title: Occipital bone

text: The number of nuclei for the occipital plane is usually given as four, two appearing near the middle line about the second month, and two some little distance from the middle line about the third month of fetal life.


title: Occipital bone

text: The nuchal plane of the squamous part is ossified from two centers, which appear about the seventh week of fetal life and soon unite to form a single piece.


title: Occipital bone

text: Union of the upper and lower portions of the squamous part takes place in the third month of fetal life.


title: Occipital bone

text: An occasional centre (Kerckring) appears in the posterior margin of the foramen magnum during the fifth month; this forms a separate ossicle (sometimes double) which unites with the rest of the squamous part before birth.


title: Occipital bone

text: Each of the lateral parts begins to ossify from a single center during the eighth week of fetal life. The basilar portion is ossified from two centers, one in front of the other; these appear about the sixth week of fetal life and rapidly coalesce.


title: Occipital bone

text: About the fourth year the squamous part and the two lateral parts unite, and by about the sixth year the bone consists of a single piece. Between the 18th and 25th years the occipital and sphenoid bone become united, forming a single bone.


title: Occipital bone

text: Trauma to the occiput can cause a fracture of the base of the skull, called a basilar skull fracture. The "basion-dens line" as seen on a radiograph is the distance between the basion and the top of the dens, used in the diagnosis of dissociation injuries.


title: Occipital bone

text: Genetic disorders can cause a prominent occiput as found in Edwards syndrome, and Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome.


title: Occipital bone

text: Occipital stems from Latin occiput "back of the skull", from ob "against, behind" + caput "head". Distinguished from sinciput (anterior part of the skull).


title: Occipital bone

text: In many animals these parts stay separate throughout life; for example, in the dog as four parts: squamous part (supraoccipital); lateral parts–left and right parts (exoccipital); basilar part (basioccipital).


title: Occipital bone

text: The occipital bone is part of the endocranium, the most basal portion of the skull. In Chondrichthyes and Agnatha, the occipital does not form as a separate element, but remains part of the chondrocranium throughout life. In most higher vertebrates, the foramen magnum is surrounded by a ring of four bones.


title: Occipital bone

text: The basioccipital lies in front of the opening, the two exoccipital condyles lie to either side, and the larger supraoccipital lies to the posterior, and forms at least part of the rear of the cranium. In many bony fish and amphibians, the supraoccipital is never ossified, and remains as cartilage throughout life. In primitive forms the basioccipital and exoccipitals somewhat resemble the centrum and neural arches of a vertebra, and form in a similar manner in the embryo. Together, these latter bones usually form a single concave circular condyle for the articulation of the first vertebra.


title: Occipital bone

text: In mammals, however, the condyle has divided in two, a pattern otherwise seen only in a few amphibians.


title: Occipital bone

text: Most mammals also have a single fused occipital bone, formed from the four separate elements around the foramen magnum, along with the paired postparietal bones that form the rear of the cranial roof in other vertebrates.


title: Indian Airlines

text: Indian Airlines was a division of Air India Limited. It was based in Delhi and focused primarily on domestic routes, along with several international services to neighbouring countries in Asia. It was a division of Air India Limited after merger of eight pre-Independence domestic airlines.


title: Indian Airlines

text: On 10 December 2005, the airline was rebranded as Indian for advertising purposes as a part of a program to revamp its image in preparation for an initial public offering (IPO). The airline operated closely with Air India, India's national overseas carrier. Alliance Air was a fully owned subsidiary of Indian.


title: Indian Airlines

text: In 2007, the Government of India announced that Indian Airlines would be merged into Air India Limited as its wholly owned subsidiary . As part of the merger process, a new company called the National Aviation Company of India Limited (now called Air India Limited) was established, into which both Air India (along with Air India Express) and Indian (along with Alliance Air) would be merged. Once the merger was completed, the airline – called Air India – would continue to be headquartered in Mumbai and would have a fleet of over 130 aircraft. The merger was completed on 26 February 2011.


title: Indian Airlines

text: The airline was set up under the "Air Corporations Act, 1953" with an initial capital of 32 million and started operations on 1 August 1953. It was established after legislation came into force to nationalise the entire airline industry in India. Two new national airlines were to be formed along the same lines as happened in the United Kingdom with British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) and British European Airways (BEA). Air India took over international routes and Indian Airlines Corporation (IAC) took over the domestic and regional routes.


title: Indian Airlines

text: Eight pre-Independence domestic airlines, Deccan Airways, Airways India, Bharat Airways, Himalayan Aviation, Kalinga Airlines, Indian National Airways and Air Services of India and the Domestic wing of Air India, were merged to form the new domestic national carrier Indian Airlines Corporation. International operations of Air India Ltd. was taken over by the newly formed Air India International. Indian Airlines Corporation inherited a fleet of 99 aircraft including 74 Douglas DC-3 Dakotas, 12 Vickers Vikings, 3 Douglas DC-4s and various smaller types from the seven airlines that made it up.


title: Indian Airlines

text: Vickers Viscounts were introduced in 1957 with Fokker F27 Friendships being delivered from 1961. The 1960s also saw Hawker Siddeley HS 748s, manufactured in India by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, join the fleet. The jet age began for IAC with the introduction of the pure-jet Sud Aviation Caravelle airliner in 1964, followed by Boeing 737-200s in the early 1970s. April 1976 saw the first three Airbus A300 wide-body jets being introduced. The regional airline, Vayudoot, which had been established in 1981, was later reintegrated. By 1988, Airbus A320-200s were introduced. The economic liberalisation process initiated by the Government of India in the early 1990s ended Indian Airlines' dominance of India's domestic air transport industry.


title: Indian Airlines

text: The Indian Government liberalised the private sector in mid 80s and with the emergence of new competitors, Indian Airlines faced tough competition from Jet Airways, Air Sahara, East-West Airlines, Skyline NEPC, and ModiLuft. Yet till 2005, Indian Airlines was the second-largest airline in India after Jet Airways while Air Sahara controlled 17% of the Indian aviation industry. During that time few other domestic carriers like East-West Airlines, Skyline NEPC and ModiLuft discontinued their flight operations.


title: Indian Airlines

text: Also during 1993 another government-established regional feeder airline called Vayudoot was merged with Indian Airlines but still operated as a standalone division until 1997 after which its entire flight operations were transferred to Indian Airlines and its employees absorbed into Indian Airlines and Air India.


title: Indian Airlines

text: Since 2003, the rise of low-cost domestic competitors Air Deccan, SpiceJet, IndiGo, GoAir and Kingfisher Airlines along with its low-cost arm Kingfisher Red led Indian to reduce air-fares. However, as of 2006, Indian Airlines was still a profit-making airline; in fact during 2004–2005 it made a record profit of . Indian Airlines Limited was partly owned by the Government of India (51% of share capital) through a holding company and had 19,300 employees as of March 2007. Its annual turn-over, together with that of its subsidiary Alliance Air, was well over (around ). Together with its subsidiary, Alliance Air, Indian Airlines carried a total of over 7.5 million passengers annually.


title: Indian Airlines

text: On 26 February 2011, Indian Airlines ceased operating under its own brand and codes and completed its merger with Air India.


title: Indian Airlines

text: The aircraft livery used while the company was called Indian Airlines was one of the longest in continuous use in the airline industry. The logo (IA) and the livery were designed by National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad. Its aircraft were mainly white, with the belly painted in light metallic grey. Above the windows, "Indian Airlines" was written in English on the starboard side and in Hindi on port side. The tail was bright orange, with its logo in white. In most of the aircraft, the logo was also painted on the engines over its bare metal colour. Also, when the company was under the title of Indian Airlines, to celebrate its 50th year of service the airline put the slogan "50 years of flying" in gold on many of their aircraft.


title: Indian Airlines

text: After the name change to "Indian", the company's aircraft sported a new look inspired by the Sun Temple at Konark in Odisha. The tail of their aircraft had a partial blue wheel since practically 3/4 of the remainder is cut off. The wheel is over an orange background with the carrier's name "Indian" written in English on one side of the fuselage, and in Hindi on the other. On 15 May 2007, the Government of India released the new merger livery, which was sent to Boeing in Seattle to repaint all the new fleet coming into the new Air India. Most of the old fleets of Air India and Indian Airlines have also been painted in the new livery.


title: Indian Airlines

text: Indian operated short-haul Airbus A320 family aircraft. It offered 2 classes on most sectors – Economy Class and Executive class. Economy class had a typical 3-3 seating on the Airbus aircraft. Passengers were offered complimentary meals. The Executive class seat configuration was 2–2 with a generous recline. Meals served were more lavish.


title: Indian Airlines

text: Given below is a chart of trend of profitability of Indian Airlines as published in the 2004 annual report by "Ministry of Civil Aviation" with figures in millions of Indian Rupees.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: The CAF Confederation Cup, known as the TotalEnergies CAF Confederation Cup for sponsorship purposes, is an annual association football club competition established in 2004 from a merger of the CAF Cup and the African Cup Winners' Cup and organized by CAF.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: Clubs qualify for the competition based on their performance in their national leagues and cup competitions. It is the second-tier competition of African club football, ranking below the CAF Champions League. The winner of the tournament faces the winner of the aforementioned competition in the following season's CAF Super Cup.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: Moroccan clubs have the highest number of victories (7 titles), followed by Tunisia with 5. Morocco have the largest number of winning teams, with five clubs from each having won the title. The competition has been won by 13 clubs, 5 of which have won it more than once. CS Sfaxien is the most successful club in the competition's history, having won the tournament a record 3 times. RS Berkane are the current defending champions, having beaten Orlando Pirates by penalties in the 2022 Final.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: In 2004, CAF merged the African Cup Winners' Cup created in 1975 with the CAF Cup introduced in 1992 to form a new competition called the Confederation Cup, which has since been considered the second African club competition.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: In the first edition, the Ghanaian club Hearts of Oak won the edition by beating another Ghanaian club, Asante Kotoko in the final on Penalties. The following year, Moroccan club AS FAR won the cup against Nigeria's Dolphin FC. In 2006, Tunisian club ES Sahel won the cup against Moroccan AS FAR (thanks to the away goals rule).


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: The Tunisian club CS Sfaxien won the cup in 2007 by beating the Sudanese Al Merreikh 5 goals to 2 in aggregate score (4-2, 1-0). The following season, CS Sfaxien again won the cup against another Tunisian club, ES Sahel. In 2009, Stade Malien won the edition by beating the Algerian club ES Sétif in the final, on penalties. The following season, the Moroccan club Fath Union Sport won the cup against Tunisian CS Sfaxien, winning the return match 3 to 2.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: In 2011, Moroccan club Maghreb Fès defeated Tunisia's Club Africain in the final, on penalties. The following year, Congolese club AC Léopards beat Malian club Djoliba AC in the final. The 2013 edition saw CS Sfaxien win against Congolese TP Mazembe. In 2014, the Egyptian club Al Ahly SC obtained its first confederation cup by beating the Ivorian club Séwé FC. In 2015, ES Sahel again won the cup by beating South African club Orlando Pirates. TP Mazembe achieved the double in 2016 and 2017, beating Algerian club MO Béjaïa and South African SuperSport United respectively.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: Moroccan club Raja CA won in 2018 against Congolese AS Vita Club. In 2019, Zamalek SC beat Moroccan RS Berkane in the final, on Penalties.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: In 2020 in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic, the matches were then played behind closed doors, the Moroccan club RS Berkane beat the Egyptians of Pyramids FC by the score of 1 to 0. Since this season, the final has been played in a single game. In 2021, the Moroccan club Raja CA won the cup for the second time by beating JS Kabylie in the final with a score of 2 to 1.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: In 2022, Moroccan club RS Berkane won the cup for the second time, beating South African club Orlando Pirates in the final on penalties.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: The competition is composed of domestic cup winners from all 54 CAF member associations and the third-placed-finished club in the domestic leagues of the top twelve-ranked associations discounting/excluding the present year/season.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: The competition begins with a preliminary round and then a first qualifying round played in a "trim-down" knock-out format with the away goals rule serving as tiebreakers. The sixteen teams eliminated from the first qualifying round of the CAF Champions League enter the second qualifying round of this competition, unless they are eliminated from there as well.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: The winners will face the CAF Champions League winners in the CAF Super Cup the following season on the former's home venue.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: In October 2004, MTN contracted a four-year deal to sponsor CAF's competitions worth US$12.5 million, which at that time was the biggest sponsorship deal in African sporting history.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: In 2008, CAF put a value of €100 million for a comprehensive and long-term package of its competitions when it opened tenders for a new sponsor, which was scooped up by French telecommunications giant Orange through the signing of an eight-year deal in July the following year, whose terms were not disclosed.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: On 21 July 2016, French energy and petroleum giant Total S.A. (renamed "TotalEnergies" in 2021) secured an eight-year sponsorship package from CAF to sponsor its competitions, beginning with its flagship competition, the Africa Cup of Nations.


title: CAF Confederation Cup

text: Each year, the winning team is presented with the African Champion Clubs' Cup, the current version of which has been awarded since the competition name change in 1997. Forty gold medals are presented to the competition winners and 40 silver medals to the runners-up.


title: Kailash Kher

text: Kailash Kher (born 7 July 1973) is an Indian music composer and singer. He sings songs with a music style influenced by Indian folk music and Sufi music. He was inspired by the classical musicians' Pandit Kumar Gandharva, Pandit Hridaynath Mangeshkar, Pandit Bhimsen Joshi, and the Qawwali singer Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan.[1]


title: Kailash Kher

text: Kailash Kher received the Padma Shri[2] award in 2017 from the Indian government. He has also received two Filmfare Awards for Best Male Playback Singer: one for the Hindi film "Fanaa" (2006) and one for the Telugu film "Mirchi" (2013), along with several other nominations.


title: Kailash Kher

text: Kher was born on 7 July 1973 in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India in a Kashmiri family. His father Mehar Singh Kher was a traditional folk singer. Kher's first brush with music came in his childhood. Brought up in a musical atmosphere, from his school days, he was enchanted and fascinated by music and used to listen to his father's Indian folks songs all day.


title: Kailash Kher

text: Even as a four-year-old, Kher displayed natural musical talent and would often impress friends and family by belting out songs with his prematurely powerful voice.


title: Kailash Kher

text: At the age of 14, Kher left home in search of a guru or an institution to further his musical training, and he embarked on years of classical and folk music study. According to him, "it was because I wanted to pursue my passion for music. It required me to stay in isolation". He also attended music classes and would teach students for just ₹150 per session to maintain himself, taking care of all his personal expenses from lodging to food, plus his education and musical expenses. Although he couldn't find the right guru or a school, Kher started learning music by listening to it. He listened to Indian classical singers like Pandit Gokulotsav Ji Maharaj, Pandit Kumar Gandharv, Pandit Bhimsen Joshi, and later even Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Lata Mangeshkar, and their contemporaries.


title: Kailash Kher

text: He then experimented with a family friend's Indian handicraft export business until 1999. However, when the business collapsed, he became depressed and even attempted suicide in early 1999. He went to Singapore and Thailand, and stayed there for six months.


title: Kailash Kher

text: Later, after relocating to Delhi with his family, he graduated from Delhi University through the correspondence program.


title: Kailash Kher

text: In 2001, Kher left Delhi for Mumbai, the center of India's highly competitive music industry, as a professional singer. For a while, Kher struggled, living in cheap hostels and doing whatever musical work he could find to make ends meet.


title: Kailash Kher

text: Kher had to struggle to get a chance in Bollywood. He got an opportunity to sing a song for the movie "Andaaz". In this movie, his song "Rabba Ishq Na Hove" became more popular. His song "Allah ke Bande" from the obscure movie "Waisa Bhi Hota Hai Part II" became very popular and this song made him a popular singing star in Bollywood.


title: Kailash Kher

text: He sang a number of the songs in the Bollywood film , in which he had a cameo appearance. His other famous song is "O Sikander" from "Corporate". The song "Teri Deewani" from the album of the same name by his band Kailasa and the song "Ya Rabba" from the movie had record sales. He got an opportunity to sing for the film . In the film, his song "" and "Jal rahi hai chita" became more popular.


title: Kailash Kher

text: Kher has a uniquely soulful, raw and high-pitched voice. I remember how I first heard of him. I had asked Mehboob, our lyricist, for a new voice that is earthy and strong, and he said, I have just the person for you. That voice can only be that of Kailash! And he sent Kailash to meet me. The moment I heard him, I knew that there was a voice that was so wonderful, and which had its own unique space... I want to say that Kailash Kher's voice has something that had been lacking a lot – it had pure soul! Allah Ke Bande is one of my all-time favorite songs.


title: Kailash Kher

text: Kher has a raw, soulful, fresh, high-pitched and sharp voice. Unlike others, [] he mainly sings Ghazal, Sufi, Qawwali, folk and other devotional songs. He has been greatly influenced by classical singers including Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Lata Mangeshkar, Pandit Kumar Gandharva,Bal Gandharva, Hridaynath Mangeshkar and Pandit Bhimsen Joshi etc.


title: Kailash Kher

text: He can sing in a wide vocal range from high to low-pitched songs. His songs have been famous for their unique, soulful music and classical lyrics. Kher is the only singer in India, [] who often includes classical lyrics and folk language in his solo albums and films. Most of his film or non-film albums include romantic tracks with a touch of classical music, lyrics and traditional languages.


title: Kailash Kher

text: He has given music scores for numerous movies like "Chandni Chowk To China", "Dasvidaniya", "Sacred Evil", "Sangini", "Desi Kattey" etc. He has also penned lyrics in a few movies like "Chandni Chowk To China", "Dasvidaniya", "Kaal" and "Traffic Signal".[1]


title: Kailash Kher

text: By 2014, he had sung in more than 20 Indian languages including Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Oriya, Bengali, Sindhi, Bhojpuri, Gujarati, Marathi, Punjabi, Konkani, Rajasthani, etc. for Indian films and more than 500 songs for the Hindi film industry and recorded more than one thousand radio and television advertising jingles.[2][3]


title: Kailash Kher

text: He has also ventured into the Kannada film industry. His hits from Kannada films include the songs "Hale Patre" from the movie "Junglee" and "Ekka Raaja Raani" from the movie "Jackie".


title: Kailash Kher

text: He has composed and sung the title track of Star Plus's serial "Diya Aur Baati Hum" along with "Shubha Mudgal". He has also sung the title track of Colors serial "Udaan" along with the anthem for Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, the national campaign for cleaning India.


title: Kailash Kher

text: He formed Kailasa in Mumbai in 2004, with Mumbai-based musician brothers, Paresh Kamath and Naresh Kamath, whom he met in Mumbai.[1]


title: Kailash Kher

text: The band's first album, "Kailasa", released in March 2006, went on to revive the Indian pop music market. [] The album was an immediate smash hit. []


title: Kailash Kher

text: Their second album, "Jhoomo Re", released in May 2007, went on to be an equally smash hit. [] With songs like "Saiyaan" and "Agad Bamm" touch the right chords with Indian as well as international audiences. []


title: Kailash Kher

text: Kailasa's third album, "Chandan mein" released in June 2009, was yet another smash hit! [] He made his first international album on the acclaimed independent record label Cumbancha.[2]


title: Kailash Kher

text: He released his fourth album, "Rangeele", which was released by his own company Kailasa Records in January 2012. This album was widely acclaimed amongst the fans of Kailasa and was critically acclaimed worldwide. []


title: Kailash Kher

text: Kher has also sung a non-filmy Nepali pop songs such as "Phool Ko Thunga" and "Bolnai parcha bhanne K cha ra" from the album called "Only Love" in 2011.


title: Kailash Kher

text: 2016 marks the return of Kher with his brand-new melodies, Ishq Anokha. This album, self-produced and distributed by SaReGaMa was a chartbuster shortly after its launch. Ishq Anokha comprises eight fresh numbers as 'Ishq Anokha', 'O Jogi', 'Meharbani Teri', 'Berukhiyaan', 'Vaari Vaari', 'Guru Ghantal', 'Turiya Turiya' and an electro version of the track 'Vaari Vaari'. The album had to be launched thrice, in 3 different metropolitan cities, Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata


title: Kailash Kher

text: He has not only performed for the southeast Asian diaspora but also international audiences in festivals and venues such as GlobalFest at New York's Webster Hall, Kennedy Center (Washington D.C.), Stern Grove Festival (San Francisco), Celebrate Brooklyn, Santa Monica Pier Festival (LA), Fillmore Center (San Francisco), Hollywood Bowl (LA), Hammersmith Apollo (London), Symphony Hall (Birmingham), Massey Hall (Toronto).[1]


title: Kailash Kher

text: In 2007, he participated in a concert tour in North America entitled "The Incredibles", also starring Asha Bhosle, Sonu Nigam, and Kunal Ganjawala. In March 2011, Kailasa performed at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C., as part of the Maximum India festival.[2] Kher performed at the closing ceremony of the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi.[3]


title: Kailash Kher

text: He has appeared in various television shows, including Wind of Change (Bangladesh) (Gaan Bangla),[1] Saregamapa Li'l Champs (Zee TV), Mission Ustaad (9X), "Indian Idol 4" (Sony), IPL Rockstar (Colors) and Rock On (MTV).[2][3] In 2009, Kher appeared in "Indian Idol 4" as a judge along with Javed Akhtar, Sonali Bendre, and Anu Malik.


title: Kailash Kher

text: In 2013, Kher collaborated with singer Shreya Ghoshal for the first time for a mission titled 'The Project Resound: Upgrade your Ears', in which Kher wrote, composed, and invited Shreya to sing along to a song named "Naina Chaar". This online initiative by Sony Music India aimed to make people aware of the rising technological advancement in the field of music, which may make it difficult to distinguish between noise and music. The project also promoted the use of Sony headphones.[4][5]


title: Kailash Kher

text: On 15 March 2014, Kher appeared in the celebrity talk show Comedy Nights with Kapil, on the special occasion of Holi celebrations.


title: Kailash Kher

text: Kher was accused of sexual misconduct by multiple women during the Indian Me Too movement in 2018.[8][9]


title: Kailash Kher

text: In 2011, He composed a song called "Ambar Tak Yehi Naad Goonjega" for the anti-corruption movement led by "Anna Hazare" which is popularly known as the "India Against Corruption Movement". Kailash didn't charge a professional fee for singing this song.[10]


title: Kailash Kher

text: He lends his voice to the Clean India Mission theme song, ' Swachha Bharat Ka Irada Kar Liya Humne',[11] which is lyrical Prasoon Joshi. Taking forward the Clean India Mission, Kher visited several places in PM's parliamentary constituency drawing praise from Narendra Modi.


title: Kailash Kher

text: "Bravo @kailashkher! I congratulate you for joining Swachh Bharat Mission in Varanasi. An admirable effort," the Prime Minister tweeted.""[12]


title: Kailash Kher

text: Kher also did a viral video campaign called #KyaKisikoPadiHai along with Jose Covaco as a part of the Swachh Bharat Mission. The campaign was directed by Harnish Ambaliya.[13]


title: Kailash Kher

text: Kher was also invited by the PM to accompany him on his first USA tour, where they performed at the SAP center community reception in San Jose, California on 27 September'15.[14]


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Winchester is the most north western independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. It is the county seat of Frederick County, although the two are separate jurisdictions. The Bureau of Economic Analysis combines the city of Winchester with surrounding Frederick County for statistical purposes. As of the 2020 census, the city's population was 28,120.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Winchester is the principal city of the Winchester, Virginia–West Virginia, metropolitan statistical area, which is a part of the Baltimore–Washington metropolitan area. Winchester is home to Shenandoah University and the Museum of the Shenandoah Valley.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Indigenous peoples lived along the waterways of present-day Virginia for thousands of years before European contact. Archeological, linguistic and anthropological studies have provided insights into their cultures. Though little is known of specific tribal movements before European contact, the Shenandoah Valley area, considered a sacred common hunting ground, appears by the 17th century to have been controlled mostly by the local Iroquoian-speaking groups, including the Senedo and Sherando.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: The Algonquian-speaking Shawnee began to challenge the Iroquoians for the hunting grounds later in that century. The explorers Batts and Fallam in 1671 reported the Shawnee were contesting with the Iroquoians for control of the valley and were losing. During the later Beaver Wars, the powerful Iroquois Confederacy from New York (particularly Seneca from the western part of the territory) subjugated all tribes in the frontier region west of the Fall Line.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: By the time European settlers arrived in the Shenandoah Valley around 1729, the Shawnee were the principal occupants in the area around Winchester. During the first decade of white settlement, the valley was also a conduit and battleground in a bloody intertribal war between the Seneca and allied Algonquian Lenape from the north, and their distant traditional enemies, the Siouan Catawba in the Carolinas. The Iroquois Six Nations finally ceded their nominal claim to the Shenandoah Valley at the Treaty of Lancaster (1744). The treaty also established the right of colonists to use the Indian Road, later known as the Great Wagon Road.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: The father of the historical Shawnee chief Cornstalk had his court at Shawnee Springs (near today's Cross Junction, Virginia) until 1754. In 1753, on the eve of the French and Indian War (Seven Years' War), messengers came to the Shawnee from tribes further west, inviting them to leave the Valley and cross the Alleghenies, which they did the following year. The Shawnee settled for some years in the Ohio Country before being forced by the US government under Indian Removal in the 1830s to remove to Indian Territory.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Winchester had a notable role as a frontier city in those early times. The Governor of Virginia, as well as the young military commander George Washington, met in the town with their Iroquois allies (called the "Half-Kings"), to coordinate maneuvers against the French and their Native American allies during the French and Indian War.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: French Jesuit expeditions may have first entered the valley as early as 1606, as the explorer Samuel de Champlain made a crude map of the area in 1632. The first confirmed exploration of the northern valley was by the explorer John Lederer, who viewed the region from the current Fauquier and Warren County line on August 26, 1670. In 1705 the Swiss explorer Louise Michel and in 1716 Governor Alexander Spotswood did more extensive mapping and surveying.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: In the late 1720s, Governor William Gooch promoted settlement by issuing large land grants. Robert "King" Carter, manager of the Lord Fairfax proprietorship, acquired . This combination of events directly precipitated an inrush of settlers from Pennsylvania and New York, made up of a blend of Quakers and German and Scots-Irish homesteaders, many of them new immigrants. The Scots-Irish comprised the most numerous group of immigrants from the British Isles before the American Revolutionary War.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: The settlement of Winchester began as early as 1729, when Quakers such as Abraham Hollingsworth migrated up (south) the Great Valley along the long-traveled Indian Path (later called the Great Wagon Road by the colonists) from Pennsylvania. He and others began to homestead on old Shawnee campgrounds. Tradition holds that the Quakers purchased several tracts on Apple-pie Ridge from the natives, who did not disturb those settlements.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: The first German settler appears to have been Jost Hite in 1732, who brought ten other families, including some Scots-Irish. Though Virginia was an Anglican colony, Governor William Gooch had a tolerant policy on religion. The availability of land grants brought in many religious families, who were often given plots through the sponsorship of fellow-religious grant purchasers and speculators. As a result, the Winchester area became home to some of the oldest Presbyterian, Quaker, Lutheran and Anglican churches in the valley. The first Lutheran worship was established by Rev. John Casper Stoever Jr., and Alexander Ross established Hopewell Meeting for the Quakers. By 1736, Scots-Irish built the Opequon Presbyterian Church in Kernstown.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: A legal fight erupted in 1735 when Thomas Fairfax, Sixth Lord Fairfax came to Virginia to claim his land grant. It included "all the land in Virginia between the Rappahannock and the Potomac rivers", an old grant from King Charles II which overlapped and included Frederick County. It took some time for land titles to be cleared among early settlers.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: By 1738 these settlements became known as Frederick Town. The county of Frederick was carved out of Orange County. The first government was created, consisting of a County Court as well as the Anglican Frederick Parish (for purposes of tax collection). Colonel James Wood, an immigrant from Winchester, England, was the first court clerk and had been a surveyor for Orange County, Virginia. He contracted for his own home Glen Burnie homstead around 1737, and it may have been used for early government business. Wood laid out 26 half-acre (2,000 m²) lots in 1744. The County Court held its first session on November 11, 1743, where James Wood served until 1760. Lord Fairfax, understanding that possession is 9/10ths of the law, built a home here (in present-day Clarke County) in 1748.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: In February 1752, the Virginia House of Burgesses granted the fourth city charter in Virginia to 'Winchester' as Frederick Town was renamed after Colonel Wood's birthplace in England. In 1754, Abraham Hollingsworth built the local residence called Abram's Delight, which served as the first local Quaker meeting house. George Washington spent a good portion of his young life in Winchester helping survey the Fairfax land grant for Thomas Fairfax, Sixth Lord Fairfax, as well as performing surveying work for Colonel Wood. In 1758 Wood added 158 lots to the west side of town. In 1759 Thomas Lord Fairfax contributed 173 more lots to the south and east.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: General Edward Braddock's expeditionary march to Fort Duquesne crossed through this area in 1755 on the way to Fort Cumberland. Knowing the area well from work as a surveyor, George Washington accompanied General Braddock as his aide-de-camp. Resident Daniel Morgan joined Braddock's Army as a wagoner on its march to Pennsylvania.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: In 1756, on land granted by James Wood, Colonel George Washington designed and began constructing Fort Loudoun, which ultimately covered in present-day downtown Winchester on North Loudoun Street. Fort Loudoun was occupied and manned with guns until the start of the American Revolutionary War.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: During this era, a jail was built in Winchester. It occasionally held Quakers from many parts of Virginia who protested the French and Indian War and refused to pay taxes to the Anglican parish. While their cousins in Pennsylvania dominated politics there, Virginia was an Anglican colony and did not tolerate pacifism well. The strong Quaker tradition of pacifism against strong Virginia support for this war and the next, led to long-term stifling of the Quaker population. Winchester became a gateway to Quaker settlements further west; by the mid-19th century, the Quaker population was a small minority here.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: During the war in 1758, at the age of 26, Colonel George Washington was elected to represent Frederick County to the House of Burgesses. Daniel Morgan later served as a ranger protecting the borderlands of Virginia against Indian raids, returning to Winchester in 1759. Following the war, from 1763 to 1774 Daniel Morgan served in Captain Ashby's company and defended Virginia against Pontiac's Rebellion and Shawnee Indians in the Ohio valley (that part now in West Virginia).


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: During the Revolutionary War, the Virginia House of Burgesses chose local resident and French and Indian War veteran Daniel Morgan to raise a company of militia to support General George Washington's efforts during the Siege of Boston. He led the 96 men of "Morgan's Sharpshooters" from Winchester on July 14, 1775, and marched to Boston in 21 days. Morgan, Wood, and others also performed duties in holding captured prisoners of war, particularly Hessian soldiers.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Hessian soldiers were known to walk to the high ridge north and west of town, where they could purchase and eat apple pies made by the Quakers. The ridge became affectionately known as Apple Pie Ridge. The Ridge Road built before 1751 leading north from town was renamed Apple Pie Ridge Road. The local farmers found booming business in feeding the Virginia Militia and fledgling volunteer American army.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Following the war, the town's first newspapers, "The Gazette" and "The Centinel", were established. Daniel Morgan continued his public service, being elected to one term in the U.S. House of Representatives (1797–1799).


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Winchester and the surrounding area were the site of numerous battles during the American Civil War, as the Confederate and Union armies strove to control that portion of the Shenandoah Valley. Seven major battlefields are in the original Frederick County:


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Winchester was a key strategic position for the Confederate States Army during the war. It was an important operational objective in Gen Joseph E. Johnston's and Col Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson's defense of the Shenandoah Valley in 1861, Jackson's Valley Campaign of 1862, the Gettysburg Campaign of 1863, and the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Including minor cavalry raids and patrols, and occasional reconnaissances, historians claim that Winchester changed hands as many as 72 times and 13 times in one day. Battles raged along Main Street at points in the war. Union General Sheridan and Stonewall Jackson located their headquarters just one block apart at times.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: At the north end of the lower Shenandoah Valley, Winchester was a base of operations for major Confederate invasions into the Northern United States. At times the attacks threatened the capital of Washington, D.C. The town served as a central point for troops conducting major raids against the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, and turnpike and telegraph paths along those routes and the Potomac River Valley. For instance, in 1861, Stonewall Jackson removed 56 locomotives and over 300 railroad cars, along with miles of track, from the B&O Railroad. His attack closed down the B&O's main line for ten months. Much of the effort to transport this equipment by horse and carriage centered in Winchester.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Major General Sheridan raided up the valley from Winchester, where his forces destroyed "2,000 barns filled with grain and implements, not to mention other outbuildings, 70 mills filled with wheat and flour" and "numerous head of livestock," to lessen the area's ability to supply the Confederates.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Numerous local men served with the Confederate Army, mostly as troops. Dr. Hunter McGuire was Chief Surgeon of the Second "Jackson's" Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia. He laid the foundations for the future Geneva conventions regarding the treatment of medical doctors during warfare. Winchester served as a major center for Confederate medical operations, particularly after the Battle of Sharpsburg in 1862 and the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Among those who took part in battles at Winchester were future U.S. presidents McKinley and Hayes, both as officers in the Union IX Corps.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Today, Winchester has extensive resources for Civil War enthusiasts. For instance, there are remains of several Civil War-era forts:


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Jubal Early Drive, which curves south of downtown Winchester, was the central location for many of the battles.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: The United States assigned military presence to Winchester and other parts of the South during Reconstruction after the war. Winchester was part of the First Military District, commanded by Major General John Schofield. This period lasted until January 26, 1870.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Winchester was the first city south of the Potomac River to install electric light. In 1917 the Winchester and Western Railroad connected Winchester with Rock Enon Springs, moving both vacationers and supplies to the resort that is now Camp Rock Enon with far greater speed. Winchester is the location of the bi-annual N-SSA national competition, keeping the tradition of Civil War era firearms alive. A three-block section of downtown Loudoun Street was closed to vehicular traffic in the 1970s and is a popular pedestrian area featuring many boutiques and cafés. The street was repaved with brick and landscaped in 2013. Apple Blossom Mall opened in 1982.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: In 1983, a tire dump in the area containing over seven million tires burned for nine months, polluting nearby areas with lead and arsenic. The location was cleaned up as a Superfund project between 1983 and 2002.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: In addition to the sites on the National Register of Historic Places, the following historic sites are in Winchester:


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: It is in the Shenandoah Valley, located between the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Allegheny Mountains, and is 15 miles north-northeast of the northern peak of Massanutten Mountain. I-81 passes through the city, along with US 50, US 522, US 17, which ends in the city, and SR 7, which also ends in the city. The city is approximately to the west of Washington, D.C., south of Martinsburg, West Virginia, north of Front Royal, south of Harrisburg, PA and north of Roanoke.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Winchester has depending on which isotherm is used, either a humid continental climate or a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps. The hardiness zone is 6b.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: "Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race."


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: As of the census of 2016, the population of Winchester was 27,516. The number of people per square mile was 2957.1/mi(1141.7/km). There were 11,907 housing units at an average density of 1279.6 houses per square mile (494.1/km). The racial makeup of the city was 81.1% White alone, 11.7% African American, 0.9% Native American, 2.8% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.46% from other races, and 3.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 16.8% of the population.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: There were 10,596 households with an average of 2.49 persons per household. 18.5% of these households spoke a language other than English in the home. The estimated house or condo value was $230,125. The median gross rent was $1,036.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: In 2014 The median age of the population was 37.6 years. 48.6% of the population was male vs 51.4% being female. For every 100 females, there were 94.6 males.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: The median income for a household (from 2012 to 2016) in the city was $46,466, while the per capita income was $26,984. An estimated 15% of the population was below the poverty line. As of September 2015 the unemployment rate was 3.9%


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Of those 25 years of age or older, 83.5% of the population had earned a high school degree or higher from 2012 to 2016, with


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Winchester is the location of the annual Shenandoah Apple Blossom Festival, which has existed since 1924. It is usually held during the first weekend in May. The festival includes a carnival, firework show, parades, several dances and parties, and a coronation where the Apple Blossom Queen is crowned. Local school systems and many businesses close the Friday of Apple Blossom weekend.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Winchester has more than 20 different "artistic" apples that are made of various materials including wood, rubber pipe, plaster, and paint. These apples were created in 2005 by occupants of the city, and were placed at a specific location at the artists' request after being auctioned off. For example, a bright red apple with a large stethoscope attached to it was placed beside a much-used entrance to the Winchester Medical Center.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Federal agencies with operations in Winchester include the Federal Emergency Management Agency, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the United States Army Corps of Engineers.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Winchester was home to Capitol Records' East Coast Pressing Plant. Capitol Records Distribution Corporation announced in 1968 the purchasing of land in Winchester, Va for a new record processing plant. Along with this plant they built several houses, bought a few small business and later built a tape production plant. The Winchester plant began construction in 1968 and production in 1969. The plant initially had a workforce of 250 people. This plant complemented the other existing manufacturing facilities of Capitol Records in Scranton, PA, Jacksonville, FL and Los Angeles, CA.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: In 1969 Capitol Records' Pressing Plant in Scranton began phasing out its vinyl manufacturing in favor of the new Winchester plant. Records pressed here include the Beatles' "Abbey Road", Simon and Garfunkel's "The Concert in Central Park" and Richard Pryor's self-titled album. Capitol Records announced in late 1987 that it would end tape duplicating production in the US, in favor of offshore manufacturing, including in Winchester by early 1988, putting more than 500 employees out of work when they closed the Winchester plant.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: According to the City's 2016 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Winchester is home to the Winchester Royals, which is part of the Valley Baseball League, a National Collegiate Athletic Association-sanctioned collegiate summer baseball league in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Shenandoah University is located in Winchester and has numerous male and female sports in the Old Dominion Athletic Conference. Winchester is also home to the Winchester Speedway, a 3/8 mile clay oval track, which plays host to a number of touring series, such as the World of Outlaws Late Model Series, and the Lucas Oil Late Model Dirt Series.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: The most prominent highway serving Winchester is Interstate 81. I-81 extends northeast to southwest, connecting Winchester to eastern Tennessee, southwestern Virginia, eastern West Virginia, western Maryland and central Pennsylvania. Other highways passing through Winchester include U.S. Route 11, U.S. Route 17, U.S. Route 50 and U.S. Route 522. These four highways follow city streets through downtown Winchester, with U.S. Route 17 coming to its northern terminus. Virginia State Route 7 also serves Winchester, terminating in downtown. Virginia State Route 37 bypasses the city to the west.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Winchester's first sister city, Winchester, England, is where the Virginia town gets its name. During the Eisenhower administration, Winchester also formalized a sister city relationship with Ambato, Ecuador.


title: Winchester, Virginia

text: Winchester's follows a Council-Manager form of government. It is governed by the Common Council, an elected body within a ward system. The city is composed of four wards, each with 2 councilmen, with the city's mayor serving as the ninth representative and leader of the council. While the council began as a 13-member board, it transitioned from 13 to 9, beginning in 2006 and ending in 2008.


title: Reise, Reise

text: Reise, Reise (; a German "military wake-up call", literally "(a)rise, (a)rise") is the fourth studio album by Neue Deutsche Härte band Rammstein. It was released on 27 September 2004 through Universal Music in Germany and followed shortly by its release across Europe. It was later released in North America through Republic Records on 16 November 2004. Recorded in a span of two years at El Cortijo Studios in Málaga, Spain, the album was produced by the band themselves along with Swedish record producer Jacob Hellner.


title: Reise, Reise

text: The album charted in the top ten in several European charts and was a number one hit in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Iceland, Finland, Estonia and Mexico. As of February 2006, the album has shipped 1.5 million copies globally. Four singles were released from the album: "Mein Teil", "Amerika", "Ohne dich", and "Keine Lust". The follow-up album, "Rosenrot", contains six outtakes from "Reise, Reise" and some new tracks. It was originally intended to be titled "Reise, Reise, Vol. II" and uses the Arctic-themed artwork from the Japanese release of "Reise, Reise".


title: Reise, Reise

text: The album was recorded at El Cortijo Studio in Málaga, Spain, and produced by Jacob Hellner and Rammstein. The band recorded several songs during the sessions for "Reise, Reise" which were omitted from the album's final track listing and were later released on their follow-up album "Rosenrot". A statement from the band's management regarding the upcoming collection reads as follows:


title: Reise, Reise

text: The album is based on the crash of Japan Airlines Flight 123 on the evening of 12 August 1985. Twelve minutes into its flight, the Boeing 747 suffered an explosive decompression due to failure of its rear pressure bulkhead, caused by a faulty repair 7 years earlier. The explosion tore off most of the aircraft's vertical stabilizer and ruptured all four of the hydraulic systems, causing the loss of all flight control surfaces and rendering the aircraft uncontrollable. The pilots fought to keep the aircraft aloft for nearly 32 minutes, but eventually became trapped in the towering mountain ranges surrounding Mount Fuji and crashed, killing 520 out of the 524 passengers and crew on board. It remains the deadliest single-aircraft disaster in history. Some pressings of the album contain a recording of the last 30 seconds of the flight as an easter egg hidden in the pregap.


title: Reise, Reise

text: The album "revels in the type of paradoxical, multi-faceted existentialism which comes second nature to Germans but is persistently untranslatable to Americans" and it opens with the track "Reise, Reise" which means "journey, journey" or "rise, rise", and "we are immediately put on notice that this particular journey will be a grim and harrowing one, leavened by German existentialism in the grand tradition of Mann and Goethe." The references to Goethe come in "Dalai Lama", a modern version of Goethe's poem "Der Erlkönig", set in an aeroplane rather than on a horse; the title is claimed to be a reference to the 14th Dalai Lama's fear of flying, while a more sound point of view is a reference to the serfdom in Tibet.


title: Reise, Reise

text: The song "Amerika" deals with the worldwide political and cultural imperialism of the United States of America. The song's two verses are sung in German with a chorus in English: "We're all living in Amerika, Amerika ist wunderbar, We're all living in Amerika, Amerika, Amerika." The band views it as a satirical commentary on "Americanization", and it features mentions of Coca-Cola, Mickey Mouse, and Santa Claus.


title: Reise, Reise

text: The song "Mein Teil" is about Armin Meiwes, a man who achieved international notoriety for killing and eating a voluntary victim whom he had found via the Internet. After Meiwes and the victim jointly attempted to eat the victim's severed penis, Meiwes killed his victim and proceeded to eat a large amount of his flesh. Because of his acts, Meiwes is also known as the "Rotenburg Cannibal" or "Der Metzgermeister" (The Master Butcher). According to Rammstein's bassist Oliver Riedel, the song came about after "one of our members brought a newspaper to rehearsal and it had a story about the cannibal guy in it. We were fascinated, shocked and amused at the same time." Vocalist Till Lindemann stated, "It's so sick that it becomes fascinating and there just has to be a song about it". "Mein Teil" attracted controversy in Germany; the media dubbed it the "Kannibalensong" (cannibal song), which helped to boost it to second place in the German music charts after its release in early August 2004. Remixes of the song were done by Arthur Baker and the Pet Shop Boys. At the beginning of the song in the video, the phrase "Suche gut gebauten Achtzehn- bis Dreißigjährigen zum Schlachten – Der Metzgermeister" ("Looking for a well built 18 to 30-year-old to be slaughtered – The Master Butcher") is spoken, voiced by Ollie, although the album version of the song does not have this beginning. The quote is taken from an online post by Armin Meiwes.


title: Reise, Reise

text: "Ohne dich" ("Without You") is a power ballad. It is seen as expressing mourning over the loss of a loved person. It follows a slow, even romantic ballad style. The central motif is "Without you, I cannot be..., With you, I am alone also..." The song was also remixed by Slovenian avant-garde band Laibach.


title: Reise, Reise

text: "Los" is a German suffix meaning "-less" (as in "meaningless"), but it is also an adjective meaning "off" or "loose", and when used as a command it means "go!". The track itself is reminiscent of Depeche Mode's early work, with repetitive acoustic guitar and a stripped-down, insistent beat. The album ends with the track "Amour", one of the most intimate love songs written by the band. In the context of a disc filled with the imagery of "great black gaps in the fabric of human rationality", Rammstein somehow manage to make "honest and sincere romance seem just slightly alien, and tinted with enough melancholy to satisfy the heartiest emo-kid." There's also a guitar solo towards the end, another uncharacteristic gesture in the album.


title: Reise, Reise

text: On the U.S. release, the "easter egg" fragment is placed at the beginning of "Reise, Reise" in normal playback. The 2005 pressing does not contain the easter egg, but the original 2004 pressing does. On the European version the easter egg is in negative time, to access it, you must rewind the CD past the beginning of "Reise, Reise". The American iTunes version of "Reise, Reise" also contains the easter egg. On 21 April 2005, Rammstein released a special Japanese version of "Reise, Reise", with different cover art, which was later used as the "Rosenrot" cover art, though the Rammstein logo on the ship was altered into the text "Rosenrot". The booklet also features the same art as "Rosenrot", but with the songs from "Reise, Reise". The easter egg is not present in negative time as it is on the European version. It features two bonus tracks: "Mein Teil (You Are What You Eat Edit)" and "Amerika (Digital Hardcore Mix)". The Japanese Limited Edition has a bonus DVD featuring footage from "Lichtspielhaus". The Japanese Limited Edition was re-issued in 2009 as SHM-CD and DVD edition, featuring the original orange cover art.


title: Reise, Reise

text: The album artwork shows a damaged aeroplane cockpit voice recorder depicted on the front and back covers. Its caption ("Flugrekorder, nicht öffnen") means "Flight Recorder, Do Not Open". The inner part of the Digipak edition case shows a picture of the six members in suits wielding suitcases and weapons (like Michael Douglas in "Falling Down") leaving from a crashed aeroplane. The cover art is an allusion to the song "Dalai Lama", which deals with an aeroplane accident. It is also suggestive of the overarching "travelling" theme of the album. While past albums have all featured the six band members in various photographic scenarios, "Reise Reise" features a minimal packaging, and there are no photographs featuring the band's members.


title: Reise, Reise

text: Upon its release, the album received generally positive reviews from critics. David Jeffries from Allmusic gave the album a rating of three out of five stars, and stated that the album's content "is more of the same: the same grit, the same growl, and the same dramatic, orchestra choruses" and that "the lead single, 'Mein Teil' is no 'Du Hast' but the damning 'Amerika' almost equals their breakthrough track." He also said that there was a bit more ingenuity in the production and a little more focus in the songs but it wasn't "enough for the nonfaithful to pick up on." Jeffries highlighted the track "Stein Um Stein" because it "creeps more than stomps in parts". He also mentioned that the track "Los" features a bluesy guitar that "adds some quirk to the band's stern Teutonic pallette." He finished his review saying "few bands can industrially grind as convincingly as Rammstein. Same as it ever was, "Reise, Reise" won't do much to increase the band's fan base, but being a tight, free-of-filler album, it'll satisfy the faithful."


title: Reise, Reise

text: Vaz Malik from the BBC also gave the album a mixed review and said that the band could probably be "a lot bigger" in the United States if they opted to sing in English, but "German sounds a lot more threatening and it's done them no harm in their homeland." He stated that the songs "Morgenstern" and "Stein Um Stein" probably have weak translations but in German they sound mean. He said "that tracks like 'Amerika' make the admission price worth while. Rammstein say it's their most commercial song to date. Well more like this please because it's funny but rocks at the same time."


title: Reise, Reise

text: Tim O'Neil from "PopMatters" gave the album a favorable review and said: "for those with the patience to look beyond the "Teutonic bluster" and punk insouciance, "Reise Reise" will be a uniquely rewarding experience."


title: Reise, Reise

text: The album sold 26,716 copies in the United States in its first week of release in November 2004 to debut at position no. 61 on The Billboard 200 chart. It was in the top ten in several European charts and reached number one in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Iceland, Finland, Estonia and Mexico. As of February 2006, the album has shipped 1.5 million copies globally.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Deciduous teeth or primary teeth, also informally known as baby teeth, milk teeth, or temporary teeth, are the first set of teeth in the growth and development of humans and other diphyodonts, which include most mammals but not elephants, kangaroos, or manatees which are polyphyodonts. Deciduous teeth develop during the embryonic stage of development and erupt (break through the gums and become visible in the mouth) during infancy. They are usually lost and replaced by permanent teeth, but in the absence of their permanent replacements, they can remain functional for many years into adulthood.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Primary teeth start to form during the embryonic phase of human life. The development of primary teeth starts at the sixth week of tooth development as the dental lamina. This process starts at the midline and then spreads back into the posterior region. By the time the embryo is eight weeks old, there are ten buds on the upper and lower arches that will eventually become the primary (deciduous) dentition. These teeth will continue to form until they erupt in the mouth. In the primary dentition, there are a total of twenty teeth: five per quadrant and ten per arch. The eruption of these teeth ("teething") typically begins around the age of six months and continues until 25–33 months of age during the primary dentition period. Usually, the first teeth seen in the mouth are the mandibular central incisors and the last are the maxillary second molars.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: The primary teeth are made up of central incisors, lateral incisors, canines, first molars, and second molars; there is one in each quadrant, making a total of four of each tooth. All of these are gradually replaced by similarly named permanent counterparts except for the primary first and second molars; they are replaced by premolars.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: The erupting permanent teeth cause root resorption, where the permanent teeth push on the roots of the primary teeth, causing the roots to be dissolved by odontoclasts (as well as surrounding alveolar bone by osteoclasts) and become absorbed by the forming permanent teeth. The process of shedding primary teeth and their replacement by permanent teeth is called tooth exfoliation. This may last from six to twelve years of age. By age thirteen, there usually are only permanent teeth remaining. However, it is not extremely rare for one or more primary teeth to be retained beyond this age, sometimes well into adulthood, often because its secondary tooth failed to develop.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Primary teeth are essential in the development of the mouth. The primary teeth maintain the arch length within the jaw, the bone and the permanent teeth replacements develop from the same tooth germs as the primary teeth. The primary teeth provide guidance for the eruption pathway of the permanent teeth. Also the muscles of the jaw and the formation of the jaw bones depend on the primary teeth to maintain proper spacing for permanent teeth. The roots of primary teeth provide a pathway for the permanent teeth to erupt. The primary teeth are important for the development of the child's speech, for the child's smile and play a role in chewing of food, although children who have had their primary teeth removed (usually as a result of dental caries or dental injuries) can still eat and chew to a certain extent.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Dental caries, also known as tooth decay and cavities, is one of the most prevalent chronic diseases among children worldwide. This oral condition involves bacterial infection which demineralizes and destructs tooth tissues. In primary dentition, extensive tooth decay is the most common dental disease. An extensive carious lesion affects at least half of a tooth and possibly involves the pulp.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Tooth decay in primary teeth tends to progress quite quickly and often reaches the pulp of the tooth. In cases of extensive tooth decay, the pulp must be treated to maintain the health of the tooth and its supporting tissues. In pulp therapy, areas of decay and infected pulp tissue are removed, then the pulp is sealed with medicaments.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Medicaments are medications placed over the pulp to maintain survival and promote repair. Treatment options include:


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Indirect pulp capping (IPC) is a treatment that leaves the deepest carious tooth material (dentin) next to the pulp undisrupted to avoid exposing the pulp. The caries-affected dentin is covered with a biocompatible medicament to form a seal over the tooth. Medicaments used in IPC include calcium hydroxide and alternates including bonding agents and liners.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Direct pulp capping (DPC) is a treatment performed when a pin-point or small pulp exposure of 1mm or less occurs after removal of carious tooth material (dentin) excavation. The pulp is covered with a medicament. This technique has limited use when pulp is exposed due to injury but is generally not accepted for managing carious pulp exposures in primary teeth, as it has been shown to have limited success. Medicaments used in DPC include calcium hydroxide and alternates such as mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA).


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Pulpotomy is a treatment performed on a primary tooth with extensive decay without involving pulp in the root canal (radicular pulp) (Cochrane). The entire coronal pulp is removed and the radicular pulp bleeding is stopped. The remaining radicular pulp is treated with a medicament. Pulpotomy is the most frequently used vital pulp therapy technique for deep dental caries in primary teeth. Medicaments used in pulpotomy include commonly formocresol, MTA and ferric sulfates and less commonly sodium hypochlorite, calcium hydroxide, and tricalcium silicate.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Pulpectomy is a treatment performed on a primary tooth with extensive decay and involving pulp in the root canal (radicular pulp with irreversible pulpitis or necrosis). The radicular pulp is removed, the pulp canals are filled with a medicament, and a filling is put on the tooth. Medicaments used in pulpectomy include resorbable materials so that they will undergo resorption (dissolution) along with the primary tooth root to allow for proper tooth loss (exfoliation) and replacement with permanent successor teeth.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Decayed primary teeth can be restored with a fitted crown. This can be made from a variety of different materials and attached using a range of methods. A common one used amongst children with caries is a preformed metal crown (PMC). This type of crown is pressed over a decayed tooth without any preparation, local anaesthetic or caries removal, also termed the Hall technique. Studies have shown that more dental practitioners prefer conventional fillings as opposed to PMC’s. However, studies have shown that the risk of both major and minor failures along with pain in the long term was comparatively lower using PMCs as opposed to conventional restorations. Patients who had crowns fitted using the Hall technique also experienced noticeably less discomfort at the time of the appointment, relative to fillings.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: However, the populations studied were limited to fit and healthy children, and additional research into the tolerance and outcomes of this treatment needs to be done for children with special needs.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: After pulpotomy, MTA is the most effective medicament and formocresol is also effective. Both are more effective than calcium hydroxide, which is more likely to fail. While there are concerns about the toxicity of formocresol, currently there are no reports of toxicity related to formocresol use for vital pulp therapies in children. An undesirable effect of treatment with MTA is the grey discoloration of treated teeth, but this effect is purely esthetic and does not affect the success of pulp treatment.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: For pulpectomy, it is unclear whether any one medicament is superior. Zinc oxide eugenol (ZOE) may be the best choice for filling in the root canals after pulpectomy in primary teeth, but more evidence is needed to confirm the superiority. ZOE is effective, inexpensive, and reasonably safe for use in children.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: It is unclear which pulp therapy (i.e. IPC, DPC, pulpotomy, pulpectomy) is the most effective, as there are no studies directly comparing these treatment options. The success rates are similar amongst the various therapies. The choice of therapy should be made based on the removal of caries-affected dentin, whether there is a pulp exposure, adverse effects, clinical expertise, and patient preference.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: In almost all European languages the primary teeth are called "baby teeth" or "milk teeth". In the United States and Canada, the term "baby teeth" is common. In some Asian countries they are referred to as "fall teeth" since they will eventually fall out.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Although shedding of a milk tooth is predominantly associated with positive emotions such as pride and joy by the majority of the children, socio-cultural factors (such as parental education, religion or country of origin) affect the various emotions children experience during the loss of their first primary tooth.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Various cultures have customs relating to the loss of deciduous teeth. In English-speaking countries, the tooth fairy is a popular childhood fiction that a fairy rewards children when their baby teeth fall out. Children typically place a tooth under their pillow at night. The fairy is said to take the tooth and replace it with money or small gifts while they sleep. In some parts of Australia, Sweden and Norway, the children put the tooth in a glass of water. In medieval Scandinavia there was a similar tradition, surviving to the present day in Iceland, of , a gift to a child when it cuts its first tooth. In Nigeria, the Igbo in a similar custom expect a visiting relative or guest to make a gift or donation to an infant upon the visitor's sighting of the infant's deciduous teeth.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Hausa culture has it that a child with a fallen tooth should not let a lizard see the toothless gum because if a lizard does see it, no tooth will grow in its place.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Other traditions are associated with mice or other rodents because of their sharp, everlasting teeth. The character Ratón Pérez appears in the tale of The Vain Little Mouse. A Ratoncito Pérez was used by Colgate in marketing toothpaste in Venezuela and Spain. In Italy, the Tooth Fairy () is also often replaced by a small mouse (), or by Saint Apollonia, patron saint of tooth complaints. In France and in French-speaking Belgium, this character is called . From parts of lowland Scotland comes a tradition similar to the fairy mouse: a white fairy rat who purchases the teeth with coins.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: Several traditions concern throwing the shed teeth. In Turkey, Cyprus, and Greece, children traditionally throw their fallen baby teeth onto the roof of their house while making a wish. Similarly, in some Asian countries, such as India, Korea, Nepal, the Philippines, and Vietnam, when a child loses a tooth, the usual custom is that he or she should throw it onto the roof if it came from the lower jaw, or into the space beneath the floor if it came from the upper jaw. While doing this, the child shouts a request for the tooth to be replaced with the tooth of a mouse. This tradition is based on the fact that the teeth of mice grow for their entire lives, a characteristic of all rodents.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: In Japan, a different variation calls for lost upper teeth to be thrown straight down to the ground and lower teeth straight up into the air or onto the roof of a house; the idea is that incoming teeth will grow in straight. Some parts of China follow a similar tradition by throwing the teeth from the lower jaw onto the roof and burying the teeth from the upper jaw underground, as a symbol of urging the permanent teeth to grow faster towards the right direction.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: The Sri Lanka, tradition is to throw the baby teeth onto the roof or a tree in the presence of an Indian palm squirrel. The child then tells the squirrel to take the old tooth in return for a new one.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: In some parts of India, young children offer their discarded baby teeth to the sun, sometimes wrapped in a tiny rag of cotton turf. In the Assam state of India, children throw their baby teeth to the roof of their house and urge a mouse to take it, to exchange with its teeth (permanent ones). Something similar occurs in the Dominican Republic where children will throw their baby teeth to the roof of a house with a thatched roof and ask a mouse to take it and replace it with a new (permanent) tooth (but not its own).


title: Deciduous teeth

text: The tradition of throwing a baby tooth up into the sky to the sun playfully asking for a better tooth to replace it is common in Middle Eastern countries (including Iraq, Jordan, Egypt and Sudan). It may originate in a pre-Islamic offering and certainly dates back to at least the 13th century, when Izz bin Hibat Allah Al Hadid mentions it.


title: Deciduous teeth

text: In Prehistoric Britain, lost teeth were commonly burnt to destroy them. This was partly for religious reasons connected with the Last Judgement and partly for fear of what might happen if an animal got them. A rhyme might be said as a blessing:


title: Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg)

text: Maria Feodorovna (; née Duchess Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg; 25 October 1759 – 5 November 1828 [OS 24 October]) became Empress consort of Russia as the second wife of Emperor Paul I. She founded the Office of the Institutions of Empress Maria.


text: Daughter of Duke Frederick Eugene of Württemberg and Princess Friederike of Brandenburg-Schwedt, Sophie Dorothea belonged to a junior branch of the House of Württemberg and grew up in Montbéliard, receiving an excellent education for her time. After Grand Duke Paul (the future Paul I of Russia) became a widower in 1776, King Frederick II of Prussia (Sophie Dorothea's maternal great-uncle) and Empress Catherine II of Russia chose Sophie Dorothea as the ideal candidate to become Paul's second wife. In spite of her fiancé's difficult character, she developed a long, peaceful relationship with Paul and converted to the Russian Orthodox Church in 1776, adopting the name "Maria Feodorovna". During the long reign (1762-1796) of her mother-in-law, she sided with her husband and lost the initial affection the reigning Empress had for her. The couple were completely excluded from any political influence, as mother and son mistrusted each other. They were forced to live in isolation at Gatchina Palace, where they had many children together.


text: After her husband ascended the Russian throne in 1796, Maria Feodorovna had a considerable and beneficial influence during his four-year reign. On the night of Paul I's assassination (), she thought to imitate her mother-in-law's example and claim the throne, but her son, the future Emperor Alexander I, dissuaded her. She instead instituted the precedence whereby the Empress dowager out-ranked the reigning monarch's wife, a system unique to the Russian court. Clever, purposeful and energetic, Maria Feodorovna founded and managed all the Empire's charitable establishments, re-modelled the palaces of Gatchina and Pavlovsk, and encouraged foreign links directed against Napoleon I of France. She often gave political counsel to her children, who held her in great respect. The imperial family deeply mourned her death, and her successors regarded her as a role model.


text: Sophie Marie Dorothea Auguste Luise was born on 25 October 1759 in Stettin, Kingdom of Prussia (now Poland). She was the eldest daughter of the eight children born from Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg, and Princess Friederike of Brandenburg-Schwedt, niece of King Frederick II of Prussia. In 1769, her family took up residence in the ancestral castle at Montbéliard, then an exclave of the Duchy of Württemberg, today part of Franche-Comté. The family's summer residence was situated at Étupes.


text: Montbéliard not only was the seat of the junior branch of the House of Württemberg, but a cultural center frequented by many intellectual and political figures. Sophie Dorothea's education was better than average, to the point that she cultivated her skills with great enthusiasm. By the age of 16, she was well-versed in mathematics and architecture, as well as fluent in German, French, Italian, and Latin. She was brought up according to French etiquette as custom of that era, but with German bourgeois simplicity. She was known to be thoughtful, organized, strong-willed, constant, and tender.


text: In 1773, Sophie Dorothea was among the group of German princesses considered as possible wives of the heir to the Russian throne, the future Tsar Paul I. However, Sophie wasn't yet 14 years old at the time and thus Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt, a princess of a more appropriate age, was chosen instead. At the age of 16, Sophie Dorothea became tall, buxom and rosy-cheeked with a sunny disposition, although extremely shortsighted and inclined to be stout. She was engaged to Prince Louis of Hesse, the brother of the Tsarevich’s first wife.


text: After the Tsarevich became a widower in 1776, Frederick II of Prussia proposed his grandniece as the ideal candidate to be Paul's second wife. Russian Empress, Catherine II, was delighted with the idea: The Princess of Württemberg shared with her not only a similar education, but also the same original name and place of birth.


text: When her mother lamented the unfortunate destiny of some Russian sovereigns, a pleased Sophie Dorothea replied that her only concern was to make her way in her new country quickly and successfully. Her former fiancé received a monetary compensation when the engagement was broken.


text: Sophie and Paul met for the first time at a state dinner given in honour of his arrival in Berlin. Having learned that her fiancé's tastes were serious, she spoke about geometry during their first interview. The next day, she wrote a glowing letter to a friend in which she declared that ""I am more than content. The Grand Duke could not be more kind. I pride myself on the fact that my dear bridegroom loves me a great deal, and this makes me very, very fortunate."" Paul was as happy with the young princess as she was with him and wrote to his mother that: ""I found my intended to be such as I could have dreamed of. She is shapely, intelligent, quick-witted, and not at all shy.""


text: By early fall, Sophie fell in love with her future husband. ""I cannot go to bed, my dear and adored Prince, without telling you once again that I love and adore you madly,"" she wrote to Paul. Soon after arriving at St Petersburg, she converted to the Russian Orthodox Church, took the name "Maria Feodorovna," and was granted the title Grand Duchess of Russia, with the style "Imperial Highness". The wedding took place on 26 September 1776. Despite Paul's difficult and often tyrannical character, Maria Feodorovna never changed her feelings. Her even temper and patience were instrumental in knowing how to deal with a difficult husband and moderate the extreme elements in his character. She wrote to a friend: ""My dear husband is a perfect angel and I love him to distraction.""


text: As Grand Duchess, Maria Feodorovna possessed such parsimony that she was prepared to spend the whole day in full dress without fatigue and implacably imposed the same burden on her entourage. She didn't hesitate to take over the clothes of her husband's first wife and dispute with her ladies-in-waiting the defunct Natalia's slippers. At the beginning, Catherine II was enchanted with her daughter-in-law, about whom she wrote to a friend: "I confess to you that I am infatuated with this charming Princess, but literally infatuated. She is precisely what one would have wished: the figure of a nymph, a lily and rose complexion, the loveliest skin in the world, tall and well built; she is grateful; sweetness, kindnesses and innocence are reflected in her face."


text: However, the relationship between the two women quickly turned sour: Maria Feodorovna sided with her neglected husband in the family's acrimony and despite her good intentions to ease the difficult situation, meddling only aggravated their differences. In December 1777, she gave birth to the first of her ten children, future Tsar Alexander I. Just three months later, Catherine II took the newborn to raise him without interference from the parents. When a second son was born in April 1779, she did the same thing. This caused bitter animosity with Maria, who was only allowed weekly visits with Paul. For the next four years, the couple didn't have any more children. Deprived of her sons, Maria occupied herself by decorating Pavlovsk Palace, Catherine's gift to celebrate the birth of her first grandson.


text: Tired of being excluded in political affairs, Paul and Maria asked Catherine II for permission to travel abroad to Western Europe. In September 1781, under the pseudonyms of "the Count and Countess Severny", the Tsarevich and his wife set off on a journey that lasted fourteen months and took them to Poland, Austria, Italy, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany. Paris made a special impression on the couple, who visited King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette. While Louis got along well with Paul, Marie Antoinette felt intimidated and nervous when she met Maria, a known intellectual who exhibited confidence. The conversation would turn lively later and the Queen gave the Grand Duchess a toilette set with the Württemberg arms printed on it. In Austria, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II compared Maria with her husband and found her superior.


text: During their visit to Italy, the couple proved to be much in love since Paul couldn't stop giving kisses in public to his wife, surprising their travelling companions. On their way back to St. Petersburg, Maria went to Württemberg to visit her parents. At the end of 1782, the couple returned to Russia and devoted their attention to Pavlovsk Palace, where Maria gave birth to Alexandra Pavlovna, the first of six daughters she would bear during the next twelve years. To celebrate Alexandra's birth, Catherine II gave them the Palace of Gatchina, which would occupy their attention until they were called to the throne. She let the parents raise their daughters and younger sons. From then on the Russian Imperial house would be a large family.


text: During the long years of Catherine's reign, Maria and Paul were forced to live in isolation in Gatchina with a tight income. Unlike the Romanovs, Maria was frugal, a rare virtue in a princess of that time only developed because of her large family that for a long time was only a minor royal branch. She


text: continued to beautify Pavlovsk, dedicated herself to charitable work among its inhabitants, planned theatrical events for her husband, who delighted in that amusement, and participated in musical evenings for family and friends in which she adeptly played the harpsichord. She was devoted to expanding her modest literary salon, which was frequented by poet Vasily Zhukovsky, fabulist Ivan Krylov, and historian Nikolai Karamzin. Maria prided herself in being more clever than her mother-in-law and never lost the opportunity of contrasting her impeccable virtue with the failings of the reigning Empress. She was equally watchful to attack Catherine's favourites, Grigori Alexandrovich Potemkin and Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov.


text: Maria Feodorovna kept voluminous diaries that recorded her life in detail, but her son Nicholas I burned all these volumes after her death according to her last wishes. Even most of the letters she wrote have not survived since she usually requested that they be burnt. The relationship between Paul and Catherine Nelidova, one of Maria's ladies-in-waiting, was the cause of the first crack in their marriage during those years. The intense liaison was particularly painful for Maria, as the other woman had been her friend. Although Paul said that his relations with Nelidova were only platonic, Maria's own relationship with Nelidova became very bitter for several years. However, she eventually joined forces with her former friend in an attempt to moderate her husband's increasingly neurotic temperament.


text: After twenty years in the shadows, the death of Catherine II in 1796 allowed Maria Feodorovna to have a prominent role as Empress consort. During Catherine's lifetime, Maria had no chance of interfering in affairs of state, as Paul himself was excluded, but after her husband's accession to the throne, she took to politics, at first timidly, but increasingly resolutely afterwards.


text: Her influence over her husband was great, and in general beneficial. Even so, it is possible that she abused it in order to help her friends or hurt her enemies.


text: Although the imperial couple wasn't as close as they once had been, there remained a good deal of warmth between them. Their relationship suffered further in the last years of Paul's life. After Maria gave birth to her tenth and last child in 1798, Paul became infatuated with 19-years-old Anna Lopukhina and lied to his wife that the relationship was of a paternal nature. Paul was Emperor for exactly four years, four months, and four days. He was murdered on 12 March 1801.


text: On the night of her husband's assassination, Maria Feodorovna thought to imitate the example of her mother-in-law and tried to seize power to become empress regnant on the grounds that she had been crowned with Paul. It took her son Alexander several days to persuade her to relinquish her reckless claim, for which she had no party to support her. For some time afterward, whenever her son came to visit, the Dowager Empress would place a casket between them containing the bloodstained nightshirt that his father was wearing on the day of the murder as a silent reproach. The strained relationship between mother and son improved though and thanks to the new Tsar, 42-years-old Maria Feodorovna kept the highest female position at court and often took the emperor's arm in public ceremonies, while Empress Elizabeth had to walk behind. This custom of precedence of the Dowager Empress over the reigning monarch's wife was introduced by Maria and was unique to the Russian court, though it caused resentment with her eldest daughter-in-law. Perpetuating the tradition of Catherine II, she attended parades in military uniform, the cordon of an order across her breast.


text: In May 1797, Tsar Paul asked Maria Feodorovna to oversee the national charities. She encouraged a thorough inspection of prospective foster parents and limited admissions "from the street", measures which decreased the inflow of new orphans and considerably reduced mortality. By 1826, the mortality rate was reduced to 15% per annum, a figure outrageous by modern standards but a great improvement on the 18th century.


text: Even after her husband's death, Maria Feodorovna continued to manage all the empire's charitable establishments and control the bank for loans. By 1828, their total assets exceeded 359 million roubles, the largest capital assets in all of Moscow. After the end of the Napoleonic wars, the Board of Trustees capitalized on the recent disaster by building cheap rental housing on its properties. As a result of this policy, the new facilities housed up to 8,000 residents of all ranks in the 1820s. These institutions existed until the Russian Revolution of 1917.


text: Maria Feodorovna realized the need to downsize the institution, separating children from older tenants and improving the educational program for the former. She transferred the younger inhabitants to new, independent orphanages. The Moscow Crafts College, the largest spin-off, was established as an orphanage for teenagers in 1830 and continues today as the Bauman Moscow State Technical University. In the Orphanage, there were high-level educational programs along the lines of the "Latin classes for boys and the "midwife classes for girls".


text: After meeting a deaf boy, Maria established the first Russian school for the deaf in 1807 and supported the career of the blind musician Charlotta Seuerling, whose mother she saved from ruin. Shortly before Empress Maria's death, the Orphanage took the ablest children from the streets and prepared them for professional careers. Among the teachers were Sergey Solovyov, Alexander Vostokov, Vasily Klyuchevsky, Nicholas Benois, and Vasily Vereshchagin.


text: Maria Feodorovna had exceptional taste. She was skilled at architecture, watercolor; engraving; designing objects of ivory and amber; and horticulture.


text: The palaces of Pavlovsk, Gatchina, Tsarskoe Selo, the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg and The Hermitage were remodelled and furnished under her personal guidance. Her efforts would produce some of the most beautiful estates in all of Russia.


text: Maria Fedorovna and Paul began remodelling Pavlovsk. She insisted in having several rustic structures which recalled the palace where she grew up at Étupes, 40 miles from Basel. During their travels in 1781, the couple sent back and forth drawings, plans and notes on the smallest details. She brought Italian architect Carlo Rossi to redesign the library to contain more than twenty thousand books. After Paul's death in 1801, Gatchina Palace came into the ownership of the new Dowager Empress, who used her experience from her travels around Europe to redo the interiors in the Neoclassical style and make alterations to adapt it "in case of winter stay" in 1809.


text: Maria Feodorovna enjoyed a considerable income which made possible for her to live in grand style. Her elegant receptions, where she appeared sumptuously dressed and was surrounded by chamberlains, were in sharp contrast with the simple court life of Alexander I, whose retiring ways and the withdrawn personality of his wife were no match for the Dowager Empress' old splendor in the style of the time of Catherine the Great. Her exalted position made her palace at Pavlovsk a mandatory place to visit for the great personages of St. Petersburg. She used her position to help as much as possible her numerous poor relations, some of whom were invited to Russia. Examples include her brother, Prince Alexander of Württemberg (1771–1833).


text: Maria Feodorovna transformed her court into the center of anti-Napoleon sentiment during the Napoleonic Wars and vehemently opposed any approach her son made to get to an agreement with Napoleon Bonaparte. When the French Emperor offered to marry her youngest daughter Anna Pavlovna, Maria strongly opposed the proposed marriage.


text: Even past age 50, Maria Feodorovna retained traces of her youthful freshness. Of a robust constitution, she outlived five of her ten children, including her eldest son and his wife, and saw the ascension to the throne of her third son, Nicholas I. Once all her children were grown up, she maintained an avid correspondence with them, but both mother and children could be cool and remote at times because of their temperaments.


text: In 1822, Empress Maria Feodorovna moved into the renovated Yelagin Palace, but died in Winter Palace, Saint Petersburg, Russia, on 5 November 1828, at the age of 69. Her memory was revered by her children, who named their eldest daughters in her honour except for Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna. Later Russian tsarinas looked up to her and used her as a role model. Pavlovsk Palace, in which Maria lived for so long and on which she left a major imprint, was maintained for her descendants as she left it, almost as a family museum, in accordance with her instructions, first by her younger son Michael and later by the Konstantinovich branch of the family, who inherited and kept it until the Russian Revolution.


text: Maria Feodorovna was a considerate, loving mother who managed to maintain genuinely close relationships with all her children despite the fact that Catherine II took over her two eldest sons in their early years.


text: The future of her daughters and the education of her younger sons kept Maria's attention occupied during the first years of her widowhood. She had total control over the future Nicholas I and Grand Duke Michael. She was influential in the early education of her grandson, the future Alexander II. Maria tried to surpass the education which Catherine II had provided for her two eldest sons, but didn't choose the best teachers for the younger ones.


text: Maria Feodorovna's letters to her brother, Frederick I of Württemberg, are preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart (Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart) in Stuttgart, Germany, as well as her correspondence with other family members. Maria Feodorovna's correspondence with her parents, Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg, and Friederike of Brandenburg-Schwedt, written between 1776 and 1797, is also preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart. In addition, Maria Feodorovna's letters to Friedrich Freiherrn von Maucler and his wife Luise Sophie Eleonore LeFort are also preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart.


title: Hal Blaine

text: Hal Blaine (born Harold Simon Belsky; February 5, 1929 – March 11, 2019) was an American drummer and session musician, thought to be among the most recorded studio drummers in the music industry, claiming over 35,000 sessions and 6,000 singles. His drumming is featured on 150 US top 10 hits, 40 of which went to number one.


title: Hal Blaine

text: Born in Holyoke, Massachusetts, Blaine moved with his family to California in 1943 and began playing jazz and big band music before taking up rock and roll session work. He became one of the regulars in Phil Spector's de facto house band, which Blaine nicknamed "the Wrecking Crew". Some of the records Blaine played on include the Ronettes' single "Be My Baby" (1963), which contained a drum beat that became widely imitated, as well as works by popular artists such as Frank Sinatra, Elvis Presley, the Beach Boys, Simon & Garfunkel, the Carpenters, Neil Diamond, and the Byrds.


title: Hal Blaine

text: Blaine's workload declined in the 1980s as recording and musical practices changed. In 2000, he was among the inaugural "sidemen" inductees to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 2007 he was inducted into the Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum as a member of the Wrecking Crew and in 2018 he received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.


title: Hal Blaine

text: Blaine was born Harold Simon Belsky to Jewish Eastern European immigrants, Meyer and Rose Belsky (née Silverman), in Holyoke, Massachusetts, United States. When he was seven, he moved with his family to Hartford, Connecticut. He began playing drums at the age of eight, and again moved with his family to California in 1943.


title: Hal Blaine

text: From 1949 to 1952, Blaine learned drums from Roy Knapp, who had also taught jazz drummer Gene Krupa. He began his professional career playing overnight sessions in Chicago strip clubs, which allowed him to practice and perfect his sight reading skills. He subsequently played as part of Count Basie's big band and toured with Patti Page and Tommy Sands before taking up session work. Unlike many of his jazz contemporaries, Blaine enjoyed playing rock and roll and this meant he played on numerous such sessions during the 1950s. Mr. Blaine rarely performed live.with the exception of working with Nancy Sinatra at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas in the 1960s.


title: Hal Blaine

text: He was a core member of the Wrecking Crew, the close-knit group of Los Angeles session musicians that played on hit records during the 1960s. Blaine claimed to have invented the name as the "old-school" studio musicians feared these new, younger guys were a "destructive force" in the conservative studio environment of the time.


title: Hal Blaine

text: Blaine played with guitarists Glen Campbell and Tommy Tedesco, bassists Carol Kaye and Joe Osborn, and keyboardists Leon Russell and Don Randi. Mr. Blaine played on thousands of recordings through the mid-1970s. John Denver brought Blaine on tour in the mid-1970s.


title: Hal Blaine

text: Blaine played less session work from the 1980s onwards as computers and electronics began to be used in studios, and producers began to bring in younger players. The popularisation of the drum machine also reduced demand for session drummers like Blaine. He kept busy recording advertising jingles for a number of years, before semi-retiring from performing. He lost most of his wealth following a divorce. At one point, he was working as a security guard in Arizona.


title: Hal Blaine

text: Blaine died of natural causes on March 11, 2019, at the age of 90 in Palm Desert, California. A statement from his family read "May he rest forever on 2 and 4", referring to the second and fourth beats of a measure in music. Beatles drummer Ringo Starr and Beach Boys leader Brian Wilson expressed public condolences and praised Blaine's musicianship. Ronnie Spector praised Blaine for "the magic he put on all our Ronettes recordings".


title: Hal Blaine

text: Blaine was a prolific session player and by his estimation played on over 35,000 recordings, including 6,000 singles. He is widely regarded as one of the most in-demand drummers in rock and roll history, having "certainly played on more hit records than any drummer in the rock era". His drumming can be heard as part of the Wall of Sound on the Ronettes' 1963 single "Be My Baby", produced by Phil Spector at Hollywood's Gold Star Studios. Drummer Max Weinberg wrote, "If Hal Blaine had played drums only on ... 'Be My Baby', his name would still be uttered with reverence and respect for the power of his big beat." The pattern was created when Blaine accidentally hit the snare on just the fourth beat, instead of the two and four. It was a mistake that Spector decided to leave in. Blaine is also credited with popularising the "disco beat" after he recorded a "pshh-shup" sound by opening and closing the hi-hat at appropriate intervals on Johnny Rivers' "Poor Side of Town". The effect had been widely used in jazz, but professional recording engineers disliked it because of its resemblance to white noise. The sound subsequently became sought-after by producers in the 1970s.


title: Hal Blaine

text: "Hal Blaine Strikes Again" was a rubber stamp used by Blaine to mark music scores and places where he played. When asked to explain about the stamp, Blaine said, "I always stamp my charts. And there's a reason why I started that; it wasn't all ego." The stamp was used for any piece of music Blaine played on. Another drummer, Mike Botts, then with the band Bread, recalled: "Every studio I went to in the late sixties, there was a rubber stamp imprint on the wall of the drum booth that said, 'Hal Blaine strikes again.' Hal was getting so many studio dates he actually had a rubber stamp made. He was everywhere!"


title: Hal Blaine

text: In 2014, Blaine was portrayed by Johnny Sneed in the film "Love & Mercy", a biopic of the Beach Boys' Brian Wilson.


title: Hal Blaine

text: In March 2000, Blaine was one of the first five sidemen inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (one of the other inductees was his long-time friend and drumming colleague Earl Palmer). He was inducted into the "Modern Drummer" Hall of Fame in 2010. In 2018, he received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.