title: Nadia Ali (singer)

text: Her first track with iiO, "Rapture" was re-released as a single from "Queen of Clubs Trilogy" with remixes by Tristan Garner, Gareth Emery and Avicii. A new music video for the track was shot based on the "Queen of Clubs" theme and released on January 24, 2011. The song peaked at No. 3 on the Romanian Top 100 chart, while charting in other European countries.


title: Nadia Ali (singer)

text: Throughout 2010, Ali's collaborations with DJs and producers were released. These included "That Day" with Dresden and Johnston, which was featured on various compilation albums. Follow-up release "The Notice" with Swiss duo Chris Reece was released on July 13. Ali was featured on the track "Feels So Good" on Armin van Buuren's fourth album "Mirage". Released as the fifth single from the album, the song was voted as the Best Trance Track at the 27th International Dance Music Awards.


title: Nadia Ali (singer)

text: During 2011, Ali announced the release of collaborations with several DJs and producers. The first of these was "Call My Name" with the duo Sultan & Ned Shepard, released by Harem Records on February 9. "Call My Name" was a club success, charting at No. 5 on "Billboard" Hot Dance Club Play Chart. The second track "Pressure", a collaboration with Starkillers and Alex Kenji was released on February 15 by Spinnin' Records. The Alesso remix of "Pressure" became a club and festival anthem and received support from notable DJs such as Armin van Buuren, Tiesto, Swedish House Mafia and Calvin Harris and was voted the Best Progressive House Track at the 27th International Dance Music Awards.


title: Nadia Ali (singer)

text: In April, iiO released the studio album "Exit 110", which featured Ali on vocals. On May 23, her next collaboration, "Free To Go" with Alex Sayz was released by Zouk Recordings. She was featured on Sander van Doorn's second studio album "Eleve11" on the track "Rolling the Dice", a collaboration between van Doorn, Sidney Samson and her. Her next release was the single "Believe It" with the German duo Spencer & Hill, which was released on October 3 by Wall Recordings. She collaborated once again with Starkillers on the single "Keep It Coming", which was released on December 26 by Spinnin' Records which reached No 1 in Beatport.


title: Nadia Ali (singer)

text: As of February 2010, Ali had begun working on her second studio album. A music video for the lead single from the album, "When It Rains", was released on her YouTube channel in August 2011.


title: Nadia Ali (singer)

text: In May 2012, Ali announced her move to Los Angeles citing the need for a change after spending 26 years in New York City.


title: Nadia Ali (singer)

text: Her first release in 2012 was "This Is Your Life", the fourth single from Swiss DJ EDX's album "On the Edge". That was followed by "Carry Me", a collaboration with Morgan Page, the fourth single from his third studio album, "In the Air". Her next release was "Must Be the Love", the lead single from BT's ninth studio album "A Song Across Wires", which was a collaboration between him, Arty and Ali. In 2012, she also pre-announced her album "Phoenix", which, as of September 2015, had not shipped.


title: Nadia Ali (singer)

text: In January 2014, Ali released an acoustic cover of The Police song "Roxanne" as a free download. In September 2015, Ali released the single "All In My Head", a collaboration with PANG!. The release was her first single as a lead artist since 2011.


title: Nadia Ali (singer)

text: In July 2017, after a hiatus of two years, Ali was featured on "Almost Home", a collaboration with Sultan & Shepard and IRO, which peaked at No.4 on Billboard Dance/Mix Show Airplay chart. The song was nominated for the Dance Recording of the Year at the 2018 Juno Awards.


title: Nadia Ali (singer)

text: Ali announced the launch of a new project titled HYLLS, with a new sound and direction, while releasing one song a month during 2018. With the project, Ali has transitioned from electronic music to an indie pop sound. Ali stated that this project was experimental and completely different from her previous work, which is why she chose to release it under a different name. She has collaborated with several Grammy-nominated producers for the project, who have chosen to remain anonymous. The first single "All Over The Place" was released in January. The second single "Linger", a cover of The Cranberries song was released on February 16. The project culminated in a studio album "Once" released in March 2019.


title: Nadia Ali (singer)

text: In August 2018, Ali gave birth to a son and revealed she suffered from postpartum depression for 5 months following his birth.


title: Nadia Ali (singer)

text: Ali is perhaps best known for her characteristic voice and vocal abilities. Reema Kumari Jadeja from MOBO described her work as "masterfully encapsulating euphoric and melancholic, Ali's signature music style sees Eastern mystique caressed with intelligent electronica and fortified with soul". The songs on "Embers" were likened to Madonna's work in her prime and a "modern re-interpretation" of Stevie Nicks. "Billboard" praised her voice for having "too much life on its own". Ali has been influenced by an eclectic mix of artists, which she credits to her Eastern background and upbringing in Queens. She listed alternative, folk, and Pakistani music as her biggest influences. Some of her vocal and songwriting influences, she said, were Stevie Nicks, Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Madonna, Sade, and Bono.


title: Nadia Ali (singer)

text: Her debut album was noted for a blend of electronica, acoustic, and Middle Eastern melodies. She has been praised for her songwriting, describing personal experiences with people, which "hit a powerful and striking chord" with the listener. After a hiatus of several years, she released new music under the title HYLLS, where while retaining her characteristic lyrical style, she chose to move toward a more indie sound, which has been compared to The xx.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: A zoster vaccine is a vaccine that reduces the incidence of herpes zoster (shingles), a disease caused by reactivation of the varicella zoster virus, which is also responsible for chickenpox. Shingles provokes a painful rash with blisters, and can be followed by chronic pain (postherpetic neuralgia), as well as other complications. Older people are more often affected, as are people with weakened immune systems (immunosuppression). Both shingles and postherpetic neuralgia can be prevented by vaccination.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: Two zoster vaccines have been approved for use in people over 50 years old. Shingrix (GSK) is a recombinant subunit vaccine which has been used in many countries since 2017. Zostavax (Merck), in use since 2006, is an attenuated vaccine which consists of a larger-than-normal dose of chickenpox vaccine. Unlike Shingrix, Zostavax is not suitable for people with immunosuppression or diseases that affect the immune system. Zostavax was discontinued in the United States in November 2020.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: Shingrix appears to prevent more cases of shingles than Zostavax, although side effects seem to be more frequent.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: Zoster vaccination is used to prevent shingles and its complications, including postherpetic neuralgia. It can be considered a therapeutic vaccine, given that it is used to treat a latent virus that has remained dormant in cells since chicken pox infection earlier in life. The two available zoster vaccines are intended for use in people over the age of 50. it remained to be confirmed whether a booster dose was required, but the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) in the United States recommends Shingrix for adults over the age of 50, including those who have already received Zostavax.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: The ACIP voted that Shingrix is preferred over Zostavax for the prevention of zoster and related complications because data showed vaccine efficacy of more than 90% against shingles across all age groups. Unlike Zostavax, which is given as a single shot, Shingrix is given as two intramuscular doses, two to six months apart. Most of the studies conducted showed efficacy to at least 4 years post-vaccination, but it is possible the vaccine may provide protection for much longer.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: A large randomized clinical trial showed Shingrix reduced the incidence of shingles 96.6% in the 50–59 age group, and 91.3% in those over age 70. The absolute decrease in risk of herpes zoster following immunization over three and a half years is 3.3% (3.54% down to 0.28%) while the decrease in the risk of postherpetic neuralgia is 0.3% (0.34% down to 0.06%).


title: Zoster vaccine

text: A Cochrane review concluded that Zostavax is "effective in preventing herpes zoster disease for up to three years". The duration of protection beyond four years after vaccination with the zoster vaccine is unknown. The need for re-vaccination remains to be confirmed.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: Zostavax was shown to reduce the incidence of shingles by 51% in a study of 38,000 adults aged 60 and older who received the vaccine. The vaccine also reduced by 67% the number of cases of postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) and reduced the severity and duration of pain and discomfort associated with shingles, by 61%. The FDA originally recommended it for individuals 60 years of age or older who are not severely allergic to any of its components and who meet the following requirements:


title: Zoster vaccine

text: In 2006, the U.S. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommended that the live vaccine be given to all adults age 60 and over, including those who have had a previous episode of shingles, and those who do not recall having had chickenpox, since more than 99% of Americans ages 40 and older have had chickenpox.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: Temporary side effects from the Shingrix shots are likely and can be severe enough in one out of six people to affect normal daily activities for up to three days. Mild to moderate pain at the injection site is common, and some may have redness or swelling. Side effects include fatigue, muscle pain, headache, shivering, fever, and nausea. Symptoms usually resolve in two to three days. Side effects with Shingrix are greater than those with Zostavax and occur more frequently in individuals aged 50 to 69 years compared with those 70 years and older.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: The live vaccine (Zostavax) is very safe; one to a few percent of people develop a mild form of chickenpox, often with about five or six blisters around the injection site, and without fever. The blisters are harmless and temporary. In one study 64% of the Zostavax group and 14% of the controls had some adverse reaction. However, the rates of serious adverse events were comparable between the Zostavax group (0.6%) and those receiving the placebo (0.5%). A study including children with leukaemia found that the risk of getting shingles after vaccination is much lower than the risk of getting shingles for children with natural chicken pox in their history. Data from healthy children and adults point in the same direction.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: Shingrix is a suspension for intramuscular injection consisting of a lyophilized recombinant varicella zoster virus glycoprotein E antigen that is reconstituted at the time of use with AS01 suspension as an immunological adjuvant. The antigen is a purified truncated form of the glycoprotein, expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. The AS01 adjuvant suspension is composed of 3-"O"-desacyl-4'-monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL) from "Salmonella" (Minnesota strain) and a saponin molecule (QS-21) purified from "Quillaja saponaria" (soap bark tree) extract, combined in a liposomal formulation consisting of dioleoyl phosphatidylcholine (DOPC) and cholesterol in phosphate-buffered saline solution.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: Zostavax contains live attenuated varicella-zoster virus. It is injected subcutaneously (under the skin) in the upper arm. The live vaccine is produced using the MRC-5 line of fetal cells. This has raised religious and ethical concerns for some potential users, since that cell line was derived from an aborted fetus.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: A 2007 study found that the live vaccine is likely to be cost-effective in the U.S., projecting an annual savings of to million in healthcare costs with cost-effectiveness ratios ranging from to per quality-adjusted life year gained. In 2007, the live vaccine was officially recommended in the U.S. for healthy adults aged 60 and over, but is now is no longer given out in the United States as of 2020, given the likely superiority of Shingrix.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: In Canada the cost of Shingrix is about for the two doses. This likely represents a more cost effective intervention than the live vaccine given its lower cost and increased effectiveness.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: In 2006, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) issued a marketing authorization for the zoster vaccine to Sanofi Pasteur for routine vaccination in individuals aged 60 and over. In 2007, the EMA updated the marketing authorization for routine vaccination in individuals aged 50 and over.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: Shingrix was approved for medical use in the European Union in March 2018, with an indication for the prevention of herpes zoster (HZ) and post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN) in adults 50 years of age or older.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: From 2013, the UK National Health Service (NHS) started offering shingles vaccination to elderly people. People aged either 70 or 79 on 1 September 2013, were offered the vaccine. People aged 71 to 78 on that date would only have an opportunity to have the shingles vaccine after reaching the age of 79. The original intention was for people aged "between" 70 and 79 to be vaccinated, but the NHS later said that the vaccination program was being staggered as it would be impractical to vaccinate everyone in their 70s in a single year.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: In 2021, vaccination against shingles is available on the NHS to people aged 70 to 79. Vaccination is with single-dose Zostavax, except for people for whom Zostavax is deemed unsuitable, for example, with a condition that affects the immune system, for whom two-dose Shingrix vaccine is recommended. The NHS stated "The shingles vaccine is not available on the NHS to anyone aged 80 or over because it seems to be less effective in this age group".


title: Zoster vaccine

text: Zostavax was developed by Merck & Co. and approved and licensed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in May 2006, In 2011, the FDA approved the live vaccine for use in individuals 50 to 59 years of age. Shingrix is a zoster vaccine developed by GlaxoSmithKline that was approved in the United States in October 2017.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: In June 2020, Merck discontinued the sale of Zostavax in the U.S. Vaccine already held by practitioners could still be administered up to the expiration date (none expired later than November 2020).


title: Zoster vaccine

text: The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that healthy adults 50 years and older get two doses of Shingrix, at least two months apart. Initial clinical trials only tested a gap of less than six months between doses, but unexpected popularity and resulting shortages caused further testing to validate wider spacing of the two doses. Shingrix, which provides strong protection against shingles and PHN, was preferred over Zostavax before Zostavax was discontinued.


title: Zoster vaccine

text: The zoster vaccine is covered by Medicare Part D. In 2019, more than 90% of Medicare Part D vaccine spending was for the zoster vaccine. 5.8 million vaccine doses were administered to Part D beneficiaries that year at a cost of $857 million.


title: Disco Shanti

text: Santha Kumari (born 28 August 1965), famously known as Disco Shanti, is an Indian actress who was particularly famous in South India for her appearances in item numbers.


title: Disco Shanti

text: She has appeared in more than 900 films in different languages of India, including Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Hindi and Odia.


title: Disco Shanti

text: Disco Shanti is the daughter of Tamil actor C. L. Anandan, who starred in many films, such as "Vijayapuri Veeran" and "Kaattumallika". She has a younger sister, actress Lalitha Kumari. She married Telugu actor Sri Hari in 1996 and stopped working in movies. The couple had two sons and a daughter. Their daughter Akshara died when she was just four months old. The family started the Akshara Foundation in her memory, which aims to supply villages with fluoride-free water and students with school supplies. They also adopted four villages in Medchal. Sri Hari, who had been suffering from a liver ailment for some time, complained of giddiness during the shooting of "R... Rajkumar", being directed by Prabhu Deva. He was rushed to a hospital where he died later.


title: Disco Shanti

text: "The Dirty Picture", a 2011 Bollywood musical drama film was inspired by the life of Silk Smitha (a South Indian actress noted for her erotic roles) as well as her southern contemporaries such as Disco Shanti and other women in popular culture, including Hollywood actress and sex symbol Marilyn Monroe.


title: Orange wine

text: Orange wine, also known as skin-contact white wine, skin-fermented white wine, or amber wine, is a type of wine made from white wine grapes where the grape skins are not removed, as in typical white wine production, and stay in contact with the juice for days or even months. This contrasts with conventional white wine production, which involves crushing the grapes and quickly moving the juice off the skins into the fermentation vessel. The skins contain color pigment, phenols and tannins that would normally be considered undesirable for white wines, while for red wines skin contact and maceration is a vital part of the winemaking process that gives red wine its color, flavor, and texture.


title: Orange wine

text: The practice has a long history in winemaking dating back hundreds of years in Slovenia and Friuli-Venezia Giulia, and thousands of years in the Eastern European wine producing country of Georgia. The practice was repopularized by Italian and Slovenian winemakers, after visiting Georgia and importing qvevris, initially in the cross-border Friuli-Venezia Giulia wine and Gorizia Hills regions, while there is also production in Slovenia, Croatia, Slovakia, Austria, Germany, New Zealand, and California.


title: Orange wine

text: Skin-fermented white wines were common in Italy up until the 1950s and 1960s, but fell out of fashion as technically 'correct' and fresh white wines came to dominate the market.


title: Orange wine

text: The popular term "orange wine" was coined by a British wine importer, David A. Harvey, in 2004. This style of wines can also be known by their color references of having an amber or orange tinge that the base white wine receives due to its contact with the coloring pigments of the grape skins.


title: Orange wine

text: In Georgia skin-contact white wine is historically known as “ქარვისფერი ღვინო” (karvisperi ghvino) – amber wine.


title: Orange wine

text: The basic differences of orange wine with the other wine 'colors' are based on the color of the grape and the duration of their skin contact.


title: Orange wine

text: Red wine is made with red grapes. After the red grapes are crushed, their skins stay in contact for a period of 1 week to 1 month, and the wine gets a red or deep red color. Rosé, at least when rosé wine is the primary product, is produced with the skin contact method, using red grapes. After the grapes are crushed, their skins only stay in contact a few hours before pressing, but in that short period they give the wine the characteristic light pink hue.


title: Orange wine

text: White wine is made either with red or white grapes. The grapes are pressed and their skins are removed immediately. Because the grape skins do not "participate" in the fermentation, their color does not matter and the wine acquires a neutral, green to slightly yellow hue. Orange wine is made with white grapes. After they are crushed, their skins stay in contact for 1 month to 6 months, and the wine acquires an amber, orange color.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: The ninth generation Accord is a mid-size car introduced by Honda in 2012 which received a refreshed front fascia, grill, headlights, tail lights and alloy wheel designs for the 2016 model year. With the discontinuation of the smaller European and Japanese market Accord in 2015, the larger North American Accord became the only version in production, with the Hybrid version taking over as the flagship of Honda's automotive product in many markets that once received the smaller Accord.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: For the ninth generation Accord, Honda appointed Shoji Matsui, who served as an engineer on the Accord platform from 1985 to 1996 as lead project manager.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: Honda revealed the Accord Coupe Concept at the January 2012 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. In August 2012, the company released initial details pertaining to the 2013 Accord sedan, and production versions of both the sedan and coupe were fully unveiled in early September 2012.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: The model year 2013 Accord was released on 5 September 2012, with the sedan hitting dealers' lots on 19 September 2012 in the United States and the coupe following on 15 October 2012. Corresponding release dates in Canada for the sedan and coupe models are 24 September 2012 and 1 November 2012, respectively. In February 2013, the Accord was scheduled to enter the Russian market. In June 2013, the Accord hybrid and plug-in hybrid were introduced to the Japanese market, with the discontinuation of the Honda Inspire, serving as Honda's large sedan and one level below the Honda Legend.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: All Accords come with standard an 8-inch 480x320 pixel WQVGA resolution LCD screen, single angle backup camera, Honda's i-MID system which includes Bluetooth hands free calling with SMS texting and streaming audio, USB connector, dual zone automatic climate control and alloy wheels. The available navigation system adds a 6-inch touchscreen and the 8-inch screen uses a higher 800x480 pixel resolution WVGA display. A tri-angle (normal, wide and top view) backup camera and wide angle passenger blind spot side view camera are also available. New safety features include an optional forward collision warning system, lane departure warning system and blind spot monitor. EX and higher trims offer Smart Key, LED daytime running lamps, headlamps, and tail lamps; and an adaptive cruise control system.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: In Australia, the ninth generation Accord went on sale in June 2013. It is available with either a 2.4 L four-cylinder or 3.5 L V6 engine. Unlike the North American market Accord, a CVT transmission is not offered. Instead, the four-cylinder uses a five-speed automatic, while the V6 receives a new six-speed automatic.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: In China, the ninth generation Accord went on sale in September 2013, as a 2014 model. It is available with a choice of 2.0L or 2.4L 4-cylinder engines, or a new 3.0L V6 engine exclusive to the Chinese market. The V6 produces 192 kW (257 hp) and 297 Nm torque. Transmission choices include a CVT for both 4-cylinder engines or 6-speed automatic for the V6; a manual transmission is not offered. The Chinese market Accord features a unique front grill and bumper, incorporating more chrome and smaller, circular front fog lights. The rear features a different bumper with trapezoidal, rather than circular, exhausts.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: In Indonesia, the ninth generation Accord was launched on 25 April 2013 and comes available in three trims; the 2.4 VTi, 2.4 VTi-L, and 2.4 ES. Honda Sensing is exclusively available on 2.4 ES &


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: all variants are mated to a 5-speed automatic transmission. The facelifted Accord was launched on 7 April 2016 at the 24th Indonesia International Motor Show.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: In Malaysia, the ninth generation Accord was launched in September 2013 and comes available in three trims; the 2.0 VTi, 2.0 VTi-L and 2.4 VTi-L. The 2.0 variants use an improved R20Z1 engine while the 2.4 variant uses the all-new Earth Dreams 2.4L engine. All variants are mated to a 5-speed torque converter gear box. The facelifted Accord was launched in September 2015 in the same three trims but with added features and equipment to each trim. It also comes with three new colors; White Orchid Pearl, Obsidian Blue Pearl and Lunar Silver Metallic. In November 2017, the 2.4 VTi-L variant gained Honda's Sensing safety features.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: In the Philippines, the ninth generation Accord was launched in 2014 available in two trims: the 2.4 S and 3.5 SV. The 2.4 S variant is available only with five-speed automatic transmission while the 3.5 SV is available with six-speed automatic transmission. The 3.5 SV features a 3.5 SOHC V6 engine, dual exhaust, sunroof and different designed wheels. All models received daytime running lights, reverse camera with dynamic guidelines, active cornering lights, rain sensing wipers, touch screen display panel, ECO assist button and LED Head/Tail lamps. The Philippine-spec model is imported from Thailand.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: The Accord Hybrid was introduced in June 2013 for the Japanese market. In the United States, it was introduced in October 2013 for the 2014 model year. It featured a 2.0 L I4 Atkinson cycle engine paired with a hybrid system that serves the function of a traditional transmission, called the Electric Continuously Variable Transmission (E-CVT) by Honda. The hybrid system was a dual motor system combined with a 1.3 kWh lithium-ion battery pack. A main benefit of the Accord over the standard gasoline model was its high fuel economy, reaching 50 MPG city, 45 MPG highway, and 47 MPG combined. The Accord Hybrid produced 196 total horsepower and had a 0-60 time tested by Car and Driver as 7.2 seconds. In order to save weight, the Accord Hybrid had an all-aluminum front subframe and rear bumper beam to replace the steel-and-aluminum subframe used on the standard Accord sedan.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: In terms of exterior looks, the Accord Hybrid was distinguished from the Accord sedan with blue-accented headlights, grille trim, and taillights. They also featured 17-inch alloy wheels that were exclusive to the Hybrid (non-plug-in) models. Hybrid badges were placed on the front fenders and the rear trunk lid. As a result of the placement of the hybrid battery in the trunk, the trunk storage area was reduced by approximately three cubic feet, going from 15.8 cubic feet on the gasoline sedan to 12.7 cubic feet on the Hybrid.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: Honda did not produce a 2016 model year Accord Hybrid, as they were in the process of moving production from Ohio to Japan. The hybrid model did return in 2017, though.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: The production version of the 2014 Accord Plug-in hybrid was introduced at the 2012 Los Angeles Auto Show. The Accord PHEV pricing starts at and sales began in the U.S. in January 2013, with availability limited to California and New York. The Accord PHEV was introduced in Japan in June 2013 and it is available only for leasing, primarily to corporations and government agencies. , the Accord PHEV ranks as the third best selling plug-in hybrid in the Japanese market. A total of 1,039 units have been sold in the United States through 2015.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: Honda unveiled the platform for a mid-size plug-in hybrid electric vehicle at the 2010 Los Angeles Auto Show. The plug-in platform showcased Honda's next-generation two-motor hybrid system, which continuously moves through three different modes to maximize driving efficiency: all-electric, gasoline-electric and an engine direct-drive mode. The plug-in hybrid also uses regenerative braking to charge the battery. In all-electric mode, the vehicle uses a 7 kWh lithium-ion battery and a 120 kW electric motor. The all-electric mode achieves a range of approximately in city driving and a top speed of . Fully recharging the battery will take 2 to 2.5 hours using a 120-volt outlet and 1 to 1.5 hours using a 240-volt outlet. Honda announced at the 2012 North American International Auto Show in Detroit that first US application of both a 2.4-liter direct-injected engine and two-motor plug-in hybrid system to be implemented on the Accord ninth generation, the 2013 Accord Plug-in Hybrid. Production of the Accord Plug-in Hybrid began on 21 December 2012, the same day California Air Resources Board approved the car to be sold in the state.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: In September 2012 Honda announced that the Accord Plug-in Hybrid sedan will be built in Sayama, Japan that would be available in a single trim level based on the standard features of the Accord Touring. The Accord Plug-in Hybrid was scheduled for release in early 2013, and would serve as the basis for the conventional hybrid version of the Accord Sedan that would go on sale by mid-2013. It features a 6.7 kWh lithium-ion battery pack to power a 124 kW electric motor mated with the new Earth Dreams i-VTEC 2.0-liter 4-cylinder Atkinson-cycle gasoline engine producing 137 hp (102 kW) at 6200 rpm, and together the total system output is 196 hp (146 kW), which surpasses that of the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid (134 hp), Chevrolet Volt (149 hp) and Ford Fusion Energi (195 hp) plug-in hybrid.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: Honda expected the 2014 Accord Plug-in Hybrid to deliver an all-electric range of up to and a total driving range of more than based on the U.S. EPA tests as determined by Honda. The carmaker also expected the fuel economy for the Accord Plug-in Hybrid to exceed 100 miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent (MPG-e) (2.4 L/100 km; 120 mpg-imp equivalent), and also expects it to receive an Enhanced AT-PZEV rating from the California Air Resources Board (CARB).


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: The official EPA ratings for the plug-in hybrid are of all-electric range with a combined fuel economy rating of 115 miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent (MPG-e), the highest in its class. EPA ratings for operation in hybrid mode are in combined city/highway cycle, in city, and in highway driving. The 2014 Accord PHEV emits only 20 milligrams of combined smog-forming emissions per mile and becomes the first car in the U.S. to meet the new LEV3/SULEV20 emissions standards, and will get single-occupant carpool access in California.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: The Accord Plug-in Hybrid was discontinued after the 2014 model year, together with the Civic Hybrid and the natural gas-powered Honda Civic GX. This decision was due in part to Honda's ability to advance fuel economy through conventional engine technology. In 2017, Honda launched the Honda Clarity plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicle, after the introduction of the next-generation Clarity fuel cell vehicle in 2016.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: The ninth generation Accord received a facelift for the 2016 model year. Changes to outer appearance include new front fascia, grill, head lights, rear lights, and alloy wheel designs. The 2016 Accord was the first mass-market car to be equipped with Apple CarPlay and the second car to also be compatible with Android Auto. The Hybrid Accord returned for the 2017 model year with revised running gear that has combined output of 214 hp (160 kW), up from 196 hp (146 kW) of the 2014 & 2015 model years version. The Plug-in Hybrid Accord did not make a return, instead was replaced by the 2018 Honda Clarity PHEV.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: The ninth-generation Accord offers the following powertrains: A new direct injected Earth Dreams 2.4-liter 16-valve DOHC four-cylinder engine rated at to of torque paired with either a six-speed manual or continuously variable transmission; an updated 3.5-liter 24-valve SOHC V6 mated either to a six-speed manual or automatic rated at and ; and a hybrid powertrain (named i-MMD) that integrates a 2.0 liter Atkinson Cycle gasoline engine with an electric motor and lithium-ion battery pack in North America. The hybrid system acts as an electric continuously variable transmission while in gasoline-electric hybrid mode, and is rated at and . Both conventional and plug-in hybrid configurations are offered, both released in the U.S. market in the second half of 2013.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: Honda has focused on economy, ride quality, responsiveness, and ride comfort with a completely redesigned front suspension. A simpler MacPherson strut design, replaces the class leading and highly refined double wishbone front suspension, in use since the second generation Accord. The rear suspension retains the independent multi-link suspension. The costlier design is now available only on the top-tier Acura RLX. The new front suspension helps shave weight and free up room in the engine compartment. In addition to the safety concerns of Honda's Advanced Compatibility Engineering, there is focus on body stiffness and dynamic handling response by improving structural rigidity around the front strut tower and lower control arm. All but the LX trim feature a strut bar. All trims receive upgraded shocks front and rear. The Touring trim now comes with more sophisticated double piston shocks called "Amplitude Reactive Dampers" that have been recently introduced on several Acura models.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: The Accord's body now uses 55.8% high strength steel, a total of 17.2% are either of 780, 980 or 1,500 MPa yield strength types which were not used in the previous generation. The Accord's previous steel front subframe has been replaced with an aluminum and steel component that weighs less and is manufactured using friction stir welding (hybrid models use an all-aluminum subframe and hood). Overall the body weight sheds .


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: In North America, the 2016 Accord now features front brake disc diameters from 11.1 in (LX only), 11.5 in, or 12.3 in (Sport / Touring), depending on model and trim, while the rear discs measure 11.1 inches in diameter.


title: Honda Accord (ninth generation)

text: Two additional trim levels are added in North American markets, Sport and Touring. The Accord Sport Sedan is slotted between the LX and EX models and features a 2.4-liter 16-valve DOHC inline-four engine rated at 189hp and of torque, 18-inch wheels and wider tires, dual exhaust, a decklid spoiler, fog lights, leather-trimmed steering wheel and seats, exclusive carbon-fiber-style dash trim, and steering wheel mounted paddle shifters on models equipped with the continuously variable transmission. The V6 engine is no longer an option for non-leather trims. Starting from the 2016 model year, the Sport trim featured LED daytime running lights, upgraded LED fog lights, as well as the 19-inch alloy wheels, wider and lower profile (235/40 R19 96V) tires, and bigger front brake rotors found in the Accord Touring Sedan, the lineup's flagship. The Touring trim is available with either four-cylinder or V6 engines in Canada, whereas in the U.S. the V6 engine is standard on Touring models.


title: Hayley Hasselhoff

text: Hayley Amber Hasselhoff (born August 26, 1992) is an American actress and plus-size model. She is known for her role as Amber in the ABC Family original series "Huge". She is the daughter of David Hasselhoff and Pamela Bach. Hasselhoff starred in the short-lived 2010 A&E reality series "The Hasselhoffs". She also starred in "Celebrity Showmance".


title: Hayley Hasselhoff

text: Hasselhoff was born in Los Angeles, California to parents David Hasselhoff and Pamela Bach (née Weissenbach). She has an older sister, Taylor.


title: Hayley Hasselhoff

text: Hasselhoff started acting in 1999 when she appeared in her father's TV series "Baywatch". She has also starred in the reality television series "The Hasselhoffs" and in 2010 she played Amber in "Huge" for 10 episodes.


title: Hayley Hasselhoff

text: Hasselhoff has also been modeling as a plus-size model since 2007 when she was 14. She is considered a "plus-size model" as she is a size 14. She has been signed with Wilhelmina Models and as of 2014, is signed with Ford Models. She has walked in shows such as the 2014 British Plus Size Fashion Week, and has modeled for Torrid. She has also been named the ambassador for Pulp Fashion Week in Paris. In October 2019, she began competing in "". She was eliminated at the audition stage. In April 2021, Hasselhoff became the first plus-size model to pose for the cover of the German edition of "Playboy".


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: Pari () is a 2018 Indian supernatural horror film directed by Prosit Roy in his debut. It stars Anushka Sharma and marks her 3rd production venture for her company Clean Slate Filmz. Parambrata Chatterjee, Ritabhari Chakraborty, Rajat Kapoor and Mansi Multani feature in supporting roles. Production on the film began in June 2017 and it released theatrically on 2 March 2018.


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: The story revolves around the demon Ifrit and Auladhchakra, a satanic cult in Bangladesh aiming to perpetuate the bloodline of Ifrit. They used to kidnap women and summon the demon to rape them so that they could be impregnated with the offsprings of the demon. Professor Qasim Ali used to head a group of vigilantes that sought out the women impregnated by Ifrit, kept them captive until they gave birth, then immediately killed the demonic babies by cutting off their heads and sealing them within glass jars. This drew opposition from the villagers despite the support and the group was shut down due to their violently radical approach. Rukhsana is the daughter of one such woman, who was a victim of the satanic ritual but escaped her captivity before Professor Ali could kill her child.


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: Arnab is a young man who runs a printing press. Piyali, a nurse, is set for an arranged marriage with him. On the way home in the heavy rain, he and his parents accidentally hit an old woman. The woman dies and when the police searches her home, an old hut in the forest, they find a dirty Rukhsana chained inside. Arnab, feeling sympathetic and responsible upon realising she has no one, takes her in. Rukhsana knows nothing of the modern outside world and often sees demonic visions that frighten her. Arnab finds her strange but endearing. As the two spend time together, she falls in love with him. A mortuary assistant discovers that Rukhsana's mother has the cult's mark on her skin and informs Professor Ali, who has been searching for Rukhsana for years.


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: One night, Rukhsana gets sick. Though Arnab mistakes it for her period, the truth is that her body needs to spew out the poison it produces every month due to her demon blood. She secretly kills a dog by biting it and releasing her poison. She later admits that she loves Arnab and the two make love. The next morning, Professor Ali confronts Arnab with the truth about her, but he refuses to believe him. The morgue assistant fights Arnab, injuring him. Rukhsana kills the assistant in retaliation and gets between Arnab and Piyali, feeling jealous. When Arnab argues with her, she grabs him by the throat and lifts him clear off the ground.


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: Disturbed, Arnab realises that Professor Ali was right and researches about Ifrit. He learns that Ifrit babies are born in one month instead of nine, and without an umbilical cord. Arnab contacts Professor Ali. Just as he arrives with his men, Rukhsana reveals to Arnab that she is pregnant. The professor's men tie her up and torture her so that she dies of her own poison. Though she cries for Arnab, he leaves, depressed. After three weeks, Piyali visits Arnab at his parents' house and he tells her the truth about Rukhsana. His conversation with her makes him realise he shouldn't have left her to die.


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: Rukhsana, after being beaten repeatedly, breaks free and kills the professor before heading over to Piyali's. She injures Piyali, but goes into labor. Piyali is unable to kill her, being a nurse and with her own past of having an abortion. Instead, she helps Rukhsana deliver the baby, which has an umbilical cord. Rukhsana leaves the baby to her and disappears. Arnab rushes to the old hut, where he finds her near death. He cries and hugs her. She resists the urge to bite him and release her poison, instead letting it remain inside her body. Before dying, she tells Arnab that the baby is human. At the end, Arnab says that Rukhsana's love made the baby human, rather than Ifrit's hatred.


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: The first look of "Pari" was released on 13 June 2017 by Sharma via her Twitter handle. The film's motion poster, promotionally called "Screamer", was released on 9 January 2018, showing the face of Sharma's character getting bruised. A 30-second clip, the second "screamer", was released on 3 February 2018, which showed Sharma watching a cartoon on television with an idyllic smile, giving the impression that she is safe and okay. However, the camera pans to show that her hands and feet are bruised, and she is chained to the bed. The official teaser of "Pari" was released on 7 February 2018 by Sharma via her Twitter handle. The third "screamer", released on Valentine's Day, opens with Anushka and Parambrata's characters watching television when Anushka says "I love you" to him. She becomes disturbed when she hears an eerie female voice respond, "I love you too." The camera pans to show a bloody and battered version of herself, grinning and terrifying the real Anushka. The official trailer of Pari was released one day later, on 15 February 2018. After the trailer, two other "screamers" have been released.


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: During the shooting of the film in August 2017 at Basanti State Highway, 24 Pgs. (S) district of West Bengal, a technician was electrocuted. The shooting of the film was immediately stopped but was started again after a while.


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: The film has been banned in Pakistan for allegedly promoting black magic, some non-Islamic values and anti-Muslim sentiments.


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of based on reviews with an average rating of .


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: Positive reviews gave a definite praise for Anushka's performance and praised the makers for doing a movie on this genre.


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: While Renuka Vyavahare of TOI called it “Anushka’s strongest work as an actor-producer so far”, she also went on to add that, “Pari has the ability to redefine the genre as it’s refreshingly different, atmospheric and moody”.


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: Rajeev Masand of News18 gave the film a rating of 2 out of 5 saying that, "Pari, co-produced by and starring Anushka Sharma, is a competently made film that’s rich in atmospherics.”, but he went onto conclude that “Pari doesn’t come together in a coherent, satisfying way. What starts out interestingly, ends in a mess."


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: Rohit Bhatnagar of Deccan Chronicle stated: “Pari is a delightful treat to those who are fond of horror flicks. And stop complaining that Bollywood doesn't produce good horror films!”


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: Koimoi reviewed Pari as “one of the best to come out of this genre”. As a last word they added: “Hollywood, please take out the notepad and write down the stuff from Pari on how to make a non-clichéd horror film. Surely one of the best in this genre & a must watch for the fans. Producer Anushka Sharma needs a special mention to make this possible” and rated the film 3.5 out of 5. "Gulf news" gave the movie 3 stars out of 5 and wrote that “Anushka Sharma’s horror film is a world apart from other ghoulish Bollywood offerings, and that’s a good thing”.


title: Pari (2018 Indian film)

text: Rohit Vats of Hindustan Times gave the film a rating of 1 out of 5 and said that, "Anushka Sharma's film Pari is a confusing tale of ghosts, ghouls, djinns and forced legitimacy. Pari appears puzzled as if they don't know how to end what they started. With 136-minute screen time, Pari doesn't head anywhere." Lakshana N Palat of India Today gave the film a rating of 2 out of 5 saying that, "The story of Pari is submerged under irrelevant scenes, jump scares, and the desperate need to fall into the horror-film category. It's a shame, because the storyline was actually quite a unique and interesting one." Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express gave the film a rating of 1 out of 5 and concluded her review by saying that, "Anushka Sharma plays Rukhsana with a great deal of bloody enthusiasm. You cannot accuse her of not trying hard, but the film is so poorly-written, and so scatter-brained that nothing can rescue it." Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV said about the film that, "It lacks the narrative consistency that its in-your-face methods needed in order to be truly effective. In the end, the makers of Pari try way too hard. The outcome is an extended blur that leaves you dazed but totally unimpressed." and gave the film a rating of 2 out of 5.


title: Gracie Mansion

text: Archibald Gracie Mansion (commonly called Gracie Mansion) is the official residence of the Mayor of New York City. Built in 1799, it is located in Carl Schurz Park, at East End Avenue and 88th Street in the Yorkville neighborhood of Manhattan. The mansion overlooks Hell Gate channel in the East River.


title: Gracie Mansion

text: George Washington commandeered a different building on approximately the same site during the American Revolutionary War, as it strategically overlooked Hell Gate. That building, called Belview Mansion, was the country residence of Jacob Walton, a New York merchant. The British destroyed this house during that war.


title: Gracie Mansion

text: Archibald Gracie then built another building, now known as Gracie Mansion, on the site in 1799, and used it as a country home until 1823, when he had to sell it to pay debts. In the fall of 1801, Gracie hosted a meeting there of New York Federalists, called by Alexander Hamilton, to raise $10,000 for starting the "New York Evening Post" newspaper, which eventually became the "New York Post".


title: Gracie Mansion

text: Other people lived in the house until 1896, when the municipal government seized it and made its grounds part of Carl Schurz Park. It served various functions as part of that park (at various times it housed public restrooms, an ice cream stand, and classrooms) until 1924. From 1924 until 1936, it housed the Museum of the City of New York, and from 1936 until 1942, it was shown as a historical house.


title: Gracie Mansion

text: In 1942, Robert Moses convinced Mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia to appropriate the house as a mayoral residence. Its main two floors are open to the public on a limited basis for guided tours and serve as a small museum.


title: Gracie Mansion

text: The house may only be used for official city business. Only visiting public officials and the mayor's family may reside with the mayor at the mansion, even for a single overnight stay. This has prevented some recent mayors from living in the mansion; in 2001 Rudy Giuliani was forced to move out after he had been barred by a judge from bringing his then-girlfriend Judith Nathan to live with him in the mansion, a matter complicated by the fact that his estranged wife, Donna Hanover, refused to vacate the premises.


title: Gracie Mansion

text: Mayor Michael Bloomberg, likewise, never resided at Gracie Mansion, partially because regulations prevented him from moving in with his long-term partner, Diana Taylor, but also believing that the house should be left open to the public. However, he did use it for meetings and events; he also used the Mansion as a place for official visitors to stay while in the city. At the beginning of Bloomberg's term, he initiated a major restoration of the mansion, funded by an anonymous donor, suspected of being the billionaire mayor himself.


title: Gracie Mansion

text: Archibald Gracie built the two-story wooden mansion in the Federal style. The design of the structure is attributed to Ezra Weeks, a prominent builder, or John McComb Jr., the architect of New York City Hall and Hamilton Grange, Alexander Hamilton's country home in Harlem, New York.


title: Gracie Mansion

text: At the suggestion of Mayor Robert F. Wagner, Jr.'s wife, Susan, plans were prepared by architect Mott B. Schmidt for a new west wing. The annex, was dedicated on September 27, 1966 and is now known as the Susan B. Wagner wing. Criticized by some at the time for not being "modern," in style, the wing has come to be regarded by many as an appropriate solution to the problem of expanding the small house for official functions. The Gracie Mansion Conservancy restored portions of the building during 1981–1984, and further substantial decorative and functional restorations were made in 2002.


title: Reduction potential

text: Redox potential (also known as oxidation / reduction potential, "ORP", "pe", "formula_1", or formula_2) is a measure of the tendency of a chemical species to acquire electrons from or lose electrons to an electrode and thereby be reduced or oxidised respectively. Redox potential is expressed in volts (V). Each species has its own intrinsic redox potential; for example, the more positive the reduction potential (reduction potential is more often used due to general formalism in electrochemistry), the greater the species' affinity for electrons and tendency to be reduced.


title: Reduction potential

text: In aqueous solutions, redox potential is a measure of the tendency of the solution to either gain or lose electrons when it is subjected to change by introduction of a new species. A solution with a higher (more positive) reduction potential than the new species will have a tendency to gain electrons from the new species (i.e. to be reduced by oxidizing the new species) and a solution with a lower (more negative) reduction potential will have a tendency to lose electrons to the new species (i.e. to be oxidized by reducing the new species). Because the absolute potentials are next to impossible to accurately measure, reduction potentials are defined relative to a reference electrode. Reduction potentials of aqueous solutions are determined by measuring the potential difference between an inert sensing electrode in contact with the solution and a stable reference electrode connected to the solution by a salt bridge.


title: Reduction potential

text: The sensing electrode acts as a platform for electron transfer to or from the reference half cell; it is typically made of platinum, although gold and graphite can be used as well. The reference half cell consists of a redox standard of known potential. The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) is the reference from which all standard redox potentials are determined, and has been assigned an arbitrary half cell potential of 0.0 V. However, it is fragile and impractical for routine laboratory use. Therefore, other more stable reference electrodes such as silver chloride and saturated calomel (SCE) are commonly used because of their more reliable performance.


title: Reduction potential

text: Although measurement of the redox potential in aqueous solutions is relatively straightforward, many factors limit its interpretation, such as effects of solution temperature and pH, irreversible reactions, slow electrode kinetics, non-equilibrium, presence of multiple redox couples, electrode poisoning, small exchange currents, and inert redox couples. Consequently, practical measurements seldom correlate with calculated values. Nevertheless, reduction potential measurement has proven useful as an analytical tool in monitoring changes in a system rather than determining their absolute value (e.g. process control and titrations).


title: Reduction potential

text: Similar to how the concentration of hydrogen ion determines the acidity or pH of an aqueous solution, the tendency of electron transfer between a chemical species and an electrode determines the redox potential of an electrode couple. Like pH, redox potential represents how easily electrons are transferred to or from species in solution. Redox potential characterises the ability under the specific condition of a chemical species to lose or gain electrons instead of the amount of electrons available for oxidation or reduction.


title: Reduction potential

text: The notion of is used with Pourbaix diagrams. is a dimensionless number and can easily be related to "E" by the following relationship:


title: Reduction potential

text: Where, formula_4 is the thermal voltage, with , the gas constant (), , the absolute temperature in Kelvin (298.15 K = 25 °C = 77 °F), and , the Faraday constant (96 485 coulomb/mol of ). Lambda, λ = ln(10) ≈ 2.3026.


title: Reduction potential

text: In fact, formula_5 is defined as the negative logarithm of the free electron concentration in solution, and is directly proportional to the redox potential. Sometimes formula_6 is used as a unit of reduction potential instead of formula_7, for example, in environmental chemistry. If one normalizes formula_6 of hydrogen to zero, one obtains the relation formula_9 at room temperature. This notion is useful for understanding redox potential, although the transfer of electrons, rather than the absolute concentration of free electrons in thermal equilibrium, is how one usually thinks of redox potential. Theoretically, however, the two approaches are equivalent.


title: Reduction potential

text: Conversely, one could define a potential corresponding to pH as a potential difference between a solute and pH neutral water, separated by porous membrane (that is permeable to hydrogen ions). Such potential differences actually do occur from differences in acidity on biological membranes. This potential (where pH neutral water is set to 0 V) is analogous with redox potential (where standardized hydrogen solution is set to 0 V), but instead of hydrogen ions, electrons are transferred across in the redox case. Both pH and redox potentials are properties of solutions, not of elements or chemical compounds themselves, and depend on concentrations, temperature etc.


title: Reduction potential

text: The table below shows a few reduction potentials, which can be changed to oxidation potentials by reversing the sign. Reducers donate electrons to (or "reduce") oxidizing agents, which are said to "be reduced by" the reducer. The reducer is stronger when it has a more negative reduction potential and weaker when it has a more positive reduction potential. The more positive the reduction potential the greater the species' affinity for electrons and tendency to be reduced. The following table provides the reduction potentials of the indicated reducing agent at 25 °C. For example, among sodium (Na) metal, chromium (Cr) metal, cuprous (Cu) ion and chloride (Cl) ion, it is Na metal that is the strongest reducing agent while Cl ion is the weakest; said differently, Na ion is the weakest oxidizing agent in this list while molecule is the strongest.


title: Reduction potential

text: Some elements and compounds can be both reducing or oxidizing agents. Hydrogen gas is a reducing agent when it reacts with non-metals and an oxidizing agent when it reacts with metals.


title: Reduction potential

text: Hydrogen (whose reduction potential is 0.0) acts as an oxidizing agent because it accepts an electron donation from the reducing agent lithium (whose reduction potential is -3.04), which causes Li to be oxidized and Hydrogen to be reduced.


title: Reduction potential

text: Hydrogen acts as a reducing agent because it donates its electrons to fluorine, which allows fluorine to be reduced.


title: Reduction potential

text: The standard reduction potential formula_10 is measured under standard conditions: T = 298.15 K (25 °C, or 77 °F), a unity activity () for each ion participating into the reaction, a partial pressure of 1 atm (1.013 bar) for each gas taking part into the reaction, and metals in their pure state. The standard reduction potential formula_10 is defined relative to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) used as reference electrode, which is arbitrarily given a potential of 0.00 V. However, because these can also be referred to as "redox potentials", the terms "reduction potentials" and "oxidation potentials" are preferred by the IUPAC. The two may be explicitly distinguished by the symbols formula_1 and formula_13, with formula_14.


title: Reduction potential

text: The relative reactivities of different half cells can be compared to predict the direction of electron flow. A higher formula_10 means there is a greater tendency for reduction to occur, while a lower one means there is a greater tendency for oxidation to occur.


title: Reduction potential

text: Any system or environment that accepts electrons from a normal hydrogen electrode is a half cell that is defined as having a positive redox potential; any system donating electrons to the hydrogen electrode is defined as having a negative redox potential. formula_2 is usually expressed in volts (V) or millivolts (mV). A high positive formula_2 indicates an environment that favors oxidation reaction such as free oxygen. A low negative formula_2 indicates a strong reducing environment, such as free metals.


title: Reduction potential

text: Sometimes when electrolysis is carried out in an aqueous solution, water, rather than the solute, is oxidized or reduced. For example, if an aqueous solution of NaCl is electrolyzed, water may be reduced at the cathode to produce H and OH ions, instead of Na being reduced to Na, as occurs in the absence of water. It is the reduction potential of each species present that will determine which species will be oxidized or reduced.


title: Reduction potential

text: Absolute reduction potentials can be determined if one knows the actual potential between electrode and electrolyte for any one reaction. Surface polarization interferes with measurements, but various sources give an estimated potential for the standard hydrogen electrode of 4.4 V to 4.6 V (the electrolyte being positive).


title: Reduction potential

text: Half-cell equations can be combined if the one corresponding to oxidation is reversed so that each electron given by the reductant is accepted by the oxidant. In this way, the global combined equation does no longer contains electrons.


title: Reduction potential

text: The formula_7 and pH of a solution are related by the Nernst equation as commonly represented by a Pourbaix diagram . For a half cell equation, conventionally written as a reduction reaction ("i.e.", electrons accepted by an oxidant on the left side):


title: Reduction potential

text: where formula_23 is the standard Gibbs free energy change, is the number of electrons involved, and is Faraday's constant. The Nernst equation relates pH and formula_7:


title: Reduction potential

text: where curly brackets indicate activities, and exponents are shown in the conventional manner.This equation is the equation of a straight line for formula_7 as a function of pH with a slope of formula_27 volt (pH has no units).


title: Reduction potential

text: This equation predicts lower formula_7 at higher pH values. This is observed for the reduction of O into HO, or OH, and for reduction of H into H:


title: Reduction potential

text: In most (if not all) of the reduction reactions involving oxyanions with a central redox-active atom, oxide anions () being in excess are freed-up when the central atom is reduced. The acid-base neutralization of each oxide ion consumes 2 or one molecule as follows:


title: Reduction potential

text: This is why protons are always engaged as reagent on the left side of the reduction reactions as can be generally observed in the table of standard reduction potential (data page).


title: Reduction potential

text: If, in very rare instances of reduction reactions, the H were the products formed by a reduction reaction and thus appearing on the right side of the equation, the slope of the line would be inverse and thus positive (higher formula_7 at higher pH).


title: Reduction potential

text: An example of that would be the reductive dissolution of magnetite ( ≈ ·FeO with 2 and 1 ) to form 3 HFeO (in which dissolved iron, Fe(II), is divalent and much more soluble than Fe(III)), while releasing one :


title: Reduction potential

text: Note that the slope 0.0296 of the line is −1/2 of the −0.05916 value above, since . Note also that the value –0.0885 corresponds to –0.05916 × 3/2.


title: Reduction potential

text: Many enzymatic reactions are oxidation–reduction reactions, in which one compound is oxidized and another compound is reduced. The ability of an organism to carry out oxidation–reduction reactions depends on the oxidation–reduction state of the environment, or its reduction potential (formula_7).


title: Reduction potential

text: Strictly aerobic microorganisms are generally active at positive formula_7 values, whereas strict anaerobes are generally active at negative formula_7 values. Redox affects the solubility of nutrients, especially metal ions.


title: Reduction potential

text: There are organisms that can adjust their metabolism to their environment, such as facultative anaerobes. Facultative anaerobes can be active at positive "E" values, and at negative "E" values in the presence of oxygen-bearing inorganic compounds, such as nitrates and sulfates.


title: Reduction potential

text: In biochemistry, apparent standard reduction potentials, or formal potentials, (formula_33, noted with a prime mark in superscript) calculated at pH 7 closer to the pH of biological and intra-cellular fluids are used to more easily assess if a given biochemical redox reaction is possible. They must not be confused with the common standard reduction potentials determined under standard conditions (; ) with the concentration of each dissolved species being taken as 1 M, and thus .


title: Reduction potential

text: In the field of environmental chemistry, the reduction potential is used to determine if oxidizing or reducing conditions are prevalent in water or soil, and to predict the states of different chemical species in the water, such as dissolved metals. pe values in water range from -12 to 25; the levels where the water itself becomes reduced or oxidized, respectively.


title: Reduction potential

text: The reduction potentials in natural systems often lie comparatively near one of the boundaries of the stability region of water. Aerated surface water, rivers, lakes, oceans, rainwater and acid mine water, usually have oxidizing conditions (positive potentials). In places with limitations in air supply, such as submerged soils, swamps and marine sediments, reducing conditions (negative potentials) are the norm. Intermediate values are rare and usually a temporary condition found in systems moving to higher or lower pe values.


title: Reduction potential

text: In environmental situations, it is common to have complex non-equilibrium conditions between a large number of species, meaning that it is often not possible to make accurate and precise measurements of the reduction potential. However, it is usually possible to obtain an approximate value and define the conditions as being in the oxidizing or reducing regime.


title: Reduction potential

text: In the soil there are two main redox constituents: 1) anorganic redox systems (mainly ox/red compounds of Fe and Mn) and measurement in water extracts; 2) natural soil samples with all microbial and root components and measurement by direct method.


title: Reduction potential

text: The oxido-reduction potential (ORP) can be used for the systems monitoring water quality with the advantage of a single-value measure for the disinfection potential, showing the effective activity of the disinfectant rather than the applied dose. For example, "E. coli", "Salmonella", "Listeria" and other pathogens have survival times of less than 30 seconds when the ORP is above 665 mV, compared to more than 300 seconds when ORP is below 485 mV.


title: Reduction potential

text: A study was conducted comparing traditional parts per million (ppm) chlorination reading and ORP in Hennepin County, Minnesota. The results of this study presents arguments in favor of the inclusion of ORP above 650 mV in the local health regulation codes.


title: Reduction potential

text: "E"–pH (Pourbaix) diagrams are commonly used in mining and geology for assessment of the stability fields of minerals and dissolved species. Under the conditions where a mineral (solid) phase is predicted to be the most stable form of an element, these diagrams show that mineral. As the predicted results are all from thermodynamic (at equilibrium state) evaluations, these diagrams should be used with caution. Although the formation of a mineral or its dissolution may be predicted to occur under a set of conditions, the process may practically be negligible because its rate is too slow. Consequently, kinetic evaluations at the same time are necessary. Nevertheless, the equilibrium conditions can be used to evaluate the direction of spontaneous changes and the magnitude of the driving force behind them.


title: Syllabary

text: In the linguistic study of written languages, a syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent the syllables or (more frequently) moras which make up words.


title: Syllabary

text: A symbol in a syllabary, called a syllabogram, typically represents an (optional) consonant sound (simple onset) followed by a vowel sound (nucleus)—that is, a CV or V syllable—but other phonographic mappings, such as CVC, CV- tone, and C (normally nasals at the end of syllables), are also found in syllabaries.


title: Syllabary

text: A writing system using a syllabary is "complete" when it covers all syllables in the corresponding spoken language without requiring complex orthographic / graphemic rules, like implicit codas ( ⇒ /CVC/) silent vowels ( ⇒ /CVC/) or echo vowels ( ⇒ /CVC/). This loosely corresponds to "shallow" orthographies in alphabetic writing systems.


title: Syllabary

text: "True" syllabograms are those that encompass all parts of a syllable, i.e. initial onset, medial nucleus and final coda, but since onset and coda are optional in at least some languages, there are "middle" (nucleus), "start" (onset-nucleus), "end" (nucleus-coda) and "full" (onset-nucleus-coda) true syllabograms. Most syllabaries only feature one or two kinds of syllabograms and form other syllables by graphemic rules.


title: Syllabary

text: Syllabograms, hence syllabaries, are "pure", "analytic" or "arbitrary" if they do not share graphic similarities that correspond to phonic similarities, e.g. the symbol for "ka" does not resemble in any predictable way the symbol for "ki", nor the symbol for "a".


title: Syllabary

text: Otherwise they are "synthetic", if they vary by onset, rime, nucleus "or" coda, or "systematic", if they vary by all of them.


title: Syllabary

text: Some scholars, e.g. Daniels, reserve the general term for analytic syllabaries and invent other terms (abugida, abjad) as necessary. Some systems provide katakana language conversion.


title: Syllabary

text: Languages that use syllabic writing include Japanese, Cherokee, Vai, the Yi languages of eastern Asia, the English-based creole language Ndyuka, Xiangnan Tuhua, and the ancient language Mycenaean Greek (Linear B). In addition, the undecoded Cretan Linear A is also believed by some to be a syllabic script, though this is not proven.


title: Syllabary

text: Chinese characters, the cuneiform script used for Sumerian, Akkadian and other languages, and the former Maya script are largely syllabic in nature, although based on logograms. They are therefore sometimes referred to as "logosyllabic".


title: Syllabary

text: The contemporary Japanese language uses two syllabaries together called kana (in addition to the non-syllabic systems kanji and romaji), namely hiragana and katakana, which were developed around 700. Because Japanese uses mainly CV (consonant + vowel) syllables, a syllabary is well suited to write the language. As in many syllabaries, vowel sequences and final consonants are written with separate glyphs, so that both "atta" and "kaita" are written with three kana: あった ("a-t-ta") and かいた ("ka-i-ta"). It is therefore sometimes called a "moraic" writing system.


title: Syllabary

text: Languages that use syllabaries today tend to have simple phonotactics, with a predominance of monomoraic (CV) syllables. For example, the modern Yi script is used to write languages that have no diphthongs or syllable codas; unusually among syllabaries, there is a separate glyph for every consonant-vowel-tone combination (CVT) in the language (apart from one tone which is indicated with a diacritic).


title: Syllabary

text: Few syllabaries have glyphs for syllables that are not monomoraic, and those that once did have simplified over time to eliminate that complexity.


title: Syllabary

text: For example, the Vai syllabary originally had separate glyphs for syllables ending in a coda "(doŋ)," a long vowel "(soo)," or a diphthong "(bai)," though not enough glyphs to distinguish all CV combinations (some distinctions were ignored). The modern script has been expanded to cover all moras, but at the same time reduced to exclude all other syllables. Bimoraic syllables are now written with two letters, as in Japanese: diphthongs are written with the help of V or "h"V glyphs, and the nasal coda is written with the glyph for "ŋ", which can form a syllable of its own in Vai.


title: Syllabary

text: In Linear B, which was used to transcribe Mycenaean Greek, a language with complex syllables, complex consonant onsets were either written with two glyphs or simplified to one, while codas were generally ignored, e.g. "ko-no-so" for "Knōsos", "pe-ma" for "sperma."


title: Syllabary

text: The Cherokee syllabary generally uses dummy vowels for coda consonants, but also has a segmental grapheme for /s/, which can be used both as a coda and in an initial /sC/ consonant cluster.


title: Syllabary

text: The languages of India and Southeast Asia, as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages, have a type of alphabet called an "abugida" or "alphasyllabary". In these scripts, unlike in pure syllabaries, syllables starting with the same consonant are generally expressed with graphemes based in a regular way on a common graphical elements. Usually each character representing a syllable consists of several elements which designate the individual sounds of that syllable.


title: Syllabary

text: In the 19th century these systems were called "syllabics", a term which has survived in the name of Canadian Aboriginal syllabics (also an abugida).


title: Syllabary

text: In a true syllabary there may be graphic similarity between characters that share a common consonant or vowel sound, but it is not systematic or at all regular. For example, the characters for 'ke', 'ka', and 'ko' in Japanese hiragana have no similarity to indicate their common "k" sound (these being: け, か and こ). Compare this with Devanagari, an abugida, where the characters for 'ke', 'ka' and 'ko' are के, का and को respectively, with क indicating their common "k" sound.


title: Syllabary

text: English, along with many other Indo-European languages like German and Russian, allows for complex syllable structures, making it cumbersome to write English words with a syllabary. A "pure" syllabary based on English would require a separate glyph for every possible syllable. Thus one would need separate symbols for "bag", "beg", "big", "bog", "bug", "bad", "bed", "bid", "bod", "bud", "bead", "bide", "bode", etc. Since English has well over 10,000 different possibilities for individual syllables, a syllabary would be poorly suited to represent the English language. However, such pure systems are rare. A workaround to this problem, common to several syllabaries around the world (including English loanwords in Japanese), is to write an echo vowel, as if the syllable coda were a second syllable: "ba-gu" for "bag", etc.


title: Steve Burton (actor)

text: Steve Burton (born June 28, 1970) is an American actor, best known for his portrayal of Jason Morgan on "General Hospital" from 1991 to 2012 and 2017 to 2021, and Dylan McAvoy on "The Young and the Restless" from 2013 to 2017. He also voiced the character Cloud Strife in a wide range of Square Enix products, including "" and the "Kingdom Hearts" series. In 2017, Burton returned to "General Hospital" in the role of Jason Morgan using the alias of "Patient 6." In 2019, he also briefly stepped into the role of Jason's twin brother, Drew Cain (Billy Miller) in various flashbacks with Shiloh Archer (Coby Ryan McLaughlin).


title: Steve Burton (actor)

text: Burton got his break as surfer Chris Fuller on "Out of This World" in 1987, and later appeared as Harris Michaels on "Days of Our Lives" in 1988. In the 1990s he studied acting at Theater Theater in Hollywood, California and was coached by Jon Cedar and Chris Aable. Burton began playing Jason Morgan on the daytime soap opera "General Hospital" in 1991, and won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series in 1998. In 2007, Burton also appeared as Jason in the first season of "".


title: Steve Burton (actor)

text: Burton appeared in the science fiction miniseries "Taken" and in the movie "The Last Castle" in 2001 with Robert Redford and James Gandolfini. Additionally Burton is the voice actor of Cloud Strife in the "Kingdom Hearts" series and much of the "Compilation of Final Fantasy VII". He has voiced Cloud in the game "Kingdom Hearts" and its sequel, "Kingdom Hearts II". He is in the CGI movie "" and the video games "", "", "Dissidia Final Fantasy", and "Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy".


title: Steve Burton (actor)

text: On August 28, 2012, Burton confirmed that he would exit "General Hospital" in October. On January 29, 2013, he joined the cast of "The Young and the Restless" as Dylan McAvoy. On October 6, 2016, Burton announced via social media that he would not renew his deal with the soap and would exit the role of Dylan. He was subsequently awarded another Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor for his "The Young and the Restless" role in 2017. In June 2017, ABC Daytime announced that Burton would be returning to "General Hospital". In November 2021, Burton was fired from "General Hospital" due to his refusal to comply with the production's COVID-19 vaccine mandate. In April 2022, it was announced Burton had joined the cast of "" in his former "Days of Our Lives" role as Harris Michaels.


title: Steve Burton (actor)

text: Burton was born in Indianapolis, Indiana. He grew up in the Cleveland, Ohio, suburb of Richmond Heights before he moved to Hollywood. He graduated from Beverly Hills High School in Beverly Hills, California.


title: Steve Burton (actor)

text: Burton married Sheree Gustin on January 16, 1999. They have three children: two daughters and a son. In May 2022, Burton announced he and Gustin had separated and that he is not the father of the child Gustin is pregnant with. Burton filed for divorce in July 2022, citing March 1 as their date of separation and 'irreconcilable differences' as the reason for the divorce. Burton is seeking joint legal custody of the children he and Gustin share.


title: Steve Burton (actor)

text: Burton appeared on "High Stakes Poker" season three and donated his earnings to his fan club to build a clubhouse.


title: Monday.com

text: Monday.com (styled in lowercase as monday.com) is a cloud-based platform that allows users to create their own applications and project management software. The product was launched in 2014 and in July 2019, the company raised $150 million, based on a $1.9 billion valuation. The company went public in June 2021 and is based in Tel Aviv, Israel.


title: Monday.com

text: Monday.com was founded in 2012 by Roy Mann, Eran Kampf and Eran Zinman. By August of that year, the company, then called dapulse, raised $1.5 million in seed funding. The product was commercially launched in 2014. In June 2016, the company announced the closing of $7.6 million in a Series A round. The round was led by Genesis Partners, with participation from existing backer Entrée Capital. In April 2017, the company raised $25 million. The round was led by New York-based firm Insight Venture Partners, with participation from existing Series A investors Genesis Partners and Entrée Capital. In November 2017, the company changed its brand name from dapulse to Monday.com.


title: Monday.com

text: In July 2018, the company raised a $50 million Series C funding round. The round was led by New York-based growth equity firm, Stripes Group, with participation from existing Series A and B investors, Insight Venture Partners and Entrée Capital. In July 2019, the company announced it raised a $150 million Series D round, bringing total funding to $234.1 million. The round was led by Sapphire Ventures with participation from Hamilton Lane, HarbourVest Partners, ION Crossover Partners and Vintage Investment Partners. The funding gave the company a valuation of $1.9 billion, making it a unicorn. As of 2021, the company reported over it was serving 127,000 customers across over 200 business verticals. In May 2020 the company won the 2020 Webby Award for Productivity in the category Apps, Mobile & Voice. In May 2021, the company filed for a U.S. IPO. The company went public on June 10, 2021.


title: Monday.com

text: Monday.com is a customizable web and mobile work management platform, designed to help teams and organizations with operational efficiency by tracking projects and workflows, visualizing data, and team collaboration. It includes automation capabilities and supports integrations with other work apps.


title: Monday.com

text: Version 1 of Monday.com's API is a REST-based JSON API capable of handling cross-origin resource sharing (CORS) requests and uses an API Token as authentication.


title: Monday.com

text: Version 2 of their API is a GraphQL API that allows users to pull and/or alter data about users, updates, items, boards, tags and more.


title: Monday.com

text: In June 2020, Monday.com released its API to third-party developers. Monday.com's open API allows customers, partners or any third-party developer to build on top of the platform and extend its capabilities to fit the needs of different teams and organizations. Common use cases include custom views, dashboard widgets, automations, and integrations with other work apps.


title: Chris Terrio

text: Chris Terrio (born December 31, 1976) is an American screenwriter and film director. He is best known for writing the screenplay for the 2012 film "Argo", for which he won the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. Terrio also won the Writers Guild Award for Best Adapted Screenplay of 2012 and was nominated for Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay, a BAFTA, and the 2013 Los Angeles Film Critics Award for Best Adapted Screenplay for this work.


title: Chris Terrio

text: Terrio wrote the screenplay for "", the follow-up to Zack Snyder's "Man of Steel", based on an earlier draft by David S. Goyer, and is credited as co-writer for the 2017 film "Justice League", alongside Joss Whedon for the theatrical cut and Zack Snyder and Will Beall for the 2021 director's cut for Warner Bros. He completed another screenplay, "A Foreigner", based on an article by the journalist David Grann. Terrio also co-wrote the script for "" with director J. J. Abrams.


title: Chris Terrio

text: Terrio was raised in a Catholic family in Staten Island, and graduated from St. Joseph by the Sea High School. He is of Italian, Irish, and Acadian descent. He graduated in 1997 from Harvard University, where he studied English literature and German phenomenology, lived in Adams House, and participated in the Harvard Radcliffe Dramatic Club and the Hasty Pudding Theatricals.


title: Chris Terrio

text: Terrio attended University of Cambridge for his MLitt, but eventually decided to enroll in film school. He received his master's degree from the USC School of Cinematic Arts in 2002.


title: Chris Terrio

text: At age 26, Terrio directed the feature film "Heights" (Sony Pictures Classics, 2005), which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival. It follows a pivotal twenty-four hours in the interconnected lives of five New Yorkers. It stars Glenn Close, Elizabeth Banks, James Marsden and Jesse Bradford, and features Isabella Rossellini, George Segal and Rufus Wainwright in small roles. It was one of the final films produced by Ismail Merchant and Richard Hawley. The film won a "Best Independent Feature Film Casting" award from the Casting Society of America, USA in 2005.


title: Chris Terrio

text: In 2010, he directed the episode "I Look Like Frankenstein", which was Episode 8 in Season 3 of "Damages" on FX.


title: Chris Terrio

text: In 2002, he directed, wrote and produced a short film entitled "Book of Kings", which starred Aasif Mandvi among others. It premiered at the first annual Tribeca Film Festival in 2002.


title: Chris Terrio

text: Terrio wrote the script for "Argo", winning the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay for the screenplay, and the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. His screenplay was also nominated for Best Screenplay awards from the Golden Globes and the BAFTA Awards. For the "Argo" screenplay, he also won Best Screenplay or Best Adapted Screenplay honors from the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards, the Online Film Critics Society Awards, the Austin Film Critics Association, the Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards, the San Diego Film Critics Society Awards, the Southeastern Film Critics Association Awards, the 2013 University of Southern California (USC) Scripter Award, and the Kansas City Film Critics Circle Awards. He loosely adapted the screenplay based on a "Wired" article by Joshuah Bearman entitled "The Great Escape" and the memoir of Tony Mendez, "The Master of Disguise", supplementing that material with extensive research of his own.


title: Chris Terrio

text: Scene 58--nine men sitting in a conference room talking through scenarios for cover stories to get Americans out of Iran--was difficult. There's nothing to cut to except the actors' faces. The tension has to come from the subtle shifts of power. CIA and State Department officials debate ideas, each worse than the last. I knew the crucial beat would come when our hero, Tony Mendez, speaks up. He couldn't seem disrespectful, yet he had to make his case. I settled on the idea that Mendez would throw a spitball into the conversation with a joke about giving the bicycle escapees Gatorade. The table would go silent. The attention of the room would shift to the court jester. I also had to determine whether Gatorade was on the market and a commonly recognized brand in December 1979. I celebrated when I found a magazine from the year before featuring a dehydrated athlete with a Village People moustache: 'Gatorade: When You're Thirsty to Win.'


title: Chris Terrio

text: Terrio also had previously written the screenplays for two films he directed: the feature film "Heights", which screened at the Sundance Film Festival, and the award-winning short film "Book of Kings".


title: Chris Terrio

text: Terrio re-wrote David S. Goyer's script for Warner Bros.' "" (2016), and also wrote the screenplay for the ensemble film "Justice League" (2017). On January 30, 2017, it was announced that Terrio had performed a re-write on Ben Affleck's script for an untitled Batman movie, which Affleck co-wrote with DCEU co-runner and producer Geoff Johns.


title: Chris Terrio

text: Terrio has also been hired by Paramount Pictures and Indian Paintbrush to write the script for the drama "A Murder Foretold", based on an article in "The New Yorker" by David Grann related to a number of high-profile murders in Guatemala. Terrio hopes to direct his own screenplay.


title: Chris Terrio

text: Terrio has completed the adaptation of Harlan Coben's novel "Tell No One" for Warner Bros., with Ben Affleck being attached to direct. Guillaume Canet has already directed a French film in an independent adaptation of this novel.


title: Chris Terrio

text: In addition, Terrio wrote a screenplay for a film adaptation of "Richard II", which director James Ivory intends to film in 3D.


title: Chris Terrio

text: On September 12, 2017 it was announced that Terrio would be co-writing the script for "" with director J. J. Abrams. The film was released on December 20, 2019.


title: Chris Terrio

text: On May 20, 2020 it was announced that "Zack Snyder's Justice League" will be released on HBO Max in 2021. Terrio is credited with the screenplay and story.


title: Chris Terrio

text: He worked on the Ivory–Merchant films (directed by James Ivory) "Le Divorce" and "The Golden Bowl". He was also previously an assistant to Ivory.


title: Chris Terrio

text: Terrio also served as an assistant director on the short film "Equation", directed by Anuj Majumdar, and was also a grip on the short film "Awake", directed by Lori Lovoy-Goran. She won a DGA Student Film Award and a SXSW Competition Award for her documentary short film "In Between Days".


title: History of tobacco

text: Tobacco was long used in the early Americas. The arrival of Spain introduced tobacco to the Europeans, and it became a lucrative, heavily traded commodity to support the popular habit of smoking. Following the industrial revolution, cigarettes became hugely popular worldwide. In the mid-20th century, medical research demonstrated severe negative health effects of tobacco smoking including lung and throat cancer, which led to a sharp decline in tobacco use.


title: History of tobacco

text: Tobacco was first discovered by the native people of Mesoamerica and South America and later introduced to Europe and the rest of the world.


title: History of tobacco

text: Archeological finds indicate that humans in the Americas began using tobacco as far back as 12,300 years ago, thousands of years earlier than previously documented.


title: History of tobacco

text: Tobacco had already long been used in the Americas by the time European settlers arrived and took the practice to Europe, where it became popular. Eastern North American tribes have historically carried tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item, as well as smoking it in pipe ceremonies, whether for sacred ceremonies or those to seal a treaty or agreement.


title: History of tobacco

text: In addition to its use in spiritual and religious ceremonies, tobacco is also used for medical treatment of physical conditions. As a pain killer it has been used for earache and toothache and occasionally as a poultice. Some indigenous peoples in California have used tobacco as one ingredient in smoking mixtures for treating colds; usually it is mixed with the leaves of the small desert sage, "Salvia dorrii", or the root of Indian balsam or cough root, "Leptotaenia multifida" (the addition of which was thought to be particularly good for asthma and tuberculosis). In addition to its traditional medicinal uses, tobacco was also used as a form of currency between Native Americans and Colonists from the 1620s on.


title: History of tobacco

text: Religious use of tobacco is still common among many indigenous peoples, particularly in the Americas. Among the Cree and Ojibwe of Canada and the north-central United States, it is offered to the Creator, with prayers, and is used in sweat lodges, pipe ceremonies, and is presented as a gift. A gift of tobacco is traditional when asking an Ojibwe elder a question of a spiritual nature.


title: History of tobacco

text: Greek and Roman accounts exist of smoking hemp seeds, and a Spanish poem mentions the energetic effects of lavender smoke, but tobacco was completely unfamiliar to Europeans before the discovery of the New World. Bartolomé de las Casas described how the first scouts sent by Christopher Columbus into the interior of Cuba found:


title: History of tobacco

text: Following the arrival of Europeans, tobacco became one of the primary products fueling colonization, and also became a driving factor in the introduction of African slave labour. The Spanish introduced tobacco to Europeans in about 1528, and by 1533, Diego Columbus mentioned a tobacco merchant of Lisbon in his will, showing how quickly the traffic had sprung up. The French, Spanish, and Portuguese initially referred to the plant as the "sacred herb" because of its valuable medicinal properties.


title: History of tobacco

text: Jean Nicot, French ambassador in Lisbon, sent samples to Paris in 1559. Nicot sent leaves and seeds to Francis II and the King's mother, Catherine of Medici, with instructions to use tobacco as snuff. The king's recurring headaches (perhaps sinus trouble) were reportedly "marvellously cured" by snuff. (Francis II nevertheless died at seventeen years of age on 5 December 1560, after a reign of less than two years). French cultivation of "herbe de la Reine" (the queen's herb) began in 1560. By 1570 botanists referred to tobacco as "Nicotiana", although André Thevet claimed that he, not Nicot, had introduced tobacco to France; historians believe this unlikely, but Thevet was the first Frenchman to write about it.


title: History of tobacco

text: Swiss doctor Conrad Gesner in 1563 reported that chewing or smoking a tobacco leaf "has a wonderful power of producing a kind of peaceful drunkenness". In 1571, Spanish doctor Nicolas Monardes wrote a book about the history of medicinal plants of the new world. In this he claimed that tobacco could cure 36 health problems, and reported that the plant was first brought to Spain for its flowers, but "Now we use it to a greater extent for the sake of its virtues than for its beauty".


title: History of tobacco

text: John Hawkins was the first to bring tobacco seeds to England. William Harrison's "English Chronology" mentions tobacco smoking in the country as of 1573, before Sir Walter Raleigh brought the first "Virginia" tobacco to Europe from the Roanoke Colony, referring to it as "tobah" as early as 1578. In 1595 Anthony Chute published "Tabaco", which repeated earlier arguments about the benefits of the plant and emphasised the health-giving properties of pipe-smoking. A popular song of the early 1600s by Tobias Hume proclaimed that "Tobacco is Like Love".


title: History of tobacco

text: The importation of tobacco into England was not without resistance and controversy. Stuart King James I wrote a famous polemic titled "A Counterblaste to Tobacco" in 1604, in which the king denounced tobacco use as "[a] "custome lothsome to the eye, hatefull to the Nose, harmefull to the braine, dangerous to the Lungs, and in the blacke stinking fume thereof, neerest resembling the horrible Stigian smoke of the pit that is bottomelesse"." That year, an English statute was enacted that placed a heavy protective tariff on tobacco imports. The duty rose from 2p per pound to 6s 10p, a 40-fold increase, but English demand remained strong despite the high price; Barnabee Rych reported that 7,000 stores in London sold tobacco and calculated that at least 319,375 pounds sterling were spent on tobacco annually. Because the Virginia and Bermuda colonies' economies were affected by the high duty, James in 1624 instead created a royal monopoly. No tobacco could be imported except from Virginia, and a royal license that cost 15 pounds per year was required to sell it. To help the colonies, Charles II banned tobacco cultivation in England, but allowed herb gardens for medicinal purposes.


title: History of tobacco

text: Tobacco was introduced elsewhere in continental Europe more easily. Iberia exported "ropes" of dry leaves in baskets to the Netherlands and southern Germany; for a while tobacco was in Spanish called "canaster" after the word for basket ("canastro)", and influenced the German "Knaster". In Italy, Prospero Santacroce in 1561 and Nicolo Torbabuoni in 1570 introduced it to gardens after seeing the plant on diplomatic missions. Cardinal Crescenzio introduced smoking to the country in about 1610 after learning about it in England. The Roman Catholic Church did not condemn tobacco as James I did, but Pope Urban VIII threatened excommunication for smoking in a church.


title: History of tobacco

text: In Russia, tobacco use was banned in 1634 except for foreigners in Moscow. Peter the Great—who in England had learned of smoking and the royal monopoly—became the monarch in 1689, however. Revoking all bans, he licensed the Muscovy Company to import 1.5 million pounds of tobacco per year, with the Russian Crown receiving 28,000 pounds sterling annually.


title: History of tobacco

text: Tobacco first arrived in the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th century, where it attracted the attention of doctors and became a commonly prescribed medicine for many ailments. Although tobacco was initially prescribed as medicine, further study led to claims that smoking caused dizziness, fatigue, dulling of the senses, and a foul taste/odour in the mouth.


title: History of tobacco

text: Sultan Murad IV banned smoking in the Ottoman Empire in 1633. When the ban was lifted by his successor, Ibrahim the Mad, it was instead taxed. In 1682, Damascene jurist Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi declared: "Tobacco has now become extremely famous in all the countries of Islam ... People of all kinds have used it and devoted themselves to it ... I have even seen young children of about five years applying themselves to it." In 1750, a Damascene townsmen observed "a number of women greater than the men, sitting along the bank of the Barada River. They were eating and drinking, and drinking coffee and smoking tobacco just as the men were doing."


title: History of tobacco

text: Although "Nicotiana suaveolens" is native to Australia, tobacco smoking first reached that continent shores when it was introduced to northern-dwelling Indigenous communities by visiting Indonesian fishermen in the early 18th century. British patterns of tobacco use were transported to Australia along with the new settlers in 1788; and in the years following colonisation, British smoking behaviour was rapidly adopted by Indigenous people as well. By the early 19th century tobacco was an essential commodity routinely issued to servants, prisoners and ticket-of-leave men (conditionally released convicts) as an inducement to work, or conversely, withheld as a means of punishment.


title: History of tobacco

text: In Thirteen Colonies, where gold and silver were scarce, tobacco was used as a currency to trade with Native Americans, and sometimes for official purposes such as paying fines, taxes, and even marriage license fees.


title: History of tobacco

text: The demand and profitability of tobacco led to the shift in the colonies to a slave-based labor force, fueling the slave trade. Tobacco is a labor-intensive crop, requiring much work for its cultivation, harvest, and curing. With the profitability of the land rapidly increasing, it was no longer economically viable to bring in indentured servants with the promise of land benefits at the end of their tenure. By bringing African slaves instead, plantation owners acquired workers for long hours in the hot sun without paying them, providing only a bare subsistence to workers who could not leave or appeal to laws.


title: History of tobacco

text: The uncultivated Virginia soil was reportedly too rich for traditional European crops, especially cereals like barley. Tobacco "broke down the fields and made food crops more productive" by depleting the soil of nutrients.


title: History of tobacco

text: The cultivation of tobacco in America led to many changes. During the 1700s tobacco was a very lucrative crop due to its high demand in Europe. The climate of the Chesapeake area in America lent itself very nicely to the cultivation of tobacco. The high European demand for tobacco led to a rise in the value of tobacco. The rise of value of tobacco accelerated the economic growth in America. The cultivation of tobacco as a cash crop in America marks the shift from a subsistence economy to an agrarian economy. Tobacco's desirability and value led to it being used as a currency in colonies. Tobacco was also backed by the gold standard, with an established conversion rate from tobacco to gold.


title: History of tobacco

text: The increasing role of tobacco as a cash crop led to a shift in the labor force that would shape American life and politics up through the Civil war. In order to keep up with demand tobacco plantation owners had to abandon the traditional practice of indentured servitude in the Americas. In order to pursue maximum profits, the plantation owners turned to slavery to supply them with the cheap, fungible labor that they needed to keep up with increasing production.


title: History of tobacco

text: In the first few years of tobacco cultivation in the colonies, the plants were simply covered with hay and left in the field to cure or "sweat." This method was abandoned after 1618, when regulations prohibited the use of valuable potential animal food for such purposes. It was also abandoned because a better method of curing tobacco had been developed. In this new method the wilted leaves were hung on lines or sticks, at first outside on fence rails. Tobacco barns for housing the crop were in use by the 1620s.


title: History of tobacco

text: During the curing period, which lasted about four to six weeks, the color of the tobacco changed from a greenish yellow to a light tan. Mold was an immense danger during this time. Once again, a planter relied on his experience to know when the tobacco was ready to be removed from the sticks on which it hung, a process known as "striking."