title: Pacifier

text: There are negative effects from using a pacifier during breastfeeding for healthy babies. The AAP suggests avoiding pacifiers for the first month. Introducing a pacifier can lead to the infant ineffectively sucking at the breast and causing "nipple confusion". Babies will take their suck out on the pacifier instead of nursing or comfort nursing at the breast which is good for the mother's supply. Evidence in premature infants or infants that are not healthy is lacking but shows that it can have benefits. It may have clinical benefits for preterm babies, such as helping them progress from tube to bottle feeding.


title: Pacifier

text: Infants who use pacifiers may have more ear infections (otitis media). The effectiveness of avoiding the use of a pacifier to prevent ear infections is not known.


title: Pacifier

text: Although it is commonly believed that using a pacifier will lead to dental problems, it does not appear to lead to long-term damage if used for less than around three years. However, prolonged use of a pacifier or other non-nutritive sucking habit (such as finger or blanket sucking) has been found to lead to malocclusion of the teeth, that is teeth sticking out or not meeting properly when they bite together. This is a common problem and the dental (orthodontic) treatment to correct it can take a long time and can be expensive. A Cochrane Review of the evidence found that orthodontic braces or psychological intervention (such as positive or negative reinforcement) were effective in helping children stop sucking habits where that was necessary. An orthodontic brace that used a palatal crib design seems to have been more effective than a palatal arch design.


title: Pacifier

text: There appears to be no strong evidence that using a pacifier delays speech development by preventing babies from practicing their speaking skills.


title: Pacifier

text: Researchers have found that use of a pacifier is associated with a substantial reduction in the risk of sudden infant death syndrome. They are divided over whether this association is sufficient reason to prefer pacifier use. Some argue that pacifiers should be recommended on the strength of an association, just as back sleeping was recommended on the strength of an association. Others argue that the association is not strong enough or that the mechanism is unclear.


title: Pacifier

text: Pacifiers have also been found to reduce infants' crying during painful procedures such as venipuncture.


title: Pacifier

text: Researchers in Brazil have shown that neither "orthodontic" nor standard pacifiers prevent dental problems if children continue sucking past the age of three years.


title: Pacifier

text: It is commonly reported anecdotally that pacifier use among stimulant users helps reduce bruxism and thus prevents tooth damage. It is also known to help infants to get to sleep and also keeps infants calm.


title: Pacifier

text: The American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry's "Policy on Thumb, Finger and Pacifier Habits" says: "Most children stop sucking on thumbs, pacifiers or other objects on their own between 2 and 4 years of age. However, some children continue these habits over long periods of time. In these children, the upper front teeth may tip toward the lip or not come in properly. Frequent or intense habits over a prolonged period of time can affect the way the child's teeth bite together, as well as the growth of the jaws and bones that support the teeth."


title: Pacifier

text: A study of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) states that "It seems appropriate to stop discouraging the use of pacifiers." The authors recommend the use of pacifiers at nap time and bedtime throughout the first year of life. For breastfeeding mothers, the authors suggest waiting until breastfeeding is well established, typically for several weeks, before introducing the pacifier.


title: Pacifier

text: The British Dental Health Foundation recommends: "If you can, avoid using a dummy and discourage thumb sucking. With prolonged use (see Drawbacks above), these can both eventually cause problems with how the teeth grow and develop. And this may need treatment with a brace when the child gets older."


title: Pacifier

text: In the late 1970s researchers dispelled the notion that pacifiers were psychologically unhealthy and aberrant. Richard H. Passman and Jane S. Halonen at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee traced the developmental course of attachments to pacifiers and provided norms. They found that 66% of their sample of babies who were three months old in the United States demonstrated at least some attachment, according to their mothers. At six months of age, this incidence was 40%, and at nine months it was 44%. Thereafter, the rate of attachment to pacifiers dropped precipitously until, at 24 months of age and later, it was quite rare.


title: Pacifier

text: These researchers also provided experimental support for what were then only anecdotal observations that pacifiers do indeed pacify babies. In an unfamiliar playroom, one-year-old infants accompanied by their pacifier evidenced more play and demonstrated less distress than did babies without them. The investigators concluded that pacifiers should be considered to be attachment objects, similar to other security objects like blankets.


title: Pacifier

text: Passman and Halonen contended that the widespread occurrence of attachments to pacifiers as well as their importance as security objects should reassure parents that they are a normal part of development for a majority of infants.


title: Dani California

text: "Dani California" is a song from American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers' ninth studio album, "Stadium Arcadium" (2006). The single was first made available at the iTunes Music Store and was officially released on April 28, 2006. The international radio premiere was on April 3, 2006, when Don Jantzen, from the Houston radio station KTBZ-FM, played "Dani California" continuously for his entire three-hour program.


title: Dani California

text: The single peaked at number six on the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming the band's third and most recent single to enter the top 10. In addition, "Dani California" became the second song (after R.E.M.'s "What's the Frequency, Kenneth?" in 1994) to debut at number one on the "Billboard" Modern Rock Tracks chart, staying there for 14 consecutive weeks. It also charted at number one on the Mainstream Rock chart, where it spent 12 straight weeks on top. The song won two Grammy Awards: one for Best Rock Song and the other for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. It marked the band's joint-biggest UK hit to date along with "By the Way", peaking at number two on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Dani California

text: Throughout the song, lyricist Anthony Kiedis laments the early death of Dani, a poor, young Southern girl who eventually lived in California, became a mother and lived a hard, fast, unsettled life. Kiedis has commented that the character of Dani is a composite of all the women with whom he has had relationships. The song narrates much of Dani's life, starting with her birth in Mississippi and apparently culminating with her death in the badlands, by a North Dakota policeman, while en route to Minnesota.


title: Dani California

text: Dani first appeared in the 1999 song "Californication", which includes the lyrics "Teenage bride with a baby inside/Gettin' high on information" although the girl's name is not specified. She was next mentioned in the Red Hot Chili Peppers' 2002 single "By the Way" as "Dani the girl". Kiedis commented: "When this funky groove came up it struck me as a perfect place to actually tell a story. It sort of revealed itself to me that it's been the same character, just kind of developing. At first I didn't realize that I was writing about the same girl."


title: Dani California

text: Guitarist John Frusciante used various instruments and effects devices in order to achieve the textures and treatments used throughout the song, including Mellotron, Moog effect pedals, and a Doepfer modular synthesizer, used for the filtering and processing of pre-recorded tracks. The one-minute guitar solo at the end of the song is an adaption of Jimi Hendrix's intro to "Purple Haze", with the effects kept very close to the original.


title: Dani California

text: The working title of the song was "Wu-Tang" because Smith's drums sounded similar to those on the Wu-Tang Clan's debut album, "Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers)", though they ended up a bit more like Lynyrd Skynyrd's "Sweet Home Alabama".


title: Dani California

text: Shortly after its release, the originality of the song was questioned on the Dan Gaffney Morning Show on Delaware based news/talk radio station WGMD 92.7 FM. Two of the station's talk show hosts, Dan Gaffney and Jared Morris, alleged that the Red Hot Chili Peppers had plagiarized Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers' 1993 hit "Mary Jane's Last Dance". To demonstrate, they presented audio snippets of both songs, both side by side and simultaneously (i.e. on top of each other) several times. They stated that the chord progression, key, and the lyrical theme of the songs (both produced by Rick Rubin) showed "startling similarities" and urged listeners to "decide for themselves."


title: Dani California

text: Although the chord progressions sound similar, they do in fact differ as "Mary Jane's Last Dance" follows "Am, G, D, Am" (A Dorian mode), while "Dani California" follows "Am, G, Dm, Am" (A minor). University of Chicago musicologist Travis Jackson said the songs' chord progressions were similar, but were a "pretty standard groove" in music and not necessarily evidence of copying. Other commentators on the controversy point out that the main riff in Petty's song resembles that of a prior song called "Waiting for the Sun" which was released in 1992 by The Jayhawks. The Jayhawks were the opening act for Petty's tour in 1992 and keyboardist Benmont Tench played on both "Waiting for the Sun" and "Mary Jane's Last Dance".


title: Dani California

text: In an interview with "Rolling Stone" magazine, Petty denied rumors that he planned to sue the Chili Peppers and said, "I seriously doubt that there is any negative intent there. And a lot of rock & roll songs sound alike."


title: Dani California

text: The music video for "Dani California" premiered on April 4, 2006. Directed by Tony Kaye, director of "American History X" (who was only accepted after initial choice Mark Romanek declined), the video is a quasi-chronology of the evolution of rock music; the band performs the song on a stage, but in a variety of outfits representing important figures and movements in the history of rock, with band members transformed into famous musicians.


title: Dani California

text: Flea affirmed that "[The band] mainly did eras, not actual people: rockabilly, British Invasion, psychedelia, funk, glam, punk, goth, hair metal, grunge, and ourselves being the sum of all those parts." While the band's appearance was intentionally generic in each scene, obvious nods were made to certain specific artists, including Elvis Presley, the Beatles, Jimi Hendrix, Cream, Parliament-Funkadelic, David Bowie, Sex Pistols, the Misfits' lead singer Glenn Danzig, Poison, Mötley Crüe, Nirvana (aping their MTV Unplugged performance), and the Red Hot Chili Peppers themselves.


title: Dani California

text: The video received ten nominations at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards; it won the award for Best Art Direction, failing to win its six other nominations for Video of the Year, Best Group Video, Best Rock Video, Best Direction, Best Editing and Best Cinematography. The video was also nominated for an MMVA for best international video.


title: Dani California

text: "Dani California" debuted at number 24 and peaked at number six on the "Billboard" Hot 100 (remaining for two weeks at that position), becoming their third and last top ten hit. It's the 2nd song to debut at number one on the Modern Rock Tracks chart after R.E.M. in 1994 and before Linkin Park in 2007, remaining at the location for 14 weeks. The song also managed to achieve 28,000 units of digital sales in the song's first week of release and debuted at number 16 on the Hot Digital Songs chart. In the UK, the song fared even better, peaking at the number two spot for one week (kept off by Gnarls Barkley's "Crazy"), and eventually remaining on that chart for over 15 weeks. It also stayed 12 weeks at number one on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. The song also became a cross-over hit to pop and adult contemporary radio peaking number five on the Adult Top 40 chart, their 1st Top 5 and Top 10 single on the chart beating "Scar Tissue" and "Otherside" both at number 11. The song also hit number 25 on the Mainstream Top 40 chart.


title: Dani California

text: The song is among the few tracks the Red Hot Chili Peppers recorded which have broken the top 10 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. It was a success, with "Dani California" accumulating over 500 weeks collectively on over 20 charts.


title: Dani California

text: The song is offered as a playable track in "Rock Band", and was exportable to "Rock Band 2" but not any future versions of the "Rock Band" series until a patch on November 8 made the song playable in "Rock Band 3". The song is used in the two Japanese live-action films, "Death Note" and "", both directed by Shūsuke Kaneko. In addition, "Dani California" was used in the promo for the fourth season of "Sons of Anarchy" and as a NASCAR AD for All Star Weekend in 2006. The song was the subject of Pat Finnerty critical review video, "What Makes This Song Stink Ep. 6 - Red Hot Chili Peppers Dani California<nowiki>"</nowiki> in 2022.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: Paul Nicholas (born Paul Oscar Beuselinck; 3 December 1944) is an English actor and singer. He started out with a pop career, but soon changed to musical theatre, playing the lead role in "Jesus Christ Superstar" at the West End’s Palace Theatre in 1972. Later, in the 1970s, he returned to the pop charts, and he began an acting career – starring in the 1983 BBC sitcom "Just Good Friends", for which he is best known. The show won a BAFTA and Nicholas was also nominated for best comedy performance. After the show ended, he returned to musical theatre and various other entertainment roles, including producing and directing. He is also known for his more recent television role in EastEnders as Gavin Sullivan.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: Paul Nicholas was born Paul Oscar Beuselinck on 3 December 1944 in Peterborough. His paternal grandfather, Oscar Beuselinck, was Belgian and had been a chef in the merchant navy during World War II, before becoming head chef on the Union-Castle Line ships between the United Kingdom and South Africa. His maternal grandfather was a London docker.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: Nicholas' father, Oscar Beuselinck, a former MI6 agent, became a highly esteemed entertainment and show business solicitor. The family spent holidays at his maternal grandparents' home on the Isle of Sheppey, until Nicholas was 10. After his parents divorced when he was 12, his father's family home was at Letchmore Heath, Hertfordshire, opposite the Bhaktivedanta Manor. His paternal grandparents, Winnie and Oscar, lived in a small cottage on the grounds.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: Nicholas began his pop career as early as 1960. Adopting the stage name Paul Dean, he formed Paul Dean & The Dreamers who were booked to support The Savages, the backing band for the British rocker Screaming Lord Sutch.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: It was here that Sutch first noticed the young Nicholas, who was soon to become vocalist and pianist with The Savages. Still using the name Paul Dean, he released two solo singles in 1965–66. After taking a new stage name, Oscar, he began a long association with the Australian-born entrepreneur, Robert Stigwood. In 1966, Nicholas signed with Stigwood's Reaction Records label and his first single under his new name, "Club of Lights", scraped into the lower reaches of the Radio London Fab Forty chart.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: The second Oscar single was a version of a Pete Townshend song "Join My Gang", which The Who never recorded. His third single, a novelty song called "Over the Wall We Go" (1967) is notable for being written and produced by a young David Bowie (Nicholas at this time was managing the band The Sweet and recommended them to record producer Phil Wainman whom he worked with at Mellin Music Publishing). After settling on the stage name Paul Nicholas, he found success in the UK in musicals, beginning with the leading role of Claude in "Hair" (which Stigwood produced) before winning the title role in the original London production of "Jesus Christ Superstar". The part of Danny to Elaine Paige's Sandy made them the first British couple to play the leads in "Grease".


title: Paul Nicholas

text: He joined The Young Vic under Frank Dunlop and played Claudio in "Much Ado About Nothing" and appeared in "Crete and Sgt. Pepper" by John Antrobus. He appeared as the Bully of the Boulevard in Richard O’Brien’s "T-Zee" at London's Royal Court Theatre. He performed in Prospect Theatre Company's Carl Davies musical "Pilgrim". While touring with O'Brien in "Hair" in 1970 he first heard songs from the yet to be produced "Rocky Horror Show" and made the first professional recording with O'Brien singing "That Ain't No Crime".


title: Paul Nicholas

text: Nicholas' film career began in 1970 in "Cannabis". He followed this with "See No Evil" (1971) and "What Became of Jack and Jill?" (1972). He then appeared in "Stardust" (1974), and "Three for All" (1975). In 1975, he played "Cousin Kevin", Tommy's vicious cousin, in "Tommy", and portrayed Richard Wagner in "Lisztomania" (1975).


title: Paul Nicholas

text: In 1976, he embarked on a short-lived but high-profile pop career, with three Top 20 hits in the UK Singles Chart "Reggae Like It Used To Be", "Dancing with the Captain", and "Grandma's Party", the last two of which reached the Top 10. He released the single "Heaven On The 7th Floor" in 1977. This only just reached the UK Top 40, but reached number No. 1 in New Zealand. In the US, the song peaked at No. 6 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 5 in Cashbox listings, giving Nicholas a gold record. He followed this with "On The Strip" which entered the Billboard Hot 100 No. 67 but failed to enter the UK chart. In the mid-1970s he hosted his own children's television pop show, "Paul".


title: Paul Nicholas

text: In 1978, he appeared in "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" as Dougie Shears. Further films followed including "The World Is Full of Married Men" (1979), "Yesterday's Hero" (1979), the loutish punk singer in "The Jazz Singer" (1980), the romantic lead in "Invitation to the Wedding" (1983), and "Nutcracker" (1983).


title: Paul Nicholas

text: Having done a workshop with Andrew Lloyd Webber, he returned to West End theatre in 1981 to create the role of Rum Tum Tugger in Lloyd Webber's musical "Cats". He then originated the title role in "Blondel" by Sir Tim Rice and Stephen Oliver. That same year, he starred in "Two Up, Two Down", a short-lived sitcom co-starring Su Pollard. In 1983, he got his first high-profile television role as Vince Pinner in "Just Good Friends". The show, for which Nicholas also sang the theme tune, was a success. He was also nominated for a BAFTA.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: Nicholas later returned to the stage, playing numerous roles on screen in both movie and television projects. In 1986 Nicholas continued to star in musicals including ‘Jekyll and Hyde’’, "Fiddler On The Roof’' and "42nd Street’' which was directed by the shows author Mark Bramble. He starred as The Pirate King in Joseph Papp's version of "The Pirates of Penzance" at the London Palladium and the Manchester Opera House, touring again in the same role in the late 1990s. He starred in "Barnum" in the first national tour and followed this with a highly successful season at The Dominion Theatre in the West End. At the end of 1991, while touring with "Barnum", Nicholas was the subject of "This Is Your Life." For his services to show business and charity, Nicholas was awarded a Silver Heart from the Variety Club of Great Britain and a Gold Badge Award from BASCA. Nicholas then starred in the national tour of "Singin' in the Rain", which was directed by Tommy Steele.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: In June 1996, Nicholas played the role of King Arthur in the Covent Garden Festival's production of "Camelot". He repeated his role of King Arthur in a BBC Radio 2 production of "Camelot". Other radio work included Bert in BBC Radio 4's "Gracie". He hosted two series of BBC Radio 2's "Mad About Musical"', as well as his own hour-long TV special, "Paul and Friends", for Thames Television. Nicholas fronted the Radio 4 children's series "Cat's Whiskers" during the 1980s.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: In 1997, he starred as the anti-hero of Karoline Leach's "The Mysterious Mr. Love" at the Comedy Theatre in London's West End. He continued to appear as the lead in numerous straight roles thereafter: Simon Gray's "Stagestruck", a national tour of Michael Cooney's "The Dark Side", "Catch Me if You Can", and two plays by Eric Chappell: "Mixed Feelings", in which he played a transsexual, and "Snakes and Ladders". He starred as John Smith in the original production of "Caught in the Net". He co-produced, with Bill Kenwright, a new musical based on Charles Dickens' novel "A Tale of Two Cities", starring as Sidney Carton. The musical played Windsor with a Christmas season in Birmingham.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: In 2000, Nicholas appeared in the BBC television comedy drama "Sunburn", playing David Janus, owner of the self-titled holiday company around which the series was centered. He Ronnie Buchan in the new police drama series "Burnside". Further television work included parts in "The Bill" and "Holby City".


title: Paul Nicholas

text: He then played the title role in the national tour of "Doctor Dolittle" and followed this with the role of Tevye in UK Productions' national tour of "Fiddler on the Roof". In the summer of 2006, he was a celebrity showjumper in the BBC's Sport Relief event "Only Fools on Horses", as well as appearing in "Doctors", "Heartbeat" and "Holby City". That autumn, Nicholas was attached to star in the British film "Cash and Curry", and that year he co-produced and starred in "Jekyll & Hyde" in a UK national tour.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: In 2008, Nicholas played Alan Boon in BBC Four's "Consuming Passions – a hundred years of Mills and Boon". He also directed and produced "A Tale of Two Cities" at Upstairs at the Gatehouse. In 2009, Nicholas played Jack Point in "The Yeomen of the Guard" for the Carl Rosa Opera Company at the Tower of London Festival. In November 2010, Nicholas opened in "The Haunting". He also directed the musical version of "Tale of Two Cities" at Charing Cross Theatre in April–May 2012.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: In 2014, Nicholas produced and starred in "Blockbuster", a musical. In 2015, he appeared as Judge Wargrave in "And Then There Were None". In the summer of 2015 he directed a new production of "Tommy" at Blackpool's Opera House. In June 2015 while touring in "And Then There Were None", Nicholas was cast as Gavin Sullivan on "EastEnders". He then starred as Scrooge in the Alan Menken musical, "A Christmas Carol". In 2016, he was cast as Neville Chamberlain in the film "Masaryk". He appeared as himself in "The Real Marigold Hotel" shown on BBC One in March 2017.In 2018 Nicholas toured the UK. In 2018 toured Ronald Harwood’s’’Quartet’In 2019 Nicholas played Father Merrin in the ‘Exorcist’.In 2021 Nicholas published ‘Musicals Marigolds & Me’and his 3 CD Boxset ‘Paul Nicholas Gold’.In 2022 he played Pickering in ‘Pygmalion’ at the Theatre Royal Windsor.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: In 1990, while starring with David Ian in "The Pirates of Penzance" at the London Palladium, Nicholas offered Ian a partnership in co-producing and starring in a touring production of the New York Shakespeare Festival version of the popular Gilbert and Sullivan opera. Paul Nicholas & David Ian Associates Ltd was formed to produce the 20th anniversary production of "Jesus Christ Superstar" on a UK-wide tour, which sold out. They then produced a nightly fully staged version of "The Pirates of Penzance" in which Nicholas starred and again they sold out.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: In 2006 Nicholas set up a franchise operation, the Paul Nicholas School of Acting & Performing Arts, aimed at teaching acting to school-age children. The company went into liquidation in 2012. In January 2008 Nicholas launched Paul Nicholas Community Arts, a project designed to engage disenfranchised children in the arts. The pilot scheme was funded for fourteen weeks by Wyre Borough Council. A twelve-week scheme began on 28 May 2008 in Blackpool.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: Nicholas was 18 when he had a child, Carl (b. 1965), with girlfriend Patricia Brecknell. His then-former girlfriend, Lyn Last, gave birth to his second child, Jason (b. 1967), only a few months after his 1966 marriage to Susan Gee. Nicholas and Gee had two children together, Natasha (b. 1969) and Oscar (b. 1971). After their divorce, Susan Gee died in 1977, at the age of 28 in a car accident, survived by their two young children.


title: Paul Nicholas

text: Nicholas became despondent in 1979; the mother of his two children, Susan Gee had died and he was a single parent. Through his grief he was reunited with Linzi a few months later, she was supportive of him and his two children, gelling as a family unit, they went on to have two children together, Alex (b. 1981) and Carmen (b. 1987). Nicholas and Linzi married in 1984.


title: Wire

text: Wire is commonly formed by drawing the metal through a hole in a die or draw plate. Wire gauges come in various standard sizes, as expressed in terms of a gauge number.


title: Wire

text: Wires are used to bear mechanical loads, often in the form of wire rope. In electricity and telecommunications signals, a "wire" can refer to an electrical cable, which can contain a "solid core" of a single wire or separate strands in stranded or braided forms.


title: Wire

text: Usually cylindrical in geometry, wire can also be made in square, hexagonal, flattened rectangular, or other cross-sections, either for decorative purposes, or for technical purposes such as high-efficiency voice coils in loudspeakers. Edge-wound coil springs, such as the Slinky toy, are made of special flattened wire.


title: Wire

text: In antiquity, jewelry often contains large amounts of wire in the form of chains and applied decoration that is accurately made and which must have been produced by some efficient, if not technically advanced, means. In some cases, strips cut from metal sheet were made into wire by pulling them through perforations in stone beads. This causes the strips to fold round on themselves to form thin tubes. This strip drawing technique was in use in Egypt by the 2nd Dynasty (c. 2890 – c. 2686 BCE). From the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE most of the gold wires in jewellery are characterised by seam lines that follow a spiral path along the wire. Such twisted strips can be converted into solid round wires by rolling them between flat surfaces or the strip wire drawing method. The strip twist wire manufacturing method was superseded by drawing in the ancient Old World sometime between about the 8th and 10th centuries AD. There is some evidence for the use of drawing further East prior to this period.


title: Wire

text: Square and hexagonal wires were possibly made using a swaging technique. In this method a metal rod was struck between grooved metal blocks, or between a grooved punch and a grooved metal anvil. Swaging is of great antiquity, possibly dating to the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE in Egypt and in the Bronze and Iron Ages in Europe for torcs and fibulae. Twisted square-section wires are a very common filigree decoration in early Etruscan jewelry.


title: Wire

text: In about the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE, a new category of decorative tube was introduced which imitated a line of granules. True beaded wire, produced by mechanically distorting a round-section wire, appeared in the Eastern Mediterranean and Italy in the seventh century BCE, perhaps disseminated by the Phoenicians. Beaded wire continued to be used in jewellery into modern times, although it largely fell out of favour in about the tenth century CE when two drawn round wires, twisted together to form what are termed 'ropes', provided a simpler-to-make alternative. A forerunner to beaded wire may be the notched strips and wires which first occur from around 2000 BCE in Anatolia.


title: Wire

text: Wire was drawn in England from the medieval period. The wire was used to make wool cards and pins, manufactured goods whose import was prohibited by Edward IV in 1463. The first wire mill in Great Britain was established at Tintern in about 1568 by the founders of the Company of Mineral and Battery Works, who had a monopoly on this. Apart from their second wire mill at nearby Whitebrook, there were no other wire mills before the second half of the 17th century. Despite the existence of mills, the drawing of wire down to fine sizes continued to be done manually.


title: Wire

text: According to a description in the early 20th century, "[w]ire is usually drawn of cylindrical form; but it may be made of any desired section by varying the outline of the holes in the draw-plate through which it is passed in the process of manufacture. The draw-plate or die is a piece of hard cast-iron or hard steel, or for fine work it may be a diamond or a ruby. The object of utilising precious stones is to enable the dies to be used for a considerable period without losing their size, and so producing wire of incorrect diameter. Diamond dies must be rebored when they have lost their original diameter of hole, but metal dies are brought down to size again by hammering up the hole and then drifting it out to correct diameter with a punch."


title: Wire

text: Wire is often reduced to the desired diameter and properties by repeated drawing through progressively smaller dies, or traditionally holes in draw plates. After a number of passes the wire may be annealed to facilitate more drawing or, if it is a finished product, to maximise ductility and conductivity.


title: Wire

text: Electrical wires are usually covered with insulating materials, such as plastic, rubber-like polymers, or varnish. Insulating and jacketing of wires and cables is nowadays done by passing them through an extruder. Formerly, materials used for insulation included treated cloth or paper and various oil-based products. Since the mid-1960s, plastic and polymers exhibiting properties similar to rubber have predominated.


title: Wire

text: Two or more wires may be wrapped concentrically, separated by insulation, to form coaxial cable. The wire or cable may be further protected with substances like paraffin, some kind of preservative compound, bitumen, lead, aluminum sheathing, or steel taping. Stranding or covering machines wind material onto wire which passes through quickly. Some of the smallest machines for cotton covering have a large drum, which grips the wire and moves it through toothed gears; the wire passes through the centre of disks mounted above a long bed, and the disks carry each a number of bobbins varying from six to twelve or more in different machines. A supply of covering material is wound on each bobbin, and the end is led on to the wire, which occupies a central position relatively to the bobbins; the latter being revolved at a suitable speed bodily with their disks, the cotton is consequently served on to the wire, winding in spiral fashion so as to overlap. If many strands are required the disks are duplicated, so that as many as sixty spools may be carried, the second set of strands being laid over the first.


title: Wire

text: For heavier cables that are used for electric light and power as well as submarine cables, the machines are somewhat different in construction. The wire is still carried through a hollow shaft, but the bobbins or spools of covering material are set with their spindles at right angles to the axis of the wire, and they lie in a circular cage which rotates on rollers below. The various strands coming from the spools at various parts of the circumference of the cage all lead to a disk at the end of the hollow shaft. This disk has perforations through which each of the strands pass, thence being immediately wrapped on the cable, which slides through a bearing at this point. Toothed gears having certain definite ratios are used to cause the winding drum for the cable and the cage for the spools to rotate at suitable relative speeds which do not vary. The cages are multiplied for stranding with many tapes or strands, so that a machine may have six bobbins on one cage and twelve on the other.


title: Wire

text: Solid wire, also called solid-core or single-strand wire, consists of one piece of metal wire. Solid wire is useful for wiring breadboards. Solid wire is cheaper to manufacture than stranded wire and is used where there is little need for flexibility in the wire. Solid wire also provides mechanical ruggedness; and, because it has relatively less surface area which is exposed to attack by corrosives, protection against the environment.


title: Wire

text: Stranded wire is composed of a number of small wires bundled or wrapped together to form a larger conductor. Stranded wire is more flexible than solid wire of the same total cross-sectional area. Stranded wire is used when higher resistance to metal fatigue is required. Such situations include connections between circuit boards in multi-printed-circuit-board devices, where the rigidity of solid wire would produce too much stress as a result of movement during assembly or servicing; A.C. line cords for appliances; musical instrument cables; computer mouse cables; welding electrode cables; control cables connecting moving machine parts; mining machine cables; trailing machine cables; and numerous others. At high frequencies, current travels near the surface of the wire because of the "skin effect", resulting in increased power loss in the wire. Stranded wire might seem to reduce this effect, since the total surface area of the strands is greater than the surface area of the equivalent solid wire, but ordinary stranded wire does not reduce the skin effect because all the strands are short-circuited together and behave as a single conductor. A stranded wire will have higher resistance than a solid wire of the same diameter because the cross-section of the stranded wire is not all copper; there are unavoidable gaps between the strands (this is the circle packing problem for circles within a circle). A stranded wire with the same cross-section of conductor as a solid wire is said to have the same equivalent gauge and is always a larger diameter. However, for many high-frequency applications, "proximity effect" is more severe than skin effect, and in some limited cases, simple stranded wire can reduce proximity effect. For better performance at high frequencies, litz wire, which has the individual strands insulated and twisted in special patterns, may be used.


title: Wire

text: The more individual wire strands in a wire bundle, the more flexible, kink-resistant, break-resistant, and stronger the wire becomes. However, more strands increases manufacturing complexity and cost. For geometrical reasons, the lowest number of strands usually seen is 7: one in the middle, with 6 surrounding it in close contact. The next level up is 19, which is another layer of 12 strands on top of the 7. After that the number varies, but 37 and 49 are common, then in the 70 to 100 range (the number is no longer exact). Larger numbers than that are typically found only in very large cables. For application where the wire moves, 19 is the lowest that should be used (7 should only be used in applications where the wire is placed and then does not move), and 49 is much better. For applications with constant repeated movement, such as assembly robots and headphone wires, 70 to 100 is mandatory . For applications that need even more flexibility, even more strands are used (welding cables are the usual example, but also any application that needs to move wire in tight areas). One example is a 2/0 wire made from 5,292 strands of No. 36 gauge wire. The strands are organized by first creating a bundle of 7 strands. Then 7 of these bundles are put together into super bundles. Finally 108 super bundles are used to make the final cable. Each group of wires is wound in a helix so that when the wire is flexed, the part of a bundle that is stretched moves around the helix to a part that is compressed to allow the wire to have less stress.


title: Wire

text: Prefused wire is stranded wire made up of strands that are heavily tinned, then fused together. Prefused wire has many of the properties of solid wire, except it is less likely to break.


title: Wire

text: A braided wire consists of a number of small strands of wire braided together. Braided wires do not break easily when flexed. Braided wires are often suitable as an electromagnetic shield in noise-reduction cables.


title: Wire

text: Wire has many uses. It forms the raw material of many important manufacturers, such as the wire netting industry, engineered springs, wire-cloth making and wire rope spinning, in which it occupies a place analogous to a textile fiber. Wire-cloth of all degrees of strength and fineness of mesh is used for sifting and screening machinery, for draining paper pulp, for window screens, and for many other purposes. Vast quantities of aluminium, copper, nickel and steel wire are employed for telephone and data cables, and as conductors in electric power transmission, and heating. It is in no less demand for fencing, and much is consumed in the construction of suspension bridges, and cages, etc. In the manufacture of stringed musical instruments and scientific instruments, wire is again largely used. Carbon and stainless spring steel wire have significant applications in engineered springs for critical automotive or industrial manufactured parts/components. Pin and hairpin making; the needle and fish-hook industries; nail, peg, and rivet making; and carding machinery consume large amounts of wire as feedstock.


title: Wire

text: Not all metals and metallic alloys possess the physical properties necessary to make useful wire. The metals must in the first place be ductile and strong in tension, the quality on which the utility of wire principally depends. The principal metals suitable for wire, possessing almost equal ductility, are platinum, silver, iron, copper, aluminium, and gold; and it is only from these and certain of their alloys with other metals, principally brass and bronze, that wire is prepared.


title: Wire

text: By careful treatment, extremely thin wire can be produced. Special purpose wire is however made from other metals (e.g. tungsten wire for light bulb and vacuum tube filaments, because of its high melting temperature). Copper wires are also plated with other metals, such as tin, nickel, and silver to handle different temperatures, provide lubrication, and provide easier stripping of rubber insulation from copper.


title: Wire

text: Metallic wires are often used for the lower-pitched sound-producing "strings" in stringed instruments, such as violins, cellos, and guitars, and percussive string instruments such as pianos, dulcimers, dobros, and cimbaloms. To increase the mass per unit length (and thus lower the pitch of the sound even further), the main wire may sometimes be helically wrapped with another, finer strand of wire. Such musical strings are said to be "overspun"; the added wire may be circular in cross-section ("round-wound"), or flattened before winding ("flat-wound").


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Cholesteatoma is a destructive and expanding growth consisting of keratinizing squamous epithelium in the middle ear and/or mastoid process. Cholesteatomas are not cancerous as the name may suggest, but can cause significant problems because of their erosive and expansile properties. This can result in the destruction of the bones of the middle ear (ossicles), as well as growth through the base of the skull into the brain. They often become infected and can result in chronically draining ears. Treatment almost always consists of surgical removal.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Other more common conditions (e.g. otitis externa) may also present with these symptoms, but cholesteatoma is much more serious and should not be overlooked. If a patient presents to a doctor with ear discharge and hearing loss, the doctor should consider cholesteatoma until the disease is definitely excluded.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Other less common symptoms (all less than 15%) of cholesteatoma may include pain, balance disruption, tinnitus, earache, headaches and bleeding from the ear. There can also be facial nerve weakness. Balance symptoms in the presence of a cholesteatoma raise the possibility that the cholesteatoma is eroding the balance organs in the inner ear.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Doctors' initial inspections may only reveal an ear canal full of discharge. Until the doctor has cleaned the ear and inspected the entire tympanic membrane, cholesteatoma cannot be diagnosed.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Once the debris is cleared, cholesteatoma can give rise to a number of appearances. If there is significant inflammation, the tympanic membrane may be partially obscured by an aural polyp. If there is less inflammation, the cholesteatoma may present the appearance of 'semolina' discharging from a defect in the tympanic membrane. The posterior and superior parts of the tympanic membrane are most commonly affected. If the cholesteatoma has been dry, the cholesteatoma may present the appearance of 'wax over the attic'. The attic is just above the eardrum.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: If untreated, a cholesteatoma can eat into the three small bones located in the middle ear (the "malleus", "incus" and "stapes", collectively called ossicles), which can result in nerve deterioration, deafness, imbalance and vertigo. It can also affect and erode, through the enzymes it produces, the thin bone structure that isolates the top of the ear from the brain, as well as lay the covering of the brain open to infection with serious complications (rarely even death due to brain abscess and sepsis).


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Both the acquired as well as the congenital types of the disease can affect the facial nerve that extends from the brain to the face and passes through the inner and middle ear and leaves at the anterior tip of the mastoid bone, and then rises to the front of the ear and extends into the upper and lower face.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Cholesteatomas occur in two basic classifications: Acquired cholesteatomas, which are more common, are usually caused by pathological alteration of the ear drum leading to accumulation of keratin within the middle ear. Congenital cholesteatomas are usually middle ear epidermal cysts that are identified deep within an intact ear drum.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Keratin-filled cysts that grow medial to the tympanic membrane are considered to be congenital if they fulfill the following criteria (Levenson's criteria):


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Congenital cholesteatomas occur at three important sites: the middle ear, the petrous apex, and the cerebropontinio angle. They are most often found deep to the anterior aspect of the ear drum, and a vestigial structure, the epidermoid formation, from which congenital cholesteatoma may originate, has been identified in this area.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Not all middle ear epidermal cysts are congenital, as they can be acquired either by metaplasia of the middle ear mucosa or by traumatic implantation of ear canal or tympanic membrane skin. In addition, cholesteatoma inadvertently left by a surgeon usually regrows as an epidermal cyst. Some authors have also suggested hereditary factors.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: More commonly, keratin accumulates in a pouch of tympanic membrane which extends into the middle ear space. This abnormal folding or 'retraction' of the tympanic membrane arises in one of the following ways:


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Cholesteatoma may also arise as a result of metaplasia of the middle ear mucosa or implantation following trauma.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Cholesteatoma is diagnosed by a medical doctor by physical examination of the ear. A CT scan may help to rule out other, often more serious causes for the patient's clinical presentation. Non-ionizing radiation imaging techniques (MRI) may be suitable to replace a CT scan, if determined necessary by a physician.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Cholesteatoma is a persistent disease. Once the diagnosis of cholesteatoma is made in a patient who can tolerate a general anesthetic, the standard treatment is to surgically remove the growth.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: The challenge of cholesteatoma surgery is to permanently remove the cholesteatoma whilst retaining or reconstructing the normal functions of the structures housed within the temporal bone.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: The general objective of cholesteatoma surgery has two parts. It is both directed against the underlying pathology and directed towards maintaining the normal functions of the temporal bone. These aims are conflicting and this makes cholesteatoma surgery extremely challenging.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Sometimes, the situation results in a clash of surgical aims. The need to fully remove a progressive disease like cholesteatoma is the surgeon's first priority. Preservation of hearing is secondary to this primary aim. If the disease can be removed easily so that there is no increased risk of residual disease, then the ossicles may be preserved. If the disease is difficult to remove, so that there is an increased risk of residual disease, then removal of involved ossicles in order to fully clear cholesteatoma has generally been regarded as necessary and reasonable.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: In other words, the aims of cholesteatoma treatment form a hierarchy. The paramount objective is the complete removal of cholesteatoma. The remaining objectives, such as hearing preservation, are subordinate to the need for complete removal of cholesteatoma. This hierarchy of aims has led to the development of a wide range of strategies for the treatment of cholesteatoma.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: The variation in technique in cholesteatoma surgery results from each surgeon's judgment whether to retain or remove certain structures housed within the temporal bone in order to facilitate the removal of cholesteatoma. This typically involves some form of mastoidectomy which may or may not involve removing the posterior ear canal wall and the ossicles.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Removal of the canal wall facilitates the complete clearance of cholesteatoma from the temporal bone in three ways:


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Thus removal of the canal wall provides one of the most effective strategies for achieving the primary aim of cholesteatoma surgery, the complete removal of cholesteatoma. However, there is a trade-off, since the functional impact of canal wall removal is also important.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: The formation of a mastoid cavity by removal of the canal wall is the simplest and most effective procedure for facilitating the removal of cholesteatoma, but may bestow the most lasting infirmity due to loss of ear function upon the patient treated in this way.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Clearly, preservation and restoration of ear function at the same time as total removal of cholesteatoma requires a high level of surgical expertise.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Traditionally, ear surgery has been performed using the surgical microscope. The direct line of view dictated by that approach necessitates using the mastoid as the access port to the middle ear. It has long been recognized that failure in cholesteatoma surgery occurs in some of the out of view spaces of the tympanic cavity like the "sinus tympani" and facial recess that are out of view using the traditional microscopic technique. More recently, the endoscope has been increasingly utilized in the surgical management of cholesteatoma in one of two ways:


title: Cholesteatoma

text: It is important that the patient attend periodic follow-up checks, because even after careful microscopic surgical removal, cholesteatomas may recur. Such recurrence may arise many years, or even decades, after treatment.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: A 'residual cholesteatoma' may develop if the initial surgery failed to completely remove the original; residual cholesteatomas typically become evident within the first few years after the initial surgery.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: A 'recurrent cholesteatoma' is a new cholesteatoma that develops when the underlying causes of the initial cholesteatoma are still present. Such causes can include, for example, poor Eustachian tube function, which results in retraction of the ear drum, and failure of the normal outward migration of skin.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: In a retrospective study of 345 patients with middle ear cholesteatoma operated on by the same surgeon, the overall 5-year recurrence rate was 11.8%. In a different study with a mean follow-up period of 7.3 years, the recurrence rate was 12.3%, with the recurrence rate being higher in children than in adults. The use of the endoscope as an ancillary instrument has been shown to reduce the incidence of residual cholesteatoma. Although more studies are needed, so far, new techniques addressing underlying Eustachian tube dysfunction such as transtympanic dilatation of the Eustachian tube has not been shown to change outcomes of chronic ear surgery.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: Recent findings indicate that the keratinizing squamous epithelium of the middle ear could be subjected to human papillomavirus infection. Indeed, DNA belonging to oncogenic HPV16 has been detected in cholesteatoma tissues, thereby underlining that keratinizing squamous epithelia could potentially be a target tissue for HPV infection.


title: Cholesteatoma

text: In one study, the number of new cases of cholesteatoma in Iowa was estimated in 1975–76 to be just under one new case per 10,000 citizens per year. Cholesteatoma affects all age groups, from infants through to the elderly. The peak incidence occurs in the second decade.


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: American Buffalo is a 1975 play by American playwright David Mamet that had its premiere in a showcase production at the Goodman Theatre, Chicago. After two additional showcase productions, it opened on Broadway in 1977.


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: Act I takes place at about 11 a.m. Don, who owns the junk shop where the entire play takes place, has sold a buffalo nickel to a customer for $90 but now suspects it is worth considerably more. He and his young gofer, Bob (sometimes called Bobby), plan to steal the coin back. Bob has been keeping watch on the customer's house and reports that he has left for the weekend with a suitcase. Teach, a poker buddy of Don's, arrives and learns of the scheme. He persuades Don that Bob is too inexperienced and untrustworthy for the burglary, and proposes himself as Bob's replacement. Teach suggests they steal the whole coin collection and more. Don insists on their poker buddy Fletcher going with Teach. Teach continues to argue that he can do the job without Fletcher.


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: Act II takes place a little before midnight on the same day. Teach and Don make final preparations for the burglary while waiting for Fletcher, who is late. Teach tells Don that Fletcher is a liar and a cheater at cards, and prepares to go commit the burglary on his own. Don tries to persuade him not to take his gun with him when Bob appears at the store. He attempts to sell Don a buffalo nickel, similar to the one Don had sold the customer. When asked where he got the coin, Bob is evasive. Teach suspects that Bob and Fletcher have organized and completed their own burglary behind Don and Teach's backs. He asks Bob where Fletcher is. Bob tells him that Fletcher was mugged by "some Mexicans" and is in a hospital, but when Don calls the hospital, they have no record of his admission. Bob claims that he must have been mistaken about the name of the hospital, but the suspicious Teach strikes him on the head with a metal object. Another friend calls, corroborating Bob's story and naming the correct hospital. Don calls the hospital and confirms that Fletcher has been admitted with a broken jaw. Bob confesses that he made up the story about the customer leaving with a suitcase, and that he bought the second nickel from a coin dealer in order to make up with Don for his failure to keep tabs on the customer. Don admonishes Teach for wounding Bob and orders him to get his car so they can take him to the hospital.


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: As is emblematic of Mamet's writing style, the play's dialogue is sometimes terse and often vulgar. Teach says "cunt" numerous times and both Don and Teach say "fuck" even more. Racial slurs are also used. By way of contrast, the younger character Bobby only says "fuck" in situations of extreme duress: immediately after being beaten and his final apology to Donny. Mamet's profanity is not employed for shock value, but is rather an integral component of his characters' "profane poetry", which, according to frequent collaborator Gregory Mosher, "worked the iambic pentameter out of the vernacular of the underclass." The characters' sometimes vulgar lexicon, moreover, may be seen as psychologically necessary armor against their brutal environment.


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: "American Buffalo" opened in Chicago at the Goodman Theatre Stage II on November 23, 1975, directed by Gregory Mosher with a cast that featured William H. Macy (Bobby), Bernard Erhard (Teach), and J.J. Johnston (Donny).


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: The play premiered Off-Broadway at the Theatre at St. Clement's Church on January 26, 1976 and closed on February 7, 1976. Directed by Gregory Mosher, the cast featured Mike Kellin (Teach), Michael Egan (Donny) and J. T. Walsh (Bobby).


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: The play premiered on Broadway at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre on February 8, 1977 in previews, officially on February 16, 1977, and closed on June 11, 1977 after 122 performances. Directed by Ulu Grosbard, the cast featured Robert Duvall (Teach), Kenneth McMillan (Donny), and John Savage (Bobby). Sets were by Santo Loquasto and lighting by Jules Fisher.


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: The play was produced again Off-Broadway at the Circle in the Square (Downtown) in June 1981, starring Al Pacino as Teach, Thomas Waites (Bobby) and Clifton James (Donny) and directed by Arvin Brown. This production ran at the Long Wharf Theater, New Haven, Connecticut, in 1980.


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: The play was revived on Broadway at the Booth Theatre, running from October 20, 1983 (previews) to February 4, 1984. Directed by Arvin Brown, the cast starred Al Pacino (Walter Cole, called Teach), James Hayden (Bobby) and J. J. Johnston (Donny Dubrow). The production was nominated for the 1984 Tony Award, Revival (Play or Musical), and Pacino was nominated for the 1984 Drama Desk Award, Outstanding Actor in a Play. During the November 8 performance of this run, Hayden received a standing ovation for his performance; six hours later, he died of a heroin overdose while on the phone with his estranged wife while in his Upper West Side apartment. He was replaced by his understudy, John Shepard.


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: The play was presented at the Donmar Warehouse, London, from January 28, 2000 to February 26, starring William H. Macy (Teach), Philip Baker Hall (Donny) and Mark Webber (Bobby), directed by Neil Pepe. This production transferred to Off-Broadway at the Atlantic Theatre Company in March 2000 and closed on May 21, 2000. (Mamet and Macy are co-founders of the Atlantic Theatre Company.)


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: Another production was in April/May 2002 at Royal Exchange, Manchester, directed by Greg Hersov. It featured Mike McShane as Donny, Ben Keaton as Teach, and Paul Popplewell as Bobby. Ben Keaton won Best Actor and Paul Popplewell was nominated for Best Supporting Actor at the Manchester Theatre Awards (M.E.N.) & TV Awards.


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: The play was revived on Broadway in 2008 and starred Cedric the Entertainer, Haley Joel Osment, and John Leguizamo, but it closed after eight performances.


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: The play was produced at Wyndham's Theatre in the West End, London, directed by Daniel Evans and starring John Goodman as Donny, Damian Lewis as Teach, and Tom Sturridge as Bobby. The show ran from 17 April to 27 June 2015.


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: Another revival on Broadway, directed by Neil Pepe and starring Laurence Fishburne, Sam Rockwell and Darren Criss at the Circle in the Square Theatre was set to begin previews in March 2020 with an official opening on April 14, but the show suspended production due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In October 2021, it was reported that the production would begin previews on March 22, 2022 with an official opening set for April 14. In the end, the production with the aforementioned cast & director began a 16-week run on March 22, 2022 with a final performance set for July 10, 2022. Sam Rockwell was nominated for a 2022 Tony Award for Best Lead Actor in a play for his performance as Teach.


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: Critic Frank Rich, in reviewing the 1983 production for "The New York Times", called it "one of the best American plays of the last decade." Rich had previously reviewed the 1981 Off-Broadway production, calling the play "brilliant", and noting: "The play, though, is the thing. Working with the tiniest imaginable vocabulary — words like "nothing", "great", and "no", as well as those of four letters — Mr. Mamet creates a subterranean world with its own nonliterate comic beat, life-and death struggles, pathos and even affection... In "American Buffalo," he has created a deceptively small-scale tragedy that is packed with the power to explode the largest of American myths."


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: The 1975 production won the Obie Award, Best New Play and Performance (Mike Kellin). The production won the 1977 New York Drama Critics' Circle Award, Best American Play.


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: The 1977 Broadway production was nominated for two Tony Awards: Best Direction of a Play and Best Scenic Design (Santo Loquasto). It received four Drama Desk Award nominations, including Outstanding New Play (American), and won for Outstanding Set Design.


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: The 1983 revival was nominated for the Tony Award, Best Revival and the Drama Desk Award, Outstanding Actor in a Play (Pacino).


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: The 2022 revival was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Revival of a Play, Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play (Sam Rockwell), Best Direction of a Play (Neil Pepe), Best Scenic Design of a Play (Scott Pask).


title: American Buffalo (play)

text: The play was also adapted to a 1996 film, with Dennis Franz (Don), Dustin Hoffman (Teach), and Sean Nelson (Bobby).


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot is a 1992 American buddy cop action black comedy film directed by Roger Spottiswoode and starring Sylvester Stallone and Estelle Getty. The film was released in the United States on February 21, 1992. The film received highly negative reviews upon release but grossed $70.6 million worldwide.


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: The film is generally considered a lesser film in Stallone’s catalog. In 2006, in response to a question about the films Stallone wished he had not done, this film was the first one he mentioned.


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: Sergeant Joseph Andrew Bomowski (Sylvester Stallone) is a tough cop. His seemingly frail mother Tutti (Estelle Getty) comes to stay with him and progressively interferes in his life, driving him crazy.


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: After cleaning his gun with bleach and finding out she ruined it, Tutti buys him an illegal MAC-10 machine pistol, and witnesses the murder of one of the men who sold her the gun. Tutti is taken to the police station to give a statement, and starts poking around in Joe's cases. She learns the gun she purchased was part of a collection taken from a burned building, and the gun insurance money was received.


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: On her way back home, Tutti recognizes a man at the airport. He flees when she and Joe follow him, and Tutti remembers she saw him on "America's Most Wanted" for shooting his mother.


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: Sylvester Stallone famously signed on to the film based solely on Arnold Schwarzenegger claiming that he was interested in the lead. In October 2017, Schwarzenegger confirmed the rumor that, knowing the script was "really bad", he had publicly faked interest in starring for producers to lure Stallone.


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: The film brought in $28.4 million in the US and over $42.2 million internationally for a total of $70.6 million worldwide.


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: The film has a 14% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 29 reviews. The critical consensus reads: "Thoroughly witless and thuddingly unfunny, "Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot" gives its mismatched stars very little to work with - and as a result, they really don't work." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: Rita Kempley of "The Washington Post" called it "" but stated that "the concept is actually better for Stallone than the premises of his earlier awful romps, "Rhinestone" and "Oscar."" Clifford Terry wrote in the "Chicago Tribune" that the film "plays like an extended sitcom-perhaps four episodes of "She's the Sheriff"" and also that "About two-thirds into "Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot," Sylvester Stallone actually delivers the title line. That's how numbingly awful this is. Give it half a star for being in focus." Michael Wilmington of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that the film seemed like Stallone's response to Schwarzenegger's turn to comedies like "Kindergarten Cop" and added, "This is another 'high-concept' marketing hook job—a slick, slow-witted, shiny, 100% predictable movie—and the scriptwriters ... don't have anything richer on their minds than the usual feisty mother-son gags."


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: Both Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert disliked the film and both gave it a thumbs down in their onscreen review of the film. Ebert said it was "one of the worst movies he'd ever seen"; in his newspaper review (in which he awarded half of one star out of four), Ebert labeled it as "one of those movies so dimwitted, so utterly lacking in even the smallest morsel of redeeming value, that you stare at the screen in stunned disbelief. It is moronic beyond comprehension, an exercise in desperation during which even Sylvester Stallone, a repository of self-confidence, seems to be disheartened." Siskel gave the film zero stars out of four and stated that if the script had been submitted to the staff of "The Golden Girls", which co-starred Getty, it "would be summarily dismissed as too flimsy for a half-hour sitcom. There is not one laugh nor surprising moment to be found, starting with the scene where Stallone and Getty happen upon a jumper atop a building and Getty manages to bring the man down safely using a bullhorn."


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: Sylvester Stallone has stated that "Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot" was the worst film he had ever starred in. He told Ain't It Cool News that it was "maybe one of the worst films in the entire solar system, including alien productions we’ve never seen", that "a flatworm could write a better script", and "in some countries – China, I believe – running [the movie] once a week on government television has lowered the birth rate to zero. If they ran it twice a week, I believe in twenty years China would be extinct."


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: Later Stallone said: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot was supposed to be like Throw Momma From the Train with the mom as this really nasty piece of work. Instead you hire the nicest woman in Hollywood, Estelle Getty, who you wish was your mother. That’s the end of that! Also, I had heard Schwarzenegger was going to do that movie and I said, “I’m going to beat him to it.” I think he set me up.


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: It was the recipient of three Golden Raspberry Awards: Stallone as Worst Actor, Getty as Worst Supporting Actress, and Worst Screenplay.


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: The film was mentioned when Stallone hosted an episode of "Saturday Night Live" in 1997; in one particular skit, Stallone comes across someone in a terrible car accident (Norm Macdonald) who does not like any of his work and ridicules his films. As he lies dying, he mutters something quietly that only Stallone can hear, and when a passerby (Will Ferrell) asks what he said, Stallone is reluctant to say it until he is grilled some more, at which point he virulently yells "He said "Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot"...SUCKED!"


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: The title of "The Simpsons" episode "Stop! Or My Dog Will Shoot" is a reference to the film. That episode involves the Simpsons' dog joining the Springfield Police Force after saving Homer from a corn maze.


title: Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot

text: In "Mortal Kombat 11", during a pre-match dialogue exchange between John Rambo (voiced by Stallone) and Cassie Cage, Cassie references the film's title.


title: HM Treasury

text: His Majesty's Treasury (HM Treasury), occasionally referred to as the Exchequer, or more informally the Treasury, is a department of His Majesty's Government responsible for developing and executing the government's public finance policy and economic policy. The Treasury maintains the Online System for Central Accounting and Reporting (OSCAR), the replacement for the Combined Online Information System (COINS), which itemises departmental spending under thousands of category headings, and from which the Whole of Government Accounts (WGA) annual financial statements are produced.


title: HM Treasury

text: The origins of the Treasury of England have been traced by some to an individual known as Henry the Treasurer, a servant to King William the Conqueror. This claim is based on an entry in the Domesday Book showing the individual Henry "the treasurer" as a landowner in Winchester, where the royal treasure was stored.


title: HM Treasury

text: The Treasury of the United Kingdom thus traces its origins to the Treasury of the Kingdom of England, which had come into existence by 1126, in the reign of King Henry I. The Treasury emerged from the Royal Household. It was where the king kept his treasures. The head of the Treasury was called the Lord Treasurer.


title: HM Treasury

text: Starting in Tudor times, the Lord Treasurer became one of the chief officers of state, and competed with the Lord Chancellor for the principal place. In 1667, King Charles II was responsible for appointing George Downing, the builder of Downing Street, to radically reform the Treasury and the collection of taxes.


title: HM Treasury

text: The Treasury was first put in commission (placed under the control of several people instead of only one) in May or June 1660. The first commissioners were the Duke of Albemarle, Lord Ashley, (Sir) W. Coventry, (Sir) J. Duncomb, and (Sir) T. Clifford. After 1714, the Treasury was always in commission. The commissioners were referred to as the Lords of the Treasury and were given a number based on their seniority. Eventually the First Lord of the Treasury came to be seen as the natural head of government, and from Robert Walpole on, the holder of the office began to be known, unofficially, as the Prime Minister. Until 1827, the First Lord of the Treasury, when a commoner, also held the office of Chancellor of the Exchequer, while if the First Lord was a peer, the Second Lord usually served as Chancellor. Since 1827, however, the Chancellor of the Exchequer has always been Second Lord of the Treasury.


title: HM Treasury

text: During the time when the Treasury was under commission, the junior Lords were each paid £1,600 a year.


title: HM Treasury

text: Some of the government whips are also associated in name with the Treasury: the Chief Whip is nominally Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury and traditionally had an office in 12 Downing Street. Some of the other whips are nominally Lords Commissioners of the Treasury, though they are all members of the House of Commons. Being a whip is a party, rather than a government, position; the appointments to the Treasury are sinecure positions which allow the whips to be paid ministerial salaries. This has led to the Government front bench in the Commons being known as the Treasury Bench. However, since the whips no longer have any effective ministerial roles in the Treasury, they are usually not listed as Treasury ministers.


title: HM Treasury

text: The position of Permanent Secretary to the Treasury is generally regarded as the second most influential in the British Civil Service; two recent incumbents have gone on to be Cabinet Secretary, the only post outranking it.


title: HM Treasury

text: As of October 2022 the Second Permanent Secretaries are Cat Little and Beth Russell. Between 2007 and 2010, the post of Head of the Government Economic Service (GES) was held jointly by the Managing Director of Macroeconomic and Fiscal Policy in HM Treasury, Dave Ramsden, and Vicky Pryce, Chief Economist in the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. Ramsden is now sole Head of the GES. The previous Head of the GES was Sir Nick Stern. Management support for GES members is provided by the Economists in Government team, which is located in HM Treasury's building.


title: HM Treasury

text: The Treasury publishes cross-government guidance including "Managing Public Money" and "The Green Book: Central Government Guidance on appraisal and evaluation", current version dated 2020. "Managing Public Money" includes a definition of "value for money": The "Green Book" includes the historic five case model, which requires consideration of the policy, economic, commercial, financial and management dimensions of a proposed project.


title: HM Treasury

text: Banknotes in the UK are normally issued by the Bank of England and a number of commercial banks (see Banknotes of the pound sterling). At the start of the First World War, the Currency and Bank Notes Act 1914 was passed, giving the Treasury temporary powers to issue banknotes in two denominations, one at £1 and another at 10 shillings, in the UK. Treasury notes had full legal tender status and were not convertible for gold through the Bank of England. They replaced the gold coin in circulation to prevent a run on sterling and to enable purchases of raw materials for armaments production. These notes featured an image of King George V (Bank of England notes did not begin to display an image of the monarch until 1960). The wording on each note was "UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND — Currency notes are Legal Tender for the payment of any amount — Issued by the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury under the Authority of Act of Parliament (4 & 5 Geo. V c.14)". Notes issued after the partition of Ireland from 1922 had the wording changed to read "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland".


title: HM Treasury

text: The promise (never adhered to) was that they would be removed from circulation after the war had ended. In fact, the notes were issued until 1928, when the Currency and Bank Notes Act 1928 returned note-issuing powers to the banks.


title: HM Treasury

text: The Treasury Main Building at 1 Horse Guards Road, often referred to as the Government Offices, Great George Street (GOGGS), was designed by John Brydon following a competition. Construction took place in two phases. The West end was completed in 1908 and the East end was completed in 1917. It was originally built as offices for the Board of Education, the Local Government Board, and the Ministry of Works Office; HM Treasury moved into the building in 1940. A major refurbishment of the building was procured under a Private Finance Initiative contract in 2000. The works, which were designed by Foster and Partners together with Feilden and Mawson and carried out by Bovis Lend Lease at a cost of £140 million, were completed in 2002.


title: Joe Louis Clark

text: Joe Louis Clark (May 8, 1937 – December 29, 2020) was the principal of Eastside High School in Paterson, New Jersey. He is also the subject of the 1989 film "Lean on Me", starring Morgan Freeman. Clark gained public attention in the 1980s for his unconventional and controversial disciplinary measures as the principal of Eastside High.


title: Joe Louis Clark

text: Clark was born in Rochelle, Georgia on May 8, 1937. At the age of 6, Clark and his family moved to Newark, New Jersey where he would later graduate from Central High School. He went on to receive a bachelor's degree from William Paterson College, a master's degree from Seton Hall University, and an honorary doctorate from the U.S. Sports Academy. Clark was a Sergeant in the US Army Reserve, where he was assigned as a drill sergeant. He was selected for "honoris causa" membership in Omicron Delta Kappa in 1997 at SUNY Plattsburgh.


title: Joe Louis Clark

text: Clark was seen as an educator who was not afraid to get tough on difficult students, one who would often carry a bullhorn or a baseball bat at school. During his time as principal, Clark expelled over 300 students who were frequently tardy or absent from school, sold or used drugs in school, or caused trouble in school. Though some argue that his tough practices turned the school around, the data does not support that conclusion. "While math scores are up 6% during Clark's reign, reading scores have barely budged: they remain in the bottom third of the nation's high school seniors. While a few more students are going to college -- 211, up from 182 in 1982 -- Clark has lost considerable ground in the battle against dropouts: when he arrived, Eastside's rate was 13%; now [in 1988] it is 21%." After his tenure as principal of Eastside High, Clark later served as director of the Essex County Detention House in Newark, New Jersey, a juvenile detention facility.


title: Joe Louis Clark

text: "Time" magazine's cover article notes that Clark's style as principal was primarily disciplinarian in nature, focused on encouraging school pride and good behavior, although Clark was also portrayed as a former social activist in the film "Lean on Me". "Clark's use of force may rid the school of unwanted students," commented Boston principal Thomas P. O'Neill Jr., "but he also may be losing kids who might succeed." George McKenna, former principal of Washington Preparatory High School in Los Angeles, often cited as a contemporary of Joe Clark as a school reformer with a similarly outgoing approach, was also critical. "Our role is to rescue and to be responsible," McKenna told "Time". "If the students were not poor black children, Joe Clark would not be tolerated."


title: Joe Louis Clark

text: Other educators defended and praised Clark. "You cannot use a democratic and collaborative style when crisis is rampant and disorder reigns," said Kenneth Tewel, a former principal. "You need an autocrat to bring things under control." Some critics focused on the fact that while Clark had reestablished cleanliness and order, education scores had not substantially improved, which resulted in Eastside High being taken over by the state one year after Clark's departure in 1991.


title: Joe Louis Clark

text: Separate criticism focused on the social impact of expelling delinquent students to improve test scores, claiming that "tossing out the troublesome low achievers" simply moved the problems from the school onto the street. Clark defended the practice, saying teachers should not have to waste their time on students who do not want to learn; however, "Time" noted that the national dropout rate for such students remained high across the country and, with few alternatives available, each inner city school that had been able to reverse the trend had done so through "a bold, enduring principal" such as Clark. Further, he was "able to maintain or restore order without abandoning the students who are in trouble."


title: Joe Louis Clark

text: Clark was the father of Olympic track athletes, daughters Joetta Clark Diggs and Hazel Clark, and J.J. Clark, his son, who is a track coach. He was also the father-in-law of Olympic track athlete Jearl Miles Clark.


title: Joe Louis Clark

text: He resided in Newberry, Florida during his retirement. Clark died following a long illness on December 29, 2020, at the age of 83.


title: Social relation

text: A social relation or also described as a social interaction or social experience is the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences, and describes any voluntary or involuntary interpersonal relationship between two or more individuals within and/or between groups. The group can be a language or kinship group, a social institution or organization, an economic class, a nation, or gender. Social relations are derived from human behavioral ecology, and, as an aggregate, form a coherent social structure whose constituent parts are best understood relative to each other and to the ecosystem as a whole.


title: Social relation

text: Fundamental inquiries into the nature of social relations feature in the work of sociologists such as Max Weber in his theory of social action. Social relationships are composed of both positive (affiliative) and negative (agonistic) interactions, representing opposing effects. Categorizing social interactions enables observational and other social research, such as Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (lit. 'community and society'), collective consciousness, etc.


title: Social relation

text: According to Piotr Sztompka, forms of relation and interaction in sociology and anthropology may be described as follows: first and most basic are animal-like behaviors, i.e. various physical movements of the body. Then there are actions—movements with a meaning and purpose. Then there are social behaviors, or social actions, which address (directly or indirectly) other people, which solicit a response from another agent.


title: Social relation

text: Next are social contacts, a pair of social actions, which form the beginning of social interactions. Social interactions in turn form the basis of social relations. Symbols define social relationships. Without symbols, our social life would be no more sophisticated than that of animals. For example, without symbols people would have no aunts or uncles, employers or teachers-or even brothers and sisters. In sum, symbolic integrations analyze how social life depends on the ways people define themselves and others. They study face-to-face interaction, examining how people make sense out of life, how they determine their relationships.


title: Dana Wynter

text: Dana Wynter (born Dagmar Winter; 8 June 19315 May 2011) was a German-born British actress, who was raised in the United Kingdom and southern Africa. She appeared in film and television for more than 40 years, beginning in the 1950s. Her best-known film performance was in "Invasion of the Body Snatchers" (1956). A tall, dark, elegant beauty, she played both victim and villain. Her characters both in film and on television sometimes faced horrific dangers which they often did not survive, but she also played scheming, manipulative women on television mysteries and crime procedural dramas.


title: Dana Wynter

text: Wynter was born in Berlin, Germany, the daughter of Dr. Peter Winter, a British surgeon of German descent, and his wife Jutta Oarda, a native of Hungary.


title: Dana Wynter

text: She grew up in Britain. When she was 16, her father visited friends in Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe today), fell in love with the country, and brought his daughter and her stepmother to live with him there.


title: Dana Wynter

text: Dana Wynter (as she called herself and pronounced Donna) later enrolled at South Africa's Rhodes University in 1949. She studied medicine while also pursuing theatre, playing the blind girl in a school production of "Through a Glass Darkly", a role in which she said she had been "terrible". After a year of studies, she returned to Britain and turned to acting.


title: Dana Wynter

text: Wynter began her cinema career at age 20 in 1951, playing small roles, often uncredited, in British films. One such was "Lady Godiva Rides Again" (1951) in which other future leading ladies, Kay Kendall, Diana Dors, and Joan Collins played similarly small roles. She was appearing in the play "Hammersmith" when an American agent told her he wanted to represent her. She was again uncredited when she played Morgan Le Fay's servant in the MGM film "Knights of the Round Table" (1953).


title: Dana Wynter

text: Wynter left for New York on 5 November 1953, Guy Fawkes Day (which commemorates a failed attempt in 1605 to blow up Parliament). "There were all sorts of fireworks going off," she later told an interviewer, "and I couldn't help thinking it was a fitting send-off for my departure to the New World."


title: Dana Wynter

text: Wynter had more success in New York than in London. She appeared on the stage and on TV, where she had leading roles in "Robert Montgomery Presents" (1953), "Suspense" (1954), "Studio One" (1955), a 1963 episode of "The Virginian" ("If You Have Tears"), and a 1965 episode of "The Alfred Hitchcock Hour" ("An Unlocked Window"), which won an Edgar Award.


title: Dana Wynter

text: She moved to Hollywood, where in 1955 she was placed under contract by 20th Century Fox. In that same year, she won the Golden Globe award for Most Promising Newcomer, a title she shared with Anita Ekberg and Victoria Shaw. She graduated to playing major roles in major films. She co-starred with Kevin McCarthy, Larry Gates, and Carolyn Jones, playing Becky Driscoll in the original film version of "Invasion of the Body Snatchers" (1956).


title: Dana Wynter

text: She starred opposite Robert Taylor in "D-Day the Sixth of June" (1956), alongside Rock Hudson and Sidney Poitier in "Something of Value" (1957), Mel Ferrer in "Fräulein" (1958), Robert Wagner in "In Love and War" (1958), James Cagney and Don Murray in "Shake Hands with the Devil" (1959) and the last of her 20th Century Fox contract roles opposite Kenneth More in "Sink the Bismarck!" (1960).


title: Dana Wynter

text: She then starred opposite Danny Kaye in "On the Double" (1961), and George C. Scott in "The List of Adrian Messenger" (1963).


title: Dana Wynter

text: In shooting two films in Ireland, she made a second home there with her husband, Hollywood divorce lawyer Greg Bautzer. Over the following two decades, she guest-starred in dozens of television series, including the title character in several "Wagon Train" episodes, such as "The Barbara Lindquist Story", and in occasional roles in films such as "Airport" (1970). She appeared as various British women in the ABC television series "Twelve O'Clock High" (1964–66).


title: Dana Wynter

text: In 1966–67, she co-starred with Robert Lansing (who had been the original star of "Twelve O'Clock High") on "The Man Who Never Was", but the series lasted only one season. She guest-starred in 1968 in "The Invaders" in the episode "The Captive", and in 1969, on the second version of "The Donald O'Connor Show". On "Get Smart", "The Rockford Files", and "Hart to Hart", she played beautiful, upper-class schemers and villains.She also was on an episode of The Love Boat “Sounds of Silence “


title: Dana Wynter

text: She appeared in the Irish soap opera, "Bracken" (1978–80). In 1993, she returned to television to play Raymond Burr's wife in "The Return of Ironside".


title: Dana Wynter

text: In 1956, Wynter married celebrity divorce lawyer Greg Bautzer; they divorced in 1981. Bautzer and she had one child: Mark Ragan Bautzer, born on 29 January 1960. Wynter, once referred to as Hollywood's "oasis of elegance", divided her time between her homes in California and Glendalough, County Wicklow, Ireland. An anti-apartheid advocate, she refused to open a performance center in South Africa because she discovered that black and white children would have to attend on alternate days. She also planned to make a film criticising the policy, which was to have been written by an American and filmed in Australia.


title: Dana Wynter

text: In the late 1980s, Wynter authored the column "Grassroots" for "The Guardian" newspaper in London. Writing in both Ireland and California, her works concentrated mainly on life in both locations leading her to use the titles "Irish Eyes" and "California Eyes" for a number of her publications.


title: Dana Wynter

text: In July 2008 Wynter was involved in a legal dispute over the proceeds of the sale of a €125,000 Paul Henry painting, "Evening on Achill Sound". The painting, which hung in the family home in County Wicklow, was said to have been bought for her in 1996 by her son as a gift. The dispute was resolved in the High Court in 2009.


title: Dana Wynter

text: Wynter died on 5 May 2011 from congestive heart failure at the Ojai Valley Community Hospital's Continuing Care Center; she was 79 years old. She had suffered from heart disease in later years, and was transferred from the hospital's intensive care unit earlier in the day. Her son Mark said she was not expected to survive, and "she stepped off the bus very peacefully."


title: Chris Howard (American football)

text: Christopher L. Howard (born May 5, 1975) is a retired professional American football running back who played in the National Football League (NFL) for the Jacksonville Jaguars. Howard had been drafted by the Denver Broncos in the fifth round of the 1998 NFL Draft. His professional football career was haunted by fumble troubles, which caused the Broncos to release him before he played a regular season game for them. Howard began to have fumble problems again when the Jaguars acquired and promoted him to a role as a regular player.


title: Chris Howard (American football)

text: He had previously played for the Michigan Wolverines football team where in the 1997 NCAA Division I-A football season, his final year at Michigan, they won a national championship. Howard led the National Champion 1997 Michigan Wolverines football team in rushing and was a Hula Bowl MVP in 1998. Chris attended Louisiana high school football powerhouse, John Curtis Christian High School in River Ridge, Louisiana. He was formerly married to Gabrielle Union.


title: Chris Howard (American football)

text: Howard was born in Kenner, Louisiana. He enrolled at Michigan after playing for Louisiana High School football powerhouse John Curtis Christian High School.


title: Chris Howard (American football)

text: In four years at Michigan from 1994 to 1997, he totaled 1876 yards rushing on 418 carries and added 429 yards receiving on 60 receptions. He totaled nine 100-yard rushing efforts for Michigan including four during the 1997 championship season. In college, his biggest rushing effort was 127 yards against the Minnesota Golden Gophers in 1996. However, he once rushed for 109 yards and 4 touchdowns against the UCLA Bruins. In addition, Howard also posted the fourth longest rush in school history, an 86-yard rush.


title: Chris Howard (American football)

text: In 1996, he had five 100-yard games despite only playing in ten games as a junior. He totaled 725 yards rushing and ten touchdowns in the ten games. However, he was second on the team in rushing to sophomore Clarence Williams who tallied 837 yards in 12 games.


title: Chris Howard (American football)

text: In the 1997 championship season, he was the rushing leader for an undefeated 12–0 Michigan team that did not have a 1000-yard rusher or 500-yard receiver. The team emphasized defense behind 1997 Heisman Trophy winning defensive back Charles Woodson. Howard totaled 938 yards rushing on 199 carries and 276 yards receiving on 37 receptions. He was second on the team in scoring to placekicker Kraig Baker with 7 rushing touchdowns and 1 receiving touchdown. He was complemented in the backfield by freshman Anthony Thomas who added 549 yards and 5 rushing touchdowns.


title: Chris Howard (American football)

text: One of the key games in Michigan's 1997 National Championship season was the game against the unbeaten Penn State Nittany Lions, then ranked Number 2 in the nation. Howard rushed for 120 yards and a touchdown in the win over the Nittany Lions, prompting Coach Lloyd Carr to comment: "I think that Chris Howard is a very underrated back. He proved that today." Michigan controlled the game and led 34–0 after 3 quarters behind Howard’s best collegiate performance in terms of yards from scrimmage with 120 yards rushing and 41 yards receiving.


title: Chris Howard (American football)

text: The 1997 season concluded with a 21–16 win over Washington State in the January 1, 1998 Rose Bowl. Howard led all rushers in the game with 70 yards rushing on 19 carries.


title: Chris Howard (American football)

text: He was also the North MVP for the 1998 edition of the Hula Bowl, an invitational college football all-star game. He rushed for 116 yards on 14 carries and was involved in the culminating score in the North’s second half comeback. He handed off to Joe Jurevicius on a reverse play which ended with Jurevicius passing to Brian Griese for a five-yard touchdown pass. The North would lose, however, when the missed extra point left the door open for a game-winning field goal.


title: Chris Howard (American football)

text: Howard was selected by the Denver Broncos in the fifth round of the 1998 NFL Draft, but he had a difficult pre-season with the Broncos in 1998, fumbling five times in two games. The Broncos released him from their practice squad in September 1998, and he was signed by the Jacksonville Jaguars. At the time, Jacksonville Coach Tom Coughlin said: "Chris Howard is a young man and he certainly still is developmental. A couple weeks into our system and I think he'll be a guy who can be counted on. But I'm not going to say we're done with our evaluations just yet." Coughlin said of Howard's fumbles with Denver: "It was carelessness. Basically, we'll start from scratch with him fundamentally here." Howard had professional totals of 123 yards rushing on 41 carries and 37 yards receiving on five receptions. In 2000, his final year, he fumbled twice on only 21 carries in the first two games. These were his final two career NFL games.


title: Chris Howard (American football)

text: Chris Howard married actress Gabrielle Union on May 5, 2001. They separated in 2005 and their divorce was made final in April 2006.


title: Warli painting

text: Warli painting is a form of tribal art mostly created by the tribal people from the North Sahyadri Range in Maharashtra, India. This range encompasses cities such as Dahanu, Talasari, Jawhar, Palghar, Mokhada, and Vikramgad of Palghar district. This tribal art was originated in Maharashtra, where it is still practiced today.


title: Warli painting

text: The Warli Painting tradition in Maharashtra are among the finest examples of the folk style of paintings. The Warli tribe is one of the largest in India, located outside Mumbai . Til the 1970s, even though the tribal style of art is thought to date back as early as 10th century A.D. The Warli culture is centered on the concept of Mother Nature and elements of nature are often focal points depicted in Warli painting. Farming is their main way of life and a large source of food for the tribe. They greatly respect nature and wildlife for the resources that they provide for life. Warli artists use their clay huts as the backdrop for their paintings, similar to how ancient people used cave walls as their canvases.


title: Warli painting

text: Jivya Soma Mashe, the artist in Thane district has played a great role in making the Warli paintings more popular.


title: Warli painting

text: These rudimentary wall paintings use a set of basic geometric shapes: a circle, a triangle, and a square. These shapes are symbolic of different elements of nature. The circle and the triangle come from their observation of nature. The circle represents the sun and the moon, while the triangle depicts mountains and conical trees. In contrast, the square renders to be a human invention, indicating a sacred enclosure or a piece of land. The central motif in each ritual painting is the square, known as the "chauk" or "chaukat", mostly of two types known as "Devchauk" and "Lagnachauk". Inside a "Devchauk" is usually a depiction of "palghat", the mother goddess, symbolizing fraternity.


title: Warli painting

text: Male gods are unusual among the Warli and are frequently related to spirits which have taken human shape. The central motif in the ritual painting is surrounded by scenes portraying hunting, fishing, and farming, and trees and animals. Festivals and dances are common scenes depicted in the ritual paintings. People and animals are represented by two inverse triangles joined at their tips: the upper triangle depicts the torso and the lower triangle the pelvis. Their precarious equilibrium symbolizes the balance of the universe. The representation also has the practical and amusing advantage of animating the bodies. Another main theme of Warli art is the denotation of a triangle that is larger at the top, representing a man; and a triangle which is wider at the bottom, representing a woman. Apart from ritualistic paintings, other Warli paintings covered day-to-day activities of the village people.


title: Warli painting

text: One of the central aspects depicted in many Warli paintings is the tarpa dance. The tarpa, a trumpet-like instrument, is played in turns by different village men. Men and women entwine their hands and move in a circle around the tarpa player. The dancers then follow him, turning and moving as he turns, never turning their backs to the tarpa. The musician plays two different notes, which direct the head dancer to either move clockwise or counterclockwise. The tarpa player assumes a role similar to that of a snake charmer, and the dancers become the figurative snake. The dancers take a long turn in the audience and try to encircle them for entertainment. The circle formation of the dancers is also said to resemble the circle of life.


title: Warli painting

text: The simple pictorial language of Warli painting is matched by a rudimentary technique. The ritual paintings are usually created on the inside walls of village huts. The walls are made of a mixture of branches, earth and red brick that make a red ochre background for the paintings. The Warli only paint with a white pigment made from a mixture of rice flour and water, with gum as a binder. A bamboo stick is chewed at the end to give it the texture of a paintbrush. Walls are painted only to mark special occasions such as weddings, festivals or harvests. They make it with a sense that it can be seen by future generations.


title: Warli painting

text: The lack of regular artistic activity explains the traditional tribal sense of style for their paintings. In the 1970s, this ritual art took a radical turn when Jivya Soma Mashe and his son Balu Mashe started to paint. They painted not for ritual purposes, but because of their artistic pursuits. Jivya is known as the modern father of Warli painting. Since the 1970s, Warli painting has moved onto paper and canvas.


title: Warli painting

text: Coca-Cola India launched a campaign featuring Warli painting in order to highlight the ancient culture and represent a sense of togetherness. The campaign was called "Come Home on Deepawali" and specifically targeted the modern youth. The campaign included advertising on traditional mass media, combined with radio, the Internet, and out-of-home media.


title: Warli painting

text: Warli Painting is traditional knowledge and cultural intellectual property preserved across generations. Understanding the urgent need for intellectual property rights, the tribal non-governmental organization Adivasi Yuva Seva Sangh helped to register Warli painting with a geographical indication under the intellectual property rights act. Various efforts are in progress for strengthening sustainable economy of the Warli with social entrepreneurship.


title: Willamette Valley

text: The Willamette Valley ( ) is a long valley in Oregon, in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The Willamette River flows the entire length of the valley and is surrounded by mountains on three sides: the Cascade Range to the east, the Oregon Coast Range to the west, and the Calapooya Mountains to the south.


title: Willamette Valley

text: The valley is synonymous with the cultural and political heart of Oregon and is home to approximately 70 percent of its population including the five largest cities in the state: Portland, Eugene, Salem, Gresham, and Hillsboro.


title: Willamette Valley

text: The valley's numerous waterways, particularly the Willamette River, are vital to the economy of Oregon, as they continuously deposit highly fertile alluvial soils across its broad, flat plain. A massively productive agricultural area, the valley was widely publicized in the 1820s as a "promised land of flowing milk and honey." Throughout the 19th century, it was the destination of choice for the oxen-drawn wagon trains of emigrants who made the perilous journey along the Oregon Trail.


title: Willamette Valley

text: Today, the valley is often considered synonymous with "Oregon Wine Country," as it contains more than of vineyards and 500+ wineries.