheedah Correctional Institution. DCI also serves as the central medical center for the division, providing both in-patient and out-patient care for male and female inmates.


title: UMMC Ekaterinburg

text: BC Ekaterinburg () is a Russian women's basketball team based in Yekaterinburg competing in the Russian Premier League, and until February 2022 in FIBA Europe's EuroLeague Women. In reaction to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, in February 2022 EuroLeague Women suspended the club.


title: UMMC Ekaterinburg

text: Founded in 1938 as Zenit Sverdlovsk, the club had its name changed to Uralmash Sverdlovsk in 1960, like other teams from the city such as FC Ural Sverdlovsk Oblast. Four years later Uralmash reached the Soviet Top Division. In 1973 and 1974 it attained two 3rd spots, the club's best results in the Soviet era.


title: UMMC Ekaterinburg

text: After Uralmash was merged into OMZ the club was bought in 2000 by the newly formed company UMMC, adopting its current name. UMMC Ekaterinburg in 2002 won its first national championship. The following year it won the Euroleague in its debut season, becoming the first Russian team to win the top European trophy. The team also defended its national title, making it a double.


title: UMMC Ekaterinburg

text: UMMC wasn't able to win the championship in the following five seasons with the rise of VBM-SGAU Samara and Spartak Moscow Region. In 2009 it began a new successful period, winning three doubles in a row. Spartak ultimately blocked its path to the Euroleague final, defeating UMMC in the Final Four's semi-finals in all four seasons 2008–11.


title: UMMC Ekaterinburg

text: After the February 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine on February 24, 2022, American-Hungarians Courtney Vandersloot (who led the team in assists) and Allie Quigley (who was second on the team in points), Bahamian-Bosnian Jonquel Jones (who led the team in points and rebounds), and Spanish player Alba Torrens left the team. Seven days earlier, on February 17, American two-time Olympic champion Brittney Griner was arrested on drug charges in Russia by the Russian Federal Security Service. On August 4th, 2022 she was sentenced to 9 years in prison and there was concern that Russia would hold her hostage as a response to the Western sanctions imposed against Russia in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Ultimately, she was released on December 8 in a prisoner exchange with Russian arms dealer Viktor Bout, who had served ten years of a 25-year sentence.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Crime in Brazil involves an elevated incidence of violent and non-violent crimes. Brazil possesses high rates of violent crimes, such as murders and robberies. Brazil's homicide rate was 27.4 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants according to the UNODC, placing Brazil in the top 20 countries by intentional homicide rate. In international crime rankings however, Brazil is generally not considered amongst the top 20 most dangerous countries in the world but top 50 with many homicides being between gangs and not affecting the general populace and no large scale wars. Brazil is the country with the highest number of intentional homicides in the world, with 57,358 in 2018, or possibly second to Nigeria which lacks accurate data but was estimated at 64,201 in 2016. In recent years, the homicide rate in Brazil has begun to decline. The homicide rate was 20.64 per 100,000 in 2020 with 43,879 killings, similar to 2019, but down from 30.67 per 100,000 in 2017.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: In terms of absolute number of murders in a year, Brazil has the most murders of any country by total number (62,318) followed by India (29,000), the USA (25,000) and Mexico (24,576). However, when the populations are taken into account, this translates to a higher murder rate.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: In 2018, Brazil had a murder rate of 24.7 per 10,000 people. In 2017, Brazil had a murder rate of 29.2 per 100,000 population. There were a total of 56,101 murders in Brazil in 2017. Another study has the 2017 murder rate at 32.4 per 100,000, with 64,357 homicides. In 2016, Brazil had a record 61,819 murders or on average 168 murders per day, giving a yearly homicide rate of 29.9 per 100,000 population.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: In 2019, the anti-violence NGO Rio de Paz stated that only 8% of homicides in Brazil lead to criminal convictions.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Murders increased during the late-2000s. Bucking this trend are the two largest cities. In 2008 Rio de Janeiro registered the lowest murder rate in 18 years, while São Paulo is now approaching the 10 murders per 100,000 mark, down from 35.7 in 1999. A notable example is the municipality of Diadema, where crime rates fell abruptly.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Total murders set new records in the three years from 2009 to 2011, surpassing the previous record set in 2003. 2003 still holds the record for murders per 100,000 in Brazil; that year alone the rate was 28.9. Police records post significantly lower numbers than the health ministry.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Seven out of the twenty most violent cities in the world are in Brazil due to a rise in street violence. In descending order as of April 2018, they are: Natal (fourth highest homicide rate worldwide), Fortaleza (seventh), Belém (tenth), Vitória da Conquista (eleventh), Maceió (fourteenth), Aracaju (eighteenth), and Feira de Santana (nineteenth).


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Carjacking is common, particularly in major cities. Local citizens and visitors alike are often targeted by criminals, especially during public festivals such as the Carnaval. Pickpocketing and bag snatching are common. Thieves operate in outdoor markets, in hotels and on public transport.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: A crime trend known as “arrastões” (dragnets) occur when many perpetrators act together, simultaneously mug pedestrians, sunbathers, shopping mall patrons, and/or vehicle occupants stuck in traffic. Arrastões and random robberies may occur during big events (Carnaval), soccer games, or during peak beach hours.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Express kidnappings, where people are abducted withdrawing funds from ATM, are common in major cities including Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Brasília, Curitiba, Porto Alegre, Salvador and Recife.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Corruption in Brazil is a pervasive social problem. Brazil scored 38 on the 2016 Corruption Perceptions Index, tying with India and Bosnia and Herzegovina, being ranked 76th among 175 countries. Corruption was cited among many issues that provoked the 2013 protests in Brazil.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Embezzlement and corruption have influenced Brazilian elections for decades; however, the electorate continues to vote, whether out of preference or lack of choice, for candidates who have been accused, and in some instances convicted, on charges of corruption.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Between 10 and 15 women are murdered per day in Brazil. A government sponsored study found that 41,532 women were murdered in Brazil between 1997 and 2007. In 2012, 8% of all homicide victims were female. However, this is still far below the male victimization rate, in which men constitute 92% of homicide victims in Brazil as of 2012.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Brazil has started a crime fighting program specifically meant to combat gangs and gang centered violence. The UPP program; involving 'Pacifying Police Units', has been introduced in the traditionally violent favelas of Rio de Janeiro since 2008/2009. UPP personnel are well-educated and trained in both human rights and modern police techniques; their aim is to supplant the community presence of gangs as central community figures. As of 2013, 34 UPP units are operational in 226 different communities, with a reach of 1.5 million citizens.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: The UPP program has so far proven its worth by significantly reducing the number of homicides, while also reducing violent crime rates in general. Local residents are mostly positive about the program and an overwhelming number of residents felt safer. Furthermore, the UPP program symbolizes a new crime prevention paradigm that focuses on social inclusion and community development. However, in some areas the homicide rate was already dropping prior to the implementation of the program. Therefore, the drop in crime may be due to a general trend of decline in homicides as well.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: For years, the tactic worked well – with more or less success depending on the community. According to Instituto de Segurança Pública (ISP) data, between 2007 (the year before the installation of the first UPP) and 2013, the violent lethality rate in areas with UPPs dropped by 80% – a much more pronounced reduction than in the rest of the municipality, which also experienced a drop in these indices over the period. The homicide rate caused by opposition to police intervention was the indicator of violence that showed the most significant reduction, of almost 90%, but also decreased other crimes against life and property.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: In 2014, however, the violent lethality indicators rose again not only in the UPP areas, but in the entire municipality. Rio has not seen so many crimes with violent deaths since 2009, the first year of operation of the UPPs. Today the numbers are practically the same as in the pre-UPP period.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: In the latest survey by the Cândido Mendes University Center for Security and Citizenship Studies (Cesec), carried out in 2014 with UPP officers, the researchers had already found a complete abandonment of the "proximity" approach and the return to repressive policing. According to them, the "lack of command, control and logistics" is the cause of all the problems in the Pacifying Police Units, including the death of police officers in the communities.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: As of 2015, Pacifying Police Units (UPPs) of Rio de Janeiro are no longer useful, according to specialists. After more than ten years of design, they are now beginning to undergo drastic changes, since police officers from different units also began to patrol the streets, in addition to the usual policing. The lack of formalization of the program and the establishment of evaluation indicators was also a problem, say the researchers. The UPPs have never had an internal and systematic evaluation.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: The movement was expanded in an “unbridled” and “hastily” way. Between 2010 and 2013, the number of UPPs almost tripled, jumping from 13 to 36. The exaggerated expansion also ended up overloading the Military Police, an institution that, according to Rodrigues, a former Military Police Colonel, already needed (and still needs) structural reforms. "The solution is beyond the police. It seems a cliché, but the social part has been missing since the beginning of the project", evaluated the former Commander of the Military Police between 2007 and 2008. In the 7 years of the project, there were several allegations of corruption and abuse of force involving UPP soldiers. The most remembered among them is the torture and death of the bricklayer Amarildo de Souza.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: The proposal, however, proved to be flawed due to the inexperience of these new military police officers with no apparent condition to work in former faction strongholds, as was the case in Rocinha and Complexo do Alemão. Burning containers, lack of restrooms and armor, accumulated garbage, broken air conditioning was just one of the proofs that the military police were not working under ideal conditions. And on at least eight bases the PMs would be working in an extreme situation. Former ISP Director Ana Paula Miranda also believes that “during all this time, an idea was made that the problems in Rio de Janeiro were over”, “That was the first mistake. Excessive advertising not taking into account the flaws throughout the project”.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Since the first UPP arrived, in the Santa Marta community, in Botafogo, in 2008, the reality of the residents has changed not only in relation to the actions of armed groups. Everything got more expensive: the electricity bill started to arrive and there was no way to practice these "thefts" in electricity. By 2015, the favela that had once a "model" UPP unit, saw the number of homicides spike, alongside the drug war.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: In the past, the State of Rio de Janeiro had already carried out a similar attempt at occupation, and for the same reasons, in Ana Paula's opinion, the project did not succeed and, it seems, the lesson was not learned. “The strategy is very similar. There was a lack of perception that these problems would all happen later”.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: In April 2017, at Complexo do Alemão, a armored tower was installed, resistant to rifles and grenade explosions, to house UPP police from the Nova Brasília community.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: As of May 2021, a new project was released by the then Governor Cláudio Castro and documents obtained by the media in September showed the discussion of the project for at least 2 months. Called Cidade Integrada ("Integrated City"), the new program for the occupation of communities by the Government of Rio de Janeiro, in a model of public security and urban and social interventions. It is not yet clear, however, how the police will act in this new project.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Jacarezinho, where there is strong influence from drug trafficking, and Muzema, controlled by the militia, are expected to be the first to receive the program, with its launch scheduled for late November or early December.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Gang violence has been directed at police, security officials and related facilities. Gangs have also attacked official buildings and set alight public buses. May 2006 São Paulo violence began on the night of 12 May 2006 in São Paulo, Brazil. It was the worst outbreak of violence which has been recorded in Brazilian history and was directed against security forces and some civilian targets. By May 14 the attacks had spread to other Brazilian states including Paraná, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais and Bahia. Another outbreak of violence took place in São Paulo in July 2006.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: 2016 saw a new string of deadly prison riots. The nature of these riots was a turfwar between the Primeiro Comando da Capital and other gangs as an extension of a turfwar that has been increasing in intensity with the PCC aggressively expanding its territory. In 2019, a prison riot between two gangs Comando Vermelho and Comando Classe A left 57 dead after hours of fighting.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Gang violence in Brazil has become an important issue affecting the youth. Brazilian gang members have used children to commit crimes because their prison sentences are shorter. As of 2007, murder was the most common cause of death among youth in Brazil, with 40% of all murder victims aged between 15 and 25 years old.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: In regard to inter-gang conflict, gangs typically challenge or demand an aggressive reaction to defend their reputations. If someone does not respond in this manner, they are socially isolated. The gangs in Brazil are very territorial, and focused on their illegal business. Theft and robbery bring in small amounts of money compared to narcotic and weapons sales so it is less common for these gangs to get involved in petty crimes of theft or robbery.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: The gangs more specifically in Rio de Janeiro are interested in harmony because they do not want any contact with the police. They will even go to helping others in the community, with money and even protecting them, just to be sure that the police do not come around. Children and other members of the community see notably rich and powerful gang members and want to emulate this behavior. Gang members then become a substitute for family and are role models because they have respect with more than average monetary gains.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: It is most common for these gangs to be under a military command structure. Each Rio's "favela" has one "dono" who is in charge of controlling the managers of a "favela" and the "soldados" in his territory. The latter protect the "favela" against other drug factions and the police. They are also responsible for taking over other "favelas". The managers of a "favela" control the managers of the "bocas" (the places where drugs are sold in the "favela"). The managers of the "bocas" in turn control the drug dealers who sell the drugs in the area around a "boca". There are children and women who wait at the entrances to a "favela" to signal to the others if the police or other gangs are about to enter. It is normal to join at about 10 years old, and by 12 years old to carry weapons. These gangs are attractive to the children and youth because they offer protection, recognition, and career options that those who join could not achieve on their own. "Favelas" are now often controlled by juveniles and young adults.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: The concern here is of the strong ties that are between illegal business and politicians, police officers, the justice system, and the economy. Not all people are involved but all layers of society are affected because of corruption. Police are bribed to not disturb what these gangs are doing, as well as many of them are dealers themselves. Also, the young children are carrying guns and may be nervous, aware of peer pressure, or on drugs and can become careless. The level of brutality and homicide rates have skyrocketed in countries with younger gang members like this.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Drug trafficking makes up for an increasingly large portion of crime in Brazil. A total of 27% of all incarcerations in Brazil are the result of drug trafficking charges. Between 2007 and 2012 the number of drug related incarcerations has increased from 60.000 to 134.000; a 123 percent increase.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Of 325 youth that were incarcerated, 44% of boys and 53% of girls reported some involvement with drug trafficking. Selling and carrying drugs were the most common activities between both boys and girls. The most common drug was marijuana, followed by cocaine and crack. From the study; 74% had used marijuana, 36% had snorted cocaine, and 21% had used crack.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Youth held low positions in the hierarchy and engaged in relatively low volumes of activity for short periods of time. The police are capturing the front-line players of the drug industry rather than the "donos". 51% of youth involved with trafficking reported it to be very easy to obtain a gun, while 58% involved in trafficking reported it to be very easy to obtain cocaine.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: Criminal penalties for youths, who make up a significant portion of street crime, is internment in educational centers with a maximum stay of 3 years. Youths are not punished under the penal code, but under the Brazilian Statute of the Child and Adolescent.


title: Crime in Brazil

text: For adults, the consumption of drugs is nearly decriminalized, but activities in any way related to the sale of drugs are illegal. The distinction between drug consumers and suppliers is poorly defined and thus controversial. This ambiguity gives judges a high degree of discretion in sentencing, and leads to accusations of discriminatory or unequal court rulings. Drug consumers receive light penalties varying from mandatory self-education on the effects of drugs to community service. The minimum sentence for a drug supplying offense is 5 to 15 years in prison. Critics of the consumer/supplier distraction of offenses argue for a more complex categorization than only two categories, to allow for more lenient punishments for minor drugs violations. Former UN secretary general Kofi Annan and former president of Brazil Cardoso argue for stepping away from the "war" approach on drugs, saying the militant approach can be counterproductive. However, many others hold a hard-line preference for heavy penalization.


title: Auk

text: An auk or alcid is a bird of the family Alcidae in the order Charadriiformes. The alcid family includes the murres, guillemots, auklets, puffins, and murrelets. The word "auk" is derived from Icelandic "álka", from Old Norse "alka" (auk), from Proto-Germanic *"alkǭ" (sea-bird, auk). The family contains 25 extant or recently extinct species that are divided into 11 genera.


title: Auk

text: Apart from the extinct great auk, all auks can fly, and are excellent swimmers (appearing to "fly") and divers, but their walking appears clumsy.


title: Auk

text: Several species have different English names in Europe and North America. The two species known as murres in North America are called guillemots in Europe, and the species called little auk in Europe is referred to as dovekie in North America.


title: Auk

text: Auks are superficially similar to penguins, having black-and-white colours, upright posture, and some of their habits. Nevertheless, they are not closely related to penguins, but rather are believed to be an example of moderate convergent evolution. Auks are monomorphic (males and females are similar in appearance).


title: Auk

text: Extant auks range in size from the least auklet, at 85 g (3 oz) and , to the thick-billed murre, at and . Due to their short wings, auks have to flap their wings very quickly to fly.


title: Auk

text: Although not to the extent of penguins, auks have largely sacrificed flight, and also mobility on land, in exchange for swimming ability; their wings are a compromise between the best possible design for diving and the bare minimum needed for flying. This varies by subfamily, with the "Uria" guillemots (including the razorbill) and murrelets being the most efficient under the water, whereas the puffins and auklets are better adapted for flying and walking.


title: Auk

text: The feeding behaviour of auks is often compared to that of penguins; both groups are wing-propelled, pursuit divers. In the region where auks live, their only seabird competition are cormorants (which are dive-powered by their strong feet). In areas where the two groups feed on the same prey, the auks tend to feed further offshore. Strong-swimming murres hunt faster, schooling fish, whereas auklets take slower-moving krill. Time depth recorders on auks have shown that they can dive as deep as in the case of "Uria" guillemots, for the "Cepphus" guillemots and for the auklets.


title: Auk

text: Auks are pelagic birds, spending the majority of their adult lives on the open sea and going ashore only for breeding, although some species, such as the common guillemot, spend a great part of the year defending their nesting spot from others.


title: Auk

text: Auks are monogamous, and tend to form lifelong pairs. They typically lay a single egg, and they use the nesting site year after year.


title: Auk

text: Some species, such as the "Uria" guillemots (murres), nest in large colonies on cliff edges; others, such as the "Cepphus" guillemots, breed in small groups on rocky coasts; and the puffins, auklets, and some murrelets nest in burrows. All species except the "Brachyramphus" murrelets are colonial.


title: Auk

text: Traditionally, the auks were believed to be one of the earliest distinct charadriiform lineages due to their characteristic morphology, but genetic analyses have demonstrated that these peculiarities are the product of strong natural selection, instead; as opposed to, for example, plovers (a much older charadriiform lineage), auks radically changed from a wading shorebird to a diving seabird lifestyle. Thus today, the auks are no longer separated in their own suborder (Alcae), but are considered part of the Lari suborder, which otherwise contains gulls and similar birds. Judging from genetic data, their closest living relatives appear to be the skuas, with these two lineages separating about 30 million years ago (Mya). Alternatively, auks may have split off far earlier from the rest of the Lari and undergone strong morphological, but slow genetic evolution, which would require a very high evolutionary pressure, coupled with a long lifespan and slow reproduction.


title: Auk

text: The earliest unequivocal fossils of auks are from the late Eocene, some 35 Mya. The genus "Miocepphus", (from the Miocene, 15 Mya) is the earliest known from good specimens. Two very fragmentary fossils are often assigned to the Alcidae, although this may not be correct: "Hydrotherikornis" (Late Eocene) and "Petralca" (Late Oligocene). Most extant genera are known to exist since the Late Miocene or Early Pliocene (about 5 Mya). Miocene fossils have been found in both California and Maryland, but the greater diversity of fossils and tribes in the Pacific leads most scientists to conclude they first evolved there, and in the Miocene Pacific, the first fossils of extant genera are found. Early movement between the Pacific and the Atlantic probably happened to the south (since no northern opening to the Atlantic existed), with later movements across the Arctic Ocean. The flightless subfamily Mancallinae, which was apparently restricted to the Pacific Coast of southern North America and became extinct in the Early Pleistocene, is sometimes includes in the family Alcidae under some definitions. One species, "Miomancalla howardae", is the largest charadriiform of all time.


title: Auk

text: The family contains 25 extant or recently extinct species that are divided into 11 genera. The extant auks (subfamily Alcinae) are broken up into two main groups - the usually high-billed puffins (tribe Fraterculini) and auklets (tribe Aethiini), as opposed to the more slender-billed murres and true auks (tribe Alcini), and the murrelets and guillemots (tribes Brachyramphini and Cepphini). The tribal arrangement was originally based on analyses of morphology and ecology. mtDNA cytochrome "b" sequences, and allozyme studies confirm these findings except that the "Synthliboramphus" murrelets should be split into a distinct tribe, as they appear more closely related to the Alcini; in any case, assumption of a closer relationship between the former and the true guillemots was only weakly supported by earlier studies.


title: Auk

text: Of the genera, only a few species are placed in each. This is probably a product of the rather small geographic range of the family (the most limited of any seabird family), and the periods of glacial advance and retreat that have kept the populations on the move in a narrow band of subarctic ocean.


title: Auk

text: Today, as in the past, the auks are restricted to cooler northern waters. Their ability to spread further south is restricted as their prey hunting method, pursuit diving, becomes less efficient in warmer waters. The speed at which small fish (which along with krill are the auk's principal prey) can swim doubles as the temperature increases from , with no corresponding increase in speed for the bird. The southernmost auks, in California and Mexico, can survive there because of cold upwellings. The current paucity of auks in the Atlantic (six species), compared to the Pacific (19–20 species) is considered to be because of extinctions to the Atlantic auks; the fossil record shows many more species were in the Atlantic during the Pliocene. Auks also tend to be restricted to continental-shelf waters and breed on few oceanic islands.


title: Auk

text: "Hydotherikornis oregonus" (Described by Miller in 1931), the oldest purported alcid from the Eocene of California, is actually a petrel (as reviewed by Chandler in 1990) and is reassigned to the tubenoses (Procellariiformes). A 2003 paper, "The Earliest North American Record of Auk (Aves: Alcidae) From the Late Eocene of Central Georgia", reports a Late Eocene, wing-propelled, diving auk from the Priabonain stage of the Late Eocene. These sediments have been dated through Chandronian NALMA {North American Land Mammal Age}, at an estimate of 34.5 to 35.5 million years on the Eocene time scale for fossil-bearing sediments of the Clinchfield Formation, Gordon, Wilkinson County, Georgia. Furthermore, the sediments containing this unabraded portion of a left humerus (43.7 mm long) are tropical or subtropical as evidenced by a wealth of warm-water shark teeth, palaeophied snake vertebrae, and turtles.


title: Auk

text: Biodiversity of auks seems to have been markedly higher during the Pliocene. See the genus accounts for prehistoric species.


title: History of iTunes

text: The iTunes media platform was first released by Apple in 2001 as a simple music player for Mac computers. Over time, iTunes developed into a sophisticated multimedia content manager, hardware synchronization manager and e-commerce platform. iTunes was finally discontinued for new Mac computers in 2019, but is still available and supported for Macs running older operating systems and for Windows computers to ensure updated compatibility for syncing with new releases of iOS devices (refer to Devices section).


title: History of iTunes

text: iTunes enables users to manage media content, create playlists, synchronize media content with handheld devices including the iPod, iPhone, and iPad, re-image and update handheld devices, stream Internet radio and purchase music, films, television shows, and audiobooks via the iTunes Store.


title: History of iTunes

text: Apple based the initial release of iTunes on SoundJam MP, a program developed by Bill Kincaid and released by Casady & Greene in 1999. Apple purchased the program from Casady & Greene in 2000. At the time of the purchase, Kincaid, Jeff Robbin and Dave Heller left Casady & Greene to continue development of the program as Apple employees. At Apple, the developers simplified SoundJam's user interface, added the ability to burn CDs, and removed the program's recording feature and skin support.


title: History of iTunes

text: Apple released version 1.0 of the program under a new name "iTunes" on January 9, 2001 at Macworld San Francisco. Macintosh users immediately began poking through iTunes's resource fork, where they discovered numerous strings and other resources that indicated that iTunes was a re-engineered Sound Jam MP. Casady & Greene ceased distribution of SoundJam MP on June 1, 2001 at the request of the developers.


title: History of iTunes

text: Originally a Mac OS 9-only application, iTunes began to support Mac OS X with the release of version 1.1 in March 2001. Release 2.0 added support for the new iPod. Version 3 dropped Mac OS 9 support but added smart playlists and a ratings system. In April 2003, version 4.0 introduced the iTunes Store; in October, version 4.1 added support for Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows XP. Introduced at Macworld 2005 with the new iPod Shuffle, Version 4.7.1 introduced the ability to convert higher-bitrate songs to 128kbit/s AAC automatically, as these devices did not natively support audio encoded in AIFF or Apple Lossless formats, also improving the value proposition of the Shuffle's limited flash-only storage. Version 7.0 introduced gapless playback and Cover Flow in September 2006. In March 2007, iTunes 7.1 added support for Windows Vista, and 7.3.2 was the last Windows 2000 version.


title: History of iTunes

text: iTunes lacked support for 64-bit versions of Windows until the 7.6 update on January 16, 2008. iTunes is currently supported under any 64-bit version of Windows, although the iTunes executable was still 32-bit until version 12.1. The 64-bit versions of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 are not supported by Apple, but a workaround has been devised for both operating systems. Version 8.0 added Genius playlists, grid view, and a new default visualizer.


title: History of iTunes

text: iTunes 9 added "Home Share" enabling automatic updating of purchased items across other computers on the same subnet and offers a new iTunes Store . Genius Mixes were added, as well as improved App synchronization abilities, extending the iPod Shuffle 128 kbit/s down-convert feature to all of Apple's AAC-capable devices. It also adds iTunes LPs to the store, which gives additional media with an album. Apple added iTunes Extras as well to the store, which adds content usually reserved for films on DVD and Blu-ray discs. Both iTunes LPs and Extras use web-standards HTML, JavaScript, and CSS.


title: History of iTunes

text: On September 1, 2010, Apple held their annual music press event where they unveiled an updated version: iTunes 10. The new version was available for download later that day. One major feature includes the integration of "iTunes Ping", which brings a social factor to the iTunes experience. Apple CEO Steve Jobs also announced a new logo, one without a CD in the background because of the increasing popularity of iTunes digital downloads.


title: History of iTunes

text: In October 2012, Apple announced the launch of the iPhone 5 and iPad Mini, the refresh of the iPod and Mac lines, and the upcoming release of iTunes 11. Slated for release by the end of October, the launch was pushed back to November 29, 2012. This version included tighter integration with iCloud, and a new user interface. Users' libraries now include all media they have stored in their iCloud account, along with any media unique to the device they are using. Media files stored in the cloud don't need to be downloaded before playing, allowing a larger collection to be accessible without increased disk usage. The new user interface includes a refreshed grid view, which replaces Cover Flow as the default layout method. With this change, Cover Flow is no longer available within the application. With the release of this software, the iTunes Store was redesigned to remain consistent with the new interface, and the stores available on iOS devices. The social element Ping was also removed and replaced by increased Twitter and Facebook integration. Other minor changes included disabling the sidebar by default, and slightly altering the icon to match that of the Mac App Store better.


title: History of iTunes

text: On October 16, 2014, Apple released iTunes 12, with a redesigned icon and interface, inspired by OS X Yosemite. With iTunes 12.1 and later, there is a new widget for notification center in OS X Yosemite, which allows the user to see what's playing, skip ahead, and even buy songs from iTunes Radio, right from notification center. It also improves performance when syncing to an iOS device.


title: History of iTunes

text: iTunes has been credited with accelerating shifts within the music industry. The pricing structure of iTunes encouraged the sale of single songs, allowing users to abandon the purchase of more expensive albums. This hastened the end of the Album Era in popular music.


title: History of iTunes

text: On April 26, 2018, Apple released iTunes 12 for Windows 10 via the Windows Store. The Universal Windows Platform app retains all features available in the desktop version, but will be updated and available through the Windows Store.


title: History of iTunes

text: On June 3, 2019, Apple stated that they would no longer include iTunes with future Mac computers. Starting with the operating system macOS Catalina, Apple instead split iTunes into separate apps: Apple Music, Apple TV, and Apple Podcasts. iTunes continues to be available on Windows and on macOS operating systems prior to Catalina. Users can also still install iTunes versions 10, 11, and 12 on macOS Catalina and macOS Big Sur using the Retroactive app.


title: Dehumanization

text: Dehumanization is the denial of full humanness in others and the cruelty and suffering that accompanies it. A practical definition refers to it as the viewing and treatment of other persons as though they lack the mental capacities that are commonly attributed to human beings. In this definition, every act or thought that regards a person as "less than" human is dehumanization.


title: Dehumanization

text: Dehumanization is one technique in incitement to genocide. It has also been used to justify war, judicial and extrajudicial killing, slavery, the confiscation of property, denial of suffrage and other rights, and to attack enemies or political opponents.


title: Dehumanization

text: Behaviorally, dehumanization describes a disposition towards others that debases the others' individuality as either an "individual" species or an "individual" object (e.g., someone who acts inhumanely towards humans). As a process, dehumanization may be understood as the opposite of personification, a figure of speech in which inanimate objects or abstractions are endowed with human qualities; dehumanization then is the disendowment of these same qualities or a reduction to abstraction.


title: Dehumanization

text: In almost all contexts, dehumanization is used pejoratively along with a disruption of social norms, with the former applying to the actor(s) of behavioral dehumanization and the latter applying to the action(s) or processes of dehumanization. For instance, there is dehumanization for those who are perceived as lacking in culture or civility, which are concepts that are believed to distinguish humans from animals. Social norms define humane behavior and reflexively define what is outside of humane behavior or inhumane. Dehumanization differs from inhumane behaviors or processes in its breadth to propose competing social norms. It is an action of dehumanization as the old norms are depreciated to the competing new norms, which then redefine the action of dehumanization. If the new norms lose acceptance, then the action remains one of dehumanization. The definition of "dehumanization" remains in a reflexive state of a type-token ambiguity relative to both individual and societal scales.


title: Dehumanization

text: In biological terms, dehumanization can be described as an introduced species marginalizing the human species, or an introduced person/process that debases other persons inhumanely.


title: Dehumanization

text: In political science and jurisprudence, the act of dehumanization is the inferential alienation of human rights or denaturalization of natural rights, a definition contingent upon presiding international law rather than social norms limited by human geography. In this context, a specialty within species does not need to constitute global citizenship or its inalienable rights; the human genome inherits both.


title: Dehumanization

text: It is theorized that dehumanization takes on two forms: "animalistic dehumanization", which is employed on a mostly intergroup basis; and "mechanistic dehumanization", which is employed on a mostly interpersonal basis. Dehumanization can occur discursively (e.g., idiomatic language that likens individual human beings to non-human animals, verbal abuse, erasing one's voice from discourse), symbolically (e.g., imagery), or physically (e.g., chattel slavery, physical abuse, refusing eye contact). Dehumanization often ignores the target's individuality (i.e., the creative and exciting aspects of their personality) and can hinder one from feeling empathy or correctly understanding a stigmatized group.


title: Dehumanization

text: Dehumanization may be carried out by a social institution (such as a state, school, or family), interpersonally, or even within oneself. Dehumanization can be unintentional, especially upon individuals, as with some types of "de facto" racism. State-organized dehumanization has historically been directed against perceived political, racial, ethnic, national, or religious minority groups. Other minoritized and marginalized individuals and groups (based on sexual orientation, gender, disability, class, or some other organizing principle) are also susceptible to various forms of dehumanization. The concept of dehumanization has received empirical attention in the psychological literature. It is conceptually related to infrahumanization, delegitimization, moral exclusion, and objectification. Dehumanization occurs across several domains; it is facilitated by status, power, and social connection; and results in behaviors like exclusion, violence, and support for violence against others.


title: Dehumanization

text: "Dehumanisation is viewed as a central component to intergroup violence because it is frequently the most important precursor to moral exclusion, the process by which stigmatized groups are placed outside the boundary in which moral values, rules, and considerations of fairness apply."


title: Dehumanization

text: David Livingstone Smith, director and founder of The Human Nature Project at the University of New England, argues that historically, human beings have been dehumanizing one another for thousands of years. In his work "The Paradoxes of Dehumanization", Smith proposes that dehumanization simultaneously regards people as human and subhuman. This paradox comes to light, as Smith identifies, because the reason people are dehumanized is so their human attributes can be taken advantage of.


title: Dehumanization

text: In Herbert Kelman's work on dehumanization, humanness has two features: "identity" (i.e., a perception of the person "as an individual, independent and distinguishable from others, capable of making choices") and "community" (i.e., a perception of the person as "part of an interconnected network of individuals who care for each other"). When a target's agency and embeddedness in a community are denied, they no longer elicit compassion or other moral responses and may suffer violence.


title: Dehumanization

text: Psychologist Barbara Fredrickson and Tomi-Ann Roberts argued that the sexual objectification of women extends beyond pornography (which emphasizes women's bodies over their uniquely human mental and emotional characteristics) to society generally. There is a normative emphasis on female appearance that causes women to take a third-person perspective on their bodies. The psychological distance women may feel from their bodies might cause them to dehumanize themselves. Some research has indicated that women and men exhibit a "sexual body part recognition bias", in which women's sexual body parts are better recognized when presented in isolation than in their entire bodies. In contrast, men's sexual body parts are better recognized in the context of their entire bodies than in isolation. Men who dehumanize women as either animals or objects are more liable to rape and sexually harass women and display more negative attitudes toward female rape victims.


title: Dehumanization

text: Philosopher Martha Nussbaum identified seven components of sexual objectification: instrumentality, denial of autonomy, inertness, fungibility, violability, ownership, and denial of subjectivity.


title: Dehumanization

text: In this context, instrumentality refers to when the objectified is used as an instrument to the objectifier's benefit. Denial of autonomy occurs in the form of the objectifier underestimating the objectified and denies their capabilities. In the case of inertness, the objectified is treated as if they are lazy and indolent. Fungibility brands the objectified to be easily replacable. Volability is when the objectifier does not respect the objectified person's personal space or boundaries. Ownership is when the objectified is seen as another person's property. Lastly, the denial of subjectivity is a lack of sympathy for the objectified, or the dismissal of the notion that the objectified has feelings. These seven components cause the objectifier to view the objectified in a disrespectful way, therefore treating them so.


title: Dehumanization

text: Native Americans were dehumanized as "merciless Indian savages" in the United States Declaration of Independence. Following the Wounded Knee massacre in December 1890, author L. Frank Baum wrote:The "Pioneer" has before declared that our only safety depends upon the total extermination [sic] of the Indians. Having wronged them for centuries we had better, in order to protect our civilization, follow it up by one more wrong and wipe these untamed and untamable creatures from the face of the earth. In this lies safety for our settlers and the soldiers who are under incompetent commands. Otherwise, we may expect future years to be as full of trouble with the redskins as those have been in the past. In Martin Luther King Jr.'s book on civil rights, "Why We Can't Wait", he wrote:


title: Dehumanization

text: Our nation was born in genocide when it embraced the doctrine that the original American, the Indian, was an inferior race. Even before there were large numbers of Negroes on our shores, the scar of racial hatred had already disfigured colonial society. From the sixteenth century forward, blood flowed in battles over racial supremacy. We are perhaps the only nation which tried as a matter of national policy to wipe out its indigenous population. Moreover, we elevated that tragic experience into a noble crusade. Indeed, even today we have not permitted ourselves to reject or to feel remorse for this shameful episode. Our literature, our films, our drama, our folklore all exalt it.


title: Dehumanization

text: King was an active supporter of the Native American rights movement, which he drew parallels with his own leadership of the civil rights movement. Both movements aimed to overturn dehumanizing attitudes held by members of the public at large against them.


title: Dehumanization

text: Several lines of psychological research relate to the concept of dehumanization. Infrahumanization suggests that individuals think of and treat outgroup members as "less human" and more like animals; while Austrian ethnologist Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt uses the term "pseudo-speciation", a term that he borrowed from the psychoanalyst Erik Erikson, to imply that the dehumanized person or persons are regarded as not members of the human species. Specifically, individuals associate secondary emotions (which are seen as uniquely human) more with the ingroup than with the outgroup. Primary emotions (those experienced by all sentient beings, whether human or other animals) are found to be more associated with the outgroup. Dehumanization is intrinsically connected with violence. Often, one cannot do serious injury to another without first dehumanizing him or her in one's mind (as a form of rationalization.) Military training is, among other things, systematic desensitization and dehumanization of the enemy, and servicemen and women may find it psychologically necessary to refer to the enemy as an animal or other non-human beings. Lt. Col. Dave Grossman has shown that it would be difficult without such desensitization, if not impossible, to kill another human, even in combat or under threat to their own lives.


title: Dehumanization

text: According to Daniel Bar-Tal, delegitimization is the "categorization of groups into extreme negative social categories which are excluded from human groups that are considered as acting within the limits of acceptable norms and values".


title: Dehumanization

text: Moral exclusion occurs when outgroups are subject to a different set of moral values, rules, and fairness than are used in social relations with ingroup members. When individuals dehumanize others, they no longer experience distress when they treat them poorly. Moral exclusion is used to explain extreme behaviors like genocide, harsh immigration policies, and eugenics, but it can also happen on a more regular, everyday discriminatory level. In laboratory studies, people who are portrayed as lacking human qualities are treated in a particularly harsh and violent manner.


title: Dehumanization

text: Dehumanized perception occurs when a subject experiences low frequencies of activation within their social cognition neural network. This includes areas of neural networking such as the superior temporal sulcus (STS) and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). A 2001 study by psychologists Chris and Uta Frith suggests that the criticality of social interaction within a neural network has tendencies for subjects to dehumanize those seen as disgust-inducing, leading to social disengagement. Tasks involving social cognition typically activate the neural network responsible for subjective projections of disgust-inducing perceptions and patterns of dehumanization. "Besides manipulations of target persons, manipulations of social goals validate this prediction: Inferring preference, a mental-state inference, significantly increases mPFC and STS activity to these otherwise dehumanized targets." A 2007 study by Harris, McClure, van den Bos, Cohen and Fiske suggests a subject's mental reliability towards dehumanizing social cognition due to decreased neural activity towards the projected target, replicating across stimuli and contexts.


title: Dehumanization

text: While social distance from the outgroup target is a necessary condition for dehumanization, some research suggests that this alone is insufficient. Psychological research has identified high status, power, and social connection as additional factors. Members of high-status groups more often associate humanity with the ingroup than the outgroup, while members of low-status groups exhibit no differences in associations with humanity. Thus, having a high status makes one more likely to dehumanize others. Low-status groups are more associated with human nature traits (e.g., warmth, emotionalism) than uniquely human characteristics, implying that they are closer to animals than humans because these traits are typical of humans but can be seen in other species. In addition, another line of work found that individuals in a position of power were more likely to objectify their subordinates, treating them as a means to one's end rather than focusing on their essentially human qualities. Finally, social connection—thinking about a close other or being in the actual presence of a close other—enables dehumanization by reducing the attribution of human mental states, increasing support for treating targets like animals, and increasing willingness to endorse harsh interrogation tactics. This is counterintuitive because social connection has documented personal health and well-being benefits but appears to impair intergroup relations.


title: Dehumanization

text: Neuroimaging studies have discovered that the medial prefrontal cortex—a brain region distinctively involved in attributing mental states to others—shows diminished activation to extremely dehumanized targets (i.e., those rated, according to the stereotype content model, as low-warmth and low-competence, such as drug addicts or homeless people).


title: Dehumanization

text: Dehumanization often occurs as a result of intergroup conflict. Ethnic and racial others are often represented as animals in popular culture and scholarship. There is evidence that this representation persists in the American context with African Americans implicitly associated with apes. To the extent that an individual has this dehumanizing implicit association, they are more likely to support violence against African Americans (e.g., jury decisions to execute defendants). Historically, dehumanization is frequently connected to genocidal conflicts in that ideologies before and during the conflict depict victims as subhuman (e.g., rodents). Immigrants may also be dehumanized in this manner.


title: Dehumanization

text: In 1901, the six Australian colonies assented to federation, creating the modern nation state of Australia and its government. Section 51 (xxvi) excluded Aboriginals from the groups protected by special laws, and section 127 excluded Aboriginals from population counts. The "Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902" categorically denied Aboriginals the right to vote. Indigenous Australians were not allowed the social security benefits (e.g., aged pensions and maternity allowances) which were provided to others. Aboriginals in rural areas were discriminated against and controlled as to where and how they could marry, work, live, and their movements.


title: Dehumanization

text: Dehumanization and dehumanized perception can occur as a result of the language used to describe groups of people. Words such as migrant, immigrant, and expatriate are assigned to foreigners based on their social status and wealth, rather than ability, achievements, or political alignment. Expatriate is a word to describe the privileged, often light-skinned people newly residing in an area and has connotations that suggest ability, wealth, and trust. Meanwhile, the word immigrant is used to describe people coming to a new location to reside and infers a much less-desirable meaning.


title: Dehumanization

text: The word "immigrant" is sometimes paired with "illegal", which harbors a profoundly derogatory connotation. Misuse of these terms—they are often used inaccurately—to describe the other, can alter the perception of a group as a whole in a negative way. Ryan Eller, the executive director of the immigrant advocacy group, Define American, expressed the problem this way:


title: Dehumanization

text: A series of language examinations found a direct relation between homophobic epithets and social cognitive distancing towards a group of homosexuals, a form of dehumanization. These epithets (e.g., "faggot") were thought to function as dehumanizing labels because they tended to act as markers of deviance. One pair of studies found that subjects were more likely to associate malignant language with homosexuals, and that such language associations increased the physical distancing between the subject and the homosexual. This indicated that the malignant language could encourage dehumanization, cognitive and physical distancing in ways that other forms of malignant language do not.


title: Dehumanization

text: In the US, African Americans were dehumanized by being classified as non-human primates. The US Constitution held that enslaved Africans would be counted as three-fifths of a free person for purposes of federal representation and direct taxes. A California police officer who was also involved in the Rodney King beating described a dispute between an American Black couple as "something right out of "Gorillas in the Mist"". Franz Boas and Charles Darwin hypothesized that there might be an evolutionary process among primates. Monkeys and apes were least evolved, then savage and deformed anthropoids, which referred to people of African ancestry, to Caucasians as most developed.


title: Dehumanization

text: Property scholars define dehumanization as “the failure to recognize an individual’s or group’s humanity.” Dehumanization often occurs alongside property confiscation. When a property takeover is coupled with dehumanization, the result is a dignity taking.


title: Dehumanization

text: From its founding, the United States repeatedly engaged in dignity takings from Native American populations, taking indigenous land in an “undeniably horrific, violent, and tragic record” of genocide and ethnocide. As recently as 2013, the degradation of a mountain sacred to the Hopi people—by spraying its peak potwith artificial snow made from wastewater—constituted another dignity taking by the U.S. Forest Service.


title: Dehumanization

text: The Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921 also constituted a dignity taking involving dehumanization. White rioters dehumanized African Americans by attacking, looting, and destroying homes and businesses in Greenwood, a predominantly Black neighborhood known as “Black Wall Street.”


title: Dehumanization

text: During the Holocaust, mass genocide—a severe form of dehumanization—accompanied the destruction and taking of Jewish property. This constituted a dignity taking.


title: Dehumanization

text: Undocumented workers in the United States have also been subject to dehumanizing dignity takings when employers treat them as machines instead of people to justify dangerous working conditions. When harsh conditions lead to bodily injury or death, the property destroyed is the physical body.


title: Dehumanization

text: The propaganda model of Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky argues that corporate media are able to carry out large-scale, successful dehumanization campaigns when they promote the goals (profit-making) that the corporations are contractually obliged to maximize. State media are also capable of carrying out dehumanization campaigns, whether in democracies or dictatorships, which are pervasive enough that the population cannot avoid the dehumanizing memes.


title: Dehumanization

text: Non-state actors—terrorists in particular—have also resorted to dehumanization to further their cause. The 1960s terrorist group Weather Underground had advocated violence against any authority figure and used the "police are pigs" meme to convince members that they were not harming human beings but merely killing wild animals. Likewise, rhetoric statements such as "terrorists are just scum", is an act of dehumanization.


title: Dehumanization

text: Relatively recent history has seen the relationship between dehumanization and science result in unethical scientific research. The Tuskegee syphilis experiment, Unit 731, and Nazi human experimentation on Jewish people are three such examples. In the former, African Americans with syphilis were recruited to participate in a study about the course of the disease. Even when treatment and a cure were eventually developed, they were withheld from the African-American participants so that researchers could continue their study. Similarly, Nazi scientists during the Holocaust conducted horrific experiments on Jewish people and Shiro Ishii's Unit 731 also did so to Chinese, Russian, Mongolian, American, and other nationalities held captive. Both were justified in the name of research and progress, which is indicative of the far-reaching effects that the culture of dehumanization had upon this society. When this research came to light, efforts were made to protect future research participants, and currently, institutional review boards exist to safeguard individuals from being exploited by scientists.


title: Dehumanization

text: In a medical context, some dehumanizing practices have become more acceptable. While the dissection of human cadavers was seen as dehumanizing in the Dark Ages (see history of anatomy), the value of dissections as a training aid is such that they are now more widely accepted. Dehumanization has been associated with modern medicine generally and has explicitly been suggested as a coping mechanism for doctors who work with patients at the end of life. Researchers have identified six potential causes of dehumanization in medicine: deindividuating practices, impaired patient agency, dissimilarity (causes which do not facilitate the delivery of medical treatment), mechanization, empathy reduction, and moral disengagement (which could be argued to facilitate the delivery of medical treatment).


title: Dehumanization

text: In some US states, controversial legislation requires that a woman view ultrasound images of her fetus before having an abortion. Critics of the law argue that merely seeing an image of the fetus humanizes it and biases women against abortion. Similarly, a recent study showed that subtle humanization of medical patients appears to improve care for these patients. Radiologists evaluating X-rays reported more details to patients and expressed more empathy when a photo of the patient's face accompanied the X-rays. It appears that the inclusion of the photos counteracts the dehumanization of the medical process.


title: Dehumanization

text: Dehumanization has applications outside traditional social contexts. Anthropomorphism (i.e., perceiving mental and physical capacities that reflect humans in nonhuman entities) is the inverse of dehumanization.. Waytz, Epley, and Cacioppo suggest that the inverse of the factors that facilitate dehumanization (e.g., high status, power, and social connection) should promote anthropomorphism. That is, a low status, socially disconnected person without power should be more likely to attribute human qualities to pets or inanimate objects than a high-status, high-power, socially connected person.


title: Dehumanization

text: Researchers have found that engaging in violent video game play diminishes perceptions of both one's own humanity and the humanity of the players who are targets of the game violence. While the players are dehumanized, the video game characters are often anthropomorphized.


title: Dehumanization

text: Dehumanization has occurred historically under the pretense of "progress in the name of science". During the St. Louis World's fair in 1904, human zoos exhibited several natives from independent tribes worldwide, most notably a young Congolese man, Ota Benga. Benga's imprisonment was put on display as a public service showcasing "a degraded and degenerate race". During this period, religion was still the driving force behind many political and scientific activities. Because of this, eugenics was widely supported among the most notable US scientific communities, political figures, and industrial elites. After relocating to New York in 1906, public outcry led to the permanent ban and closure of human zoos in the United States.


title: Dehumanization

text: Francisco Goya, famed Spanish painter and printmaker of the romantic period, often depicted subjectivity involving the atrocities of war and brutal violence conveying the process of dehumanization. In the romantic period of painting, martyrdom art was most often a means of deifying the oppressed and tormented, and it was common for Goya to depict evil personalities performing these unjust horrible acts. But it was revolutionary the way the painter broke this convention by dehumanizing these martyr figures. "...one would not know whom the painting depicts, so determinedly has Goya reduced his subjects from martyrs to meat".


title: Child development stages

text: Child development stages are the theoretical milestones of child development, some of which are asserted in nativist theories. This article discusses the most widely accepted developmental stages in children. There exists a wide variation in terms of what is considered "normal", caused by variation in genetic, cognitive, physical, family, cultural, nutritional, educational, and environmental factors. Many children reach some or most of these milestones at different times from the norm.


title: Child development stages

text: Holistic development sees the child in the round, as a whole person – physically, emotionally, intellectually, socially, morally, culturally and spiritually. Learning about child development involves studying patterns of growth and development, from which guidelines for 'normal' development are construed. Developmental norms are sometimes called milestones – they define the recognised pattern of development that children are expected to follow. Each child develops in a unique way; however, using norms helps in understanding these general patterns of development while recognising the wide variation between individuals.


title: Child development stages

text: One way to identify pervasive developmental disorders is if infants fail to meet the development milestones in time or at all.


title: Rio Ave F.C.

text: Rio Ave Futebol Clube, commonly known as Rio Ave (), is a Portuguese professional football club based in Vila do Conde, that competes in the Primeira Liga. The club is named after the Ave River, which flows through the town and into the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Rio Ave F.C.

text: Founded in 1939, they play their home matches at Estádio do Rio Ave, also known as the Estádio dos Arcos. Built in 1985, the current stadium seats approximately 12,815 people.


title: Rio Ave F.C.

text: The club's home colours are green and white striped shirts with white shorts and socks, while their away kit consists of a red and white striped shirt and white shorts with yellow socks. Portuguese internationals Alfredo, Paulinho Santos, Quim, Rui Jorge and Fábio Coentrão started their careers at the club. Goalkeepers Jan Oblak and Ederson are some famous talents that were part of this side.


title: Rio Ave F.C.

text: The "Vilacondenses"<nowiki>'</nowiki> best top-tier league finish was fifth in the 1981–82, 2017–18 and 2019–20 seasons. They reached the 1984 Taça de Portugal Final, where they lost to Porto 4–1, and the 2014 Taça de Portugal Final, where they lost to Benfica 1–0. With this result, Rio Ave qualified for the 2014–15 UEFA Europa League, their first participation in a major European competition.


title: Rio Ave F.C.

text: Rio Ave was founded in 1939, soon being nicknamed "Rio Grande" (Big River). The side had two of its best moments in the 1980s, under the management of Félix Mourinho, father of José Mourinho: in 1981–82, the club finished in a joint-best fifth place, and two years later it reached the Taça de Portugal final, losing to Porto 4–1.


title: Rio Ave F.C.

text: In 2013–14, the club reached both cup finals under the management of Nuno Espírito Santo, but lost to treble-winners Benfica in both. This qualified them to their first European campaign, the 2014–15 UEFA Europa League. New manager Pedro Martins led them past Swedish duo IFK Göteborg and IF Elfsborg to reach the group stage, where they came last.


title: Rio Ave F.C.

text: Under Miguel Cardoso, Rio Ave came fifth in 2017–18, equalling their best finish. Two years later, with Carlos Carvalhal in charge and Iranian Mehdi Taremi the league's joint top scorer, the club equalled this position with a new points record of 55. In October 2020, the team reached the Europa League playoffs but lost at home to A.C. Milan, having conceded a penalty equaliser in the last minute of extra time and then losing 9–8 on penalties. The season, under the returning Cardoso, ended with relegation after a 5–0 aggregate defeat to F.C. Arouca in the playoffs.


title: Troodon

text: Troodon ( ; Troödon in older sources) is a wastebasket taxon and a dubious genus of relatively small, bird-like dinosaurs known definitively from the Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous period (about 77 mya). It includes at least one species, Troodon formosus, known from Montana. Discovered in October 1855, "T. formosus" was among the first dinosaurs found in North America, although it was thought to be a lizard until 1877. Several well-known troodontid specimens from the Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta were once believed to be members of this genus. However, recent analyses in 2017 have found the genus to be undiagnostic and referred some of these specimens to the genus "Stenonychosaurus" (long believed to be synonymous with "Troodon") and others to the genus "Latenivenatrix".


title: Troodon

text: The genus name is Ancient Greek for "wounding tooth", referring to the teeth, which were different from those of most other theropods known at the time of their discovery. The teeth bear prominent, apically oriented serrations. These "wounding" serrations, however, are morphometrically more similar to those of herbivorous reptiles, and suggest a possibly omnivorous diet.


title: Troodon

text: The name was originally spelled "Troödon" (with a diaeresis) by Joseph Leidy in 1856, which was officially amended to its current status by Sauvage in 1876. The type specimen of "Troodon" has caused problems with classification, as the entire genus is based only on a single tooth from the Judith River Formation. "Troodon" has historically been a highly unstable classification and has been the subject of numerous conflicting synonymies with similar theropod specimens.


title: Troodon

text: The "Troodon" tooth was originally classified as a "lacertilian" (lizard) by Leidy, but reassigned as a megalosaurid dinosaur by Franz Nopcsa von Felső-Szilvás in 1901 (Megalosauridae having historically been a wastebin taxon for most carnivorous dinosaurs). In 1924, Gilmore suggested that the tooth belonged to the herbivorous pachycephalosaur "Stegoceras", and that "Stegoceras" was in fact a junior synonym of "Troodon" (the similarity of troodontid teeth to those of herbivorous dinosaurs continues to lead many paleontologists to believe that these animals were omnivores). The classification of "Troodon" as a pachycephalosaur was followed for many years, during which the family Pachycephalosauridae was known as Troodontidae. In 1945, Charles Mortram Sternberg rejected the possibility that "Troodon" was a pachycephalosaur due to its stronger similarity to the teeth of other carnivorous dinosaurs. With "Troodon" now classified as a theropod, the family Troodontidae could no longer be used for the dome-headed dinosaurs, so Sternberg named a new family for them, "Pachycephalosauridae".


title: Troodon

text: The first specimens assigned to "Troodon" that were not teeth were both found by Sternberg in the early 1930s, in the Dinosaur Park Formation of Alberta. The first was named "Stenonychosaurus inequalis" by Sternberg in 1932, based on a foot, fragments of a hand, and some tail vertebrae. A remarkable feature of these remains was the enlarged claw on the second toe, which is now recognized as characteristic of early paravians. Sternberg initially classified "Stenonychosaurus" as a member of the family Coeluridae. The second, a partial lower jaw bone, was described by Gilmore (1932) as a new species of lizard which he named "Polyodontosaurus grandis". Later, in 1951, Sternberg recognized "P. grandis" as a possible synonym of "Troodon", and speculated that since "Stenonychosaurus" had a "very peculiar pes" and "Troodon" "equally unusual teeth", they may be closely related. Unfortunately, no comparable specimens were available at that time to test the idea. In a recent revision of the material by van der Reest & Currie, "Polyodontosaurus" was determined to be a "nomen dubium", not fit for synonymy with other taxa.


title: Troodon

text: A more complete skeleton of "Stenonychosaurus" was described by Dale Russell in 1969 from the Dinosaur Park Formation, which eventually formed the scientific foundation for a famous life-sized sculpture of "Stenonychosaurus" accompanied by its fictional, humanoid descendant, the "dinosauroid". "Stenonychosaurus" became a well-known theropod in the 1980s, when the feet and braincase were described in more detail. Along with "Saurornithoides", it formed the family Saurornithoididae. Based on differences in tooth structure, and the extremely fragmentary nature of the original "Troodon formosus" specimens, saurornithoidids were thought to be close relatives while "Troodon" was considered a dubious possible relative of the family. Phil Currie, reviewing the pertinent specimens in 1987, showed that supposed differences in tooth and jaw structure among troodontids and saurornithoidids were based on age and position of the tooth in the jaw, rather than a difference in species. He reclassified "Stenonychosaurus inequalis" as well as "Polyodontosaurus grandis" and "Pectinodon bakkeri" as junior synonyms of "Troodon formosus". Currie also made Saurornithoididae a junior synonym of Troodontidae. In 1988, Gregory S. Paul went farther and included "Saurornithoides mongoliensis" in the genus "Troodon" as "T. mongoliensis", but this reclassification, along with many other unilateral synonymizations of well known genera, was not adopted by other researchers. Currie's classification of all North American troodontid material in the single species "Troodon formosus" became widely adopted by other paleontologists, and all of the specimens once called "Stenonychosaurus" were referred to as "Troodon" in the scientific literature through the early 21st century.


title: Troodon

text: However, the concept that all Late Cretaceous North American troodontids belong to one species began to be questioned soon after Currie's 1987 paper was published, including by Currie himself. Currie and colleagues (1990) noted that, while they believed the Judith River troodontids were all "T. formosus", troodontid fossils from other formations, such as the Hell Creek Formation and Lance Formation, might belong to different species. In 1991, George Olshevsky assigned the Lance formation fossils, which had first been named "Pectinodon bakkeri" but later synonymized with "Troodon formosus" to the species "Troodon bakkeri", and several other researchers (including Currie) have reverted to keeping the Dinosaur Park Formation fossils separate as "Troodon inequalis" (now "Stenonychosaurus inequalis").


title: Troodon

text: In 2011, Zanno and colleagues reviewed the convoluted history of troodontid classification in Late Cretaceous North America. They followed Longrich (2008) in treating "Pectinodon bakkeri" as a valid genus, and noted that it is likely the numerous Late Cretaceous specimens currently assigned to "Troodon formosus" almost certainly represent numerous new genera, but that a more thorough review of the specimens is required. Because the holotype of "T. formosus" is a single tooth, this renders "Troodon" a "nomen dubium".


title: Troodon

text: In 2017, Evans and colleagues further discussed the undiagnostic nature of the holotype of "Troodon formosus" and suggested that "Stenonychosaurus" be used for troodontid skeletal material from the Dinosaur Park Formation. Later in the same year, Aaron J. van der Reest and Currie came to a similar conclusion as Evans and colleagues, and also split much of the material assigned to "Stenonychosaurus" into a new genus: "Latenivenatrix". In 2018, Varricchio and colleagues disagreed with Evans and colleagues, citing that "Stenonychosaurus" had not been used in the thirty years since Currie and colleagues synonymized it with "Troodon", and they indicated that ""Troodon formosus" remains the proper name for this taxon". This conclusion by Varricchio was agreed upon by Sellés and colleagues in their 2021 description of "Tamarro". Varricchio's comments were later addressed by Cullen and colleagues in their 2021 review of Dinosaur Park Formation biodiversity, where they noted that while "Stenonychosaurus" has indeed not been used for 30 years, Currie's original hypothesis of subjective synonymy (based on tooth and jaw morphology) was never directly tested, and given that later research found that teeth were not diagnostic below the family level in troodontids, Currie's original hypothesis is therefore not supported by the available data, regardless of the amount of time since it was originally proposed. They suggested that the description of more complete skeletal material (i.e. containing dental, frontal, and postcranial elements) that can be tied to the holotype could allow the direct testing of the synonymy hypothesis, but re-affirmed that for now, given the lack of supporting evidence, the synonymy of "Troodon" and "Stenonychosaurus" cannot be maintained, and that merely remaining untested for 30 years is not sufficient justification to accept a proposed lumping of taxa lacking overlapping diagnostic materials. However, Varricchio and other still insist on their naming method.


title: Troodon

text: "Troodon" is considered to be one of the most derived members of its family. Along with "Zanabazar", "Saurornithoides", and "Talos", it forms a clade of specialized troodontids.


title: Troodon

text: One study was based on multiple "Troodon" teeth that have been collected from Late Cretaceous deposits from northern Alaska. These teeth are much larger than those collected from more southern sites, providing evidence that northern Alaskan populations of "Troodon" grew to larger average body size, hinting at Bergmann's rule. This study also provides an analysis of the proportions and wear patterns of a large sample of "Troodon" teeth. It proposes that the wear patterns of all "Troodon" teeth suggest a diet of soft foods - inconsistent with bone chewing, invertebrate exoskeletons, or tough plant items. This study hypothesizes a diet primarily consisting of meat. A pellet possibly belonging to Troodon suggests it hunted early mammals such as Alphadon.


title: Troodon

text: In 2011, another derived troodontid, "Linhevenator", was described from Inner Mongolia, China. It was noted by the authors as having relatively short and robust forelimbs, along with an enlarged second pedal ungual akin to that of the dromaeosaurids, in comparison to more basal troodontids. It was proposed that derived troodontids had convergently evolved dromaeosaurid-style large second pedal unguals, likely as an adaptation relating to predation. The authors noted that it is plausible that this may be applicable to other derived troodontids, including "Troodon", although this is currently uncertain due to a paucity of sufficient remains of the latter genus.


title: Troodon

text: The type specimen of "Troodon formosus" was found in the Judith River Formation of Montana. The rocks of the Judith River Formation are equivalent in age with the Oldman Formation of Alberta, which has been dated to between 77.5 and 76.5 million years ago.


title: Troodon

text: In the past, remains have been attributed to the same genus as the Judith River "Troodon" from a wide variety of other geological formations. It is now recognized as unlikely that all of these fossils, which come from localities hundreds or thousands of miles apart, separated by millions of years of time, represent a single species or genus of troodontid dinosaurs. Further study and more fossils are needed to determine how many species of "Troodon" existed. It is questionable that, after further study, any additional species can be referred to "Troodon", in which case the genus would be considered a "nomen dubium".


title: Troodon

text: A species of "Troodon" is known from the Prince Creek Formation, a fossil site from Alaska that dates from the latest Campanian to Maastrichtian of the late Cretaceous. Based on the presence of Gypsum and Pyrite in the rocks, it suggests that the formation was bordered by a large body of water. It seems, based on the presence of pollen fossils, that the dominant plants were trees, shrubs, herbs, and flowering plants. The temperature ranged from possibly 2-12°C, which roughly correlates to 36-54°F, and based on Alaska's position in the late Cretaceous, the area faced 120 or so days of winter darkness. This Maniraptoran lived alongside many other reptiles like the centrosaurine "Pachyrhinosaurus perotorum", a species of the saurolophine hadrosaur "Edmontosaurus", the pachycephalosaurin "Alaskacephale gangloffi", an azhdarchid pterosaur, and the tyrannosaurine "Nanuqsaurus hoglundi". It also lived alongside the metatherian mammal "Unnuakomys hutchisoni." Based on the amount of teeth found, this troodontid was the most common theropod of the formation, making up 2/3 of all specimens, a stark contrast to more southern deposits in Montana where troodontids only comprise 6% of all theropod remains. This, along with evidence that "Troodon" was more abundant during cooler intervals such as the early Maastrichtian, may indicate that "Troodon" favored cooler climates.


title: Troodon

text: Additional specimens currently referred to "Troodon" come from the upper Two Medicine Formation of Montana. "Troodon"-like teeth have been found in the lower Javelina Formation of Texas and the Naashoibito Member of the Ojo Alamo Formation in New Mexico.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: A translation lookaside buffer (TLB) is a memory cache that stores the recent translations of virtual memory to physical memory. It is used to reduce the time taken to access a user memory location. It can be called an address-translation cache. It is a part of the chip's memory-management unit (MMU). A TLB may reside between the CPU and the CPU cache, between CPU cache and the main memory or between the different levels of the multi-level cache. The majority of desktop, laptop, and server processors include one or more TLBs in the memory-management hardware, and it is nearly always present in any processor that utilizes paged or segmented virtual memory.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: The TLB is sometimes implemented as content-addressable memory (CAM). The CAM search key is the virtual address, and the search result is a physical address. If the requested address is present in the TLB, the CAM search yields a match quickly and the retrieved physical address can be used to access memory. This is called a TLB hit. If the requested address is not in the TLB, it is a miss, and the translation proceeds by looking up the page table in a process called a "page walk". The page walk is time-consuming when compared to the processor speed, as it involves reading the contents of multiple memory locations and using them to compute the physical address. After the physical address is determined by the page walk, the virtual address to physical address mapping is entered into the TLB. The PowerPC 604, for example, has a two-way set-associative TLB for data loads and stores. Some processors have different instruction and data address TLBs.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: A TLB has a fixed number of slots containing page-table entries and segment-table entries; page-table entries map virtual addresses to physical addresses and intermediate-table addresses, while segment-table entries map virtual addresses to segment addresses, intermediate-table addresses and page-table addresses. The virtual memory is the memory space as seen from a process; this space is often split into pages of a fixed size (in paged memory), or less commonly into segments of variable sizes (in segmented memory). The page table, generally stored in main memory, keeps track of where the virtual pages are stored in the physical memory. This method uses two memory accesses (one for the page-table entry, one for the byte) to access a byte. First, the page table is looked up for the frame number. Second, the frame number with the page offset gives the actual address. Thus any straightforward virtual memory scheme would have the effect of doubling the memory access time. Hence, the TLB is used to reduce the time taken to access the memory locations in the page-table method. The TLB is a cache of the page table, representing only a subset of the page-table contents.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: Referencing the physical memory addresses, a TLB may reside between the CPU and the CPU cache, between the CPU cache and primary storage memory, or between levels of a multi-level cache. The placement determines whether the cache uses physical or virtual addressing. If the cache is virtually addressed, requests are sent directly from the CPU to the cache, and the TLB is accessed only on a cache miss. If the cache is physically addressed, the CPU does a TLB lookup on every memory operation, and the resulting physical address is sent to the cache.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: In a Harvard architecture or modified Harvard architecture, a separate virtual address space or memory-access hardware may exist for instructions and data. This can lead to distinct TLBs for each access type, an "instruction translation lookaside buffer" (ITLB) and a "data translation lookaside buffer" (DTLB). Various benefits have been demonstrated with separate data and instruction TLBs.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: The TLB can be used as a fast lookup hardware cache. The figure shows the working of a TLB. Each entry in the TLB consists of two parts: a tag and a value. If the tag of the incoming virtual address matches the tag in the TLB, the corresponding value is returned. Since the TLB lookup is usually a part of the instruction pipeline, searches are fast and cause essentially no performance penalty. However, to be able to search within the instruction pipeline, the TLB has to be small.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: A common optimization for physically addressed caches is to perform the TLB lookup in parallel with the cache access. Upon each virtual-memory reference, the hardware checks the TLB to see whether the page number is held therein. If yes, it is a TLB hit, and the translation is made. The frame number is returned and is used to access the memory. If the page number is not in the TLB, the page table must be checked. Depending on the CPU, this can be done automatically using a hardware or using an interrupt to the operating system. When the frame number is obtained, it can be used to access the memory. In addition, we add the page number and frame number to the TLB, so that they will be found quickly on the next reference. If the TLB is already full, a suitable block must be selected for replacement. There are different replacement methods like "least recently used" (LRU), "first in, first out" (FIFO) etc.; see the address translation section in the cache article for more details about virtual addressing as it pertains to caches and TLBs.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: The CPU has to access main memory for an instruction-cache miss, data-cache miss, or TLB miss. The third case (the simplest one) is where the desired information itself actually "is" in a cache, but the information for virtual-to-physical translation is not in a TLB. These are all slow, due to the need to access a slower level of the memory hierarchy, so a well-functioning TLB is important. Indeed, a TLB miss can be more expensive than an instruction or data cache miss, due to the need for not just a load from main memory, but a page walk, requiring several memory accesses.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: The flowchart provided explains the working of a TLB. If it is a TLB miss, then the CPU checks the page table for the page table entry. If the "present bit" is set, then the page is in main memory, and the processor can retrieve the frame number from the page-table entry to form the physical address. The processor also updates the TLB to include the new page-table entry. Finally, if the present bit is not set, then the desired page is not in the main memory, and a page fault is issued. Then a page-fault interrupt is called, which executes the page-fault handling routine.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: If the page working set does not fit into the TLB, then TLB thrashing occurs, where frequent TLB misses occur, with each newly cached page displacing one that will soon be used again, degrading performance in exactly the same way as thrashing of the instruction or data cache does. TLB thrashing can occur even if instruction-cache or data-cache thrashing are not occurring, because these are cached in different-size units. Instructions and data are cached in small blocks (cache lines), not entire pages, but address lookup is done at the page level. Thus even if the code and data working sets fit into cache, if the working sets are fragmented across many pages, the virtual-address working set may not fit into TLB, causing TLB thrashing. Appropriate sizing of the TLB thus requires considering not only the size of the corresponding instruction and data caches, but also how these are fragmented across multiple pages.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: Similar to caches, TLBs may have multiple levels. CPUs can be (and nowadays usually are) built with multiple TLBs, for example a small L1 TLB (potentially fully associative) that is extremely fast, and a larger L2 TLB that is somewhat slower. When instruction-TLB (ITLB) and data-TLB (DTLB) are used, a CPU can have three (ITLB1, DTLB1, TLB2) or four TLBs.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: For instance, Intel's Nehalem microarchitecture has a four-way set associative L1 DTLB with 64 entries for 4 KiB pages and 32 entries for 2/4 MiB pages, an L1 ITLB with 128 entries for 4 KiB pages using four-way associativity and 14 fully associative entries for 2/4 MiB pages (both parts of the ITLB divided statically between two threads) and a unified 512-entry L2 TLB for 4 KiB pages, both 4-way associative.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: Some TLBs may have separate sections for small pages and huge pages. For example, Intel Skylake microarchitecture separates the TLB entries for 1GiB pages from those for 4KiB/2MiB pages.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: The MIPS architecture specifies a software-managed TLB; the SPARC V9 architecture allows an implementation of SPARC V9 to have no MMU, an MMU with a software-managed TLB, or an MMU with a hardware-managed TLB, and the UltraSPARC Architecture 2005 specifies a software-managed TLB.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: The Alpha architecture's TLB is managed in PALcode, rather than in the operating system. As the PALcode for a processor can be processor-specific and operating-system-specific, this allows different versions of PALcode to implement different page-table formats for different operating systems, without requiring that the TLB format, and the instructions to control the TLB, to be specified by the architecture.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: The average effective memory cycle rate is defined as formula_1 cycles, where formula_2 is the number of cycles required for a memory read, formula_3 is the miss rate, and formula_4 is the hit time in cycles.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: If a TLB hit takes 1 clock cycle, a miss takes 30 clock cycles, a memory read takes 30 clock cycles, and the miss rate is 1%, the effective memory cycle rate is an average of formula_5 (31.29 clock cycles per memory access).


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: On an address-space switch, as occurs when context switching between processes (but not between threads), some TLB entries can become invalid, since the virtual-to-physical mapping is different. The simplest strategy to deal with this is to completely flush the TLB. This means that after a switch, the TLB is empty, and "any" memory reference will be a miss, so it will be some time before things are running back at full speed. Newer CPUs use more effective strategies marking which process an entry is for. This means that if a second process runs for only a short time and jumps back to a first process, the TLB may still have valid entries, saving the time to reload them.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: (a) A single address space operating system uses the same virtual-to-physical mapping for all processes.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: (b) Some CPUs have a process ID register, and the hardware uses TLB entries only if they that match the current process ID.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: For example, in the Alpha 21264, each TLB entry is tagged with an "address space number" (ASN), and only TLB entries with an ASN matching the current task are considered valid. Another example in the Intel Pentium Pro, the page global enable (PGE) flag in the register CR4 and the global (G) flag of a page-directory or page-table entry can be used to prevent frequently used pages from being automatically invalidated in the TLBs on a task switch or a load of register CR3. Since the 2010 Westmere microarchitecture Intel 64 processors also support 12-bit "process-context identifiers" (PCIDs), which allow retaining TLB entries for multiple linear-address spaces, with only those that match the current PCID being used for address translation.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: While selective flushing of the TLB is an option in software-managed TLBs, the only option in some hardware TLBs (for example, the TLB in the Intel 80386) is the complete flushing of the TLB on an address-space switch. Other hardware TLBs (for example, the TLB in the Intel 80486 and later x86 processors, and the TLB in ARM processors) allow the flushing of individual entries from the TLB indexed by virtual address.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: Flushing of the TLB can be an important security mechanism for memory isolation between processes to ensure a process can't access data stored in memory pages of another process. Memory isolation is especially critical during switches between the privileged operating system kernel process and the user processes – as was highlighted by the Meltdown security vulnerability. Mitigation strategies such as kernel page-table isolation (KPTI) rely heavily on performance-impacting TLB flushes and benefit greatly from hardware-enabled selective TLB entry management such as PCID.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: With the advent of virtualization for server consolidation, a lot of effort has gone into making the x86 architecture easier to virtualize and to ensure better performance of virtual machines on x86 hardware.


title: Translation lookaside buffer

text: Normally, entries in the x86 TLBs are not associated with a particular address space; they implicitly refer to the current address space. Hence, every time there is a change in address space, such as a context switch, the entire TLB has to be flushed. Maintaining a tag that associates each TLB entry with an address space in software and comparing this tag during TLB lookup and TLB flush is very expensive, especially since the x86 TLB is designed to operate with very low latency and completely in hardware. In 2008, both Intel (Nehalem) and AMD (SVM) have introduced tags as part of the TLB entry and dedicated hardware that checks the tag during lookup. Even though these are not fully exploited, it is envisioned that in the future, these tags will identify the address space to which every TLB entry belongs. Thus a context switch will not result in the flushing of the TLB – but just changing the tag of the current address space to the tag of the address space of the new task.


title: Virtual Network Computing

text: Virtual Network Computing (VNC) is a graphical desktop-sharing system that uses the Remote Frame Buffer protocol (RFB) to remotely control another computer. It transmits the keyboard and mouse input from one computer to another, relaying the graphical-screen updates, over a network.


title: Virtual Network Computing

text: VNC is platform-independent – there are clients and servers for many GUI-based operating systems and for Java. Multiple clients may connect to a VNC server at the same time. Popular uses for this technology include remote technical support and accessing files on one's work computer from one's home computer, or vice versa.


title: Virtual Network Computing

text: VNC was originally developed at the Olivetti & Oracle Research Lab in Cambridge, United Kingdom. The original VNC source code and many modern derivatives are open source under the GNU General Public License.


title: Virtual Network Computing

text: There are a number of variants of VNC which offer their own particular functionality; e.g., some optimised for Microsoft Windows, or offering file transfer (not part of VNC proper), etc. Many are compatible (without their added features) with VNC proper in the sense that a viewer of one flavour can connect with a server of another; others are based on VNC code but not compatible with standard VNC.


title: Virtual Network Computing

text: The Olivetti & Oracle Research Lab (ORL) at Cambridge in the UK developed VNC at a time when Olivetti and Oracle Corporation owned the lab. In 1999, AT&T acquired the lab, and in 2002 closed down the lab's research efforts.


title: Virtual Network Computing

text: Following the closure of ORL in 2002, several members of the development team (including Richardson, Harter, Weatherall and Hopper) formed RealVNC in order to continue working on open-source and commercial VNC software under that name.


title: Virtual Network Computing

text: The original GPLed source code has fed into several other versions of VNC. Such forking has not led to compatibility problems because the RFB protocol is designed to be extensible. VNC clients and servers negotiate their capabilities with handshaking in order to use the most appropriate options supported at both ends.


title: Virtual Network Computing

text: , RealVNC Ltd claims the term "VNC" as a registered trademark in the United States and in other countries.


title: Virtual Network Computing

text: The name "Virtual Network Computer/Computing" (VNC) originated with ORL's work on a thin client called the Videotile, which also used the RFB protocol. The Videotile had an LCD display with pen input and a fast ATM connection to the network. At the time, "network computer" was commonly used as a synonym for a thin client; VNC is essentially a software-only (i.e. virtual) network computer.


title: Virtual Network Computing

text: In the normal method of operation a viewer connects to a port on the server (default port: 5900). Alternatively (depending on the implementation) a browser can connect to the server (default port: 5800). And a server can connect to a viewer in "listening mode" on port 5500. One advantage of listening mode is that the server site does not have to configure its firewall to allow access on port 5900 (or 5800); the duty is on the viewer, which is useful if the server site has no computer expertise and the viewer user is more knowledgeable.