text: The "Region" of the table refers to the NUTS 1 statistical region of England, which coincides with the former European Parliament constituency in which the constituency was included until 31 January 2020.


title: Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom

text: As of the 2019 election there are 533 constituencies in England, 40 in Wales, 59 in Scotland and 18 in Northern Ireland.


text: Following the abandonment of the Sixth Periodic Review (the 2018 review), the Boundary Commission for England formally launched the 2023 Review on 5 January 2021. It is due to be completed by July 2023.


title: Rosanna (song)

text: "Rosanna" is a song written by David Paich and performed by the American rock band Toto, the opening track and the first single from their 1982 album "Toto IV". This song won the Grammy Award for Record of the Year at the 1983 ceremony. "Rosanna" was also nominated for the Song of the Year award. It is regarded for the half-time shuffle which drummer Jeff Porcaro developed for the song. The groove has become an important staple of drum repertoire and is commonly known as the "Rosanna shuffle".


title: Rosanna (song)

text: The song reached number 2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 for five consecutive weeks, behind "Don't You Want Me" by the Human League and "Eye of the Tiger" by Survivor. It was also one of the band's most successful singles in the UK, peaking at No. 12 on the UK Singles Chart and remaining on the chart for eight weeks.


title: Rosanna (song)

text: The song was written by David Paich, who has said that the song is based on numerous girls he had known. As a joke, the band members initially played along with the common assumption that the song was based on Rosanna Arquette, who was dating Toto keyboard player Steve Porcaro at the time. Arquette herself played along with the joke, commenting in an interview that the song was about "my showing up at 4 a.m., bringing them juice and beer at their sessions."


title: Rosanna (song)

text: In the verses, the key is changed from G major to F major, accompanied on the original recording by the lead vocalist changing from Steve Lukather to Bobby Kimball.


title: Rosanna (song)

text: The drum pattern is known as a "half-time shuffle", and shows "definite jazz influence", featuring ghost notes and derived from the combination of the Purdie shuffle, Led Zeppelin drummer John Bonham's shuffle on "Fool in the Rain", and the Bo Diddley beat. The Purdie shuffle can be prominently heard on Steely Dan's track "Home at Last" from "Aja", which Jeff Porcaro cited as an influence.


title: Rosanna (song)

text: The overlapping keyboard solos in the middle were created by David Paich and Steve Porcaro recording a multitude of keyboard lines (some of which were cut from the final recording) using a Micro-Composer, a Minimoog, Yamaha CS-80s, Prophets, a Hammond organ, and a GS1, among other instruments. Paich credits Porcaro with both coming up with the concept for the segment and playing a majority of the parts. The album version starts with the drum beat only then kicks into the rest of the melody, then ends with two renditions of the song's chorus and goes into a musical interlude and fades out from there. According to Lukather, this final instrumental section was a spontaneous jam during the recording session: "... the song was supposed to end but Jeff carried on and Dave started playing the honky-tonk piano and we all just followed on." The single edit goes right into the melody at the beginning, then the song fades out during the first singing of the chorus at the end.


title: Rosanna (song)

text: Steve Porcaro and Lukather describe it as "the ultimate Toto track". "Cash Box" said that it "is a varied palette of pleasing pop shades."


title: Rosanna (song)

text: The West Side Story-inspired video was directed by Steve Barron and set in a stylized urban streetscape, with Rosanna represented by a dancer whose bright red dress contrasts with the gray surroundings. The band plays within a chain-link fence enclosure. Cynthia Rhodes is featured as the lead dancer Rosanna, which led to her being cast in "Staying Alive" the following year. Patrick Swayze was also uncredited as a dancer in the music video and he and Rhodes would both star in the movie "Dirty Dancing".


title: Rosanna (song)

text: Despite not playing on the actual recording, new bassist Mike Porcaro (brother of Jeff and Steve) appears in the video, as original Toto bass player David Hungate left before the video was made. Lenny Castro is also featured with the band as a percussionist.


title: Rosanna (song)

text: In 2018, American rock band Weezer released a cover of the track to poke fun at an attempt by fans to get them to cover "Africa", another song by Toto. Weezer went on to release a cover of "Africa" five days later.


title: Sandeep Mathrani

text: Sandeep Mathrani (born 1962) is an Indian-American real estate executive and the chief executive of WeWork, following the co-working company’s descent into bankruptcy and departure of its former CEO, Adam Neumann. Prior to WeWork, he was the CEO of GGP Inc and the retail group of its parent company Brookfield Property Partners.


title: Sandeep Mathrani

text: Mathrani was born and raised in Gujarat, India. He went to high school at Cathedral and John Connon School in Mumbai, India. He emigrated to Philadelphia in the United States alone at the age of 16. In 1983, he graduated from college at the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey, obtaining his bachelor's degree in engineering and management science. In 1986, he obtained his master's degree in engineering from Stevens. According to Mathrani, he first got into real estate in 1986 by selling a used Nissan Sentra and using the proceeds to buy and flip an apartment building in Washington, D.C. for a $20,000 profit. In fact, he generated the funds in part by selling the Nissan and also by borrowing money using his credit card and securing a $52,000 loan from the US Federal Housing Administration (FHA). He was mentored by two real estate giants, Bruce Ratner and Steven Roth (of the Vornado real estate giant).


title: Sandeep Mathrani

text: Mathrani began as the CEO of GGP Inc. in 2011, just as the company was emerging from Chapter 11 bankruptcy. He was hired away from his previous job as an executive with Vornado Realty Trust, the company owned by his mentor. He was CEO until 2018, when it was purchased by Brookfield Property. After the acquisition, Mathrani joined Brookfield as the chief executive of its retail property management arm.


title: Sandeep Mathrani

text: In February 2020, Mathrani was brought on board as the new CEO of the struggling real estate company WeWork, following the ouster of its CEO Adam Neumann and the collapse of its IPO.


title: Kharagpur

text: Kharagpur () is a major industrial city in Paschim Medinipur district of West Bengal, India. It is the headquarters of the Kharagpur subdivision. It is the largest, most populated, multicultural and cosmopolitan city of the district.It is located 120 kms west of state capital Kolkata and 1300 kms south east of national capital New Delhi. The first Indian Institute of Technology (IIT Kharagpur), one of the Institutes of National Importance, was founded in Kharagpur in May 1950. It has one of the largest railway workshops in India, and the fourth longest railway platform in the world (1072.5 m). Also it is the headquarters of the Kharagpur Division of South Eastern Railway.


title: Kharagpur

text: Kharagpur received its name from the twelfth king of the Mallabhum dynasty, Kharga Malla, when he conquered it. Kharagpur was a part of the Hijli Kingdom and ruled by Hindu Odia rulers as a feudatory under Gajapati Kings of Odisha. Historians claim that in the 16th century, Kharagpur was still a small village surrounded by dense forests. The village was on high rocky barren land. The only inhabited settlement near Kharagpur was Hijli. Hijli was a small island village on the banks of the Rasulpur River, in the delta of Bay of Bengal. It developed into a port town in 1687. Hijli was also a province and it existed until 1886. It covered parts of Bengal and Orissa. It had important towns like Tamluk, Panskura, and Debra, along with the Kelghai and Haldi rivers on the north, south, and east sides bounded by Bay of Bengal and Kharagpur, Keshiary, Dantan, and Jaleswar on the west.


title: Kharagpur

text: Hijli was ruled by Taj Khan who was the disciple of Guru Peer Mackdram Sha Chisti. It was also ruled by the Kushan, Gupta, and Pal dynasties, and by the Mughals. It is said that Hijli had excellent business and trade centers with judiciary, prison, and administrative offices during the reign of Hindu Kings and during the Mughal Raj. The capital of Hijli was in Bahiri up to 1628 and was shifted to Hijli afterwards. Hijli Province was at its peak in 1754 and was highly prosperous during this period.


title: Kharagpur

text: Captain Nicolson was the first English colonialist to invade Hijli and captured the port. In 1687 Job Charnock with soldiers and warships captured Hijli, defeating Hindu and Mughal defenders. After the war with the Mughals, a treaty was signed between Job Charnock and the Mughal Emperor. The loss suffered by Job Charnock forced him to leave Hijli and to proceed towards Uluberia, while the Mughal Emperor continued to rule the province. From there, they finally settled at Sutanuti in Kolkata to establish their business in Eastern India. This was the start of the East India Company in India. Hijli as we know it today is only a small part of the Hijli Province, and was created for establishing administrative offices by the British in the 19th century. It is curious that almost the entire Kharagpur division of today has boundaries identical to Hijli Province.


title: Kharagpur

text: In the 18th century Khejuri, another port town was set up on the banks of the Koukhali River in the delta region. It was established by the British primarily for carrying out trade with European countries. Khejuri was also an island. In the devastating cyclone of 1864, both ports were destroyed. The islands have since merged with the mainland.


title: Kharagpur

text: The first railway establishment at Kharagpur started with the commissioning of the rail link between Cuttack – Balasore – Kharagpur and from Sini to Kolaghat via Kharagpur. Kharagpur as a junction station was established in Railway map in December 1898. The public mood and the reaction of society on introduction of rail transport in this region has been nicely depicted by the famous Bengali Novelist Dr Ramapada Chowdhury (who was born and raised in Kharagpur) in his novel "Prothom Prohor." (1954) It is said that the people were initially afraid to travel by train for fear of the bridge collapsing, and for fear of getting "outcaste" or Dalit status, since there were no separate seating arrangement for different castes and religions. However, things changed due to famines in the early 20th century. The railway company came forward and offered jobs to the local unemployed men, gave them free rides on trains, and even offered blankets to those travelling by train. This promotional scheme broke the taboos and made rail transport acceptable to this society.


title: Kharagpur

text: Midnapur's District Headquarters was connected to the bank of the Kosai River in February 1900. Construction of the bridge over Kosai completed in June 1901. The rail line from Howrah to Kolaghat up to the Eastern bank and from Kharagpur up to Western bank of Rupnarayan River was completed in 1899. However, trains between Howrah and Kharagpur were possible only in April 1900 after the bridge over Rupnarayan River was completed.


title: Kharagpur

text: Howrah – Amta light Railway (2 ft gauge - 610 mm) line was completed in 1898 and was operated by M/s Martin & Co. of Calcutta. This link remained operative till 1971. After closure of the light railways, the demand for a broad gauge line between Howrah and Amta gained momentum. The project was completed in four phases. In the first phase, the line between Santragachi and Domjur was completed in 1984. In the second phase it got extended up to Bargachia in 1985, and later up to Munsirhat. Mahendralal Nagar station was completed in 2000, and the final leg to Amta was completed in December 2004.


title: Kharagpur

text: Former captain of Indian Cricket team Mahendra Singh Dhoni also worked as a ticket collector at the Kharagpur Railway station from 2000 to 2003 before commencing his cricket career playing for India.


title: Kharagpur

text: The need for a rail link between Panskura and Tamluk was conceived at the beginning of the 20th century, almost at the same time the rail link between Howrah and Kharagpur was opened. The railway company received offers for construction from two Agencies, M/s Martin & Company and M/s Babu Nibaran Chandra Dutta, the former against a guaranteed return of 3.5% while the latter with none. Although the offer of the latter was lucrative, the dilemma of whether to offer the work of construction to a native or not forced the project to be abandoned. After Independence, the requirement of rail link connecting Panskura and Durgachak came up primarily for the purpose of constructing the Haldia Port. The rail link between Panskura – Durgachak via Tamluk completed in 1968, which was later extended to Haldia in 1975. Extension of the rail link to Digha from Tamluk was sanctioned in 1984; it took 20 years to complete, set in two phases. The first phase linked Tamluk and Contai in November 2003, and the tourist destination Digha was connected to Howrah in December 2004.


title: Kharagpur

text: Geographical location of Kharagpur and its rail links with the rest of the country favored the construction of a centralized workshop with facilities to carry out major repairs of all broad gauge stock. The work was sanctioned in 1900; construction of the workshop was completed in 1904.


title: Kharagpur

text: The Railways also plan to have an East Coast Dedicated Freight Corridor stretching from Kharagpur in West Bengal to Vijayawada of Andhra Pradesh.


title: Kharagpur

text: Kharagpur is the fourth largest city of West Bengal in area after Kolkata, Durgapur and Asansol. It is also the fifth most populated city of West Bengal after Kolkata, Asansol, Siliguri, Durgapur - located at , covering an area of about 127 km in southern part of West Midnapore. It has an average elevation of 29 metres (95 ft). This sub-division town is formed with Dalma Pahar and alluvial tract of Midnapore. It is intersected by numerous waterways, the important rivers being Subarnarekha, Keleghai and Kangsabati.


title: Kharagpur

text: Nimpura contains colonies housing thousands of railway employees. There is a long winding road from Nimpura to Hijli which goes through Tangrahut (Arambati), Talbagicha and another from Kalaikunda to Gopali through Hiradihi, Talbagicha and Hijli cooperative society also planned residential area of Kharagpur city. The south of Kharagpur is a planned area belonging to the Indian Railways and which was established by the Britishers as a residential area. Nearby is the Kharagpur Municipality and the fire station. Kharagpur Railway Colony is the biggest railway settlement in India having about 13,000 quarters. There are several railway residential areas namely Chhota Ayma, Bara Ayma, Old Settlement, New Settlement, Mathurakati, Nimpura, South Side, Traffic and several more. The BNR (Bengal Nagpur Railway) ground, owned by the railway, is a very large undeveloped playground which holds great potential to be developed and properly maintained. Outside the railway settlement popular areas are Bhawanipur, Subhaspally, Kharida, Malancha, Inda, Jhapatapur, Talbagicha, Prem Bazaar, amongst others. An important market place has developed in and around Gole Bazaar, a reliable but highly congested shopping destination for locals. Other marketplaces like Talbagicha Bazar, Gate Bazar, Inda Bazar, Puratan Bazar, the Janata Market, the DVC market and the Technology market are also renowned in Kharagpur. Growth is witnessed around Chowringhee and Inda areas where new constructions and projects are taking shape. Big Bazaar, operated by Future Group, was the first mall to open in Kharagpur. It remained the only mall in the town for nearly a decade. Post 2017, a number of new malls and shopping centers have opened, including a Spencer's. The Railway Garden (also known as "BNR garden") on the south side of railway station is a park and is frequented by people of all ages, being a popular picnic spot. It offers toy-train rides within the park.


title: Kharagpur

text: Kharagpur has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification "Aw"). Summers start in March and are hot and humid, with average temperatures close to 30 °C (86 °F). They are followed by the monsoon season that sees about 1140 mm (45 inches) of rain. Winters are brief but chilly, lasting from December to mid February, with average temperatures around 22 °C (72 °F). Total annual rainfall is around 1400mm.


title: Kharagpur

text: India census, Kharagpur Urban Agglomeration had a population of 293,719 out of which 150,487 were males and 143,232 were females. The 0–6 years population was 25,130. Effective literacy rate for the 7+ population was 85.61%. This marks higher than the national average literacy rate of 74%.


title: Kharagpur

text: Kharagpur (Town) police station has jurisdiction over Kharagpur municipality. Kharagpur (Local) police station has jurisdiction over Kharagpur I and Kharagpur II CD Blocks.


title: Kharagpur

text: The state government is also working on setting up a separate police commissionerate at Kharagpur to enhance the security of this growing region.


title: Kharagpur

text: Kharagpur Municipality looks after civic affairs in the town. There is a proposal to upgrade it to a Municipal Corporation after including the railway area under its jurisdiction. As of now responsibility of civic amenities in railway area lies with the Divisional Railway Manager, Kharagpur Division who is also the head of railway establishment in Kharagpur.


title: Kharagpur

text: State-owned Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, or BSNL, as well as private enterprises, among them Bharti Airtel, Jio and Vodafone Idea are the leading telephone, cell phone and internet service providers in the city.


title: Kharagpur

text: The need for a centralized Hospital at Khargpur was also felt in the late 19th century. Subsequently, a Hospital with complete medical facilities was established in 1897. Dr Arthur Martin-Leake, Victorian Cross winner was appointed as Chief Medical Officer of Kharagpur Hospital in 1904. However the town still needs good private hospitals and advanced medication and healthcare facilities as in current situation its citizens have to depend on Kolkata for treatment, which is at a distance of 132 km.


title: Kharagpur

text: Today, the Railway Main Hospital and Kharagpur Sub-divisional Hospital ("Chandmari Hospital") are main public sector hospitals in Kharagpur. Recently, since the city lies at an important junction of state and national highways, a Trauma Care Centre of level - 3 category is being set up in Kharagpur Sub-divisional Hospital. A number of private clinics and nursing homes also operate here.


title: Kharagpur

text: Dr. B. C. Roy Institute of Medical Science & Research is a medical college and hospital near IIT Kharagpur.


title: Kharagpur

text: Apart from Bengali, which is predominantly spoken in the region, Hindi, Telugu, Odia and Punjabi are also widely spoken languages.


title: Kharagpur

text: Places of worship include a Durga Mandir at Gole Bazar and at Kharida, Sitala Mandir at Puratan Bazar, Jama Masjid at Gole Bazar, Kanaka Durga Temple near Nimpura, Jagannath Mandir near Gate Bazar, a Gurudwara at Subhaspally and at Nimpura, Jalaram Temple at Jhapatapur and several religious structures. The biggest celebration of all is the "Dussehra" or "Ravan Pora."


title: Kharagpur

text: Kharagpur has a Book Fair (""Kharagpur Boimela"" in Bengali) which started in 2000 and is held every January. A Flower Fair (""Pushpa Mela"" in Bengali) is also organized every year.


title: Kharagpur

text: Kharagpur has one of the largest industrial setups in West Bengal. Several large industrial plants are located in and around Kharagpur due to its proximity to Kolkata, good rail and road connectivity via NH 6 and NH 60, availability of labour, and raw materials. Important establishments like Tata Metaliks, Tata Bearings, Siemens, Godrej, Tata Hitachi, Humboldt Wedag, Ramco Cements and Mahindra & Mahindra have set up their plants in and around Kharagpur. Many small iron rolling mills and rice mills dot the town. The Vidyasagar Industrial Park is located here. Establishment of an IT park is also in progress. Kharagpur will be part of two new economic corridors EC-1 Mumbai-Kolkata and EC-14 Kharagpur-Siliguri under Bharatmala project. Recently, the government has revealed plans to establish a civilian airport.


title: John O'Brien (novelist)

text: John O'Brien (May 21, 1960 – April 10, 1994) was an American author. His first novel, "Leaving Las Vegas", was published in 1990 by Watermark Press and made into a film of the same name in 1995.


title: John O'Brien (novelist)

text: O'Brien was born in Oxford, Ohio, where his parents, Bill and Judy O'Brien, were both students at Miami University. He was the brother of writer Erin O'Brien. John grew up in Brecksville and Lakewood, Ohio, and graduated from Lakewood High School in 1978. He married Lisa Kirkwood in 1979, and the couple moved to Los Angeles, California, in 1982. His first novel, "Leaving Las Vegas", is dedicated to her.


title: John O'Brien (novelist)

text: Through a friend of his ex-wife, O'Brien got a gig writing Episode 37 of the animated series "Rugrats", "Toys in the Attic", which premiered in 1992 under his only known pseudonym, Carroll Mine. According to his sister, Erin, he was disgusted with editorial changes made to his script.


title: John O'Brien (novelist)

text: O'Brien died from suicide by gunshot at his Beverly Hills apartment on April 10, 1994, two weeks after learning that his novel, "Leaving Las Vegas", was to be made into a movie. His father says that the novel was his suicide note. Two more of his novels were published posthumously: "Stripper Lessons" (Grove Press, 1997) and "The Assault on Tony's" (Grove Press, 1996), both of which had been left unfinished at the time of his death and were completed by his sister, Erin. A third manuscript, "Better", was published by Akashic Press in 2009.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: The 2021 season was the Kansas City Chiefs' 52nd season in the National Football League, their 62nd overall and their ninth under head coach Andy Reid. Looking to become the fourth team in NFL history to make three straight Super Bowls, the Chiefs began the season slow, at 3-4 but would finish the regular season 12–5, winning the AFC West division title for the sixth consecutive season. The Chiefs would make, and host, their fourth straight conference championship, but lost to the Cincinnati Bengals in overtime 24–27.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: This would be the final season with long-time wide receiver Tyreek Hill, as he was traded to the Miami Dolphins on March 23, 2022. A 6-time Pro Bowler during his time with Kansas City, Hill's final game with the Chiefs was on January 30, 2022, the aforementioned AFC Championship Game vs. the Bengals.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: Head coach Andy Reid recorded his 100th win as the Chiefs head coach on October 3, 2021, a 42–30 win over his former team, Philadelphia Eagles. Reid became the first coach in NFL history to win 100 games as a head coach with multiple teams as well as the first to lead multiple teams to four straight Conference Championships, previously doing so with the Eagles from the 2001 to 2004 seasons.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: On March 4, 2021, the Chiefs announced that they had officially renamed Arrowhead Stadium, GEHA Field at Arrowhead Stadium.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: The Chiefs lost two of their longest tenured players in the offseason. Tackle Eric Fisher was released and fullback Anthony Sherman retired. Both players joined the Chiefs in 2013.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: In the offseason, the Chiefs announced they would once again retire their live horse mascot Warpaint to continue with their commitment to stop using Native American imagery.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: The Chiefs opened the season on September 12 with a 33–29 victory over the Cleveland Browns. The win was the Chiefs' 15th consecutive win in September. The Chiefs would lose their next two games to give them a 1–2 record after three games, which was their first losing record in 89 games, dating back to week 10 of the 2015 season. The Chiefs' 20–38 week 5 loss to the Buffalo Bills, was the Chiefs' first double-digit loss in the regular season since 2017 and the Chiefs' first double-digit loss at home since 2014. In Week 7, the Chiefs lost 3–27 to the Tennessee Titans, which is the fewest points scored in a game since Patrick Mahomes became the quarterback. The Chiefs maintained a non-winning record until a week 9 victory over the Green Bay Packers. That 7-week stretch without a winning record was the Chiefs' longest stretch without a winning record since 2012 when they held a losing record the entire season. After starting the season 3–4, the Chiefs won their ninth game in week 14 over the Las Vegas Raiders clinching their ninth consecutive winning season, one short of the franchise record of 10. The 48–9 victory over the Raiders was the largest in franchise history over the Raiders and the largest victory against any opponent since the 2006 season. In week 16, following a 36–10 victory over the Steelers and a loss by the Chargers, the Chiefs clinched their sixth consecutive AFC West division championship and their franchise record seventh straight playoff berth. The Chiefs finished the regular season 12–5, their fourth consecutive 12-win season, all four since Patrick Mahomes became the starting quarterback.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: Kansas City defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 42–21 in the Wild Card round of the 2021–22 NFL playoffs. They would then host Buffalo in the Divisional round, winning that game 42–36 in overtime. This game was hailed as one of the greatest modern NFL playoff games, with both teams combining for 25 points in the final two minutes of regulation. The following week, despite being favored to win the AFC Championship game, the Chiefs would lose the game in an upset to the Bengals in overtime 24–27, a game in which they led 21–3 at one point in the second quarter.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: NFL Network began announcing their annual top 100 list on August 15, 2021. Five Chiefs players were named to the list. Defensive end Frank Clark is the only player still on the roster that was ranked the previous season that went unranked for the 2021 season. Tight end Travis Kelce was ranked 5th, which is the highest ranking ever for a tight end in the history of the Top 100. Quarterback Patrick Mahomes was ranked 1st on the list, which was the first time a Chiefs player was ranked the number one.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: Transactions listed below occurred between the day after Super Bowl LV, February 8, and August 14, the day of the Chiefs first preseason game.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: Below are players who were on the roster at the end of the 2020 season, but were either released or did not re-sign after their contract expired. If a player resigns during the offseason, their name will be removed from the list.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: Players that were on the Chiefs roster at the end of the season who announced their retirement before the preseason are listed below, even if their contract with the Chiefs had officially expired prior to their announcement.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: Transactions listed below, occurred between August 15, the day after the Chiefs first preseason game, and September 12, the day of the Chiefs first regular season game.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: The first preseason roster cutdown occurred on August 17. In addition the transactions below, the Chiefs placed running back Elijah McGuire on injured reserve.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: The second preseason cutdown occurred on August 24. The Chiefs released or waived five players and did not use reserve lists to make the 80 player limit.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: The third and final preseason cutdown occurred on August 31. In addition to the transactions below, the Chiefs traded a player, placed Kyle Long on the physically unable to perform list, and placed Malik Herring on the reserve/non-football injury list.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: Below are transactions that occurred after the Chiefs first game through their final game. Transactions below are only transactions related to the Chiefs active roster. Practice squad transactions will not be included.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: Standard practice squad elevations allow a player to elevated from the practice squad to the active roster for a single game and revert back to the practice squad following the game. Below are standard elevations used by the Chiefs during the season.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: Below are players elevated from the practice squad using a non-standard elevation, meaning, if the Chiefs want them to go back to the practice squad, they must clear waivers then sign them back to the practice squad.


title: 2021 Kansas City Chiefs season

text: The following players missed games because of the NFL's COVID-19 protocols. Typically, a player misses because of a positive test. Vaccinated players can return simply after a subsequent negative test, unvaccinated players are out for five days.


title: Boustrophedon

text: Boustrophedon is a style of writing in which alternate lines of writing are reversed, with letters also written in reverse, mirror-style. This is in contrast to modern European languages, where lines always begin on the same side, usually the left.


title: Boustrophedon

text: The original term comes from , ', a composite of , ', "ox"; , ', "turn"; and the adverbial suffix -, -', "like, in the manner of" – that is, "like the ox turns [while plowing]". It is mostly seen in ancient manuscripts and other inscriptions. It was a common way of writing on stone in ancient Greece, becoming less and less popular throughout the Hellenistic period. Many ancient scripts, such as Etruscan, Safaitic, and Sabaean, were frequently or even typically written boustrophedon.


title: Boustrophedon

text: The wooden boards and other incised artefacts of Rapa Nui also bear a boustrophedonic script called Rongorongo, which remains undeciphered. In Rongorongo, the text in alternate lines was rotated 180 degrees rather than mirrored; this is termed "reverse boustrophedon."


title: Boustrophedon

text: The reader begins at the bottom left-hand corner of a tablet, reads a line from left to right, then rotates the tablet 180 degrees to continue on the next line from left to right again. When reading one line, the lines above and below it appear upside down. However, the writing continues onto the second side of the tablet at the point where it finishes off the first, so if the first side has an odd number of lines, the second will start at the "upper" left-hand corner, and the direction of writing shifts to top to bottom. Larger tablets and staves may have been read without turning, if the reader were able to read upside-down.


title: Boustrophedon

text: The Hungarian folklorist Gyula Sebestyén (1864–1946) writes that ancient boustrophedon writing resembles how the Hungarian rovás-sticks of Old Hungarian script were made by shepherds. The notcher holds the wooden stick in his left hand, cutting the letters with his right hand from right to left. When the first side is complete, he flips the stick over vertically and starts to notch the opposite side in the same manner. When unfolded horizontally (as in the case of the stone-cut boustrophedon inscriptions), the final result is writing which starts from right to left, and continues from left to right in the next row, with letters turned upside down. Sebestyén suggests that the ancient boustrophedon writings were copied from such wooden sticks with cut letters, applied for epigraphic inscriptions (not recognizing the real meaning of the original wooden type).


title: Boustrophedon

text: The Luwian language had a version, Hieroglyphic Luwian, that read in boustrophedon style (most of the language was written down in cuneiform).


title: Boustrophedon

text: Hieroglyphic Luwian is read boustrophedonically, with the direction of any individual line pointing into the front of the animals or body parts constituting certain hieroglyphs. However, unlike Egyptian hieroglyphs with their numerous ideograms and logograms, which show an easy directionality, the lineal direction of the text in hieroglyphic Luwian is harder to see.


title: Boustrophedon

text: A modern example of boustrophedonics is the numbering scheme of sections within survey townships in the United States and Canada. In both countries, survey townships are divided into a 6-by-6 grid of 36 sections. In the U.S. Public Land Survey System, Section 1 of a township is in the northeast corner, and the numbering proceeds boustrophedonically until Section 36 is reached in the southeast corner. Canada's Dominion Land Survey also uses boustrophedonic numbering, but starts at the southeast corner. Following a similar scheme, street numbering in the United Kingdom sometimes proceeds serially in one direction then turns back in the other (the same numbering method is used in some mainland European cities). This is in contrast to the more common method of odd and even numbers on opposite sides of the street both increasing in the same direction.


title: Boustrophedon

text: Permanent human teeth are numbered in a boustrophedonic sequence in the American Universal Numbering System.


title: Boustrophedon

text: In art history Marilyn Aronberg Lavin adopted the term to describe a type of narrative direction a mural painting cycle may take: "The boustrophedon is found on the surface of single walls ["linear"] as well on one or more opposing walls ["aerial"] of a given sanctuary. The narrative reads on several tiers, first from left to right, then reversing from right to left, or vice versa."


title: Boustrophedon

text: The Atlantean language created by Marc Okrand for Disney's 2001 film "" is written in boustrophedon to recreate the feeling of flowing water.


title: Boustrophedon

text: The code language used in "The Montmaray Journals", Kernetin, is written boustrophedonically. It is a combination of Cornish and Latin and is used for secret communication.


title: Boustrophedon

text: In late writings, J.R.R. Tolkien states many elves were ambidextrous and as such, would write left-to-right or right-to-left as needed.


title: The Secret Circle (TV series)

text: The Secret Circle is an American supernatural fantasy teen drama television series that aired on The CW from September 15, 2011, to May 10, 2012. It is based on the book series of the same name written by L.J. Smith. Set in the fictional town of Chance Harbor, Washington, the series focuses on Cassie Blake who, after moving to the town, discovers that she is a hereditary witch and becomes the sixth member of a secret coven. The series was developed by Andrew Miller and was picked up by The CW on May 17, 2011. On October 12, The CW ordered a full 22-episode season.


title: The Secret Circle (TV series)

text: The CW canceled the series on May 11, 2012. Ratings had declined in the second half of the season; the high costs of special effects and location shooting were also cited as reasons for the cancellation.


title: The Secret Circle (TV series)

text: Following her mother's death in a tragic fire, orphaned highschooler Cassie Blake (Britt Robertson) moves to Chance Harbor, Washington, to live with her grandmother. Her plans to adjust to her new life are made more complicated when five of her classmates—Adam Conant (Thomas Dekker), Diana Meade (Shelley Hennig), Faye Chamberlain (Phoebe Tonkin), Melissa Glaser (Jessica Parker Kennedy), and Nick Armstrong (Louis Hunter)—recognize her as a witch and invite her to join their coven, the Circle. With her, they can unlock the full extent of their powers. Initially, Cassie refuses to believe that she is a witch, even after Adam helps her to unlock her powers. It is only after she discovers an old leather-bound book of spells left to her by her late mother, Amelia, that she begins to accept her power. Inside the book is a message from Amelia explaining that she kept secret their real family history and her powers in order to keep Cassie safe. As the Circle soon finds out, the witches' powers attract dark and dangerous forces that constantly put them in harm's way.


title: The Secret Circle (TV series)

text: On October 28, 2010, L.J. Smith announced that the series had been optioned for a TV series by The CW. On February 8, 2011, The CW picked up "The Secret Circle" with "Dawson's Creek" creator and "The Vampire Diaries" co-creator/executive producer Kevin Williamson now attached. However, he told The CW that "The Vampire Diaries" companion series he was helming had been put on hold in order to focus on "The Secret Circle." Williamson worked on an original script penned by Andrew Miller, creator of the Emmy-nominated web series "Imaginary Bitches", with writer credit shared by both men.


title: The Secret Circle (TV series)

text: On February 16, 2011, "The Secret Circle" booked Liz Friedlander to direct the pilot. Friedlander also directed episodes for "The Vampire Diaries", "Pretty Little Liars", "90210" and "One Tree Hill".


title: The Secret Circle (TV series)

text: On October 12, 2011, The CW ordered a full season of twenty-two episodes. On May 11, 2012 The CW cancelled the series.


title: The Secret Circle (TV series)

text: The pilot has been met with mixed reviews, with Metacritic giving a score of 55 out of a 100 based on 20 critics. Lloyd Roberts of the "Los Angeles Times" thought the pilot was "splendidly rendered; effective in the expected ways in a way that makes you forget you expected them." He then wrote "Director Liz Friedlander aims not just for creepiness but for a tremulous sense of beauty that reflects the heightened sensibilities and hair-trigger sensitivities of adolescence" and appreciated the actors "who are good to look at, but also bring a little soul to their roles."


title: The Secret Circle (TV series)

text: In 2015, three years following the cancellation of the show, Gavin Hetherington of SpoilerTV looked back on the series finale, as well as the series as a whole. He reviewed the show favorably, commenting "the last several episodes really built up the potential of the show and made it pretty exciting, and it would have led into an awesome second season", and saying that the show should have had a second season, "to further develop the characters and the storylines we were left hanging with".


title: The Secret Circle (TV series)

text: Phoebe Tonkin's performance was well received by critics; she was featured on "Variety"'s list of new faces to watch and named one of 2011 Breakout TV Stars by E! Online.


title: The Secret Circle (TV series)

text: On May 11, 2012, the CW cancelled the series, despite being the network's third-highest rated performer. Following the show's cancellation, a formal fan-led campaign website titled 'Save The Circle' was launched. A letter-writing campaign, targeted at the CW, aimed to encourage the CW to reconsider bringing back the show for a mid-season slot. Campaigns were also launched at other TV networks whose target demographic matched those of The CW—MTV, ABC Family, and Syfy.


title: The Secret Circle (TV series)

text: Fans donated between $1–10 to the Make a Wish Foundation in the name of MTV; this aimed to attach a good cause to the campaign while getting MTV's attention. "The Secret Circle" executive producer Andrew Miller auctioned a signed poster of the show's cast in support of the campaign. In the end, over $7,000 was raised. The campaign targeted at ABC Family asked fans to donate money to fund a delivery of 325,000 golden plastic coins to the network's headquarters. The coins were symbolic of a 'cloaking coin' that belonged to one of the main characters, Adam Conant's grandfather in the episode "Traitor". The metaphor was that The CW 'cloaked' the show by cancelling it, and fans wanted ABC Family to 'uncloak' the show by picking it up.


title: The Secret Circle (TV series)

text: A letter-writing campaign to Syfy was also launched, but ultimately the 'Save The Circle' campaign leaders decided against pursuing the network further due to budgetary concerns. Following the announcement that Warner Bros. had unsuccessfully entered talks with ABC Family about picking up the show and that the series would not be shipped to another network, campaigning targeting potential networks for a pick-up ceased.


title: The Secret Circle (TV series)

text: Nevertheless, a new campaign, aimed at Warner Bros, was launched following the announcement that the series' first season would not be released on DVD or Blu-ray. As of September 2012, "The Secret Circle" is available on Netflix for immediate streaming. A music project was launched, with the aim of developing and distributing a full-length album of 10 fan songs online and making them available for free download. Fans were asked to either submit an audio recording of themselves singing their own songs, or send in lyrics for potential use. Petitions were also set up, in the hope that they would bring back the series. The three main campaigns together, as of June 24, 2012, amassed over 85,500 signatures. Since the show was canceled, fans have voted it "the show that will be missed most" or "Most Shocking Cancellation" in a number of polls, including E!, Clique Clack, Hypable, Spoiler TV, TV Fanatic, TV.com, and Zap2it.


title: Friends (season 7)

text: The seventh season of "Friends", an American sitcom created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, premiered on NBC on October 12, 2000. "Friends" was produced by Bright/Kauffman/Crane Productions, in association with Warner Bros. Television. The season contains 24 episodes and concluded airing on May 17, 2001.


title: Friends (season 7)

text: Collider ranked it #4 on their ranking of the ten "Friends" seasons, and cited "The One with Monica and Chandler's Wedding" as its best episode. They also wrote that "The One with the Engagement Picture" and "The One with the Vows" were other highlights.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: An umbilical hernia is a health condition where the abdominal wall behind the navel is damaged. It may cause the navel to bulge outwards—the bulge consisting of abdominal fat from the greater omentum or occasionally parts of the small intestine. The bulge can often be pressed back through the hole in the abdominal wall, and may "pop out" when coughing or otherwise acting to increase intra-abdominal pressure. Treatment is surgical, and surgery may be performed for cosmetic as well as health-related reasons.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: A hernia is present at the site of the umbilicus (commonly called a navel or belly button) in newborns; although sometimes quite large, these hernias tend to resolve without any treatment by around the age of 2–3 years. Obstruction and strangulation of the hernia is rare because the underlying defect in the abdominal wall is larger than in an inguinal hernia of the newborn. The size of the base of the herniated tissue is inversely correlated with risk of strangulation (i.e., a narrow base is more likely to strangulate).


title: Umbilical hernia

text: Babies are prone to this malformation because of the process during fetal development by which the abdominal organs form outside the abdominal cavity, later returning into it through an opening which will become the umbilicus.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: Hernias may be asymptomatic and present only as a bulge of the umbilicus. Symptoms may develop when the contracting abdominal wall causes pressure on the hernia contents. This results in abdominal pain or discomfort. These symptoms may be worsened by the patient lifting or straining.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: The causes of umbilical hernia are congenital and acquired malformation, but an apparent third cause is really a cause of a different type, a paraumbilical hernia.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: Congenital umbilical hernia is a congenital malformation of the navel (umbilicus). Among adults, it is three times more common in women than in men; among children, the ratio is roughly equal. It is also found to be more common in children of African descent.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: An acquired umbilical hernia directly results from increased intra-abdominal pressure caused by obesity, heavy lifting, a long history of coughing, or multiple pregnancies. Another type of acquired umbilical hernias are incisional hernias, which are hernia developing in a scar following abdominal surgery, e.g. after insertion of laparoscopy trocars through the umbilicus.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: Importantly, an umbilical hernia must be distinguished from a paraumbilical hernia, which occurs in adults and involves a defect in the midline near to the umbilicus, and from omphalocele.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: Navels with the umbilical tip protruding past the umbilical skin ("outies") are often mistaken for umbilical hernias, which are a completely different shape. Treatment for cosmetic purposes is not necessary, unless there are Incarceration refers to the inability to reduce the hernia back into the abdominal cavity. Prolonged incarceration can lead to tissue ischemia (strangulation) and shock when untreated.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: Umbilical hernias are common. With a study involving Africans, 92% of children had protrusions, 49% of adults, and 90% of pregnant women. However, a much smaller number actually had hernias: only 23% of children, 8% of adults, and 15% of pregnant women.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: When the orifice is small (< 1 or 2 cm), 90% close within 3 years (some sources state 85% of all umbilical hernias, regardless of size), and if these hernias are asymptomatic, reducible, and don't enlarge, no surgery is needed (and in other cases it must be considered).


title: Umbilical hernia

text: In some communities mothers routinely push the small bulge back in and tape a coin over the palpable hernia hole until closure occurs. This practice is not medically recommended as there is a small risk of trapping a loop of bowel under part of the coin resulting in a small area of ischemic bowel. This "fix" does not help and germs may accumulate under the tape, causing infection. The use of bandages or other articles to continuously reduce the hernia is not evidence-based.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: An umbilical hernia can be fixed in two different ways. The surgeon can opt to stitch the walls of the abdomen or he/she can place mesh over the opening and stitch it to the abdominal walls. The latter is of a stronger hold and is commonly used for larger defects in the abdominal wall. Most surgeons will not repair the hernia until 5–6 years after the baby is born. Most umbilical hernias in infants and children close spontaneously and rarely have complications of gastrointestinal-content incarcerations.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: How far the projection of the swelling extends from the surface of the abdomen (the belly) varies from child to child. In some, it may be just a small protrusion; in others it may be a large rounded swelling that bulges out when the baby cries. It may hardly be visible when the child is quiet and or sleeping.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: Normally, the abdominal muscles converge and fuse at the umbilicus during the formation stage, however, in some cases, there remains a gap where the muscles do not close and through this gap the inner intestines come up and bulge under the skin, giving rise to an umbilical hernia. The bulge and its contents can easily be pushed back and reduced into the abdominal cavity.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: In contrast to an inguinal hernia, the complication incidence is very low, and in addition, the gap in the muscles usually closes with time and the hernia disappears on its own. The treatment of this condition is essentially conservative: observation allowing the child to grow up and see if it disappears. Operation and closure of the defect is required only if the hernia persists after the age of 3 years or if the child has an episode of complication during the period of observation like irreducibility, intestinal obstruction, abdominal distension with vomiting, or red shiny painful skin over the swelling. Surgery is always done under anesthesia. The defect in the muscles is defined and the edges of the muscles are brought together with sutures to close the defect. In general, the child needs to stay in the hospital for 1 day and the healing is complete within 8 days.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: At times, there may be a fleshy red swelling seen in the hollow of the umbilicus that persists after the cord has fallen off. It may bleed on touch, or may stain the clothes that come in contact with it. This needs to be shown to a pediatric surgeon. This is most likely to be an umbilical polyp and the therapy is to tie it at the base with a stitch so that it falls off and there is no bleeding. Alternatively, it may be an umbilical granuloma that responds well to local application of dry salt or silver nitrate but may take a few weeks to heal and dry.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: Many hernias never cause any problems, and do not require any treatment at all. However, because the risk of complications with age are higher and the hernia is unlikely to resolve without treatment, surgery is usually recommended.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: Usually hernia has content of bowel, abdominal fat or omentum, tissue that normally would reside inside the abdominal cavity if it wasn't for the hernia. In some cases, the content gets trapped in the hernia sac, outside the abdominal wall. The blood flow to this trapped tissue may be compromised, or the content even strangulated in some cases. Depending on the severity and duration of blood flow compromise, it can cause some pain and discomfort. Usually the situation resolves itself, when the protrusion of content is returned to the abdominal cavity. Sometimes this needs to be done by a doctor at the ICU.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: The hernia content becoming trapped combined with severe pain, inability to perform bowel movement or pass gas, swelling, fever, nausea and/or discoloration over the area could be signs of a prolonged compromise in blood flow of the hernia content. If so, emergency surgery is often required, since prolonged compromise in blood flow otherwise threatens organ integrity.


title: Umbilical hernia

text: If hernias are symptomatic and disturb daily activity or have had episodes of threatening incarceration, preventive surgical treatment can be considered. The surgery is performed under anaesthesia, while the surgeon identifies the edges of the defect and bring them together permanently using either suture or mesh. Small umbilical hernias are often successfully repaired with suture, while larger hernias may require a suitable mesh, although some surgeons advocate mesh treatment for most hernias. The most common complications for both techniques are superficial wound infections and recurrence of the hernia and some people experience pain at the surgical site.


title: Ceteris paribus

text: A "ceteris paribus" assumption is often key to scientific inquiry, because scientists seek to eliminate factors that perturb a relation of interest. Thus epidemiologists, for example, may seek to control independent variables as factors that may influence dependent variables—the outcomes of interest. Likewise, in scientific modeling, simplifying assumptions permit illustration of concepts considered relevant to the inquiry. An example in economics is "If the price of milk falls, ceteris paribus, the demand for milk will rise." This means that, if other factors, such as deflation, pricing objectives, utility, and marketing methods, do not change, the decrease in the price of milk will lead to an increase in demand for it.


title: Ceteris paribus

text: In the philosophy of science, there is debate about "ceteris paribus" statements. In the logical empiricist view, fundamental physics tends to state universal laws, whereas other sciences, such as biology, and social sciences, such as economics and psychology, tend to state laws that hold true in normal conditions but have exceptions: "ceteris paribus" laws ("cp laws"). The focus on universal laws is a criterion distinguishing fundamental physics as fundamental, whereas cp laws are predominant in most other sciences as special sciences, whose laws hold in special cases. This distinction assumes a logical empiricist view of science. It does not readily apply in a mechanistic understanding of scientific discovery. There is reasonable disagreement as to whether mechanisms or laws are the appropriate model; mechanisms are the favored method. Another possibility if we assume "ceteris paribus" in a scenario is the tendency to ignore many important factors that may play even greater roles in the measure of the dependent variable. Some assumptions tend to be highly unrealistic and can lead to wrong beliefs among scientists.


title: Ceteris paribus

text: One of the disciplines in which "ceteris paribus" clauses are most widely used is economics, in which they are employed to simplify the formulation and description of economic outcomes. When using "ceteris paribus" in economics, one assumes that all other variables except those under immediate consideration are held constant. For example, it can be predicted that if the price of beef "increases"—"ceteris paribus"—the quantity of beef demanded by buyers will "decrease". In this example, the clause is used to operationally describe everything surrounding the relationship between both the "price" and the "quantity demanded" of an ordinary good.


title: Ceteris paribus

text: This operational description intentionally ignores both known and unknown factors that may also influence the relationship between price and quantity demanded, and thus to assume "ceteris paribus" is to assume away any interference with the given example. Such factors that would be intentionally ignored include: a change in the price of substitute goods, (e.g., the price of pork or lamb); a change in the level of risk aversion among buyers (e.g., due to an increase in the fear of mad cow disease); and a change in the level of overall demand for a good regardless of its current price (e.g., a societal shift toward vegetarianism).


title: Ceteris paribus

text: The clause is often loosely translated as "holding all else constant." It does not imply that no other things will in fact change; rather, it isolates the effect of one particular change. Holding all other things constant is directly analogous to using a partial derivative in calculus rather than a total derivative, and to running a regression containing multiple variables rather than just one in order to isolate the individual effect of one of the variables. Ceteris paribus is an extension of scientific modeling. The scientific method is built on identifying, isolating, and testing the impact of an independent variable on a dependent variable.


title: Ceteris paribus

text: One thing to note is that since economic variables can only be isolated in theory and not in practice, ceteris paribus can only ever highlight tendencies, not absolutes.


title: Ceteris paribus

text: The clause is used to consider the effect of some causes in isolation, by assuming that other influences are absent. Alfred Marshall expressed the use of the clause as follows:


title: Ceteris paribus

text: The above passage by Marshall highlights two ways in which the "ceteris paribus" clause may be used: The one is "hypothetical", in the sense that some factor is assumed fixed in order to analyse the influence of another factor in isolation. This would be hypothetical isolation. An example would be the hypothetical separation of the income effect and the substitution effect of a price change, which actually go together. The other use of the "ceteris paribus" clause is to see it as a means for obtaining an approximate solution. Here it would yield a substantive isolation.


title: Ceteris paribus

text: Substantive isolation has two aspects: temporal and causal. Temporal isolation requires the factors fixed under the "ceteris paribus" clause to actually move so slowly relative to the other influence that they can be taken as practically constant at any point in time. So, if vegetarianism spreads very slowly, inducing a slow decline in the demand for beef, and the market for beef clears comparatively quickly, we can determine the price of beef at any instant by the intersection of supply and demand, and the changing demand for beef will account for the price changes over time (Temporary Equilibrium Method).


title: Ceteris paribus

text: The other aspect of substantive isolation is causal isolation: those factors frozen under a "ceteris paribus" clause should not significantly be affected by the processes under study. If a change in government policies induces changes in consumers' behaviour on the same time scale, the assumption that consumer behaviour remains unchanged while policy changes is inadmissible as a substantive isolation (Lucas critique).


title: Close-mid back rounded vowel

text: The close-mid back rounded vowel, or high-mid back rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is .


title: Close-mid back rounded vowel

text: The close-mid back protruded vowel is the most common variant of the close-mid back rounded vowel. It is typically transcribed in IPA simply as , and that is the convention used in this article. As there is no dedicated diacritic for protrusion in the IPA, the symbol for the close-mid back rounded vowel with an old diacritic for labialization, , can be used as an "ad hoc" symbol for the close-mid back protruded vowel. Another possible transcription is or (a close-mid back vowel modified by endolabialization), but this could be misread as a diphthong.


title: Close-mid back rounded vowel

text: For the close-mid near-back protruded vowel that is usually transcribed with the symbol , see near-close back protruded vowel. If the usual symbol is , the vowel is listed here.


title: Close-mid back rounded vowel

text: Because back rounded vowels are assumed to have protrusion, and few descriptions cover the distinction, some of the following may actually have compression.


title: Close-mid back rounded vowel

text: There is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA. However, compression of the lips can be shown with as (simultaneous and labial compression) or ( modified with labial compression). The spread-lip diacritic may also be used with a rounded vowel letter as an "ad hoc" symbol, but 'spread' technically means unrounded.


title: Close-mid back rounded vowel

text: Only Wu Chinese is known to contrast it with the more typical "protruded" (endolabial) close-mid back vowel, but the height of both vowels varies from close to close-mid.


title: Speciation

text: Speciation is the evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species. The biologist Orator F. Cook coined the term in 1906 for cladogenesis, the splitting of lineages, as opposed to anagenesis, phyletic evolution within lineages. Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation in his 1859 book "On the Origin of Species". He also identified sexual selection as a likely mechanism, but found it problematic.


title: Speciation

text: There are four geographic modes of speciation in nature, based on the extent to which speciating populations are isolated from one another: allopatric, peripatric, parapatric, and sympatric. Speciation may also be induced artificially, through animal husbandry, agriculture, or laboratory experiments. Whether genetic drift is a minor or major contributor to speciation is the subject of much ongoing discussion.


title: Speciation

text: Rapid sympatric speciation can take place through polyploidy, such as by doubling of chromosome number; the result is progeny which are immediately reproductively isolated from the parent population. New species can also be created through hybridization, followed by reproductive isolation, if the hybrid is favoured by natural selection.


title: Speciation

text: Since Charles Darwin's time, efforts to understand the nature of species have primarily focused on the first aspect, and it is now widely agreed that the critical factor behind the origin of new species is reproductive isolation.


title: Speciation

text: In "On the Origin of Species" (1859), Darwin interpreted biological evolution in terms of natural selection, but was perplexed by the clustering of organisms into species. Chapter 6 of Darwin's book is entitled "Difficulties of the Theory". In discussing these "difficulties" he noted


title: Speciation

text: Another dilemma, related to the first one, is the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in time. Darwin pointed out that by the theory of natural selection "innumerable transitional forms must have existed", and wondered "why do we not find them embedded in countless numbers in the crust of the earth". That clearly defined species actually do exist in nature in both space and time implies that some fundamental feature of natural selection operates to generate and maintain species.


title: Speciation

text: It has been argued that the resolution of Darwin's first dilemma lies in the fact that out-crossing sexual reproduction has an intrinsic cost of rarity. The cost of rarity arises as follows. If, on a resource gradient, a large number of separate species evolve, each exquisitely adapted to a very narrow band on that gradient, each species will, of necessity, consist of very few members. Finding a mate under these circumstances may present difficulties when many of the individuals in the neighborhood belong to other species. Under these circumstances, if any species' population size happens, by chance, to increase (at the expense of one or other of its neighboring species, if the environment is saturated), this will immediately make it easier for its members to find sexual partners. The members of the neighboring species, whose population sizes have decreased, experience greater difficulty in finding mates, and therefore form pairs less frequently than the larger species. This has a snowball effect, with large species growing at the expense of the smaller, rarer species, eventually driving them to extinction. Eventually, only a few species remain, each distinctly different from the other. The cost of rarity not only involves the costs of failure to find a mate, but also indirect costs such as the cost of communication in seeking out a partner at low population densities.


title: Speciation

text: Rarity brings with it other costs. Rare and unusual features are very seldom advantageous. In most instances, they indicate a (non-silent) mutation, which is almost certain to be deleterious. It therefore behooves sexual creatures to avoid mates sporting rare or unusual features (koinophilia). Sexual populations therefore rapidly shed rare or peripheral phenotypic features, thus canalizing the entire external appearance, as illustrated in the accompanying illustration of the African pygmy kingfisher, "Ispidina picta". This uniformity of all the adult members of a sexual species has stimulated the proliferation of field guides on birds, mammals, reptiles, insects, and many other taxa, in which a species can be described with a single illustration (or two, in the case of sexual dimorphism). Once a population has become as homogeneous in appearance as is typical of most species (and is illustrated in the photograph of the African pygmy kingfisher), its members will avoid mating with members of other populations that look different from themselves. Thus, the avoidance of mates displaying rare and unusual phenotypic features inevitably leads to reproductive isolation, one of the hallmarks of speciation.


title: Speciation

text: In the contrasting case of organisms that reproduce asexually, there is no cost of rarity; consequently, there are only benefits to fine-scale adaptation. Thus, asexual organisms very frequently show the continuous variation in form (often in many different directions) that Darwin expected evolution to produce, making their classification into "species" (more correctly, morphospecies) very difficult.


title: Speciation

text: All forms of natural speciation have taken place over the course of evolution; however, debate persists as to the relative importance of each mechanism in driving biodiversity.


title: Speciation

text: One example of natural speciation is the diversity of the three-spined stickleback, a marine fish that, after the last glacial period, has undergone speciation into new freshwater colonies in isolated lakes and streams. Over an estimated 10,000 generations, the sticklebacks show structural differences that are greater than those seen between different genera of fish including variations in fins, changes in the number or size of their bony plates, variable jaw structure, and color differences.


title: Speciation

text: During allopatric (from the ancient Greek "allos", "other" + "patrā", "fatherland") speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations (for example, by habitat fragmentation due to geographical change such as mountain formation). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic or phenotypic divergence as: (a) they become subjected to dissimilar selective pressures; (b) they independently undergo genetic drift; (c) different mutations arise in the two populations. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging genes. Island genetics is the term associated with the tendency of small, isolated genetic pools to produce unusual traits. Examples include insular dwarfism and the radical changes among certain famous island chains, for example on Komodo. The Galápagos Islands are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard that Galápagos tortoises could be identified by island, and noticed that finches differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he reflected that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he returned to England, his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other differing Galápagos birds were all species of finches. Though the finches were less important for Darwin, more recent research has shown the birds now known as Darwin's finches to be a classic case of adaptive evolutionary radiation.


title: Speciation

text: In peripatric speciation, a subform of allopatric speciation, new species are formed in isolated, smaller peripheral populations that are prevented from exchanging genes with the main population. It is related to the concept of a founder effect, since small populations often undergo bottlenecks. Genetic drift is often proposed to play a significant role in peripatric speciation.


title: Speciation

text: Case studies include Mayr's investigation of bird fauna; the Australian bird "Petroica multicolor"; and reproductive isolation in populations of "Drosophila" subject to population bottlenecking.


title: Speciation

text: In parapatric speciation, there is only partial separation of the zones of two diverging populations afforded by geography; individuals of each species may come in contact or cross habitats from time to time, but reduced fitness of the heterozygote leads to selection for behaviours or mechanisms that prevent their interbreeding. Parapatric speciation is modelled on continuous variation within a "single", connected habitat acting as a source of natural selection rather than the effects of isolation of habitats produced in peripatric and allopatric speciation.


title: Speciation

text: Parapatric speciation may be associated with differential landscape-dependent selection. Even if there is a gene flow between two populations, strong differential selection may impede assimilation and different species may eventually develop. Habitat differences may be more important in the development of reproductive isolation than the isolation time. Caucasian rock lizards "Darevskia rudis", "D. valentini" and "D. portschinskii" all hybridize with each other in their hybrid zone; however, hybridization is stronger between "D. portschinskii" and "D. rudis", which separated earlier but live in similar habitats than between "D. valentini" and two other species, which separated later but live in climatically different habitats.


title: Speciation

text: Ecologists refer to parapatric and peripatric speciation in terms of ecological niches. A niche must be available in order for a new species to be successful. Ring species such as "Larus" gulls have been claimed to illustrate speciation in progress, though the situation may be more complex. The grass "Anthoxanthum odoratum" may be starting parapatric speciation in areas of mine contamination.


title: Speciation

text: Sympatric speciation is the formation of two or more descendant species from a single ancestral species all occupying the same geographic location.


title: Speciation

text: Often-cited examples of sympatric speciation are found in insects that become dependent on different host plants in the same area.


title: Speciation

text: The best known example of sympatric speciation is that of the cichlids of East Africa inhabiting the Rift Valley lakes, particularly Lake Victoria, Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika. There are over 800 described species, and according to estimates, there could be well over 1,600 species in the region. Their evolution is cited as an example of both natural and sexual selection. A 2008 study suggests that sympatric speciation has occurred in Tennessee cave salamanders. Sympatric speciation driven by ecological factors may also account for the extraordinary diversity of crustaceans living in the depths of Siberia's Lake Baikal.


title: Speciation

text: Budding speciation has been proposed as a particular form of sympatric speciation, whereby small groups of individuals become progressively more isolated from the ancestral stock by breeding preferentially with one another. This type of speciation would be driven by the conjunction of various advantages of inbreeding such as the expression of advantageous recessive phenotypes, reducing the recombination load, and reducing the cost of sex.


title: Speciation

text: The hawthorn fly ("Rhagoletis pomonella"), also known as the apple maggot fly, appears to be undergoing sympatric speciation. Different populations of hawthorn fly feed on different fruits. A distinct population emerged in North America in the 19th century some time after apples, a non-native species, were introduced. This apple-feeding population normally feeds only on apples and not on the historically preferred fruit of hawthorns. The current hawthorn feeding population does not normally feed on apples. Some evidence, such as that six out of thirteen allozyme loci are different, that hawthorn flies mature later in the season and take longer to mature than apple flies; and that there is little evidence of interbreeding (researchers have documented a 4–6% hybridization rate) suggests that sympatric speciation is occurring.


title: Speciation

text: Reinforcement, also called the Wallace effect, is the process by which natural selection increases reproductive isolation. It may occur after two populations of the same species are separated and then come back into contact. If their reproductive isolation was complete, then they will have already developed into two separate incompatible species. If their reproductive isolation is incomplete, then further mating between the populations will produce hybrids, which may or may not be fertile. If the hybrids are infertile, or fertile but less fit than their ancestors, then there will be further reproductive isolation and speciation has essentially occurred, as in horses and donkeys.


title: Speciation

text: One reasoning behind this is that if the parents of the hybrid offspring each have naturally selected traits for their own certain environments, the hybrid offspring will bear traits from both, therefore would not fit either ecological niche as well as either parent (ecological speciation). The low fitness of the hybrids would cause selection to favor assortative mating, which would control hybridization. This is sometimes called the Wallace effect after the evolutionary biologist Alfred Russel Wallace who suggested in the late 19th century that it might be an important factor in speciation. Conversely, if the hybrid offspring are more fit than their ancestors, then the populations will merge back into the same species within the area they are in contact.


title: Speciation

text: Another important theoretical mechanism is the arise of intrinsic genetic incompatibilities, addressed in the Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller model. Genes from allopatric populations will have different evolutionary backgrounds and are never tested together until hybridization at secondary contact, when negative epistatic interactions will be exposed. In other words, new alleles will emerge in a population and only pass through selection if they work well together with other genes in the same population, but it may not be compatible with genes in an allopatric population, be those other newly derived alleles or retained ancestral alleles. This is only revealed through new hybridization. Such incompatibilities cause lower fitness in hybrids regardless of the ecological environment, and are thus intrinsic, although they can originate from the adaptation to different environments. The accumulation of such incompatibilities increases faster and faster with time, creating a "snowball" effect. There is a large amount of evidence supporting this theory, primarily from laboratory populations such as "Drosophila" and "Mus", and some genes involved in incompatibilities have been identified.


title: Speciation

text: Reinforcement favoring reproductive isolation is required for both parapatric and sympatric speciation. Without reinforcement, the geographic area of contact between different forms of the same species, called their "hybrid zone", will not develop into a boundary between the different species. Hybrid zones are regions where diverged populations meet and interbreed. Hybrid offspring are common in these regions, which are usually created by diverged species coming into secondary contact. Without reinforcement, the two species would have uncontrollable inbreeding. Reinforcement may be induced in artificial selection experiments as described below.


title: Speciation

text: Ecological selection is "the interaction of individuals with their environment during resource acquisition". Natural selection is inherently involved in the process of speciation, whereby, "under ecological speciation, populations in different environments, or populations exploiting different resources, experience contrasting natural selection pressures on the traits that directly or indirectly bring about the evolution of reproductive isolation". Evidence for the role ecology plays in the process of speciation exists. Studies of stickleback populations support ecologically-linked speciation arising as a by-product, alongside numerous studies of parallel speciation, where isolation evolves between independent populations of species adapting to contrasting environments than between independent populations adapting to similar environments. Ecological speciation occurs with much of the evidence, "...accumulated from top-down studies of adaptation and reproductive isolation".


title: Speciation

text: Sexual selection can drive speciation in a clade, independently of natural selection. However the term "speciation", in this context, tends to be used in two different, but not mutually exclusive senses. The first and most commonly used sense refers to the "birth" of new species. That is, the splitting of an existing species into two separate species, or the budding off of a new species from a parent species, both driven by a biological "fashion fad" (a preference for a feature, or features, in one or both sexes, that do not necessarily have any adaptive qualities). In the second sense, "speciation" refers to the wide-spread tendency of sexual creatures to be grouped into clearly defined species, rather than forming a continuum of phenotypes both in time and space – which would be the more obvious or logical consequence of natural selection. This was indeed recognized by Darwin as problematic, and included in his "On the Origin of Species" (1859), under the heading "Difficulties with the Theory". There are several suggestions as to how mate choice might play a significant role in resolving . If speciation takes place in the absence of natural selection, it might be referred to as nonecological speciation.


title: Speciation

text: New species have been created by animal husbandry, but the dates and methods of the initiation of such species are not clear. Often, the domestic counterpart can still interbreed and produce fertile offspring with its wild ancestor. This is the case with domestic cattle, which can be considered the same species as several varieties of wild ox, gaur, and yak; and with domestic sheep that can interbreed with the mouflon.


title: Speciation

text: The best-documented creations of new species in the laboratory were performed in the late 1980s. William R. Rice and George W. Salt bred "Drosophila melanogaster" fruit flies using a maze with three different choices of habitat such as light/dark and wet/dry. Each generation was placed into the maze, and the groups of flies that came out of two of the eight exits were set apart to breed with each other in their respective groups. After thirty-five generations, the two groups and their offspring were isolated reproductively because of their strong habitat preferences: they mated only within the areas they preferred, and so did not mate with flies that preferred the other areas. The history of such attempts is described by Rice and Elen E. Hostert (1993).


title: Speciation

text: Diane Dodd used a laboratory experiment to show how reproductive isolation can develop in "Drosophila pseudoobscura" fruit flies after several generations by placing them in different media, starch- and maltose-based media.


title: Speciation

text: Dodd's experiment has been replicated many times, including with other kinds of fruit flies and foods. Such rapid evolution of reproductive isolation may sometimes be a relic of infection by "Wolbachia" bacteria.


title: Speciation

text: An alternative explanation is that these observations are consistent with sexually-reproducing animals being inherently reluctant to mate with individuals whose appearance or behavior is different from the norm. The risk that such deviations are due to heritable maladaptations is high. Thus, if an animal, unable to predict natural selection's future direction, is conditioned to produce the fittest offspring possible, it will avoid mates with unusual habits or features. Sexual creatures then inevitably group themselves into reproductively isolated species.


title: Speciation

text: Few speciation genes have been found. They usually involve the reinforcement process of late stages of speciation. In 2008, a speciation gene causing reproductive isolation was reported. It causes hybrid sterility between related subspecies. The order of speciation of three groups from a common ancestor may be unclear or unknown; a collection of three such species is referred to as a "trichotomy".


title: Speciation

text: Polyploidy is a mechanism that has caused many rapid speciation events in sympatry because offspring of, for example, tetraploid x diploid matings often result in triploid sterile progeny. However, among plants, not all polyploids are reproductively isolated from their parents, and gene flow may still occur, such as through triploid hybrid x diploid matings that produce tetraploids, or matings between meiotically unreduced gametes from diploids and gametes from tetraploids (see also hybrid speciation).


title: Speciation

text: It has been suggested that many of the existing plant and most animal species have undergone an event of polyploidization in their evolutionary history. Reproduction of successful polyploid species is sometimes asexual, by parthenogenesis or apomixis, as for unknown reasons many asexual organisms are polyploid. Rare instances of polyploid mammals are known, but most often result in prenatal death.


title: Speciation

text: Hybridization between two different species sometimes leads to a distinct phenotype. This phenotype can also be fitter than the parental lineage and as such natural selection may then favor these individuals. Eventually, if reproductive isolation is achieved, it may lead to a separate species. However, reproductive isolation between hybrids and their parents is particularly difficult to achieve and thus hybrid speciation is considered an extremely rare event. The Mariana mallard is thought to have arisen from hybrid speciation.


title: Speciation

text: Hybridization is an important means of speciation in plants, since polyploidy (having more than two copies of each chromosome) is tolerated in plants more readily than in animals. Polyploidy is important in hybrids as it allows reproduction, with the two different sets of chromosomes each being able to pair with an identical partner during meiosis. Polyploids also have more genetic diversity, which allows them to avoid inbreeding depression in small populations.


title: Speciation

text: Hybridization without change in chromosome number is called homoploid hybrid speciation. It is considered very rare but has been shown in "Heliconius" butterflies and sunflowers. Polyploid speciation, which involves changes in chromosome number, is a more common phenomenon, especially in plant species.


title: Speciation

text: Theodosius Dobzhansky, who studied fruit flies in the early days of genetic research in 1930s, speculated that parts of chromosomes that switch from one location to another might cause a species to split into two different species. He mapped out how it might be possible for sections of chromosomes to relocate themselves in a genome. Those mobile sections can cause sterility in inter-species hybrids, which can act as a speciation pressure. In theory, his idea was sound, but scientists long debated whether it actually happened in nature. Eventually a competing theory involving the gradual accumulation of mutations was shown to occur in nature so often that geneticists largely dismissed the moving gene hypothesis. However, 2006 research shows that jumping of a gene from one chromosome to another can contribute to the birth of new species. This validates the reproductive isolation mechanism, a key component of speciation.


title: Speciation

text: There is debate as to the rate at which speciation events occur over geologic time. While some evolutionary biologists claim that speciation events have remained relatively constant and gradual over time (known as "Phyletic gradualism" – see diagram), some palaeontologists such as Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould have argued that species usually remain unchanged over long stretches of time, and that speciation occurs only over relatively brief intervals, a view known as "punctuated equilibrium". (See diagram, and .)


title: Speciation

text: Evolution can be extremely rapid, as shown in the creation of domesticated animals and plants in a very short geological space of time, spanning only a few tens of thousands of years. Maize ("Zea mays"), for instance, was created in Mexico in only a few thousand years, starting about 7,000 to 12,000 years ago. This raises the question of why the long term rate of evolution is far slower than is theoretically possible.


title: Speciation

text: Evolution is imposed on species or groups. It is not planned or striven for in some Lamarckist way. The mutations on which the process depends are random events, and, except for the "silent mutations" which do not affect the functionality or appearance of the carrier, are thus usually disadvantageous, and their chance of proving to be useful in the future is vanishingly small. Therefore, while a species or group might benefit from being able to adapt to a new environment by accumulating a wide range of genetic variation, this is to the detriment of the "individuals" who have to carry these mutations until a small, unpredictable minority of them ultimately contributes to such an adaptation. Thus, the "capability" to evolve would require group selection, a concept discredited by (for example) George C. Williams, John Maynard Smith and Richard Dawkins as selectively disadvantageous to the individual.


title: Speciation

text: If sexual individuals are disadvantaged by passing mutations on to their offspring, they will avoid mutant mates with strange or unusual characteristics. Mutations that affect the external appearance of their carriers will then rarely be passed on to the next and subsequent generations. They would therefore seldom be tested by natural selection. Evolution is, therefore, effectively halted or slowed down considerably. The only mutations that can accumulate in a population, on this punctuated equilibrium view, are ones that have no noticeable effect on the outward appearance and functionality of their bearers (i.e., they are "silent" or "neutral mutations", which can be, and are, used to trace the relatedness and age of populations and species.)


title: Speciation

text: This argument implies that evolution can only occur if mutant mates cannot be avoided, as a result of a severe scarcity of potential mates. This is most likely to occur in small, isolated communities. These occur most commonly on small islands, in remote valleys, lakes, river systems, or caves, or during the aftermath of a mass extinction. Under these circumstances, not only is the choice of mates severely restricted but population bottlenecks, founder effects, genetic drift and inbreeding cause rapid, random changes in the isolated population's genetic composition. Furthermore, hybridization with a related species trapped in the same isolate might introduce additional genetic changes. If an isolated population such as this survives its genetic upheavals, and subsequently expands into an unoccupied niche, or into a niche in which it has an advantage over its competitors, a new species, or subspecies, will have come into being. In geological terms, this will be an abrupt event. A resumption of avoiding mutant mates will thereafter result, once again, in evolutionary stagnation.


title: Speciation

text: In apparent confirmation of this punctuated equilibrium view of evolution, the fossil record of an evolutionary progression typically consists of species that suddenly appear, and ultimately disappear, hundreds of thousands or millions of years later, without any change in external appearance. Graphically, these fossil species are represented by lines parallel with the time axis, whose lengths depict how long each of them existed. The fact that the lines remain parallel with the time axis illustrates the unchanging appearance of each of the fossil species depicted on the graph. During each species' existence new species appear at random intervals, each also lasting many hundreds of thousands of years before disappearing without a change in appearance. The exact relatedness of these concurrent species is generally impossible to determine. This is illustrated in the diagram depicting the distribution of hominin species through time since the hominins separated from the line that led to the evolution of their closest living primate relatives, the chimpanzees.


title: Speciation

text: For similar evolutionary time lines see, for instance, the paleontological list of African dinosaurs, Asian dinosaurs, the Lampriformes and Amiiformes.


title: Yves Klein

text: Yves Klein (; 28 April 1928 – 6 June 1962) was a French artist and an important figure in post-war European art. He was a leading member of the French artistic movement of Nouveau réalisme founded in 1960 by art critic Pierre Restany. Klein was a pioneer in the development of performance art, and is seen as an inspiration to and as a forerunner of minimal art, as well as pop art.


title: Yves Klein

text: Klein was born in Nice, in the Alpes-Maritimes department of France. His parents, Fred Klein and Marie Raymond, were both painters. His father painted in a loose post-impressionist style, while his mother was a leading figure in Art informel, and held regular soirées with other leading practitioners of this Parisian abstract movement. Klein received no formal training in art, but his parents exposed him to different styles. His father was a figurative style painter, while his mother had an interest in abstract expressionism.


title: Yves Klein

text: From 1942 to 1946, Klein studied at the École Nationale de la Marine Marchande and the École Nationale des Langues Orientales. At this time, he became friends with Arman (Armand Fernandez) and Claude Pascal and started to paint. At the age of nineteen, Klein and his friends lay on a beach in the south of France, and divided the world between themselves; Arman chose the earth, Pascal, words, while Klein chose the ethereal space surrounding the planet, which he then proceeded to sign:


title: Yves Klein

text: In early 1948, Klein was exposed to Max Heindel's 1909 text "The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception" and pursued a membership with an American society dedicated to Rosicrucianism.


title: Yves Klein

text: While attending the École Nationale des Langues Orientales Klein began practicing judo. During the years 1948 to 1952, he travelled to Italy, Great Britain, Spain, and Japan. He travelled to Japan in 1953 where he became, at the age of 25, a master at judo receiving the rank of "yodan" (4th "dan"/degree black-belt) from the Kodokan, becoming the first European to rise to that rank. Later that year, he became the technical director of the Spanish judo team. In 1954 Klein wrote a book on judo called "Les Fondements du judo". The same year, he settled permanently in Paris and began in earnest to establish himself in the art world.


title: Yves Klein

text: Between 1947 and 1948, Klein conceived his "Monotone Symphony" (1949, formally "Monotone Silence Symphony") that consisted of a single 20-minute sustained chord followed by a 20-minute silence – a precedent to Klein's later monochrome paintings and to the work of minimal musicians, particularly La Monte Young's drone music and John Cage's "4′33″".


title: Yves Klein

text: Although Klein had painted monochromes as early as 1949, and held the first private exhibition of this work in 1950, his first public showing was the publication of the artist's book "Yves Peintures" in November 1954. Parodying a traditional catalogue raisonné, the book featured a series of intense monochromes linked to various cities he had lived in during the previous years. "Yves Peintures" anticipated his first two shows of oil paintings, at the Club des Solitaires, Paris, October 1955 and "Yves: Proposition monochromes" at Gallery Colette Allendy, February 1956. Public responses to these shows, which displayed orange, yellow, red, pink and blue monochromes, deeply disappointed Klein, as people went from painting to painting, linking them together as a sort of mosaic.


title: Yves Klein

text: The next exhibition, 'Proposte Monocrome, Epoca Blu' (Proposition Monochrome; Blue Epoch) at the Gallery Apollinaire, Milan, (January 1957), featured 11 identical blue canvases, using ultramarine pigment suspended in a synthetic resin 'Rhodopas', described by Klein as "The Medium". Discovered with the help of Edouard Adam, a Parisian paint dealer, the optical effect retained the brilliance of the pigment which, when suspended in linseed oil, tended to become dull. Klein later deposited a Soleau envelope for this recipe to maintain the "authenticity of the pure idea." This colour, reminiscent of the lapis lazuli used to paint the Madonna's robes in medieval paintings, was to become known as International Klein Blue (IKB). The paintings were attached to poles placed 20 cm away from the walls to increase their spatial ambiguities. All 11 of the canvases were priced differently. The buyers would go through the gallery, observing each canvas and purchase the one that was deemed best in their own eyes specifically. Klein's idea was that each buyer would see something unique in the canvas that they bought that other buyers may not have seen. So while each painting visually looked the same, the impact each had on the buyer was completely unique.


title: Yves Klein

text: The show was a critical and commercial success, traveling to Paris, Düsseldorf and London. The Parisian exhibition, at the Iris Clert Gallery in May 1957, became a seminal happening. To mark the opening, 1001 blue balloons were released and blue postcards were sent out using IKB stamps that Klein had bribed the postal service to accept as legitimate. Concurrently, an exhibition of tubs of blue pigment and fire paintings was held at Galerie Collette Allendy.


title: Yves Klein

text: For his next exhibition at the Iris Clert Gallery (April 1958), Klein chose to show nothing whatsoever, called "La spécialisation de la sensibilité à l’état matière première en sensibilité picturale stabilisée, Le Vide" ("The Specialization of Sensibility in the Raw Material State into Stabilized Pictorial Sensibility, The Void"): he removed everything in the gallery space except a large cabinet, painted every surface white, and then staged an elaborate entrance procedure for the opening night: the gallery's window was painted blue, and a blue curtain was hung in the entrance lobby, accompanied by republican guards and blue cocktails. Thanks to an enormous publicity drive, 3,000 people queued up, waiting to be let into an empty room.


title: Yves Klein

text: The art historian Olivier Berggruen situates Klein "as one who strove for total liberation," forming connections between perverse ritual and a disdain of convention. Klein had studied judo in Japan between 1952 and 1954, and also displayed an interest in Zen Buddhism. According to Berggruen, he used ritual as a means not to attain belief, but rather as a forum through which to reach abstraction—transcending worldly vestiges temporarily, and returning to earth as a new being.


title: Yves Klein

text: Later in the year, he was invited to decorate the Gelsenkirchen Opera House, Germany, with a series of vast blue murals, the largest of which were 20 metres by 7 metres. The Opera House was inaugurated in December 1959. Klein celebrated the commission by travelling to Cascia, Italy, to place an ex-voto offering at the Saint Rita Monastery. "May all that emerges from me be beautiful," he prayed. The offering took the form of a small transparent plastic box containing three compartments; one filled with IKB pigment, one filled with pink pigment, and one with gold leaf inside. The container was only rediscovered in 1980.


title: Yves Klein

text: Klein's last two exhibitions at Iris Clert's were "Vitesse Pure et Stabilité Monochrome" ("Sheer Speed and Monochrome Stability"), November 1958, a collaboration with Jean Tinguely, of kinetic sculptures, and "Bas-Reliefs dans une Forêt d’Éponges" ("Bas-Reliefs in a Sponge Forest"), June 1959, a collection of sponges that Klein had used to paint IKB canvases, mounted on steel rods and set in rocks that he'd found in his parents' garden.


title: Yves Klein

text: Despite the IKB paintings being uniformly coloured, Klein experimented with various methods of applying the paint; firstly different rollers and then later sponges, created a series of varied surfaces. This experimentalism would lead to a number of works Klein made using naked female models covered in blue paint and dragged across or laid upon canvases to make the image, using the models as "living brushes". This type of work he called "Anthropometry". Other paintings in this method of production include "recordings" of rain that Klein made by driving around in the rain at 70 miles per hour with a canvas tied to the roof of his car, and canvases with patterns of soot created by scorching the canvas with gas burners.


title: Yves Klein

text: Klein and Arman were continually involved with each other creatively, both as Nouveaux Réalistes and as friends. Both from Nice, the two worked together for many years and Arman even named his son, Yves Arman, after Yves Klein, who was his godfather.


title: Yves Klein

text: Sometimes the creation of these paintings was turned into a kind of performance art—an event in 1960, for example, had an audience dressed in formal evening wear watching the models go about their task while an instrumental ensemble played Klein's 1949 "The Monotone Symphony".


title: Yves Klein

text: In the performance piece, "Zone de Sensibilité Picturale Immatérielle" ("Zones of Immaterial Pictorial Sensibility") 1959–1962, he offered empty spaces in the city in exchange for gold. He wanted his buyers to experience The Void by selling them empty space. In his view this experience could only be paid for in the purest material: gold. In exchange, he gave a certificate of ownership to the buyer. As the second part of the piece, performed on the Seine with an art critic in attendance, if the buyer agreed to set fire to the certificate, Klein would throw half the gold into the river, in order to restore the "natural order" that he had unbalanced by selling the empty space (that was now not "empty" anymore). He used the other half of the gold to create a series of gold-leafed works, which, along with a series of pink monochromes, began to augment his blue monochromes toward the end of his life.