title: Leelah Alcorn

text: On December 28 at 2:56 p.m., Alcorn's mother, Carla Wood Alcorn, posted a public message on the social media website Facebook, stating: "My sweet 16-year-old son, [Leelah] Alcorn, went home to Heaven this morning. He was out for an early morning walk and was hit by a truck. Thank you for the messages and kindness and concern you have sent our way. Please continue to keep us in your prayers." Carla Alcorn's post was subsequently deleted. The Alcorn family publicly requested that they be given privacy to grieve in a statement issued by the Kings Local School District. In that statement, staff from Alcorn's former school, Kings High School, declared that "[Leelah] Alcorn was a sweet, talented, tender-hearted 17-year-old", adding that counselors would be made available to students affected by the incident. A moment of silence was held in Alcorn's memory before a Kings High basketball game on December 30.


title: Leelah Alcorn

text: Some of Alcorn's supporters publicly criticized the teen's mother, Carla Alcorn, for misgendering and deadnaming her daughter in the Facebook post announcing the teenager's death. Some individuals—termed "the Internet's self-appointed vigilantes" in "The Washington Post"—subsequently doxed and harassed Carla via her Facebook account "in revenge" for Leelah's death. On Twitter, American gay rights activist Dan Savage argued that Alcorn's parents should be prosecuted for their role in bringing about their daughter's death, commenting that through their actions they "threw her in front of that truck". He cited the successful prosecution of Dharun Ravi following the suicide of Tyler Clementi as a legal precedent for such an action. He added that legal action should also be brought against the conversion therapists who had counseled Leelah, and suggested that the Alcorns should lose custody of their other children.


title: Leelah Alcorn

text: Carla Alcorn responded to such criticism in an interview with CNN, stating "we loved him unconditionally. We loved him no matter what. I loved my son. People need to know that I loved him. He was a good kid, a good boy." Although acknowledging that Leelah had requested transition surgery, Carla stated that she had never heard her child use the name "Leelah", before reiterating her refusal to accept her child's gender identity, adding "We don't support that, religiously." She expressed concern that users of social media thought her to be a "horrible person", but defended her actions in dealing with her child, stating for example that she had banned internet access to prevent access to "inappropriate" things. In an email to Cincinnati-based channel WCPO-TV, Leelah's father Doug Alcorn wrote, "We love our son, [Leelah], very much and are devastated by his death. We have no desire to enter into a political storm or debate with people who did not know him. We wish to grieve in private. We harbor no ill will towards anyone. ... I simply do not wish our words to be used against us."


title: Leelah Alcorn

text: Writing for "Salon", Mary Elizabeth Williams commented that "it would be cruel and inaccurate to suggest that Carla Alcorn did not love her child," but added that Carla's statement that she "loved him unconditionally" revealed "a tragic lack of understanding of the word 'unconditionally', even in death". "People" magazine quoted Johanna Olson, Medical Director for the Center of Trans Youth Health and Development at Children's Hospital Los Angeles, as stating that "Did Leelah's parents love her? Yes, I'm sure they did. Did they support her? No, they didn't. And that's a tragedy." Mara Keisling, the Executive Director of the National Center for Transgender Equality, was quoted as stating that the blaming of Alcorn's parents was unhelpful, adding, "Despite the great cultural and policy advances transgender people have made, there is still a lot of disrespect, discrimination and violence aimed at us. And being a child or a teenager of any kind today is very difficult."


title: Leelah Alcorn

text: The day after Alcorn's suicide note was published online, Chris Seelbach, the first openly gay councilman on Cincinnati City Council, shared it as part of a Facebook message in which he stated that her death showed how hard it was to be transgender in the U.S. His post was shared over 4,700 times and increased public awareness of the incident. By December 30, Alcorn's death had attracted worldwide attention. News outlets across the world had picked up the story, and the hashtag #LeelahAlcorn had topped Twitter. According to British newspaper "The Independent", the incident "triggered widespread anguish and raised a debate about the rights of transgender people." The U.S.-based "Boston Globe" stated that it "served as a flashpoint for transgender progress in 2014," while "The New Republic" referred to it as having "sparked a national conversation about the plight of transgender kids and the scanty rights and respect our society affords them."


title: Leelah Alcorn

text: On January 1, 2015, the Cincinnati-based LGBT rights group Support Marriage Equality Ohio hosted a vigil for Alcorn outside Kings High School. A candlelight vigil in Goodale Park, Columbus was held on January 2 by a group called Stand Up 4 Leelah. A further vigil was organized by both The Diverse City Youth Chorus in partnership with the Cincinnati chapter of the Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network at the Clifton Cultural Arts Center for January 10. The vigil location at the Clifton Cultural Arts Center was moved to the Woodward Theater to make way for a larger setting. The event was attended by over 500 people.


title: Leelah Alcorn

text: A January 3 vigil was scheduled for Trafalgar Square in London; an organizer was quoted as saying that "[Alcorn's] death was a political death. When a member of our community is brutalised at the hands of oppression we must all fight back." Those who spoke at the event included politician Sarah Brown and novelist and poet Roz Kaveney. Marches were carried out in honor of Alcorn in both Northwest, Washington, D.C. and Queen Street, Auckland on January 10. The same day, a candlelight vigil was held in New York City's Columbus Circle. A memorial protest against conversion therapy and in memory of Alcorn took place in Lynchburg, Virginia, on January 24, 2015.


title: Leelah Alcorn

text: Among the transgender celebrities who publicly responded to the incident were Janet Mock, Andreja Pejić, and Laverne Cox, while the musician Ray Toro released a song, "For the Lost and Brave," in dedication to Alcorn. Joey Soloway, the writer of the television show "Transparent", dedicated their Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series to Alcorn. During Diane Sawyer's interview with Caitlyn Jenner, which confirmed Jenner's transgender identity, Alcorn was mentioned by name and the message "Fix society. Please," was broadcast. In June 2015, the singer Miley Cyrus founded the Happy Hippie Foundation, an organization to raise awareness of homelessness and LGBT issues among young people, partly in response to Alcorn's death. To promote the organization, she released a new series of "Backyard Sessions" videos, the second of which, Dido's "No Freedom" was dedicated to Alcorn. After reading about Alcorn's death, British musician Declan McKenna was inspired to write a song, "Paracetamol," which was included on his debut album "What Do You Think About the Car?" and discusses the media's representation of LGBT communities. In 2015, the nation-wide non-profit organization Ally Parents, operated by Stand with Trans, was created in response to Leelah's death.


title: Leelah Alcorn

text: Carolyn Washburn, editor of the Ohio newspaper "The Cincinnati Enquirer", stated that the incident "raises important issues we hope will prompt conversations in families throughout our region." Washburn had also received letters that derided the newspaper's use of Alcorn's chosen name in covering her death. When contacted by "The Cincinnati Enquirer", Shane Morgan, the founder and chair of transgender advocate group TransOhio, stated that while 2014 witnessed gains for the trans rights movement, Alcorn's death illustrated how "trans people are still being victimized and still being disrespected", highlighting the high rate of transgender people who had been murdered that year. Since the incident, TransOhio has received letters from parents of transgender children describing how Alcorn's death affected them. Morgan stated that while he understood the anger directed toward Alcorn's parents, "there's no excuse for threats to the family."


title: Leelah Alcorn

text: Allison Woolbert, executive director of the Transgender Human Rights Institute, informed "The Independent" that Alcorn's case was "not unique"; the newspaper highlighted research from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicating that LGBT youth are about twice as likely to attempt suicide than heterosexual, cisgender teenagers. "Newsweek" similarly placed Alcorn's suicide within its wider context of transphobic discrimination, highlighting that the Youth Suicide Prevention Program reports that over 50 percent of transgender youths attempt suicide before the age of 20, and that the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs recently published a report indicating that 72 percent of LGBT homicide victims in 2013 were transgender women.


title: Leelah Alcorn

text: Kevin Jennings of the Arcus Foundation also situated Alcorn's death within wider problems facing young LGBT people. In his view, she became "an international symbol of the ongoing challenges faced by LGBT youth," adding that her death "reminds us of a basic lesson still being taught to young people across America: When it comes to gender identity, it's best to be cisgender; and when it comes to sexual orientation, it's best to be straight."


title: Leelah Alcorn

text: Under the Twitter hashtag #RealLiveTransAdult, many transgender people posted encouraging tweets for their younger counterparts, while other hashtags, such as #ProtectTransKids, and the term "Rest in Power", also circulated on Twitter. A change.org petition was set up calling for Leelah's chosen name to be included on her gravestone, which gained over 80,000 signatures. On January 6, Adam Hoover of Marriage Equality Ohio remarked that, since the request of having Alcorn's chosen name on her gravestone seemed "like a slim possibility", they would be raising money for a permanent memorial arranged as a bench, tree and commemorative plaque.


title: Leelah Alcorn

text: Under Ohio's Adopt-a-Highway program, a group adopted the interchange of Interstate 71 South and Ohio State Route 48—which was where Alcorn died—and dedicated it to her memory. As a result, the Ohio Department of Transportation erected signs stating "In Memory of Leelah Alcorn" along the road. Members of the group affixed a wreath to one of these signs; group member Lisa Oravec informed press that "We don't want Leelah to be forgotten... We want people in Cincinnati, or anybody driving down 71 to see the wreath. See the highway. If they don't know who Leelah is they'll google it, educate it, and learn from what happened." As of December 2018, the "Leelah Alcorn Highway Memorial" group continued to meet four times a year to clean that stretch of road. The highway memorial formed the basis of a short documentary, "Leelah's Highway", which was screened at the 2018 Cindependent Film Festival in Cincinnati's Woodward Theater. Its creator, Elizabeth Littlejohn of Toronto, stated that "as a human rights activist who believes [in] the right for gender self-determination, I believe this story needed to be told."


title: Leelah Alcorn

text: A Facebook group called "Justice for Leelah Alcorn" was established, while a petition calling for "Leelah's Law," a ban on conversion therapy in the United States, was created by the Transgender Human Rights Institute to raise awareness of the psychologically harmful effects of such practices. By January 24, it had 330,009 signatures, and was named the fastest growing change.org petition of 2014. A second appeal demanding the enactment of "Leelah's Law" was posted to the We the People section of WhiteHouse.gov on January 3, 2015, which garnered more than 100,000 signatures as of January 30. In response to the petition, in April 2015 President Barack Obama called for the banning of conversion therapy for minors.


title: Leelah Alcorn

text: In December 2015, Cincinnati became the second U.S. city after Washington, D.C., to ban the practice of conversion therapy outright; council member Chris Seelbach cited Alcorn's suicide as an influence in the decision and stated that "she challenged us to make her death matter, and we're doing just that." By October 2018, four cities across Ohio had banned conversion therapy, leading journalist Nico Lang to comment that "the Buckeye State has become an unlikely leader in banning conversion therapy at the local level."


title: Kecksburg UFO incident

text: The Kecksburg UFO incident occurred on December 9, 1965, at Kecksburg, Pennsylvania, United States, when a fireball was reported by citizens of six U.S. states and Canada over Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario. Astronomers said it was likely to have been a meteor bolide burning up in the atmosphere and descending at a steep angle. NASA released a statement in 2005 reporting that experts had examined fragments from the area and determined they were from a Soviet satellite, but that records of their findings were lost in 1987. NASA responded to court orders and Freedom of Information Act requests to search for the records. The incident gained wide notoriety in popular culture and UFOlogy, with speculation ranging from extraterrestrial craft to debris from the Soviet space probe Kosmos 96, and is often called "Pennsylvania's Roswell".


title: Kecksburg UFO incident

text: On the evening of December 9, 1965, a large, brilliant fireball was seen in at least six U.S. states and Ontario, Canada as it streaked over the Detroit, Michigan–Windsor, Ontario area. Reports of hot metal debris over Michigan and northern Ohio, grass fires, and sonic booms in the Pittsburgh metropolitan area were attributed to the fireball. Some people in the village of Kecksburg, about southeast of Pittsburgh, reported wisps of blue smoke, vibrations, and a "thump", and also that something from the sky had crashed in the woods.


title: Kecksburg UFO incident

text: An early story in the "Greensburg Tribune-Review" stated the following: The area where the object landed was immediately sealed off on the order of U.S. Army and State Police officials, in anticipation of a 'close inspection' of whatever may have fallen ... State Police officials there ordered the area roped off to await the expected arrival of both U.S. Army engineers and possibly, civilian scientists.


title: Kecksburg UFO incident

text: When state troopers and Air Force personnel searched the woods, they found "absolutely nothing". A subsequent edition in the "Tribune-Review" bore the headline "Searchers Fail To Find Object".


title: Kecksburg UFO incident

text: Authorities discounted proposed explanations such as a plane crash, errant missile test, or reentering satellite debris and generally assumed it to be a meteor. Astronomer Paul Annear said the fireball was likely to have been a meteor entering the Earth's atmosphere. Geophysicist George Wetherilo discounted speculations that it was debris from a satellite and agreed that the reports were probably due to a meteor. Astronomers William P. Bidelman and Fred Hess said it undoubtedly was a meteor bolide. A spokesman for the Department of Defense in Washington said first reports indicated the reported fireball was a natural phenomenon.


title: Kecksburg UFO incident

text: Several articles were written about the fireball in science journals. The February 1966 issue of "Sky & Telescope" reported that the fireball was seen over the Detroit-Windsor area at about 4:44 p.m. EST. The Federal Aviation Administration received 23 reports from aircraft pilots, starting at 4:44 p.m. A seismograph 25 miles southwest of Detroit recorded shock waves created by the fireball as it passed through the atmosphere. The "Sky & Telescope" article concluded that "the path of the fireball extended roughly from northwest to southeast" and ended "in or near the western part of Lake Erie".


title: Kecksburg UFO incident

text: A 1967 article by two astronomers in the "Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada" (JRASC) used the seismographic record to pinpoint the time of passage over the Detroit area to 4:43 p.m. In addition, they used photographs of the trail taken north of Detroit at two different locations to triangulate the trajectory of the object. They concluded that the fireball was descending at a steep angle, moving from the southwest to the northeast, and likely impacted on the northwestern shore of Lake Erie near Windsor, Ontario.


title: Kecksburg UFO incident

text: In December 2005, just before the 40th anniversary of the Kecksburg incident, NASA released a statement reporting that experts had examined metallic fragments from the area and determined they were from a Russian satellite that re-entered the atmosphere and broke up, but records of their findings were lost in the 1980s.


title: Kecksburg UFO incident

text: Leslie Kean, described as "an investigative reporter backed by the Sci-Fi Channel", reportedly "sued NASA under the Freedom of Information Act" for the lost NASA records. On October 26, 2007, NASA agreed to search for those records after being ordered by a court. During the hearing, Steve McConnell, NASA's public liaison officer, testified that two boxes of papers from the time of the Kecksburg incident were missing. Loss of records is not a unique case for NASA; for example, the original tapes recorded during the televised Apollo 11 Moon landing were misplaced or reused.


title: Kecksburg UFO incident

text: In 2008, space writer James Oberg suggested that NASA was unlikely to possess any such documents since, in his view, it was highly likely that the supposed NASA team that investigated the site were in fact Air Force personnel who identified themselves as NASA personnel, something regularly done by military personnel in civilian clothes during the 1960s. He further suggested that Kean's action was no more than a "publicity stunt" for the benefit of Kean's employers.


title: Kecksburg UFO incident

text: According to John Ventre of MUFON and Shafton native Owen Eichler, their recent investigations have led them to speculate the object that reportedly landed in Kecksburg was "a General Electric Mark 2 Re-entry Vehicle that had been launched by the Air Force as a spy satellite, but fell out of orbit", however, “we need confirmation from NASA or the Air Force".


title: Kecksburg UFO incident

text: There is some speculation that the reentry of the Cosmos 96/Venera-type spacecraft was responsible for a fireball which was seen over southwestern Ontario, Canada and at least eight states from Michigan to New York at 4:43 p.m. EST (21:43 UT) on 9 December 1965. Investigations of photographs and sightings of the fireball indicated its path through the atmosphere was probably too steep to be consistent with a spacecraft re-entering from Earth orbit and was more likely a meteor in a prograde orbit from the vicinity of the asteroid belt, and probably ended its flight over western Lake Erie. U.S. Air Force tracking data on Cosmos 96 also indicate the spacecraft orbit decayed earlier than 21:43 UT on 9 December. Other unconfirmed reports state the fireball subsequently landed in Pennsylvania southeast of Pittsburgh near the town of Kecksburg (40.2 N, 79.5 W) at 4:46 p.m. EST (although estimating the impact point of fireballs from eyewitness accounts is notoriously inaccurate). Uncertainties in the orbital information and reentry coordinates and time make it difficult to determine definitively if the fireball could have been the Cosmos 96 spacecraft.


title: Allama Iqbal Open University

text: The university is the world's second largest institution of higher learning, with an annual enrollment of 1,121,038 students (), the majority are women and course enrollment of 3,305,948 (2011). Students can gain admission in Matriculation, Intermediate, Bachelor, Master, MPhil and Ph.D. programmes at the university.


title: Allama Iqbal Open University

text: The university has 44 regional campuses and centers throughout Pakistan including in Faisalabad Millat Road, Multan, Dera Ghazi Khan, Dera Ismail Khan, Bahawalpur and Rahim Yar Khan.


title: Allama Iqbal Open University

text: Established in 1974, it is Asia's first open university with a strong emphasis on providing distance education in philosophy, natural science and social sciences. It has the most applicants per year of any university in Pakistan.


title: Allama Iqbal Open University

text: AIOU offers extensive undergraduate and post-graduate programs in academic disciplines. After witnessing the success of the Open University in the United Kingdom, AIOU was established as a public university in 1974.


title: Allama Iqbal Open University

text: AIOU is noted for its cost-effective policy to provide higher and lifelong education to people learning from their homes and places of work at a minimum cost through a specialized fund managed by the government.


title: Allama Iqbal Open University

text: Established in 1974, the faculty was upgraded as the Faculty of Arabic and Islamic Studies in 1998, with the following departments:


title: Allama Iqbal Open University

text: The Faculty of Arabic and Islamic Studies also operates an Indexing and Abstracting Agency "Islamic Research Index". The Islamic Research Index is the first and largest repository of Arabic and Islamic Studies Research Journals.


title: Allama Iqbal Open University

text: Established in 1984, the Faculty of Education's origin predates the university. A National Institute of Education was established in 1973 as a part of the Federal Ministry of Education, to improve education at school levels through in-service training of Master Trainers. This institute became a part of the university in June 1975.


title: Allama Iqbal Open University

text: Renamed as Faculty of Sciences, the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences was established in 1982. It comprises the following nine departments:


title: Allama Iqbal Open University

text: The Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities was established in 1982. The 16 departments of the faculty are:


title: Allama Iqbal Open University

text: On the university's 25th anniversary, Pakistan Post issued a commemorative postage stamp for it on 20 November 1999.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: In ethics and social sciences, value denotes the degree of importance of something or action, with the aim of determining which actions are best to do or what way is best to live (normative ethics in ethics), or to describe the significance of different actions. Value systems are prospective and prescriptive beliefs; they affect the ethical behavior of a person or are the basis of their intentional activities. Often primary values are strong and secondary values are suitable for changes. What makes an action valuable may in turn depend on the ethical values of the objects it increases, decreases, or alters. An object with "ethic value" may be termed an "ethic or philosophic good" (noun sense).


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Values can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of actions or outcomes. As such, values reflect a person's sense of right and wrong or what "ought" to be. "Equal rights for all", "Excellence deserves admiration", and "People should be treated with respect and dignity" are representatives of values. Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior and these types include ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (religious, political) values, social values, and aesthetic values. It is debated whether some values that are not clearly physiologically determined, such as altruism, are intrinsic, and whether some, such as acquisitiveness, should be classified as vices or virtues.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Ethical issues that value may be regarded as a study under ethics, which, in turn, may be grouped as philosophy. Similarly, "ethical value" may be regarded as a subgroup of a broader field of philosophic value sometimes referred to as axiology. Ethical value denotes something's degree of importance, with the aim of determining what action or life is best to do, or at least attempt to describe the value of different actions.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: The study of ethical value is also included in value theory. In addition, values have been studied in various disciplines: anthropology, behavioral economics, business ethics, corporate governance, moral philosophy, political sciences, social psychology, sociology and theology.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: "Ethical value" is sometimes used synonymously with goodness. However, goodness has many other meanings and may be regarded as more ambiguous.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Personal values exist in relation to cultural values, either in agreement with or divergence from prevailing norms. A culture is a social system that shares a set of common values, in which such values permit social expectations and collective understandings of the good, beautiful and constructive. Without normative personal values, there would be no cultural reference against which to measure the virtue of individual values and so cultural identity would disintegrate.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Personal values provide an internal reference for what is good, beneficial, important, useful, beautiful, desirable and constructive. Values are one of the factors that generate behavior (besides needs, interests and habits) and influence the choices made by an individual.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Values may help common human problems for survival by comparative rankings of value, the results of which provide answers to questions of why people do what they do and in what order they choose to do them. Moral, religious, and personal values, when held rigidly, may also give rise to conflicts that result from a clash between differing world views.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Over time the public expression of personal values that groups of people find important in their day-to-day lives, lay the foundations of law, custom and tradition. Recent research has thereby stressed the "implicit nature of value communication". Consumer behavior research proposes there are six internal values and three external values. They are known as List of Values (LOV) in management studies. They are self respect, warm relationships, sense of accomplishment, self-fulfillment, fun and enjoyment, excitement, sense of belonging, being well respected, and security. From a functional aspect these values are categorized into three and they are interpersonal relationship area, personal factors, and non-personal factors. From an ethnocentric perspective, it could be assumed that a same set of values will not reflect equally between two groups of people from two countries. Though the core values are related, the processing of values can differ based on the cultural identity of an individual.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Individual cultures emphasize values which their members broadly share. Values of a society can often be identified by examining the level of honor and respect received by various groups and ideas.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Values relate to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and intellectual than norms. Norms provide rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as good or evil. While norms are standards, patterns, rules and guides of expected behavior, values are abstract concepts of what is important and worthwhile. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism. Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors to manifest respect at a funeral. Different cultures represent values differently and to different levels of emphasis. "Over the last three decades, traditional-age college students have shown an increased interest in personal well-being and a decreased interest in the welfare of others." Values seemed to have changed, affecting the beliefs, and attitudes of the students.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Members take part in a culture even if each member's personal values do not entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in that culture. This reflects an individual's ability to synthesize and extract aspects valuable to them from the multiple subcultures they belong to.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: If a group member expresses a value that seriously conflicts with the group's norms, the group's authority may carry out various ways of encouraging conformity or stigmatizing the non-conforming behavior of that member. For example, imprisonment can result from conflict with social norms that the state has established as law.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Furthermore, cultural values can be expressed at a global level through institutions participating in the global economy. For example, values important to global governance can include leadership, legitimacy, and efficiency. Within our current global governance architecture, leadership is expressed through the G20, legitimacy through the United Nations, and efficiency through member-driven international organizations. The expertise provided by international organizations and civil society depends on the incorporation of flexibility in the rules, to preserve the expression of identity in a globalized world.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Nonetheless, in warlike economic competition, differing views may contradict each other, particularly in the field of culture. Thus audiences in Europe may regard a movie as an artistic creation and grant it benefits from special treatment, while audiences in the United States may see it as mere entertainment, whatever its artistic merits. EU policies based on the notion of "cultural exception" can become juxtaposed with the policy of "cultural specificity" on the liberal Anglo-Saxon side. Indeed, international law traditionally treats films as property and the content of television programs as a service. Consequently, cultural interventionist policies can find themselves opposed to the Anglo-Saxon liberal position, causing failures in international negotiations.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Values are generally received through cultural means, especially diffusion and transmission or socialization from parents to children. Parents in different cultures have different values. For example, parents in a hunter–gatherer society or surviving through subsistence agriculture value practical survival skills from a young age. Many such cultures begin teaching babies to use sharp tools, including knives, before their first birthdays. Italian parents value social and emotional abilities and having an even temperament. Spanish parents want their children to be sociable. Swedish parents value security and happiness. Dutch parents value independence, long attention spans, and predictable schedules. American parents are unusual for strongly valuing intellectual ability, especially in a narrow "book learning" sense. The Kipsigis people of Kenya value children who are not only smart, but who employ that intelligence in a responsible and helpful way, which they call "ng'om". Luos of Kenya value education and pride which they call "nyadhi".


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: The Inglehart–Welzel cultural map of the world is a two-dimensional cultural map showing the cultural values of the countries of the world along two dimensions: The "traditional versus secular-rational values" reflect the transition from a religious understanding of the world to a dominance of science and bureaucracy. The second dimension named "survival values versus self-expression values" represents the transition from industrial society to post-industrial society.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Cultures can be distinguished as tight and loose in relation to how much they adhere to social norms and tolerates deviance. Tight cultures are more restrictive, with stricter disciplinary measures for norm violations while loose cultures have weaker social norms and a higher tolerance for deviant behavior. A history of threats, such as natural disasters, high population density, or vulnerability to infectious diseases, is associated with greater tightness. It has been suggested that tightness allows cultures to coordinate more effectively to survive threats.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Studies in evolutionary psychology have led to similar findings. The so-called regality theory finds that war and other perceived collective dangers have a profound influence on both the psychology of individuals and on the social structure and cultural values. A dangerous environment leads to a hierarchical, authoritarian, and warlike culture, while a safe and peaceful environment fosters an egalitarian and tolerant culture.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Relative values differ between people, and on a larger scale, between people of different cultures. On the other hand, there are theories of the existence of "absolute values", which can also be termed "noumenal values" (and not to be confused with mathematical absolute value). An absolute value can be described as philosophically absolute and independent of individual and cultural views, as well as independent of whether it is known or apprehended or not. Ludwig Wittgenstein was pessimistic towards the idea that an elucidation would ever happen regarding the absolute values of actions or objects; "we can speak as much as we want about "life" and "its meaning," and believe that what we say is important. But these are no more than expressions and can never be facts, resulting from a tendency of the mind and not the heart or the will".


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Philosophic value may be split into "instrumental value" and "intrinsic values". An instrumental value is worth having as a means towards getting something else that is good (e.g., a radio is instrumentally good in order to hear music). An intrinsically valuable thing is worth for itself, not as a means to something else. It is giving value intrinsic and extrinsic properties.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: An "ethic good" with "instrumental value" may be termed an ethic mean, and an "ethic good" with "intrinsic value" may be termed an end-in-itself. An object may be both a mean and end-in-itself.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Intrinsic and instrumental goods are not mutually exclusive categories. Some objects are both good in themselves, and also good for getting other objects that are good. "Understanding science" may be such a good, being both worthwhile in and of itself, and as a means of achieving other goods. In these cases, the sum of instrumental (specifically the all instrumental value) and intrinsic value of an object may be used when putting that object in value systems, which is a set of consistent values and measures.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: The "intensity" of philosophic value is the degree it is generated or carried out, and may be regarded as the prevalence of the good, the object having the value.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: It should not be confused with the amount of value per object, although the latter may vary too, e.g. because of instrumental value conditionality. For example, taking a fictional life-stance of accepting waffle-eating as being the end-in-itself, the intensity may be the speed that waffles are eaten, and is zero when no waffles are eaten, e.g. if no waffles are present. Still, each waffle that had been present would still have value, no matter if it was being eaten or not, independent on intensity.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: "Instrumental value conditionality" in this case could be exampled by every waffle not present, making them less valued by being far away rather than easily accessible.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: In many life stances it is the product of value and intensity that is ultimately desirable, i.e. not only to generate value, but to generate it in large degree. Maximizing life-stances have the highest possible intensity as an imperative.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: There may be a distinction between positive and negative philosophic or ethic value. While positive ethic value generally correlates with something that is pursued or maximized, negative ethic value correlates with something that is avoided or minimized. Value may have an upper limit. David Manheim and Anders Sandberg argue that modern physics implies an upper limit, even if that limit may be extremely large. Negative value may be both intrinsic negative value and/or instrumental negative value.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: A "protected value" (also sacred value) is one that an individual is unwilling to trade off no matter what the benefits of doing so may be. For example, some people may be unwilling to kill another person, even if it means saving many other individuals. Protected values tend to be "intrinsically good", and most people can in fact imagine a scenario when trading off their most precious values would be necessary. If such trade-offs happen between two competing protected values such as killing a person and defending your family they are called "tragic trade-offs."


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Protected values have been found to be play a role in protracted conflicts (e.g., the Israeli-Palestinian conflict) because they can hinder businesslike (<nowiki>"utilitarian"</nowiki>) negotiations. A series of experimental studies directed by Scott Atran and Ángel Gómez among combatants on the ISIS front line in Iraq and with ordinary citizens in Western Europe suggest that commitment to sacred values motivate the most "devoted actors" to make the costliest sacrifices, including willingness to fight and die, as well as a readiness to forsake close kin and comrades for those values if necessary. From the perspective of utilitarianism, protected values are biases when they prevent utility from being maximized across individuals.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: According to Jonathan Baron and Mark Spranca, protected values arise from norms as described in theories of deontological ethics (the latter often being referred to in context with Immanuel Kant). The protectedness implies that people are concerned with their participation in transactions rather than just the consequences of it.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: A "value system" is a set of consistent values used for the purpose of ethical or ideological integrity.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: As a member of a society, group or community, an individual can hold both a personal value system and a communal value system at the same time. In this case, the two value systems (one personal and one communal) are externally consistent provided they bear no contradictions or situational exceptions between them.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Abstract exceptions serve to reinforce the ranking of values. Their definitions are generalized enough to be relevant to any and all situations. Situational exceptions, on the other hand, are ad hoc and pertain only to specific situations. The presence of a type of exception determines one of two more kinds of value systems:


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: The difference between these two types of systems can be seen when people state that they hold one value system yet in practice deviate from it, thus holding a different value system. For example, a religion lists an absolute set of values while the practice of that religion may include exceptions.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Implicit exceptions bring about a third type of value system called a formal value system. Whether idealized or realized, this type contains an implicit exception associated with each value: "as long as no higher-priority value is violated". For instance, a person might feel that lying is wrong. Since preserving a life is probably more highly valued than adhering to the principle that lying is wrong, lying to save someone's life is acceptable. Perhaps too simplistic in practice, such a hierarchical structure may warrant explicit exceptions.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Although sharing a set of common values, like hockey is better than baseball or ice cream is better than fruit, two different parties might not rank those values equally. Also, two parties might disagree as to certain actions are right or wrong, both in theory and in practice, and find themselves in an ideological or physical conflict. Ethonomics, the discipline of rigorously examining and comparing value systems, enables us to understand politics and motivations more fully in order to resolve conflicts.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: An example conflict would be a value system based on individualism pitted against a value system based on collectivism. A rational value system organized to resolve the conflict between two such value systems might take the form below. Note that added exceptions can become recursive and often convoluted.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Philosophical value is distinguished from economic value, since it is independent from some other desired condition or commodity. The economic value of an object may rise when the exchangeable desired condition or commodity, e.g. money, become high in supply, and vice versa when supply of money becomes low.


title: Value (ethics and social sciences)

text: Nevertheless, economic value may be regarded as a result of philosophical value. In the subjective theory of value, the personal philosophic value a person puts in possessing something is reflected in what economic value this person puts on it. The limit where a person considers to purchase something may be regarded as the point where the "personal philosophic value" of possessing something exceeds the personal philosophic value of what is given up in exchange for it, e.g. money. In this light, everything can be said to have a "personal economic value" in contrast to its "societal economic value."


title: Tin Woodman

text: Nick Chopper, the Tin Woodman, also known as the Tin Man or—mistakenly—the "Tin Woodsman," is a character in the fictional Land of Oz created by American author L. Frank Baum. Baum's Tin Woodman first appeared in his classic 1900 book "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz" and reappeared in many other subsequent Oz books in the series. In late 19th-century America, men made out of various tin pieces were used in advertising and political cartoons. Baum, who was editing a magazine on decorating shop windows when he wrote "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz", was reportedly inspired to invent the Tin Woodman by a figure he had built out of metal parts for a shop display.


title: Tin Woodman

text: In "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz", Dorothy Gale befriends the Tin Woodman after they find him rusted in the forest, as he was caught in rain, and use his oil can to release him. He follows her to the Emerald City to get a heart from The Wizard. They are joined on their adventure by the Scarecrow and the Cowardly Lion. The Wizard sends Dorothy and her friends to the Winkie Country to kill the Wicked Witch of the West. The Tin Woodman's axe proves useful in this journey, both for chopping wood to create a bridge or raft as needed, and for chopping the heads off animals that threaten the party. When the Winged monkeys are sent by the Witch of the West against the group, they throw the Tin Woodman from a great height, damaging him badly. However Winkie Tinsmiths are able to repair him after the death of the Witch.


title: Tin Woodman

text: His desire for a heart notably contrasts with the Scarecrow's desire for brains, reflecting a common debate between the relative importance of the mind and the emotions. This occasions philosophical debate between the two friends as to why their own choices are superior; neither convinces the other, and Dorothy, listening, is unable to decide which one is right. Symbolically, because they remain with Dorothy throughout her quest, she is provided with both and does not need to select. The Tin Woodman states unequivocally that he has neither heart nor brain, but cares nothing for the loss of his brain. Towards the end of the novel, though, Glinda praises his brain as not quite that of the Scarecrow's.


title: Tin Woodman

text: The Wizard turns out to be a "humbug" and can only provide a placebo heart made of silk and filled with sawdust. However, this is enough to please the Tin Woodman, who, with or without a heart, was all along the most tender and emotional of Dorothy's companions (just as the Scarecrow was the wisest and the Cowardly Lion the bravest). When he accidentally crushes an insect, he is grief-stricken and, ironically, claims that he must be careful about such things, while those with hearts do not need such care. This tenderness remains with him throughout the series, as in "The Patchwork Girl of Oz", where he refuses to let a butterfly be maimed for the casting of a spell.


title: Tin Woodman

text: When Dorothy returns home to her farm in Kansas, the Tin Woodman returns to the Winkie Country to rule as emperor. Later, he has his subjects construct a palace made entirely of tin — from the architecture all the way down to the flowers in the garden.


title: Tin Woodman

text: Baum emphasized that the Tin Woodman remains alive, in contrast to the windup mechanical man Tik-Tok Dorothy meets in a later book. Nick Chopper was not turned into a machine, but rather had his flesh body replaced by a metal one. Far from missing his original existence, the Tin Woodman is proud (perhaps too proud) of his untiring tin body.


title: Tin Woodman

text: A recurring problem for the Tin Woodman in "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz" and afterward was his tendency to rust when exposed to rain, tears, or other moisture. For this reason, in "The Marvelous Land of Oz" the character has himself nickel-plated before helping his friend the Scarecrow fight to regain his throne in the Emerald City. Even so, the Tin Woodman continues to worry about rusting throughout the Oz series.


title: Tin Woodman

text: This is inaccurate, in that tin does not rust; only iron does. This may reflect the usage where an object made of iron or steel but coated with tin (in order to prevent rusting) is called a "Tin" object, as a "tin bath", a "tin toy", or a "tin can"; thus, the Tin Woodman might be interpreted (in English, at least) as being made of steel with a tin veneer. One passage in "The Road to Oz," by Baum himself, wherein the Woodman attends Ozma's birthday party accompanied by a Winkie band playing a song called "There's No Plate Like Tin," strongly implies that this is the case. Another explanation may be that the Woodman is "chiefly" made of tin, with iron joints; in some of the illustrations, his joints are a different color from the rest of his body. In Alexander Volkov's Russian adaptation of "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz", Volkov avoided this problem by the translation of "The Tin Woodman" as the "Iron Woodchopper".


title: Tin Woodman

text: The Tin Woodman appeared in most of the Oz books that followed. He is a major character in the comic page Baum wrote with Walt McDougall in 1904-05, "Queer Visitors from the Marvelous Land of Oz". In "Ozma of Oz", he commands Princess Ozma's army, and is briefly turned into a tin whistle. In "Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz", he serves as defense counsel in the trial of Eureka. He affects the plot of a book most notably in "The Patchwork Girl of Oz", in which he forbids the young hero from collecting the wing of a butterfly needed for a magical potion because his heart requires him to protect insects from cruelty. Baum also wrote a short book titled "The Scarecrow and the Tin Woodman", part of the "Little Wizard Stories of Oz" series for younger readers.


title: Tin Woodman

text: In "The Tin Woodman of Oz", Nick Chopper finally sets out to find his lost love, Nimmie Amee, but discovers that she has already married Chopfyt, a man constructed partly out of his own dismembered and discarded limbs. For the Tin Woodman, this encounter with his former fiancée is almost as jarring as his experiences being transformed into a tin owl, meeting another tin man, Captain Fyter, and conversing with his ill-tempered original head.


title: Tin Woodman

text: Baum's successors in writing the series tended to use the Tin Woodman as a minor character, still ruling the Winkie Country but not governing the stories' outcome. Two exceptions to this pattern are "Ozoplaning with the Wizard of Oz", by Ruth Plumly Thompson, and "Lucky Bucky in Oz", by John R. Neill. The biggest exception is in Rachel Cosgrove's "The Hidden Valley of Oz", in which the Tin Woodman leads the forces in the defeat of Terp the Terrible and cuts down the Magic Muffin Tree that gives Terp his great size.


title: Tin Woodman

text: The fact that Nick includes the natural deaths of his parents in the story of how he came to be made of tin has been a major element of debate. In his eponymous novel, he proclaims that no one in Oz ever died as far back as Lurline's enchantment of the country, which occurred long before the arrival of any outsiders such as the Wizard. (Although the living creatures of Oz do not die of age or disease, they may die of accidents or be killed by others.)


title: Tin Woodman

text: In the 1998 novel "The Tin Man", by Dale Brown, the eponymous protagonist is a power-armored vigilante whom the media and police have dubbed "The Tin Man" for his physical resemblance to the "Wizard of Oz" character.


title: Tin Woodman

text: The Tin Woodman is a minor character in author Gregory Maguire's 1995 revisionist novel "", its 2003 Broadway musical adaptation and Maguire's 2005 sequel "Son of a Witch". In the book, Nessarose – the Wicked Witch of the East – is seen enchanting the axe to swing around and chop off Nick Chopper's limbs. She does this for a peasant woman who wishes to stop her servant, probably Nimmie Amee, from marrying Nick Chopper. This seems to be close to the Tin Man's origin in the original books, but from the Witch's perspective.


title: Tin Woodman

text: In the musical adaptation of "Wicked" the Tin Man is revealed to be Boq, a Munchkin whom Nessarose, the Wicked Witch of the East, fell in love with when they were at school together. When she discovered his heart belonged to Glinda, she botched a spell that was meant to make him fall in love with her by taking his heart, but instead shrunk his heart to nothing by taking it away without 'giving' it to Nessa. To save his life, Elphaba, the Wicked Witch of the West, was forced to turn him into tin. Not understanding her reasons, he pursues Elphaba with a single-minded vengeance for his current form. The Tin Man's humble origin in the novel conflicts with his having been the aristocratic Boq.


title: Tin Woodman

text: In "Oz Squad", Nick was shown in a sexual relationship with "Rebecca Eastwitch" in order to get closer to Nimmie Amee and attempt to elope with her.


title: Tin Woodman

text: A darker twist to the beloved woodman is made by author James A. Owen in "The Shadow Dragons", the fourth installment of his series "The Chronicles of the Imaginarium Geographica", when his identity is revealed to be Roger Bacon.


title: Tin Woodman

text: The Tin Woodman appears in the 2011 TV series "Once Upon a Time" episode "Where Bluebirds Fly" portrayed by Austin Obiajunwa (as a teenager) and by Alex Désert (as an adult). In this version he goes by the name Stanum (derived from the Latin word ""stannum"", which means "tin").


title: Tin Woodman

text: Since youth, Stanum has been a woodcutter and one day when he first met Zelena, the daughter of another woodsman, he finds out that Zelena has magic and befriends her, regardless of whatever the children say about Zelena, who they see as a freak. Many years later, Stanum, now a man, is punished by the Wicked Witch of the North for chopping down a tree in her domain, and his body slowly begins to transform into tin. To prevent himself from completely becoming tin, Stanum seeks out help from Zelena (now the Wicked Witch of the West) at the Emerald City of Oz. Zelena agrees to help him seek out the Crimson Heart, which can save him. During their quest, Stanum tells Zelena that she does not have to be lonely but she is doing her best to deny his advice. Suddenly, a lion comes of nowhere to attack Stanum, and Zelena uses her magic to make the lion go away (at this point the lion has become as Zelena would put it, cowardly). When they finally arrived to the location of the Crimson Heart, the two learned that the only way to make it work is through the absorption of another person's magic. Unfortunately Zelena's actions and selfish greed for magic causes her to betray Stanum, whom she suspect was aligned with Dorothy by keeping the Crimson Heart for herself, leaving Stanum to transform into the Tin Man permanently. Some time later, when Robin Hood arrives in Oz in the episode "Heart of Gold", the Tin Man is seen on the side of the Yellow Brick Road, torn apart.


title: Tin Woodman

text: Economics and history professors have published scholarly studies that indicate the images and characters used by Baum and Denslow closely resembled political images that were well known in the 1890s. They state that Baum and Denslow did not simply invent the Lion, Tin Woodman, Scarecrow, Yellow Brick Road, Silver Slippers, cyclone, monkeys, Emerald City, little people, Uncle Henry, passenger balloons, witches and the wizard. These were all common themes in the editorial cartoons of the previous decade. The notion of a "Tin Man" has deep roots in European and American history, according to Green (2006), and often appeared in cartoons of the 1880s and 1890s. Baum and Denslow, like most writers and illustrators, used the materials at hand that they knew best. They built a story around them, added Dorothy, and added a series of lessons to the effect that everyone possesses the resources they need (such as brains, a heart and courage) if only they had self-confidence. "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz" was a children’s book, of course, but as Baum warned in the preface, it was a "modernized" fairy tale as well.


title: Tin Woodman

text: The Tin Man—the human turned into a machine—was a common feature in political cartoons and in advertisements in the 1890s. Indeed, he had been part of European folk art for 300 years. In political interpretations of "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz", the Tin Woodman is supposedly described as a worker, dehumanized by industrialization. The Tin Woodman little by little lost his natural body and had it replaced by metal; so he has lost his heart and cannot move without the help of farmers (represented by the Scarecrow); in reality he has a strong sense of cooperation and love, which needs only an infusion of self-confidence to be awakened. In the 1890s many argued that to secure a political revolution a coalition of Farmers and Workers was needed.


title: Tin Woodman

text: The 1890 editorial cartoon to the right shows President Benjamin Harrison wearing improvised tin armor because he wanted a tariff on tin. Such images support the argument that the figure of a "tin man" was in use as political allegory in the 1890s. The man on the right is politician James G. Blaine.


title: Tin Woodman

text: The oil needed by the Tin Woodman had a political dimension at the time because Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company stood accused of being a monopoly (and in fact was later found guilty by the Supreme Court). In the 1902 stage adaptation, which is full of topical references that do not appear either in the novel or in any of the film adaptations (unless they are satirical), the Tin Woodman wonders what he would do if he ran out of oil. "You wouldn't be as badly off as John D. Rockefeller," the Scarecrow responds, "He'd lose six thousand dollars a minute if that happened."


title: Gerontology

text: Gerontology ( ) is the study of the social, cultural, psychological, cognitive, and biological aspects of aging. The word was coined by Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov in 1903, from the Greek , "geron", "old man" and , "-logia", "study of". The field is distinguished from geriatrics, which is the branch of medicine that specializes in the treatment of existing disease in older adults. Gerontologists include researchers and practitioners in the fields of biology, nursing, medicine, criminology, dentistry, social work, physical and occupational therapy, psychology, psychiatry, sociology, economics, political science, architecture, geography, pharmacy, public health, housing, and anthropology.


title: Gerontology

text: The multidisciplinary nature of gerontology means that there are a number of sub-fields which overlap with gerontology. There are policy issues, for example, involved in government planning and the operation of nursing homes, investigating the effects of an aging population on society, and the design of residential spaces for older people that facilitate the development of a sense of place or home. Dr. Lawton, a behavioral psychologist at the Philadelphia Geriatric Center, was among the first to recognize the need for living spaces designed to accommodate the elderly, especially those with Alzheimer's disease. As an academic discipline the field is relatively new. The USC Leonard Davis School of Gerontology created the first PhD, master's and bachelor's degree programs in gerontology in 1975.


title: Gerontology

text: In the medieval Islamic world, several physicians wrote on issues related to Gerontology. Avicenna's "The Canon of Medicine" (1025) offered instruction for the care of the aged, including diet and remedies for problems including constipation. Arabic physician Ibn Al-Jazzar Al-Qayrawani (Algizar, c. 898–980) wrote on the aches and conditions of the elderly. His scholarly work covers sleep disorders, forgetfulness, how to strengthen memory, and causes of mortality. Ishaq ibn Hunayn (died 910) also wrote works on the treatments for forgetfulness.


title: Gerontology

text: While the number of aged humans, and the life expectancy, tended to increase in every century since the 14th, society tended to consider caring for an elderly relative as a family issue. It was not until the coming of the Industrial Revolution that ideas shifted in favor of a societal care-system. Some early pioneers, such as Michel Eugène Chevreul, who himself lived to be 102, believed that aging itself should be a science to be studied. Élie Metchnikoff coined the term "gerontology" in 1903.


title: Gerontology

text: Modern pioneers like James Birren began organizing gerontology as its own field in the 1940s, later being involved in starting a US government agency on aging – the National Institute on Aging – programs in gerontology at the University of Southern California and University of California, Los Angeles, and as past president of the Gerontological Society of America (founded in 1945).


title: Gerontology

text: With the population of people over 60 years old expected to be some 22% of the world's population by 2050, assessment and treatment methods for age-related disease burden – the term "geroscience" emerged in the early 21st century.


title: Gerontology

text: The world is forecast to undergo rapid population aging in the next several decades. In 1900, there were 3.1 million people aged 65 years and older living in the United States. However, this population continued to grow throughout the 20th century and reached 31.2, 35, and 40.3 million people in 1990, 2000, and 2010, respectively. Notably, in the United States and across the world, the "baby boomer" generation began to turn 65 in 2011. Recently, the population aged 65 years and older has grown at a faster rate than the total population in the United States. The total population increased by 9.7%, from 281.4 million to 308.7 million, between 2000 and 2010. However, the population aged 65 years and older increased by 15.1% during the same period. It has been estimated that 25% of the population in the United States and Canada will be aged 65 years and older by 2025. Moreover, by 2050, it is predicted that, for the first time in United States history, the number of individuals aged 60 years and older will be greater than the number of children aged 0 to 14 years. Those aged 85 years and older (oldest-old) are projected to increase from 5.3 million to 21 million by 2050. Adults aged 85–89 years constituted the greatest segment of the oldest-old in 1990, 2000, and 2010. However, the largest percentage point increase among the oldest-old occurred in the 90- to 94-year-old age group, which increased from 25.0% in 1990 to 26.4% in 2010.


title: Gerontology

text: With the rapid growth of the aging population, social work education and training specialized in older adults and practitioners interested in working with older adults are increasingly in demand.


title: Gerontology

text: There has been a considerable disparity between the number of men and women in the older population in the United States. In both 2000 and 2010, women outnumbered men in the older population at every single year of age (e.g., 65 to 100 years and over). The sex ratio, which is a measure used to indicate the balance of males to females in a population, is calculated by taking the number of males divided by the number of females, and multiplying by 100. Therefore, the sex ratio is the number of males per 100 females. In 2010, there were 90.5 males per 100 females in the 65-year-old population. However, this represented an increase from 1990 when there were 82.7 males per 100 females, and from 2000 when the sex ratio was 88.1. Although the gender gap between men and women has narrowed, women continue to have a greater life expectancy and lower mortality rates at older ages relative to men. For example, the Census 2010 reported that there were approximately twice as many women as men living in the United States at 89 years of age (361,309 versus 176,689, respectively).


title: Gerontology

text: The number and percentage of older adults living in the United States vary across the four different regions (Northeast, Midwest, West, and South) defined by the United States census. In 2010, the South contained the greatest number of people aged 65 years and older and 85 years and older. However, proportionately, the Northeast contains the largest percentage of adults aged 65 years and older (14.1%), followed by the Midwest (13.5%), the South (13.0%), and the West (11.9%). Relative to the Census 2000, all geographic regions demonstrated positive growth in the population of adults aged 65 years and older and 85 years and older. The most rapid growth in the population of adults aged 65 years and older was evident in the West (23.5%), which showed an increase from 6.9 million in 2000 to 8.5 million in 2010. Likewise, in the population aged 85 years and older, the West (42.8%) also showed the fastest growth and increased from 806,000 in 2000 to 1.2 million in 2010. It is worth highlighting that Rhode Island was the only state that experienced a reduction in the number of people aged 65 years and older, and declined from 152,402 in 2000 to 151,881 in 2010. Conversely, all states exhibited an increase in the population of adults aged 85 years and older from 2000 to 2010.


title: Gerontology

text: As with many disciplines, over the course of the 20th and 21st century the field of gerontology has sub-divided into multiple specific disciplines focused on increasingly narrow aspects of the aging process.


title: Gerontology

text: Biogerontology is the special sub-field of gerontology concerned with the biological aging process, its evolutionary origins, and potential means to intervene in the process. Aim of biogerontology is to prevent age-related disease by intervening in aging processes or even eliminate aging per se. Some argue that aging fits the criteria of disease, therefore aging is disease and should be treated as disease. In 2008 Aubrey de Grey said that in case of suitable funding and involvement of specialists there is a 50% chance, that in 25–30 years humans will have technology saving people from dying of old age, regardless of the age at which they will be at that time. His idea is to repair inside cells and between them all that can be repaired using modern technology, allowing people to live until time when technology progress will allow to cure deeper damage. This concept got the name "longevity escape velocity".


title: Gerontology

text: Social gerontology is a multi-disciplinary sub-field that specializes in studying or working with older adults. Social gerontologists may have degrees or training in social work, nursing, psychology, sociology, demography, public health, or other social science disciplines. Social gerontologists are responsible for educating, researching, and advancing the broader causes of older people.


title: Gerontology

text: Because issues of life span and life extension need numbers to quantify them, there is an overlap with demography. Those who study the demography of the human life span differ from those who study the social demographics of aging.


title: Gerontology

text: Several theories of aging are developed to observe the aging process of older adults in society as well as how these processes are interpreted by men and women as they age.


title: Gerontology

text: Activity theory was developed and elaborated by Cavan, Havighurst, and Albrecht. According to this theory, older adults' self-concept depends on social interactions. In order for older adults to maintain morale in old age, substitutions must be made for lost roles. Examples of lost roles include retirement from a job or loss of a spouse.


title: Gerontology

text: Activity is preferable to inactivity because it facilitates well-being on multiple levels. Because of improved general health and prosperity in the older population, remaining active is more feasible now than when this theory was first proposed by Havighurst nearly six decades ago. The activity theory is applicable for a stable, post-industrial society, which offers its older members many opportunities for meaningful participation. Weakness: Some aging persons cannot maintain a middle-aged lifestyle, due to functional limitations, lack of income, or lack of a desire to do so. Many older adults lack the resources to maintain active roles in society. On the flip side, some elders may insist on continuing activities in late life that pose a danger to themselves and others, such as driving at night with low visual acuity or doing maintenance work to the house while climbing with severely arthritic knees. In doing so, they are denying their limitations and engaging in unsafe behaviors.


title: Gerontology

text: Disengagement theory was developed by Cumming and Henry. According to this theory, older adults and society engage in a mutual separation from each other. An example of mutual separation is retirement from the workforce. A key assumption of this theory is that older adults lose "ego-energy" and become increasingly self-absorbed. Additionally, disengagement leads to higher morale maintenance than if older adults try to maintain social involvement. This theory is heavily criticized for having an escape clause - namely, that older adults who remain engaged in society are unsuccessful adjusters to old age.


title: Gerontology

text: Gradual withdrawal from society and relationships preserves social equilibrium and promotes self-reflection for elders who are freed from societal roles. It furnishes an orderly means for the transfer of knowledge, capital, and power from the older generation to the young. It makes it possible for society to continue functioning after valuable older members die.


title: Gerontology

text: According to this theory, older adults born during different time periods form cohorts that define "age strata". There are two differences among strata: chronological age and historical experience. This theory makes two arguments. 1. Age is a mechanism for regulating behavior and as a result determines access to positions of power. 2. Birth cohorts play an influential role in the process of social change.


title: Gerontology

text: According to this theory, which stems from the life course perspective aging occurs from birth to death. Aging involves social, psychological, and biological processes. Additionally, aging experiences are shaped by cohort and period effects.


title: Gerontology

text: According to this theory, which was developed beginning in the 1960s by Derek Price and Robert Merton and elaborated on by several researchers such as Dale Dannefer, inequalities have a tendency to become more pronounced throughout the aging process. A paradigm of this theory can be expressed in the adage "the rich get richer and the poor get poorer". Advantages and disadvantages in early life stages have a profound effect throughout the life span. However, advantages and disadvantages in middle adulthood have a direct influence on economic and health status in later life.


title: Gerontology

text: Environmental gerontology is a specialization within gerontology that seeks an understanding and interventions to optimize the relationship between aging persons and their physical and social environments.


title: Gerontology

text: The field emerged in the 1930s during the first studies on behavioral and social gerontology. In the 1970s and 1980s, research confirmed the importance of the physical and social environment in understanding the aging population and improved the quality of life in old age. Studies of environmental gerontology indicate that older people prefer to age in their immediate environment, whereas spatial experience and place attachment are important for understanding the process.


title: Gerontology

text: Some research indicates that the physical-social environment is related to the longevity and quality of life of the elderly. Precisely, the natural environment (such as natural therapeutic landscapes, therapeutic garden) contributes to active and healthy aging in the place.


title: Gerontology

text: Jurisprudential gerontology (sometimes referred to as "geriatric jurisprudence") is a specialization within gerontology that looks into the ways laws and legal structures interact with the aging experience. The field started from legal scholars in the field of elder law, which found that looking into legal issues of older persons without a broader inter-disciplinary perspective does not provide the ideal legal outcome. Using theories such as therapeutic jurisprudence, jurisprudential scholars critically examined existing legal institutions (e.g. adult guardianship, end of life care, or nursing homes regulations) and showed how law should look more closely to the social and psychological aspects of its real-life operation. Other streams within jurisprudential gerontology also encouraged physicians and lawyers to try to improve their cooperation and better understand how laws and regulatory institutions affect health and well-being of older persons.


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: "The Veldt" is a science fiction short story by American author Ray Bradbury. Originally appearing as "The World the Children Made" in the September 23, 1950, issue of "The Saturday Evening Post", it was republished under its current name in the 1951 anthology "The Illustrated Man".


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: In the story, a mother and father struggle with their technologically advanced home taking over their role as parents, and their children becoming uncooperative as a result of their lack of discipline.


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: The Hadley family lives in an automated house called "the Happylife Home,” filled with machines that aid them in completing everyday tasks, such as tying their shoes, bathing them, or cooking their food. The two children, Peter and Wendy, enjoy time in the "nursery", a virtual reality room able to realistically reproduce any place they imagine, and grow increasingly attached to it.


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: The parents, George and Lydia, begin to wonder if there is something wrong with their way of life. Lydia tells George, "That's just it. I feel like I don't belong here. The house is wife and mother now, and nursemaid. Can I compete with an African veldt? Can I give a bath and scrub the children as efficiently or quickly as the automatic scrub bath can? I cannot." They are perplexed that the nursery is stuck on an African landscape setting, with lions in the distance, eating an unidentifiable animal carcass. There they also find recreations of their personal belongings and hear strangely familiar screams. Wondering why their children are so concerned with this scene of death, they decide to call a psychologist.


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: The psychologist, David McClean, suggests they turn off the house, move to the country, and learn to be more self-sufficient. Peter and Wendy strongly resist and beg their parents to let them have one last visit to the nursery. They give in and allow the children more time in the nursery. When George and Lydia come to fetch them, the children lock their parents into the nursery with the pride of lions, and the two realize that the screams belonged to simulated versions of themselves. Shortly after, David comes by to look for George and Lydia. He finds the children enjoying lunch in the nursery and sees the lions and vultures eating carcasses in the distance, which are implied to be the parents.


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: The story was adapted by Ernest Kinoy as an episode of the radio program "Dimension X" in 1951. The same script was used in a 1955 episode of "X Minus One", with the addition of a frame story in which it was explained that George and Lydia were not really slain, and that the entire family was now undergoing psychiatric treatment.


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: An adaptation by Jack Pulman was broadcast on the BBC Light Programme on March 5, 1959, with John Cazabon and Diana Olsson.


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: "The Veldt" was adapted into a stage production by Bradbury and can be found in a volume titled "The Wonderful Ice Cream Suit & Other Plays" in 1972.


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: In 1983, Swedish Television premiered a TV movie based on "The Veldt," under the title "Savannen" ("The Savannah"), with Bibi Andersson in the role of Lydia, and Erland Josephson playing David.


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: In 1984, Michael McDonough of Brigham Young University produced "The Veldt" as an episode of "Bradbury 13", a series of thirteen audio adaptations of famous Ray Bradbury stories, in conjunction with National Public Radio.


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: In 1987, a film titled "The Veldt" was made in the USSR (directed by Nazim Tulyakhojaev), where several of Bradbury's stories were intertwined. It was billed as the "First Soviet Horror Movie."


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: The Canadian-produced anthology television series "The Ray Bradbury Theater" included the story, scripted by Bradbury, as Episode #29 (Season 3, Episode 11). It was first broadcast November 10, 1989, and starred Linda Kelsey, Malcolm Stewart, Shana Alexander, and Thomas Peacocke.


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: The BBC produced another radio play version of "The Veldt", adapted from the stage play by Mike Walker, in 2007, which was broadcast on BBC Radio 4.


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: In 2010, Stephen Colbert read "The Veldt" for the NPR radio program "Selected Shorts" before a live audience at Symphony Space.


title: The Veldt (short story)

text: In 2012, shortly before author Ray Bradbury's death, Canadian musician deadmau5 produced a song titled "The Veldt", including lyrics by Chris James based upon the story. The music video, released after Bradbury's death, is dedicated to him and shows a young boy and girl wandering through an African veldt and witnessing several plot points from the story including vultures, screams, and a lion eating a carcass implied to be one of the parents due to glasses. The original title of the story, "The World the Children Made", is repeated throughout the chorus of the song.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa (15 June 1980 – 15 May 2020), commonly referred to by his alias "El Chino Ántrax", was a Mexican drug lord, a professional hitman, and a high-ranking member of the Sinaloa Cartel, a criminal organization based in Sinaloa.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: He was one of the leaders and the founder of Los Ántrax, an armed enforcement group that protected Sinaloa cartel leader Ismael "El Mayo" Zambada and his sons. He was arrested on December 30 2013 at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in the Netherlands at the request of the United States, which contacted Interpol to arrest him for charges relating to drug trafficking. He was extradited to the US on July 10, 2014. After being sentenced to house arrest, he was reported missing on May 9, 2020. He reappeared in Culiacan, Sinaloa on May 15, 2020 where he was found murdered along with his sister, and brother-in-law.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa, often referred to by his alias 'El Chino Ántrax', was born in Culiacán, Sinaloa, Mexico on 15 June 1980. Aréchiga Gamboa began to work for the Sinaloa Cartel as a bodyguard of Vicente Zambada Niebla (alias "El Vicentillo"), son of Ismael "El Mayo" Zambada, until 2008. Following the separation of the Sinaloa organization and the Beltrán Leyva Cartel that year, he went on to form Los Ántrax, an armed squadron of the Sinaloa Cartel for providing armed security services to "El Mayo" Zambada.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: He was nearly killed on 4 November 2008 when an armed commando opened fire at a car wash in Culiacán. In the attack, Los Ántrax lost one of its members, Alfredo Vizcarra Vega (alias "El Fello Ántrax"), son of a Sinaloa police commander. Aréchiga Gamboa reportedly managed to escape uninjured during the shootout. Following the arrest of Zambada Niebla in March 2009, the drug lord ascended in the apex of the Sinaloa Cartel given his friendship with one of "El Mayo" Zambada's sons. He was then called to oversee the "plaza" (turf) of Culiacán, the center of operations of Los Ántrax and the city where the Zambada family reportedly resided.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: In 2008, he founded Los Ántrax with another drug lord known as René Velázquez Valenzuela (alias Sergeant "Phoenix Ántrax", Vladi Portillo [the Russian] "El Gato Negro" (Black cat) and "El Taliban"), who was arrested by the Mexican Army that year and sent to jail in Aguaruto, Sinaloa. Among the first gang leaders to die was Redel Castro (alias "El Pocho Ántrax"), who was killed in a massive shootout in June 2010 with rival members of the Beltrán Leyva Cartel in Tubutama, Sonora. In May 2011, the Mexican Army arrested, tortured, and killed three members of Los Ántrax after they mistook them for kidnappers: the members were Franklin Olguín Velázquez (alias "El Franki" and/or "El Dos"), Jesús Humberto Corona Guillén (alias "El Chuve"), and Pedro Valenzuela Meza (alias "El Pedrón"). In November of that year, Francisco Arce Rubio (alias "Pancho Arce"), another high-ranking gang leader close to El Chino Ántrax, was killed during an indoor soccer game in Culiacán by rival gangsters of Los Mazatlecos. Following the death of Arce Rubio, "El Mayo" Zambada withdrew El Chino Ántrax from the day-to-day activities of Los Ántrax until he sorted things out. However, the attacks against the gang continued; in February 2012, Roque Landeros (alias "Roque Ántrax") was killed with three other men in Culiacán. Local media outlets alleged that the killings stemmed from an internal power struggle within the Sinaloa Cartel, specifically from a group commanded by "El Chapo" Guzmán. Mexico's Office of the General Prosecutor (PGR) and Secretariat of Public Security (SSP) have identified various other leaders under the hierarchy of El Chino Ántrax. Jesús Peña (alias "El 20") is believed to be a close associate of the drug lord; others include a man known as Melesio (alias "El Mele"); "El Traka Ántrax", identified by authorities as the gang's recruiter; Eusebio Imperial or Eliseo Castro (alias "El Cheyo Ántrax"), a supposed nephew of "El Mayo" Zambada; a man known as "El Monkey"; and "El Changuito", the former alleged financial head of Los Ántrax, both arrested on 16 April 2012.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: Aréchiga Gamboa was wanted by the United States government and faced charges in a San Diego, California federal court for trafficking methamphetamines, cocaine and marijuana. The charge alleged that he conspired with other people to import 500 grams of methamphetamines and 5 kilograms of cocaine to the U.S. The indictment, started by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in late 2011, was part of an investigation known as Operation Narco Polo, where federal agents intercepted several phone calls from March and October 2012 between Aréchiga Gamboa and drug traffickers from the San Diego–Tijuana area. The investigation also included the testimony of arrested smugglers, seized drugs and money, and photographs that inculpate them.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: From 2011 and 2013, the drug lord lived in Los Cabos, Baja California Sur and led Los Ántrax against the criminal group Los Zetas in the area. While in Los Cabos, Aréchiga Gamboa reportedly ordered the murder of Francisco Rafael Arellano Félix, a former leader of the Tijuana Cartel, on 18 October 2013. The PGR revealed that the motive possibly stemmed from Arellano Félix's involvement in money laundering activities and as a message from the Los Ántrax to show that they were in charge of organized crime in Los Cabos. The Baja California state authorities identified the possible murders of the drug lord: Noé Castro (alias "R1"), Aréchiga Gamboa's right-hand man in Los Cabos; and a man known by his alias "R13".


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: His most common alias was Chino Anthrax, but the drug lord was also known as El Comandante Ántrax ("Commander Anthrax"), R-57, El Oriental ("The Oriental"), El Quinto Elemento ("The Fifth Element"), Scarface Renacido ("Reborn Scarface"), among others. On his Facebook, Twitter (@comandante57_) and Instagram (miauuuu5_7 and jamesbond5_7) accounts, Aréchiga Gamboa uploaded pictures and videos of his ostentatious lifestyle, which included trips to Europe, Las Vegas (where he attended the Manny Pacquiao vs. Brandon Rios fight), Japan, and parts of Africa and the Middle East. In one of his pictures, the drug lord appears alongside Paris Hilton. The drug lord also has pictures with Ismael Zambada Imperial (alias "El Mayito Gordo"), son of "El Mayo" Zambada and a high-ranking enforcer within the cartel. He also has pictures with Serafín Zambada Ortiz (alias "El Sera"), also son of "El Mayo" Zambada who was arrested by U.S. authorities in November 2013 while attempting to cross the U.S.-Mexico border in Arizona.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: He also uploaded pictures of his sport cars, yachts, weapons, jewelry, money, and extravagant parties with famous narcocorrido bands. On social media, he raffled cellphones, sunglasses, cars, and other gifts with his followers. He frequently appeared on his Instagram feed sporting his muscular physique, protein intakes, and workout routines. Aréchiga Gamboa also has several narcocorrido ballads about him, some which describe him as an "elegant and fit man" who enjoys his sport cars, yachts, and drinking champagne. He was part of the younger generation of Mexican drug traffickers that enjoy displaying their luxurious lifestyle online. Although he always blurred his face in his social media pictures, in most of them he was shown wearing the skull shaped diamond ring, in reference to Los Ántrax, as a form of signature. Despite attempting to be discreet by blurring his face, U.S. authorities were able to track him down thanks to his photos. They learned that Aréchiga Gamboa liked to travel across the world; his ring also helped them identify him when he landed in the Netherlands from Mexico on 31 December 2013 and was arrested.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: On 3 January 2014, the Netherlands Ministry of Security and Justice and the Mexican Embassy in the country confirmed that a 33-year-old Mexican citizen had been arrested by the Dutch police as he arrived from Latin America to Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in the Netherlands using a false name on 30 December 2013. Initially, the authorities did not give any details on the identity of the detainee, but an anonymous U.S. federal agent and Mexican local newspapers leaked information to the media that the man was in fact Aréchiga Gamboa. The arrest of the drug lord was officially confirmed later that day by the U.S. government. According to officials, Aréchiga Gamboa travelled with the fake name of Norberto Sicairos García; at the time of his arrest, he was carrying an iPhone 5, a Blackberry Bold, three airplane tickets, credit cards from Visa and MasterCard from Banamex, and a Mexican driver's license. Upon his arrest, he was sent to the Vught maximum-security prison. U.S. law enforcement managed to identify Aréchiga Gamboa through unspecified forensic methods despite the fact that the drug lord had used a fake name to travel, undergone plastic surgery to change his appearance, and altered his finger prints.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: On 2 January 2014, he appeared before a judge, who spoke about his situation and the motives behind his arrest. The Dutch authorities confirmed that the drug lord had been arrested at the request of the U.S. government, which had contacted Interpol to assist them in the arrest of the drug lord for charges relating to drug trafficking. They did not contact Mexican officials. The following day, the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of California solicited an extradition request to bring the drug lord to trial in the U.S.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: On 8 January 2014, the U.S. Department of the Treasury sanctioned the drug lord under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act (Kingpin Act), which froze assets he may have had in the U.S. and virtually prohibited U.S. citizens from carrying out financial or commercial deals with him. The document alleged that, besides working for the drug lord "El Mayo" Zambada, Aréchiga Gamboa coordinated logistics and drug transportations for "El Chapo" Guzmán and worked alongside Gonzalo Inzunza Inzunza (alias "El Macho Prieto"), another Sinaloa Cartel high-ranking enforcer who was killed in Sonora in December 2013. The drug lords he worked for had already been sanctioned by the U.S. government under the Kingpin Act in 2001, 2002, 2009, and 2011.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: On 14 May 2014, an official spokesperson of a court in Haarlem stated to the press that the request of the U.S. to extradite Aréchiga Gamboa was planned to be defined by 29 May 2014. On 28 May 2014, a Dutch court approved the extradition to the U.S. The defense of El Chino Ántrax, who was not present during the hearing, was allowed by law to appeal the decision, a process that could have taken months. On 10 July 2014, he was extradited from Amsterdam to the U.S., where he arrived at the San Diego International Airport at around 2:00 p.m. under tight security by the DEA and the U.S. Marshal Service. Upon his arrival, he was taken into custody and booked for his drug-related charges. He was expected to be arraigned on such charges the next day.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: The following day, he pleaded not guilty to the drug charges against him and was held without bail after the U.S. Magistrate Mitchell D. Dembin deemed him a public threat and capable of fleeing to Mexico if released. Those present in the courtroom had to pass a secondary metal detector and pat-down before entering the hearing site. According to one of the case's attorneys, a group of women who were supposedly family members of Aréchiga Gamboa sat in one of the middle rows of the courtroom. They declined to comment about the case, just like Aréchiga Gamboa's defense Frank Ragen. After his court appearance, Aréchiga Gamboa was imprisoned at the Metropolitan Correctional Center, San Diego and was scheduled to appear in court again for a motion hearing conducted by federal judge Dana Makoto Sabraw on 22 August 2014.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: On the morning of 21 August 2014, he reappeared in court for a twenty-minute hearing. The U.S. District Court for the Southern District of California declared it a "complex case" after the defense asked for a time extension given the overwhelming amount of evidences presented by the prosecution. According to the court archives, the DEA has under its possession documents that prove that Aréchiga Gamboa participated in at least fifty drug trafficking shipments between Mexico and the United States. His next court appearance was scheduled for 21 November 2014. On that date, however, the hearing was postponed to 6 March 2015 after his attorney asked in court for more time to evaluate the evidence against his client. Unlike in other court sessions, Aréchiga Gamboa's family members were not present in the courtroom.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: He pleaded guilty on 20 March 2015 and admitted that he had participated in cocaine and marijuana shipments from Mexico to the U.S., and that he had facilitated violent activities for the Sinaloa Cartel.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: After being in custody in the United States for six years, Archeiga was sentenced to seven years and three months in US federal prison.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: On March 3, 2020, he was released and placed into house arrest. On May 9, his probation officer reported him as missing.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: On the night of May 14, 2020, Aréchiga Gamboa, his sister, and her husband were in the house when they were visited by a Sinaloa Cartel ‘hit squad’, which resulted in a fierce firefight with Chino firing back with automatic assault rifle. This fire lasted until dawn and when they ran out of ammo they surrendered and were taken hostage by armed men. The next day police in the town of Ayune, Sinaloa, discovered a black SUV with 3 dead bodies inside - one of the bodies was later identified as José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa. He was shot dead and wrapped in cloth, his head was covered with a black plastic bag. The other 2 bodies were identified as his sister and her husband. It was later reported that his murder was likely ordered by senior leaders of the Sinaloa Cartel.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: His romantic partner Yuriana Castillo Torres was reportedly kidnapped by armed men while heading to her vehicle after leaving a gym in Culiacán, Sinaloa on 6 May 2014. Her corpse was discovered on 06:45 the next day by Mexican law enforcement at a vacant lot in Lomas de Guadalupe neighborhood in Culiacán, and confirmed to be hers by her family members at the forensic installations. Post-mortem reports showed that Castillo Torres had been tortured, received several blows to the head, and that her hands and legs were tied with an electric cable. At the funeral home where the wake took place, members of Los Ántrax reportedly paid their condolences by leaving a floral ornament in honor of her.


title: José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa

text: There are several narcocorridos (drug ballads) that narrate some of the exploits of Aréchiga Gamboa and his assassin squad Los Ántrax. Most of the songs belong to the trend of narcocorridos known as movimiento alterado ("the altered movement"), which promotes violence in reference to the physiological effect of cocaine consumption.


title: Fork bomb

text: In computing, a fork bomb (also called rabbit virus or wabbit) is a denial-of-service attack wherein a process continually replicates itself to deplete available system resources, slowing down or crashing the system due to resource starvation.


title: Fork bomb

text: Around 1978, an early variant of a fork bomb called wabbit was reported to run on a System/360. It may have descended from a similar attack called RABBITS reported from 1969 on a Burroughs 5500 at the University of Washington.


title: Fork bomb

text: Fork bombs operate both by consuming CPU time in the process of forking, and by saturating the operating system's process table. A basic implementation of a fork bomb is an infinite loop that repeatedly launches new copies of itself.


title: Fork bomb

text: In Unix-like operating systems, fork bombs are generally written to use the fork system call. As forked processes are also copies of the first program, once they resume execution from the next address at the frame pointer, they continue forking endlessly within their own copy of the same infinite loop; this has the effect of causing an exponential growth in processes. As modern Unix systems generally use a copy-on-write resource management technique when forking new processes, a fork bomb generally will not saturate such a system's memory.


title: Fork bomb

text: Microsoft Windows operating systems do not have an equivalent functionality to the Unix fork system call; a fork bomb on such an operating system must therefore create a new process instead of forking from an existing one.


title: Fork bomb

text: A classic example of a fork bomb is one written in Unix shell codice_1, possibly dating back to 1999, which can be more easily understood as:


title: Fork bomb

text: In it, a function is defined (codice_2) as calling itself (codice_3), then piping (codice_4) its result to a background job of itself (codice_5).


title: Fork bomb

text: The code using a colon codice_6 as the function name is not valid in a shell as defined by POSIX, which only permits alphanumeric characters and underscores in function names. However, its usage is allowed in GNU Bash as an extension.


title: Fork bomb

text: As a fork bomb's mode of operation is entirely encapsulated by creating new processes, one way of preventing a fork bomb from severely affecting the entire system is to limit the maximum number of processes that a single user may own. On Linux, this can be achieved by using the "ulimit" utility; for example, the command codice_7 would limit the affected user to a maximum of thirty owned processes.


title: Fork bomb

text: Modern Linux systems also allow finer-grained fork bomb prevention through cgroups and process number (PID) controllers.


title: Eugène Terre'Blanche

text: Eugène Ney Terre'Blanche (, 31 January 1941 – 3 April 2010) was an Afrikaner nationalist who founded and led the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB; Afrikaner Resistance Movement in English). Prior to founding the AWB, Terre'Blanche served as a South African Police officer, was a farmer, and was an unsuccessful Herstigte Nasionale Party (Reconstituted National Party) candidate for local office in the Transvaal. He was a major figure in the right-wing backlash against the collapse of apartheid. His beliefs and philosophy have continued to be influential amongst white supremacists in South Africa and across the world.


title: Eugène Terre'Blanche

text: Under Terre'Blanche, the AWB swore to use violence to preserve minority rule, opposing any concessions offered to the African National Congress – an organisation AWB supporters repeatedly branded as Marxist terrorists – and gaining notoriety for storming the Kempton Park Trade Centre during bilateral negotiations in 1993. AWB loyalists also clashed with South African security forces at the Battle of Ventersdorp, a bloody skirmish in 1991 where police opened fire on a white crowd for the first time since the Rand Rebellion, leaving three Afrikaners dead. Immediately prior to South Africa's first multiracial election, Terre'Blanche's followers were linked to a number of bombings and assassinations targeting the South African Communist Party; armed AWB commandos participated in the crisis in Bophuthatswana in 1994.


title: Eugène Terre'Blanche

text: Terre'Blanche spent three years in a Rooigrond prison for assaulting a petrol station attendant and for the attempted murder of a black security guard around 1996. He was released in June 2004. On 3 April 2010, he was hacked and beaten to death on his Ventersdorp farm, allegedly by two of his employees in a dispute over unpaid wages.


title: Eugène Terre'Blanche

text: Terre'Blanche's grandfather fought as a Cape Rebel for the Boer cause in the Second Boer War, while his father was a lieutenant colonel in the South African Defence Force and a leader of the local Commando.


title: Eugène Terre'Blanche

text: The progenitor of the Terre'Blanche name (translatable as either 'white land' or 'white earth' in French) in the region was a French Huguenot refugee, Estienne Terreblanche from Toulon (Provence), who arrived at the Cape in 1704, fleeing anti-Protestant persecution in France. The Terreblanche name has generally retained its original spelling though other spellings include Terre'Blanche, Terre Blanche, Terblanche and Terblans.


title: Eugène Terre'Blanche

text: Born on a farm in the Transvaal town of Ventersdorp on 31 January 1941, Terre'Blanche attended Laerskool Ventersdorp and Hoër Volkskool in Potchefstroom, matriculating in 1962. While in school, he gave early expression to his political leanings by founding the cultural organisation "Jong Afrikanerharte" (Young Afrikaner Hearts).


title: Eugène Terre'Blanche

text: He joined the South African Police, and was initially deployed in South West Africa (now Namibia), which had been given to South Africa under a League of Nations Trust mandate after World War I. Upon returning to South Africa, he became a Warrant Officer in the Special Guard Unit, which was assigned to members of the Cabinet.