title: Tuberculoma

text: A tuberculoma is a clinical manifestation of tuberculosis which conglomerates tubercles into a firm lump, and so can mimic cancer tumors of many types in medical imaging studies. They often arise within individuals in whom a primary tuberculosis infection is not well controlled. When tuberculomas arise intracranially, they represent a manifestation of CNS tuberculosis. Since these are evolutions of primary complex, the tuberculomas may contain caseum or calcifications.


title: Tuberculoma

text: With the passage of time" Mycobacterium tuberculosis" can transform into crystals of calcium. These can affect any organ such as the brain, intestine, ovaries, breast, lungs, esophagus, pancreas, bones, and many others. Even with guideline-directed treatment they often persist for months to years.


title: Tuberculoma

text: Tuberculomas are most commonly seen in areas where tuberculosis is endemic. In these areas, tuberculomas can account for between 30%-50% of intracranial masses. India and parts of Asia are two areas where tuberculomas have been noted to be particularly prevalent. They occur most often as solitary, infratentorial lesions in young children. In contrast, lesions are most often supratentorial in adults.


title: Tuberculoma

text: Pulmonary tuberculomas are among the most common benign nodules, with 5%-24% of all resected nodules being of tuberculous origin. In areas of lower prevalence, such as the United States, they are most commonly seen in the setting of an acquired immunodeficiency. Intracerebral tuberculomas, specifically, are more frequently observed in patients with an HIV infection.


title: Tuberculoma

text: The exact mechanism of tuberculoma development has not been determined, although multiple theories have been proposed. It is possible that, following an initial tuberculosis infection resulting in bacteremia, a foci of granulomatous inflammation may coalesce into a caseous tuberculoma. Pulmonary tuberculomas may arise due to repeated cycles of necrosis and re-encapsulation of foci, or, alternatively, the shrinkage and fusion of encapsulated densities.


title: Tuberculoma

text: In regards to CNS tuberculoma, it is thought that mycobacterium tuberculosis is capable of penetrating the blood brain barrier after bacterial bacilli induce the release of cytokines by various immunologic cells, leading to an increase in barrier permeability. Similar to pulmonary tuberculomas, small lesions eventually coalesce and undergo both necrosis and enlargement.


title: Tuberculoma

text: Symptoms are based on the location of the tuberculoma. Small, scattered lesions may be asymptomatic. Intracranial tuberculomas in children are often infratentorial, occurring near the cerebellum and base of the brain. In this population, symptoms such as headache, fever, focal neurologic findings and seizures have been seen in addition to papilledema with or without meningitis. When the size of a brainstem tuberculoma grows to the point of narrowing the fourth ventricle, obstructing hydrocephalus and its related symptoms can arise. Rupture of tuberculomas adjacent to the arachnoid can lead to arachnoiditis, while rupture near the subarachnoid space or ventricular system can cause meningitis.


title: Tuberculoma

text: The appearance of a tuberculoma on imaging can vary according to the composition and age of the mass. They may appear as either non-caseating or solidly caseating lesions. Initially, tuberculomas appear hypodense on computed tomography (CT) scans with significant surrounding edema. The "target sign" is pathognomonic for tuberculoma on CT, with a nodular ring-enhancing mass and central calcification. The characteristic ring-enhanced appearance is due to lack of blood supply in the central necrotic core that is visualized with injected contrast. Sometimes a hypodense central area is seen instead of calcification. When considering other potential intracranial masses in a differential diagnosis, such as cysticercosis, pyogenic abscess, and neoplastic lesions, tuberculoma can be identified by its larger size (>2 cm), edema, and irregular border.


title: Tuberculoma

text: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is another useful imaging modality for diagnosing and characterizing of tuberculomas, especially solid caseous necrosis in which 3 zones of varying intensity are seen.


title: Tuberculoma

text: The diagnosis of tuberculoma can be challenging, as invasive testing may be required and, occasionally, concomitant malignancy may be present. In children with tuberculoma, CXR is often normal despite a positive TST/IGRA.


title: Tuberculoma

text: Diagnosis of brain tuberculoma can be aided with PCR of cerebrospinal fluid, but is of less utility for quickly diagnosing and treating lesions. When CSF is analyzed in patients with suspected tuberculoma, high protein concentrations are cell counts are often seen.


title: Tuberculoma

text: Definitive diagnosis can be made through stereotactic, CT-guided biopsy, with excision required in rare cases. Biopsy is chosen when non-invasive testing has failed to produce a diagnosis, when patients fail to respond to a treatment regimen, in cases of drug-resistant tuberculosis, and in non-compliant patients.


title: Tuberculoma

text: Tuberculoma is commonly treated through the HRZE drug combination (Isoniazid, Rifampin, Pyrazinamide, Ethambutol) followed by maintenance therapy. Per international guidelines, 9–12 months of medical management is standard. While the majority of tuberculomas resolve in 12–24 months, in patients with multiple or larger lesions prolonged treatment extending beyond two years may be required. In some patients, the release of inflammatory mediators during treatment can cause a paradoxical worsening of symptoms that is treated with anti-inflammatory medications in addition to the standard anti-tuberculosis regimen.


title: Tuberculoma

text: Exceptionally large tuberculomas, those exerting a mass effect on the brain, and those which fail to respond to medical management required surgical excision. In some cases, surgical excision is necessary for diagnosis as well as treatment. When intracranial pressure rises in the setting of tuberculoma, removal is considered a surgical emergency.


title: Tuberculoma

text: Of patients with a brain tuberculoma treated with an appropriate medication regimen, almost half recover completely. Approximately 10% of those treated fail to recover and succumb to the tuberculoma. Reports issued before the advent of effective anti-tuberculosis therapy showed that, when untreated, 30-50% of tuberculomas enter and remain in a stationary course.


title: Nissan Stagea

text: The Nissan Stagea is a station wagon produced by Nissan from 1996 to 2007. It was originally produced by Nissan in 1996 as direct competition for the Subaru Legacy Touring wagon in Japan, and was exclusive to "Nissan Prince Store" Japanese dealerships. The Stagea shares many mechanical parts with the Nissan Skyline and Nissan Laurel.


title: Nissan Stagea

text: There are 4 different versions of the Stagea: the WC34 Series 1 (September 1996 to July 1997), the WC34 Series 1.5 (August 1997 to July 1998), the WC34 Series 2 (August 1998 to March 2001), and the M35 Series (2001 to 2007).


title: Nissan Stagea

text: The WC34 Series 1 was produced from 1996 to July 1997. This model bears many visual similarities to the R34 Nissan Skyline, giving the impression of lineage to the R34 Nissan Skyline, though mechanically it is most similar to the R33 Nissan Skyline.


title: Nissan Stagea

text: The WC34 Stagea was available with a 2.0L single-cam inline-six engine, a 2.5L twin-cam naturally-aspirated inline-six, a 2.5L twin-cam turbocharged inline-six, or a 2.6L twin-cam twin-turbocharged inline-six engine. All engines were from the Nissan RB engine family, with the 2.6L (260RS model) being the same as that equipped in the R33 Skyline GTR. Engine power ranged from in the 2.0L to in the 2.5L turbo and in the 2.6L twin turbo.


title: Nissan Stagea

text: The Stagea was available in rear wheel drive (RWD) and all-wheel drive (AWD) variants, with the RWD variants using RWD Laurel front suspension of the strut type and AWD versions using RWD R34 Skyline front suspension of the multi-link type. Both RWD and AWD shared its chassis platform with the C35 Laurel, which had the same wheelbase of 2720mm, and was also available in RWD and AWD.


title: Nissan Stagea

text: There were some differences in the chassis between 2WD and AWD model Stageas. The main difference being that the driver's side chassis rail on the AWD version was positioned closer to the lower sill. This was done to make room for the transfer case located on the end of the AWD transmission.


title: Nissan Stagea

text: The AWD system, ATTESA E-TS, is identical in operation to the Nissan Skyline GTS-FOUR and GT-R AWD system. The AWD Stageas fitted with an automatic transmission also featured a transfer case lock; this locked the transfer case in full 4WD and bypassed the ABS, g-force sensor inputs and ATTESA E-TS engine control unit which were all normally required for the AWD system to work.


title: Nissan Stagea

text: Unlike the Skyline and Laurel which had 5 speed automatic transmissions on some automatic 2.5L non turbo versions, all automatic Stageas were 4 speed. All manual models were 5 speed although only 2 models were available manual, the Series 2 turbo RS4S and the Series 1.5 & Series 2 Autech Version 260RS, which were exclusively manual.


title: Nissan Stagea

text: In August 1997 the Stagea received minor changes to the model lineup, lasting until July 1998. The main reason for the change was the replacement of the RB25DE and RB20E engines (found in X and G models) with the updated RB25DE NEO and RB20DE NEO engines. Series 1.5 also added several new model configurations to the lineup:


title: Nissan Stagea

text: The Stagea 260RS Autech Version, or just 260RS, is a tuned version of the Stagea made by Japanese tuning company Autech. The 260RS uses the 2.6L RB26DETT coupled to a 5-speed manual transmission and features ATTESA E-TS all-wheel drive from the R33 GTR and a limited-slip rear differential. Other modifications include Brembo brakes, 17" BBS forged alloy wheels, body strengthening, an undercarriage protector, upgraded suspension, a front strut brace, a special rear stabilizer, Autech badging and an Autech bodykit that includes unique sideskirts, front bumper and tailgate spoiler. Interior modifications include an R33 GTR steering wheel, GTR style gauges, a leather shift knob and parking brake handle and special seat trim. Like other Japanese sports cars of the time, the 260RS officially produced but most sources believe the actual horsepower to be higher. 1,734 260RS (series 1.5 and series 2) models were produced from November 1997 to March 2001.


title: Nissan Stagea

text: The WC34 series 2 (August 1998 to March 2001) was a minor revision of the WC34 Series 1. The headlights were changed in shape and made from high impact plastic (previous model had glass headlights) and the high beam lights moved into the grill. The indicators were changed to a clear unit, and changed shape slightly. Front aero was slightly revised and body mouldings colour matched. Interior trim choices were also changed. It has the same engine choices, but they are the updated NEO version of the RB series and higher spec models included a tiptronic auto transmission. The power ranges from in the updated NEO 2L to for the 2.5L turbo and 2.6L twin turbo. 2WD and 4WD versions available. A choice of transmissions is also available: 4-speed auto (E-AT) for X and G series models, 4-speed tip-tronic auto (M-AT) found in RS series models, and 5-speed manual for the 25t RS FOUR S and 260RS.


title: Nissan Stagea

text: The M35 series (2001 to 2007) looks very different from the previous C34 models and is derived from the Skyline/G35 sedan (V35 platform). As per the Skyline the engine was changed from the RB series straight-six to the VQ series V6 engine.


title: Nissan Stagea

text: The Autech Axis 350S was the only M35 chassis Stagea to ever be offered with a manual transmission and was produced from June 2003 to July 2004


title: Nissan Stagea

text: Nissan ceased production of the Stagea in early June 2007, Nissan Japan stated that it would continue to sell the remaining stock of the vehicle but that production of the vehicle had ended. The model segment served by this vehicle was replaced by the Nissan Skyline Crossover.


title: Steven Davis

text: Steven Davis (born 1 January 1985) is a Northern Irish professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Scottish Premiership club Rangers and captains the Northern Ireland national team. Davis made his full international debut in 2005 and has since been capped 140 times, scoring 13 goals, at senior level to become the most capped player in Northern Ireland, and the most capped British player of all time. He captained his nation to the last 16 at UEFA Euro 2016.


title: Steven Davis

text: Davis began his career with Premier League club Aston Villa in 2004. He was named "Young Player of the Year", "The Fans Player of the Year" and "Player of the Year" for the 2005–06 season after making 42 appearances during the season. Davis was sold to Fulham for £4 million in the summer of 2007, but moved on loan to Scottish club Rangers in January 2008 for an initial six months. He was part of the team that reached the 2008 UEFA Cup Final and that won the 2007–08 Scottish League Cup and 2007–08 Scottish Cup. At the end of the season, he moved permanently to Rangers for £3 million. He made 211 appearances for the Glasgow club, winning three consecutive league titles in 2009, 2010 and 2011, two Scottish Cups and three League Cups.


title: Steven Davis

text: Following the club's liquidation in 2012, Davis exercised his rights under TUPE regulations to rescind his contract and become a free agent, returning to the Premier League with Southampton. During his later years with Southampton, he captained the side before returning to Rangers under manager Steven Gerrard in 2019.


title: Steven Davis

text: Davis, who was born in Ballymena, County Antrim, started his career at St Andrews Boys Club before transferring to Aston Villa in 2002. He was a member of the 2002 FA Youth Cup winning team that beat Everton 4–2 in the final. His first professional appearance was on 18 September 2004, he was a 57th-minute replacement for Nolberto Solano in a goalless Premier League match against Norwich City at Carrow Road. Davis made 28 league appearances across the season, scoring the winner in a 3–2 comeback victory at Southampton on 16 April 2005.


title: Steven Davis

text: On 13 August 2005, in Villa's first game of the new campaign, Davis volleyed past Jussi Jääskeläinen to secure a 2–2 home draw against Bolton Wanderers, albeit after nine minutes. He scored twice on 20 September in the third round of the Football League Cup, as Villa won 8–3 at Wycombe Wanderers. By October 2005, he was a regular for the club and missed only one game for Villa in the 2005–06 season. Davis was named Villa's "Young Player of the Year", "The Fans Player of the Year" "and" "Player of the Year" for the 2005–06 season. His form prompted the Northern Ireland manager Lawrie Sanchez, to state that Davis could be "another Frank Lampard". Davis made 102 appearances for Villa and scored nine times. On 2 January 2006, he headed the first goal of a 2–1 win at rivals West Bromwich Albion.


title: Steven Davis

text: In the summer of 2007, Davis followed teammate Aaron Hughes to Fulham on 5 July 2007 to team up with international manager Sanchez, for a fee of around £4 million. He made his Fulham debut against Arsenal on 12 August 2007 and made 22 appearances for Fulham before moving to Rangers.


title: Steven Davis

text: On 31 January 2008, Davis was signed on a six-month loan by Rangers, the club he supported as a boy. Davis made his Rangers debut against Panathinaikos in the UEFA Cup on 13 February. He scored his first goal, again in European competition, against German team Werder Bremen. Davis scored for Rangers in the penalty shootout against Dundee United that won Rangers the League Cup. He also helped the team reach the 2008 UEFA Cup Final, and won the Scottish Cup in May.


title: Steven Davis

text: Davis made his move from Fulham permanent on 21 August 2008, in a transfer worth £3 million, signing a four-year contract. He made his first appearance of the season for Rangers against Aberdeen, during a 1–1 draw the day after he permanently signed. Davis scored his first goal for Rangers, since his move became permanent, against Motherwell. He scored the only goal in the final Old Firm derby of the season on 9 May 2009, to take Rangers to the top of the SPL by two points. Davis won the SPL title and Scottish Cup with Rangers in the 2008–09 season.


title: Steven Davis

text: Davis began his goalscoring in the 2009–10 season against St. Mirren on 27 January. He continued his goalscoring form against Falkirk in the next game, curling a free kick into Bobby Olejnik's top right hand corner. Davis's performances in January 2010, earned him the SPL Player of the Month award. He was also named PFA Scotland Players' Player of the Year on 2 May 2010, and won the SPL and Scottish League Cup each for the second time.


title: Steven Davis

text: Davis scored his first goal of the 2010–11 season against Motherwell at Ibrox in October 2010, when he collected the ball 30 yards from goal before striking it into the top corner. The goal drew comparisons to former Rangers favourite Ian Durrant. Davis followed this up by scoring the winning goal in the match against Inverness at Ibrox in January 2011. In the 2011 Scottish League Cup Final against Celtic, Davis opened the scoring in a match, which Rangers won 2–1 after extra time. This was the third time he had won the Scottish League Cup. Davis scored in back-to-back games in the 2011 title run in against Motherwell, and then Hearts, before playing his 54th, and final game of the season in a 5–1 win over Kilmarnock, as Rangers won their 3rd consecutive SPL championship.


title: Steven Davis

text: On 19 July 2011, Davis signed a new five-year contract with Rangers. He was made Rangers temporary captain, with the absence of formal club captain David Weir for the first part of the 2011–12 season. Davis scored his first goal of the 2011–12 season in a 2–0 win over Aberdeen at Ibrox in August. In the first Old Firm match of the 2011–12 season, Davis provided two assists in the game, as Rangers beat Celtic 4–2. After Rangers beat Dunfermline 4–0 at East End Park, Rangers manager Ally McCoist praised Davis's performance by saying "It was a captain's performance from the best player on the park." For his performances during September 2011, he received the SPL Player of the Month award. Following the insolvency of Rangers in 2012, Davis exercised his rights under TUPE regulations to rescind his contract and become a free agent. PFA Scotland had previously commented that players were entitled to become free agents if they objected to the transfer to the new company formed by Charles Green.


title: Steven Davis

text: Davis rejected the chance to stay with Rangers and instead signed a three-year contract with Premier League club Southampton on 6 July 2012. The deal was subsequently extended to 2016 as part of the agreement with Rangers to complete the transfer without the need for the international transfer clearance to be agreed by FIFA, with the two clubs agreeing a fee. After joining Southampton, Davis pleaded the Rangers fans to agree with his decision to leave but accepted that a minority of fans would take a different view and made his explanation he left Rangers in order to revive his football career.


title: Steven Davis

text: He made his debut on 19 August 2012, and scored to put the team ahead at holders Manchester City only three minutes after coming on as a substitute, but Southampton eventually lost 3–2. His only other goal of the season came against the same opposition, in a 3–1 home win on 13 February 2013.


title: Steven Davis

text: His first two goals of the 2013–14 season came in a 5–1 victory at Barnsley in the League Cup second round on 27 August, the latter being a penalty.


title: Steven Davis

text: On 8 May 2016, Davis scored his first ever league brace for Southampton in a 2–1 win over Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane. He followed this up with a goal in a 4–1 victory over Crystal Palace on the final day of the season.


title: Steven Davis

text: He made his 200th Southampton appearance on 16 September 2017 against Crystal Palace, scoring the only goal in a 1–0 victory.


title: Steven Davis

text: On 6 January 2019, Davis returned to Rangers on a six-month loan. On 2 May, Davis agreed to join Rangers permanently once the loan deal had finished, signing a 12-month contract. Davis helped Rangers win the 2020–21 Scottish Premiership, their first Scottish league championship since 2011, and he won the SFWA Footballer of the Year award.


title: Steven Davis

text: Davis made his full international debut on 9 February 2005 in a 1–0 loss to Canada, and made the assist for David Healy in Northern Ireland's famous 1–0 victory over England in a 2006 World Cup qualification match on 7 September. Davis' first goal came against Wales in a 3–2 home defeat in another qualifier on 8 October. He was also part of the team who beat Spain 3–2 at Windsor Park in September 2006.


title: Steven Davis

text: On 21 May 2006, he became Northern Ireland's youngest modern day captain against Uruguay in the United States, a 1–0 loss.


title: Steven Davis

text: On 8 October 2015, Davis scored twice in a 3–1 victory over Greece to help Northern Ireland qualify for the final tournament of Euro 2016, their first European Championship.


title: Steven Davis

text: In November 2019, he won his 116th cap against the Netherlands and became the most capped British midfielder, passing David Beckham. On 7 September 2020, he equaled Pat Jennings Northern Ireland record of 119 caps. On 8 October 2020, he played his 120th match for Northern Ireland against Bosnia and Herzegovina in the UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying play-offs, to become the most-capped player in their history. As of June 2022 he has 138 caps, making him the most capped British player of all time.


title: Steven Davis

text: Davis was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2017 Birthday Honours for services to football.


title: Delta IV Heavy

text: The Delta IV Heavy (Delta 9250H) is an expendable heavy-lift launch vehicle, the largest type of the Delta IV family. It is the world's third highest-capacity launch vehicle in operation, behind NASA's Space Launch System and SpaceX's Falcon Heavy and closely followed by CASC's Long March 5. It is manufactured by United Launch Alliance (ULA) and was first launched in 2004. ULA will retire the Delta IV Heavy in 2024. , two flights remain.


title: Delta IV Heavy

text: The Delta IV Heavy consists of a central Common Booster Core (CBC), with two additional CBCs as liquid rocket boosters instead of the GEM-60 solid rocket motors used by the Delta IV Medium+ versions. At lift off, all three cores operate at full thrust, and 44 seconds later the center core throttles down to 55% to conserve fuel until booster separation. The boosters burn out at 242 seconds after launch and are separated as the core booster throttles back up to full thrust. The core burns out 86 seconds later, and the second stage completes the ascent to orbit.


title: Delta IV Heavy

text: The Delta IV line of rockets was developed by McDonnell Douglas. The program was later handed off to United Launch Alliance. The Delta IV Heavy is the most powerful member of the line, which also includes the smaller Delta IV Medium. The Delta IV Heavy can lift to low Earth orbit and to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). It is an all liquid-fueled launch vehicle, consisting of an upper stage, one main booster and two strap-on boosters.


title: Delta IV Heavy

text: The first launch of the Delta IV Heavy in 2004 carried a boilerplate payload and was a partial failure. Cavitation in the liquid-oxygen propellant lines caused shutdown of both boosters eight seconds early, and the core engine nine seconds early; this resulted in a lower staging velocity for which the second stage was unable to compensate. The payload was left in a lower than intended orbit. Its first operational payload was the DSP-23 satellite, successfully launched in 2007; it was then used to launch a further five visual and electronic reconnaissance satellites for the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) through 2013.


title: Delta IV Heavy

text: In December 2014, the Delta IV Heavy was used to launch an un-crewed test flight of the Orion spacecraft, designated Exploration Flight Test 1 (EFT-1). After several delays, the mission was successfully launched at 12:05 UTC on 5 December 2014.


title: Delta IV Heavy

text: On 12 August 2018, the Delta IV Heavy with an additional Star 48BV third stage was used to launch the Parker Solar Probe into an elliptical heliocentric orbit.


title: Delta IV Heavy

text: The Delta IV Heavy's total mass at launch is approximately and produce around of thrust to power the rocket skyward at liftoff.


title: Bengal Subah

text: The Bengal Subah (; ), also referred to as Mughal Bengal (), was the largest subdivision of the Mughal Empire (and later an independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal) encompassing much of the Bengal region, which includes modern Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, Indian state of Bihar, Jharkhand, Odissa between the 16th and 18th centuries. The state was established following the dissolution of the Bengal Sultanate, a major trading nation in the world, when the region was absorbed into one of the gunpowder empires. Bengal was the wealthiest region in the Indian subcontinent, due to their thriving merchants, Seth's, Bankers and traders and its proto-industrial economy showed signs of driving an Industrial revolution.


title: Bengal Subah

text: Bengal Subah has been variously described the "Paradise of Nations" and the "Golden Age of Bengal", due to its inhabitants' living standards and real wages, which were among the highest in the world. It alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia. The eastern part of Bengal was globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding, and it was a major exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpeter, and agricultural and industrial produce in the world. The region was also the basis of the Anglo-Bengal War.


title: Bengal Subah

text: By the 18th century, Bengal emerged as an independent state, under the rule of the Nawabs of Bengal, it has started observing the proto-industrialization, which made direct significant contribution to the first Industrial Revolution (substantially textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution), but it also led to its deindustrialization, after being conquered by the British East India Company at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The Subah was later established as the Bengal Presidency.


title: Bengal Subah

text: Bengal's physical features gave it such a fertile soil, and a favourable climate that it became a terminus of a continent-wide process of Turko-Mongol conquest and migration, informs Prof. Richard Eaton.


title: Bengal Subah

text: The Mughal absorption of Bengal began during the reign of the first Mughal emperor Babur. In 1529, Babur defeated Sultan Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah of the Bengal Sultanate during the Battle of Ghaghra. Babur later annexed parts of Bengal. His son and successor Humayun occupied the Bengali capital Gaur, where he stayed for six months. Humayun was later forced to seek in refuge in Persia because of Sher Shah Suri's conquests. Sher Shah Suri briefly interrupted the reigns of both the Mughals and the Bengal Sultans.


title: Bengal Subah

text: The Mughal conquest of Bengal began with the victory of Akbar's army over Sultan of Bengal Daud Khan Karrani, the independent ruler of the province, at the Battle of Tukaroi on 3 March 1575. After the final defeat of Daud Karrani at the Battle of Rajmahal the following year, Mughal Emperor Akbar announced the creation of Bengal as one of the original twelve Subahs (top-level provinces), bordering Bihar and Orissa subahs, as well as Burma. It took many years to overcome the resistance of ambitious and local chiefs. By a royal decree in November 1586, Akbar introduced uniform "subah" administration throughout the empire. However, in historian Tapan Raychaudhuri's view, "the consolidation of Mughal power in Bengal and the pacification of the province really began in 1594".


title: Bengal Subah

text: Many of the chiefs subjugated by the Mughals, some of the "Baro-Bhuyans" in particular, were upstarts who grabbed territories during the transition from Afghan to Mughal rule, but others, such as the Rajas of Chandradwip, Malla, and Shushang, were older families who had ruled independently from time immemorial. By the 17th century, the Mughals subdued opposition from the Baro-Bhuyans landlords, notably Isa Khan. Bengal was integrated into a powerful and prosperous empire; and shaped by imperial policies of pluralistic government. The Mughals built a new imperial metropolis in Dhaka from 1610, with well-developed fortifications, gardens, tombs, palaces and mosques. It served as the Mughal capital of Bengal for 75 years. The city was renamed in honour of Emperor Jahangir.


title: Bengal Subah

text: The Mughal conquest of Chittagong in 1666 defeated the (Burmese) Kingdom of Arakan and reestablished Bengali control of the port city, which was renamed as Islamabad. The Chittagong Hill Tracts frontier region was made a tributary state of Mughal Bengal and a treaty was signed with the Chakma Circle in 1713.


title: Bengal Subah

text: Between 1576 and 1717, Bengal was ruled by a Mughal Subedar (imperial governor). Members of the imperial family were often appointed to the position. Viceroy Prince Shah Shuja was the son of Emperor Shah Jahan. During the struggle for succession with his brothers Prince Aurangazeb, Prince Dara Shikoh and Prince Murad Baksh, Prince Shuja proclaimed himself as the Mughal Emperor in Bengal. He was eventually defeated by the armies of Aurangazeb. Shuja fled to the Kingdom of Arakan, where he and his family were killed on the orders of the King at Mrauk U. Shaista Khan was an influential viceroy during the reign of Aurangazeb. He consolidated Mughal control of eastern Bengal. Prince Muhammad Azam Shah, who served as one of Bengal's viceroys, was installed on the Mughal throne for four months in 1707. Viceroy Ibrahim Khan II gave permits to English and French traders for commercial activities in Bengal. The last viceroy Prince Azim-us-Shan gave permits for the establishment of the British East India Company's Fort William in Calcutta, the French East India Company's Fort Orleans in Chandernagore and the Dutch East India Company's fort in Chinsura. During Azim-us-Shan's tenure, his prime minister Murshid Quli Khan emerged as a powerful figure in Bengal. Khan gained control of imperial finances. Azim-us-Shan was transferred to Bihar. In 1717, the Mughal Court upgraded the prime minister's position to the hereditary Nawab of Bengal. Khan founded a new capital in Murshidabad. His descendants formed the Nasiri dynasty. Alivardi Khan founded a new dynasty in 1740. The Nawabs ruled over a territory which included Bengal proper, Bihar and Orissa.


title: Bengal Subah

text: The Nawab of Bengal (Bengali: বাংলার নবাব) was the hereditary ruler of Bengal Subah in Mughal India. The "Nawab" of a princely state or autonomous province is comparable to the European title of Grand Duke. In the early 18th-century, the Nawab of Bengal was the "de facto" independent ruler of some part of Bengal and other parts were ruled by Bengal Rajas such as Bardhaman Raj, Cooch behar state which constitute the modern-day sovereign country of Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal. They are often referred to as the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa (Bengali: বাংলা, বিহার ও ওড়িশার নবাব). The Nawabs were based in Murshidabad which was centrally located within Bengal. Their chief, a former prime minister, became the first Nawab. The Nawabs continued to issue coins in the name of the Mughal Emperor. But for all practical purposes, the Nawabs governed as independent monarchs. Bengal continued to contribute the largest share of funds to the imperial treasury in Delhi. The Nawabs, backed by bankers such as the Jagat Seth, became the financial backbone of the Mughal court. During the 18th-century, the Nawabs of Bengal were among the wealthiest rulers in the world.


title: Bengal Subah

text: The Rajas of Bengal, Nawabs of Bengal oversaw a period of proto-industrialization. The Bengal-Bihar-Orissa triangle was a major production center for cotton muslin cloth, silk cloth, shipbuilding, gunpowder, saltpetre, and metalworks. Factories were set up in Murshidabad, Dhaka, Patna, Sonargaon, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Cossimbazar, Balasore, Pipeli, and Hugli among other cities, towns, and ports. The region became a base for the British East India Company, the French East India Company, the Danish East India Company, the Austrian East India Company, the Ostend Company, and the Dutch East India Company.


title: Bengal Subah

text: The British company eventually rivaled the authority of the Nawabs. In the aftermath of the siege of Calcutta in 1756, in which the Nawab's forces overran the main British base, the East India Company dispatched a fleet led by Robert Clive who defeated the last independent Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Mir Jafar was installed as the puppet Nawab. His successor Mir Qasim attempted in vain to dislodge the British. The defeat of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula of Oudh, and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II at the Battle of Buxar in 1764 paved the way for British expansion across India. The South Indian Kingdom of Mysore led by Tipu Sultan overtook the Nawab of Bengal as the subcontinent's wealthiest monarchy; but this was short-lived and ended with the Anglo-Mysore War. The British then turned their sights on defeating the Marathas and Sikhs.


title: Bengal Subah

text: The Nawabs of Bengal entered into treaties with numerous European colonial powers, including joint-stock companies representing Britain, Austria, Denmark, France and the Netherlands.


title: Bengal Subah

text: The resurgent Maratha Empire launched raids against Bengal in the 18th century, which further added to the decline of the Nawabs of Bengal. A decade of Maratha conquest of Bengal from the 1740s to early 1750s forced the Nawab of Bengal to pay Rs. 1.2 million of tribute annually as the "chauth" of Bengal and Bihar to the Marathas, and the Marathas agreed not to invade Bengal again


title: Bengal Subah

text: The expeditions, led by Raghuji Bhonsle of Nagpur, also established de facto Maratha control over Orissa, which was formally incorporated in the Maratha Empire in 1752. The Nawab of Bengal also paid Rs. 3.2 million to the Marathas, towards the arrears of chauth for the preceding years. The chauth was paid annually by the Nawab of Bengal to the Marathas up to 1758, until the British occupation of Bengal.


title: Bengal Subah

text: By the late-18th century, the British East India Company emerged as the foremost military power in the region, defeating the French-allied Siraj-ud-Daulah at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, that was largely brought about by the betrayal of the Nawab's once trusted general Mir Jafar. The company gained administrative control over the Nawab's dominions, including Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. It gained the right to collect taxes on behalf of the Mughal Court after the Battle of Buxar in 1765. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were made part of the Bengal Presidency and annexed into the British colonial empire in 1793. The Indian mutiny of 1857 formally ended the authority of the British East India company, when the British Raj replaced Company rule in India.


title: Bengal Subah

text: Other European powers also carved out small colonies on the territory of Bengal, including the Dutch East India Company's Dutch Bengal settlements, the French colonial settlement in Chandernagore, the Danish colonial settlement in Serampore and the Habsburg monarchy Ostend Company settlement in Bankipur.


title: Bengal Subah

text: According to João de Barros, Bengal enjoyed military supremacy over Arakan and Tripura due to good artillery. Its forces possessed notable large cannons. It was also a major exporter of gunpowder and saltpeter to Europe. The Mughal Army built fortifications across the region, including Idrakpur Fort, Sonakanda Fort, Hajiganj Fort, Lalbagh Fort and Jangalbari Fort. The Mughals expelled Arakanese and Portuguese pirates from the northeastern coastline of the Bay of Bengal. Throughout the late medieval and early modern periods, Bengal was notable for its navy and shipbuilding. The following table covers a list of notable military engagements by Mughal Bengal:


title: Bengal Subah

text: Mughal architecture proliferated Bengal in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, with the earliest example being the Kherua Mosque in Bogra (1582). They replaced the earlier sultanate-style of architecture. It was in Dhaka that the imperial style was most lavishly indulged in. Its Lalbagh Fort was an elaborately designed complex of gardens, fountains, a mosque, a tomb, an audience hall (Diwan-i-Khas) and a walled enclosure with gates. The Great Caravanserai and Shaista Khan Caravanserai in Dhaka were centres of commercial activities. Other monuments in the city include the Dhanmondi Shahi Eidgah (1640), the Sat Gambuj Mosque (–76), the Shahbaz Khan Mosque (1679) and the Khan Mohammad Mridha Mosque (1704). The city of Murshidabad also became a haven of Mughal architecture under the Nawabs of Bengal, with the Caravanserai Mosque (1723) being its most prominent monument.


title: Bengal Subah

text: In rural hinterlands, the indigenous Bengali Islamic style continued to flourish, blended with Mughal elements. One of the finest examples of this style is the Atiya Mosque in Tangail (1609). Several masterpieces of terracotta Hindu temple architecture were also created during this period. Notable examples include the Kantajew Temple (1704) and the temples of Bishnupur (1600–1729).


title: Bengal Subah

text: An authentic Bengali art was reflected in the muslin fabric of Jamdani (meaning "flower" in Persian). The making of Jamdani was pioneered by Persian weavers. The art passed to the hands of Bengali Muslim weavers known as "juhulas". The artisan industry was historically based around the city of Dhaka. The city had over 80,000 weavers. Jamdanis traditionally employ geometric designs in floral shapes. Its motifs are often similar to those in Iranian textile art (buta motif) and Western textile art (paisley). Dhaka's jamdanis enjoyed a loyal following and received imperial patronage from the Mughal court in Delhi and the Nawabs of Bengal.


title: Bengal Subah

text: A provincial Bengali style of Mughal painting flourished in Murshidabad during the 18th century. Scroll painting and ivory sculptures were also prevalent.


title: Bengal Subah

text: Bengal's population is estimated to have been 30 million prior to the Great Bengal famine of 1770, which reduced it by as much as a third.


title: Bengal Subah

text: Bengal was an affluent province with a Bengali Muslim majority, along with a large Bengali Hindu minority.


title: Bengal Subah

text: There was a significant influx of migrants from the Safavid Empire into Bengal during the Mughal period. Persian administrators and military commanders were enlisted by the Mughal government in Bengal. An Armenian community settled in Dhaka and was involved in the city's textile trade, paying a 3.5% tax.


title: Bengal Subah

text: The Bengal Subah had the largest regional economy in that period. It was described as the "paradise of nations". The region exported grains, fine cotton muslin and silk, liquors and wines, salt, ornaments, fruits, and metals. European companies set up numerous trading posts in Bengal during the 17th and 18th centuries. Dhaka was the largest city in Bengal and the commercial capital of the empire. Chittagong was the largest seaport, with maritime trade routes connecting it to Arakan, Ayuthya, Aceh, Melaka, Johore, Bantam, Makassar, Ceylon, Bandar Abbas, Mocha and the Maldives.


title: Bengal Subah

text: Parthasarathi estimates that grain wages for weaving and spinning in Bengal and Britain were comparable in the mid 18th century. However, due to the scarcity of data, more research is needed before drawing any conclusions.


title: Bengal Subah

text: Bengal had many traders and bankers. Among them was the Jagat Seth Family, who were the wealthiest bankers in the region.


title: Bengal Subah

text: The Mughals launched a vast economic development project in the Bengal delta which transformed its demographic makeup. The government cleared vast swathes of forest in the fertile Bhati region to expand farmland. It encouraged settlers, including farmers and jagirdars, to populate the delta. It assigned Sufis as the chieftains of villages. Emperor Akbar re-adapted the modern Bengali calendar to improve harvests and tax collection. The region became the largest grain producer in the subcontinent.


title: Bengal Subah

text: There are sparse accounts of the Bengal revenue administration in Abul Fazl's "Ain-i-Akbari" and some in Mirza Nathan's "Baharistan-i-Ghaibi". According to the former,


title: Bengal Subah

text: In contrast, the "Baharistan" says there were two collections per year, following the spring and autumn harvests. It also says that, at least in some areas, revenue demands were based on survey and land measurement.


title: Bengal Subah

text: Bengali peasants were quick to adapt to profitable new crops between 1600 and 1650. Bengali peasants rapidly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture, establishing Bengal Subah as a major silk-producing region of the world.


title: Bengal Subah

text: The increased agricultural productivity led to lower food prices. In turn, this benefited the Indian textile industry. Compared to Britain, the price of grain was about one-half in South India and one-third in Bengal, in terms of silver coinage. This resulted in lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles, giving them a price advantage in global markets.


title: Bengal Subah

text: In the 17th century, Bengal was an affluent province that was, according to economic historian Indrajit Ray, globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding. Bengal's capital city of Dhaka was the empire's financial capital, with a population exceeding a million people, and with an estimated 80,000 skilled textile weavers. It was an exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpeter, and agricultural and industrial produce. Bengal's industrial economy in this era has been described as a form of proto-industrialization.


title: Bengal Subah

text: Many historians have built on the perspective of R. C. Dutt who wrote, "The plunder of Bengal directly contributed to the Industrial Revolution in Britain." This analysis states that the capital amassed from Bengal was used to invest in British industries such as textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution and greatly increase British wealth, while at the same time leading to deindustrialization in Bengal. According to Indrajit Ray, domestic industries expanded for decades even after Plassey. Although colonial-based price manipulation and state discrimination initiated from the 1790s, Bengal's industries retained some comparative advantages. Ray states that "Bengali entrepreneurs continued in industries such as cotton and silk textiles where there were domestic market supports", and major deindustrialisation occurred as late as the 1830s to 1850s.


title: Bengal Subah

text: Bengal was a centre of the worldwide muslin, jute and silk trades. During this era, the most important center of jute and cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets such as Central Asia. Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks. From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan. The jute trade was also a significant factor.


title: Bengal Subah

text: Bengal had a large shipbuilding industry. Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771. He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal.


title: Bengal Subah

text: An important innovation in shipbuilding was the introduction of a flushed deck design in Bengal rice ships, resulting in hulls that were stronger and less prone to leak than the structurally weak hulls of traditional European ships built with a stepped deck design. The British East India Company later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s, leading to significant improvements in seaworthiness and navigation for European ships during the Industrial Revolution.


title: Bengal Subah

text: In the revenue settlement by Todar Mal in 1582, Bengal Subah was divided into 24 "sarkars" (districts), which included 19 "sarkar"s of Bengal proper and 5 "sarkar"s of Orissa. In 1607, during the reign of Jahangir Orissa became a separate "Subah". These 19 "sarkar"s were further divided into 682 "parganas". In 1658, subsequent to the revenue settlement by Shah Shuja, 15 new "sarkar"s and 361 new "pargana"s were added. In 1722, Murshid Quli Khan divided the whole Subah into 13 "chakalah"s, which were further divided into 1660 "pargana"s.


title: Bengal Subah

text: Initially the capital of the "Subah" was Tanda. On 9 November 1595, the foundations of a new capital were laid at Rajmahal by Man Singh I who renamed it Akbarnagar. In 1610 the capital was shifted from Rajmahal to Dhaka and it was renamed Jahangirnagar. In 1639, Shah Shuja again shifted the capital to Rajmahal. In 1660, Muazzam Khan (Mir Jumla) again shifted the capital to Dhaka. In 1703, Murshid Quli Khan, then "diwan" (prime minister in charge of finance) of Bengal shifted his office from Dhaka to Maqsudabad and later renamed it Murshidabad.


title: Bengal Subah

text: The state government was headed by a Viceroy (Subedar Nizam) appointed by the Mughal Emperor between 1576 and 1717. The Viceroy exercised tremendous authority, with his own cabinet and four prime ministers (Diwan). The three deputy viceroys for Bengal proper, Bihar and Orissa were known as the "Naib Nazims". An extensive landed aristocracy was established by the Mughals in Bengal. The aristocracy was responsible for taxation and revenue collection. Land holders were bestowed with the title of Jagirdar. The Qadi title was reserved for the chief judge. Mansabdars were leaders of the Mughal Army, while faujdars were generals. The Mughals were credited for secular pluralism during the reign of Akbar, who promoted the religious doctrine of Din-i Ilahi. Later rulers promoted more conservative Islam.


title: Bengal Subah

text: In 1717, the Mughal government replaced Viceroy Azim-us-Shan due to conflicts with his influential deputy viceroy and prime minister Murshid Quli Khan. Growing regional autonomy caused the Mughal Court to establish a hereditary principality in Bengal, with Khan being recognised in the official title of Nazim. He founded the Nasiri dynasty. In 1740, following the Battle of Giria, Alivardi Khan staged a coup and founded the short-lived Afsar dynasty. For all practical purposes, the Nazims acted as independent princes. European colonial powers referred to them as Nawabs or Nababs.


title: Death and state funeral of Ronald Reagan

text: On June 5, 2004, Ronald Reagan, the 40th president of the United States, died after having Alzheimer's disease for nearly a decade. Reagan was the first former U.S. president to die in 10 years since Richard Nixon in 1994. At the age of , Reagan was the longest-lived U.S. president in history at the time of his death, a record which was surpassed by Gerald Ford on November 12, 2006. His seven-day state funeral followed. After Reagan's death, his body was taken from his Bel Air home to the Kingsley and Gates Funeral Home in Santa Monica, California, to prepare the body for burial. On June 7, Reagan's casket was transported by hearse and displayed at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California, then flown to Washington, D.C., on June 9 for a service, public viewing and tributes at the U.S. Capitol.


text: After lying in state for 34 hours in the Capitol rotunda, a state funeral service was conducted at the Washington National Cathedral on June 11, the day when President George W. Bush declared a national day of mourning. Later that day, after the service, Reagan's casket was transported back to California for interment at the Reagan Presidential Library. The state funeral was executed by the Military District of Washington (MDW). Reagan was the first former U.S. president to die in the 21st century.


text: On the morning of June 5, 2004, there were reports that Reagan's health had significantly deteriorated, following nine years of Alzheimer's disease. According to Reagan's daughter, Patti Davis, "At the last moment, when his breathing told us this was it, he opened his eyes and looked straight at my mother. Eyes that hadn't opened for days did, and they weren't chalky or vague. They were clear and blue and full of love. If a death can be lovely, his was." His wife, former First Lady Nancy Reagan told him that the moment was "the greatest gift you could have given me." He died of pneumonia at his home at 1:09 PM PDT, at the age of 93.


text: President George W. Bush was in Paris when Reagan died and acknowledged the death in a press conference.


text: Bush's competitor for the 2004 presidential election, the Democratic nominee John Kerry, also commented on Reagan's death, saying "He was our oldest president . . . but he made America young again."


text: Various U.S. flags at the White House, across the United States, and around the world over official U.S. installations and operating locations, were ordered to be flown at half-staff for 30 days in a presidential proclamation by President Bush. In the announcement of Reagan's death, Bush also declared June 11 as a "National Day of Mourning."


text: Some of the early included those of Queen Elizabeth II, former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, former Soviet Union Leader Mikhail Gorbachev (also attending the funeral), British Prime Minister Tony Blair, former Canadian Prime Ministers Brian Mulroney and Paul Martin, and French President Jacques Chirac. Martin advised Governor General Adrienne Clarkson to order all flags across Canada and at all Canadian diplomatic missions in the United States flown to half-staff on the 11th as well, in sympathy with the U.S.'s National Day of Mourning. In Germany, Chancellor Gerhard Schröder ordered German flags flown at half-staff above government buildings on the 11th as well.


text: Tributes and condolences were left at U.S. embassies and consulates overseas, as well as at places around the country significant to Reagan's life, including his presidential library, his birthplace in Tampico, Illinois, the funeral home where his body was taken after he died, and the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity house in Eureka, Illinois. The electronic signs at the Massachusetts Turnpike flashed the message "God Speed President Reagan."


text: After Reagan's death, campaigning for the ongoing 2004 United States elections was considered disrespectful during a time of mourning, and was suspended. The 2004 Canadian federal election was also to be held; Prime Minister and Liberal Party Leader Martin; Opposition Leader and Conservative Party leader Stephen Harper, and New Democratic Party Leader Jack Layton suspended their campaigns, citing respect for Reagan.


text: On June 7, Reagan's body was removed from the funeral home and driven in a 20-mile-per-hour (32 km/h) motorcade, by hearse, to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley.


text: Reagan's remains were presented in a Marsellus Masterpiece model purchased from a funeral home in Alhambra. It was carried by a military honor guard representing all branches of the United States Armed Forces into the lobby of the library to lie in repose. There, a brief family service was conducted by the Reverend Dr. Michael H. Wenning, former pastor of Bel Air Church, where Reagan worshipped. When the prayer service concluded, Nancy Reagan and her family approached the casket, where Nancy laid her head on it. After the family left, the doors of the presidential library opened, and the public began filing in at a rate of 2,000 an hour throughout the night. In all, about 108,000 people visited the presidential library to see the casket.


text: On June 9, Reagan's casket was removed from the presidential library and driven in a motorcade to NAS Point Mugu in Oxnard, California; it was the same airfield Reagan flew into and out of during his presidency when visiting his California ranch. SAM 28000, one of the two Boeing 747-200s, which usually serves the president as Air Force One, arrived to transport the casket to Washington. Thousands of people gathered to witness the plane's departure. Just before she boarded the VC-25A Presidential Aircraft, Nancy Reagan waved to the crowd with her military escort at her side. The plane lifted off at about 9:40 am PST.


text: In Washington, D.C., members of Congress, and much of the public, paid tribute to Reagan immediately after his death and throughout his funeral.


text: Events in the capital began when Reagan's casket arrived at Andrews Air Force Base in Maryland. It was removed from the plane, driven by hearse in a procession through the Maryland and Virginia suburbs and the nation's capital, across the Arlington Memorial Bridge, and onto Constitution Avenue.


text: Just before the plane arrived at Andrews AFB, the U.S. Capitol was evacuated for a brief period, when a plane carrying Kentucky Governor Ernie Fletcher was reported off course and created a scare by entering restricted airspace; the transponder on Fletcher's plane malfunctioned, leading officials at Reagan National Airport to report an unauthorized aircraft entering restricted airspace. Two U.S. Air Force F-15 fighters were dispatched to investigate, and Fletcher's plane was escorted to its destination by two UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters. The plane, a 33-year-old Beechcraft King Air, was the oldest of its model still in operation. An investigation by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) found that the crew of Fletcher's plane maintained radio contact with air traffic officials and received clearance to enter the restricted air space. The investigation determined that miscommunication by air traffic controllers sparked the panic. Though the incident did not affect further funeral events, in the aftermath the FAA adopted policies to prevent future errors of a similar nature.


text: Near the Ellipse, and within sight of the White House, the hearse halted and Reagan's body was transferred to a horse-drawn caisson for the procession down Constitution Avenue to Capitol Hill. Nancy Reagan stepped out of her limousine to witness the casket's transfer; she was met with a warm greeting, including applause. The cortege began the 45-minute journey just after 6:00 pm EST, with the Reagan family following in limousines. Military units escorted the caisson as it made its way to the sounds of muffled drums. Behind the caisson was a riderless horse named Sergeant York, carrying Reagan's riding boots reversed in the stirrups. The caisson paused at 4th Street and Constitution Avenue, where 21 F-15's from Seymour Johnson Air Force Base in North Carolina, flew over in missing man formation.


text: The caisson stopped when it arrived at Capitol Hill; military units removed it, and "Hail to the Chief" was played amidst a 21-gun salute. The casket was carried up the west front steps of the Capitol, mainly because Reagan was first inaugurated there and he wanted to face west, toward California. Two teams of military pallbearers carried the casket up the steps of the Capitol to "The Battle Hymn of the Republic".


text: When the casket reached the top of the steps, Nancy Reagan and her military escort met it. As the casket passed them, Nancy momentarily pulled away from her escort, reached out, and touched the casket. They followed it inside to the rotunda.


text: The casket was placed under the rotunda, where it lay in state on Abraham Lincoln's catafalque. An evening memorial service then took place, with dignitaries primarily composed of Members of Congress, members of the United States Supreme Court, and the diplomatic corps; the Reverend Daniel Coughlin, Chaplain of the House of Representatives, gave the invocation. Eulogies were then delivered by Senate President pro tempore Ted Stevens, House Speaker Dennis Hastert, and Vice President Dick Cheney.


text: After the eulogies, the three speakers each laid a wreath at the casket, and the Senate Chaplain, Pastor Barry Black, gave the benediction. Cheney escorted Nancy Reagan to the casket, where she said her goodbyes. The dignitaries in the room paid their respects during the next half-hour. In a rare instance, the doors of the Capitol were then opened to the public, who stood in lines stretching many blocks to view the casket.


text: The general public stood in long lines waiting for a turn to pay their respects to the president. About 5,000 per hour passed the casket, after waiting up to seven hours. In all, 104,684 paid their respects when Reagan lay in state.


text: After returning to Washington following the G8 summit in Sea Island, Georgia, President George W. Bush and First Lady Laura Bush visited the rotunda to pay their respects. Many world leaders did the same, including interim Iraqi President Ghazi al-Yawer, former Polish president Lech Wałęsa, Gorbachev, and Thatcher, Reagan's good friend and associate.


text: While Reagan's casket lay in state, Nancy Reagan and her family took up temporary residence in Blair House, the official residence of guests of the president of the United States. There, she was greeted by additional dignitaries and public figures. During a visit from Thatcher, the former Prime Minister wrote in the Blair House condolence book, "To Ronnie, Well done, thou good and faithful servant."


text: After 34 hours of lying in state, the doors of the Capitol were closed to the public and Nancy Reagan was escorted in, where she had a moment alone with the casket. A military honor guard entered and carried it down the west steps of the Capitol to a 21-gun salute where Nancy, holding her hand over her heart, met it. After it was placed in a hearse, the motorcade departed on the five-mile-trip (8 km) to the Washington National Cathedral, where the state funeral service was to be held; crowds lined the route of the cortege as the hearse made its way.


text: About 4,000 people gathered at the cathedral for the service, including President and Mrs. Bush, former presidents George H. W. and Barbara Bush, Gerald and Betty Ford, Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter, and Bill and Hillary Clinton. Members of Congress and past and present governors were also present.


text: Foreign dignitaries attended as well, coming from 167 nations. The dignitaries included more than 40 past and present heads of state and government, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan and President of the European Commission, Romano Prodi. Leading the dignitaries were former President of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Margaret Thatcher, former Prime Minister of Canada, Brian Mulroney, and the Prince of Wales, Prince Charles (representing Queen Elizabeth II).


text: Other notable world leaders included: Canadian Governor General Adrienne Clarkson, British Prime Minister Tony Blair and his wife Cherie, German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, Russian President Vladimir Putin, Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi, former Japanese Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone, former French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, former Polish President Lech Wałęsa, former Finnish President Mauno Koivisto, Romanian President Ion Iliescu, Latvian President Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, Lithuanian President Artūras Paulauskas, Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, King Abdullah II of Jordan, Governor-General of Australia Michael Jeffery, Turkey Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan as well as interim presidents Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan and Ghazi al-Yawer of Iraq, Czech President Václav Klaus and his predecessor Václav Havel, Cypriot President Tassos Papadopoulos, South African president Thabo Mbeki and Irish President Mary McAleese. Prodi, Blair, Schröder, Berlusconi, Putin, Karzai, King Abdullah, Erdogan, al-Yawer, Mbeki and many others had been at the G8 summit in Sea Island, Georgia, and later decided to extend their stay in the U.S. to attend the funeral. Schröder said about attending the funeral: "It is appropriate that the German chancellor says, 'Thank you,' and that is what I'm doing.'" For Karzai, the funeral was part of his week-long visit to the U.S. and it was the beginning of his visit to Washington. He scrapped a visit to the West Coast to visit the Afghan community there to attend the funeral. World leaders who attended the summit, but decided not to extend their stay in the U.S. to attend the funeral, paid tribute at the summit, including Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin, French President Jacques Chirac and Irish Prime Minister Bertie Ahern, also president of the European Union. McAleese's presence had special significance, as she paid tribute to Reagan's Irish roots, recalling his visit to Ireland in 1984. In addition, Taiwan's President of the Control Yuan Fredrick Chien and Representative Chen Chien-jen attended the funeral.


text: The funeral for Reagan was the largest in the United States since that of John F. Kennedy in 1963. President Kennedy's daughter, Caroline, and her husband, Edwin Schlossberg, both attended.


text: The motorcade arrived at the Cathedral and Reagan's casket was removed. The bearers carrying it paused on the Cathedral steps, and an opening prayer was given by Bishop John Bryson Chane, Dean of the Washington National Cathedral. The casket was then carried down the aisle; the Reagan family followed and Nancy Reagan was escorted to her seat by President Bush. Rabbi Harold Kushner and Supreme Court Associate Justice Sandra Day O'Connor (the first female Supreme Court justice, whom Reagan appointed), then each gave a reading, which preceded the eulogies. The choir then sang hymns—"Faire is the Heaven"; "O Love of God, How Strong and True", "Bring Us, O Lord"; "And I saw a New Heaven"—before Thatcher delivered the first eulogy. In view of her failing mental faculties following several small strokes, the message had been pre-recorded several months earlier and was broadcast throughout the Cathedral on plasma television screens. During the speech, Thatcher said, "We have lost a great president, a great American and a great man, and I have lost a dear friend."


text: Following Thatcher's eulogy, Mulroney delivered his, ending with: "In the presence of his beloved and indispensable Nancy, his children, his family, his friends and all of the American people that he so deeply revered, I say "au revoir" today to a gifted leader and historic president and a gracious human being."


text: Former President George H. W. Bush then spoke, his voice breaking at one point when describing Reagan; Bush had been Reagan's Vice President from 1981 to 1989, and his successor as president. His son, President George W. Bush, was the last to give a eulogy, saying in part, "Ronald Reagan belongs to the ages now, but we preferred it when he belonged to us... In his last years he saw through a glass darkly. Now he sees his Savior face to face. And we look for that fine day when we will see him again, all weariness gone, clear of mind, strong and sure and smiling again, and the sorrow of this parting gone forever."


text: The Armed Forces Chorus (LTC John Clanton, Conductor) then sang "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" and Cardinal Theodore Edgar McCarrick, Catholic Archbishop of Washington, delivered a Bible reading from the Gospel of Matthew. The celebrant, former Missouri Senator the Reverend John Danforth, delivered the homily and Irish tenor Ronan Tynan sang songs such as "Ave Maria" and "Amazing Grace" at the request of Nancy Reagan. The Reverend Ted Eastman, former Bishop of Maryland, delivered the benediction, flanked by Father Danforth and Bishop Chane.


text: After the service, the casket was driven to Andrews Air Force Base, passing crowds along its route. The family and close friends boarded the VC 25-A Presidential Aircraft, and as she had done previously, Nancy Reagan waved farewell to the crowds just before boarding the plane.


text: About five hours after the aircraft departed Andrews, it touched down at Naval Base Ventura County, Point Mugu, California. The public, including sailors from the USS "Ronald Reagan", was there to witness the plane's arrival. Reagan's body was driven in a large motorcade through the streets of southern California.


text: The service drew 700 invited guests, including former Reagan administration officials such as George P. Shultz, and noted dignitaries; Margaret Thatcher, who traveled on the plane from Washington, sat next to California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and his wife, Maria Shriver; former California Governor Pete Wilson was in attendance, as well as former Los Angeles Mayor Richard Riordan. Hollywood actors and other celebrities also attended, including Mr. Reagan's first wife, actress Jane Wyman, their granddaughter Margaret, Kirk Douglas, Charlton Heston, Mickey Rooney, Dolores Hope (widow of Bob Hope), Merv Griffin, Tommy Lasorda, Wayne Gretzky, Scott Baio, Bo Derek, Tom Selleck, Pat Sajak, Wayne Newton, and the Sinatra family. The three surviving Reagan children, Michael, Patti, and Ron, gave final eulogies at the interment ceremony.


text: Eulogies finished, and the service over, the Air Force Band of the Golden West played four "ruffles and flourishes", and the U.S. Army Chorus sang "The Star-Spangled Banner". Bagpiper Eric Rigler played "Amazing Grace" as the casket was moved to its grave site and placed on a plinth. There, burial rites were given, followed by a last 21-gun salute; members of the armed services fired three volleys and a bugler played "Taps". At that time, four Navy F/A-18 fighter jets flew over in missing man formation, and the flag that flew over the Capitol during President Reagan's 1981 inauguration was folded by the honor guard and was presented to Nancy Reagan by Captain James Symonds, the commanding officer of the USS "Ronald Reagan".


text: After Nancy Reagan accepted the flag, she approached the casket and spent several minutes patting and stroking it. She laid her head down on the casket, before breaking down and crying; "The Washington Post" described Nancy as having been "stoic through nearly a week of somber rituals" but she "surrendered to her grief after being handed the flag that had covered her husband's coffin." While she cried, she kissed the casket and said "I love you". Her children surrounded her, and attempted to console her. Nancy then walked away with her military escort, clutching the folded flag. The military band began to play the Victorian hymn "My Faith Looks Up to Thee" as the Reagan children said their goodbyes. Funeral attendees had an opportunity to file past the coffin.


text: The casket was lowered into the vault and closed at 3:00 am PDT the next day. The exterior of the horseshoe-shaped monument is inscribed with a quote Ronald Reagan delivered in 1991: When Nancy Reagan died in 2016, she was entombed next to her late husband.


text: Such a large number of foreign dignitaries had not attended a United States President's state funeral since the 1963 funeral of President John F. Kennedy. There were nearly 250 international delegates coming from 167 countries presented at the service, which included more than 45 current or former world leaders and 30 governmental representatives.


text: Eminent persons and envoys from Hong Kong, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan ... were also present, along with more than 200 diplomats and ambassadors.


text: Many celebrities attended the event, such as the Sinatra family, TV personality Merv Griffin, and "Wheel of Fortune" host Pat Sajak.


text: Music played during the week-long events included four ruffles and flourishes, "Hail to the Chief", "My Country, 'Tis of Thee", "The Battle Hymn of the Republic", "Amazing Grace", "Eternal Father, Strong to Save" (also known as "The Navy Hymn"), "God of Our Fathers", "Mansions of the Lord", "God Bless America", "America the Beautiful", "Going Home", and "On a Hymnsong of Philip Bliss" by David Holsinger. The US Marine Orchestra was conducted by Colonel Timothy Foley and the Armed Forces Chorus was conducted by Lieutenant Colonel John Clanton.


text: The state funeral marked the first time that Washington had hosted a major event since September 11, 2001. As a result, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) designated the state funeral a National Special Security Event (NSSE). Special precautions were taken, since many of the events were open to the public and there were multiple protectees.


text: Attorney General John Ashcroft told a Senate hearing before the funeral: "It is a sad commentary when the observation of a memorial service for a former president of the United States must be labeled a National Special Security Event. Such is the fact of modern life in Washington and such is the nature of the war against al Qaeda." MPDC Charles H. Ramsey agreed, saying, "In a post-9/11 world, we have to be very concerned and aware of the potential for something to happen, not that we've received any information at all." Ashcroft and other officials at DHS, the MPDC, and FBI said that the funeral was taking place amidst threats of a terrorist attack.


text: Frank Sesno, former CNN White House correspondent during the Reagan White House years, said that the security measures during the funeral reflected on the fact that the age of terrorism was rooted during the Reagan years. The deadliest act of terrorism against the United States before 9/11 happened during the Reagan years with the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, which killed 189 Americans.


text: The majority of those commemorating Reagan were supporters of his, although not all held the 40th president in high regard. In one noted example, Paul Mays, a retired engineer who never thought much of Reagan's politics, witnessed the motorcade leave the tarmac at Andrews Air Force Base; he commented "This is history". Frank Dubois, an American University professor, also was there for the motorcade, though of the laudatory praise he remarked, "[Reagan] hurt the environment; there was double-digit inflation. I just don't get it."


text: The majority of media coverage of the event was deferential. Most major news organizations broadcast the various events live multiple times; during the week, the cable channel C-SPAN broadcast uninterrupted coverage of the funeral ceremonies. A few complained, however, that the television coverage was excessive and preempted coverage of other events. CBS News anchor Dan Rather was quoted as saying: "Even though everybody is respectful and wants to pay homage to the president, life does go on. There is other news, like the reality of Iraq. It got very short shrift this weekend." Throughout the week, media experts reported that the national mourning, televised nearly non-stop on many television networks, provided Americans welcome respite from unhappy reports that American troops were being killed in Iraq and Afghanistan, giving them a sense of good news they had been desperate for since the September 11 attacks.


text: Reagan's obituaries also included a few criticisms. Richard Goldstein of "The Village Voice" criticized the funeral for its careful orchestration, writing: "Because the networks had so long to plan for this production... this was the most precisely mounted news event in modern times. Each gesture was minutely choreographed, every tear strategically placed."


text: Additionally, some media outlets were criticized for lionizing Reagan without paying equal attention to more controversial decisions made during his administration. Thomas Kunkel, dean of the University of Maryland, College Park's journalism college, wrote in "A" magazine that the coverage "would have you believe that Reagan was a cross between Abe Lincoln and Mother Teresa, with an overlay of Mister Rogers." Howard Kurtz, "The Washington Post" media columnist, said Reagan was "a far more controversial figure in his time than the largely gushing obits on television would suggest."


title: Protestantism by country

text: There are between 800 million and 1 billion Protestants worldwide, among approximately 2.5 billion Christians. In 2010, a total of more than 800 million included 300 million in Sub-Saharan Africa, 260 million in the Americas, 140 million in Asia-Pacific region, 100 million in Europe and 2 million in Middle East-North Africa. Protestants account for nearly forty percent of Christians worldwide and more than one tenth of the total human population. Various estimates put the percentage of Protestants in relation to the total number of the world's Christians at 33%, 36%, 36.7%, and 40%, while in relation to the world's population at 11.6% and 13%.


title: Protestantism by country

text: In European countries which were most profoundly influenced by the Reformation, Protestantism still remains the most practiced religion. These include the Nordic countries and the United Kingdom. In other historical Protestant strongholds such as Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Latvia, Estonia and Hungary, it remains one of the most popular religions. Although Czech Republic was the site of one of the most significant pre-reformation movements, there are only few Protestant adherents; mainly due to historical reasons like persecution of Protestants by the Catholic Habsburgs, restrictions during the Communist rule, and also the ongoing secularization. Over the last several decades, religious practice has been declining as secularization has increased. According to a 2019 study about religiosity in the European Union (EU) by Eurobarometer, Protestants made up 9% of the EU population. According to Pew Research Center, Protestants constituted nearly one fifth (or 17.8%) of the continent's Christian population in 2010. Clarke and Beyer estimate that Protestants constituted 15% of all Europeans in 2009, while Noll claims that less than 12% of them lived in Europe in 2010.


title: Protestantism by country

text: Changes in worldwide Protestantism over the last century have been significant. Since 1900, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania and South America. That caused Protestantism to be called a primarily non-Western religion. Much of the growth has occurred after World War II, when decolonization of Africa and abolition of various restrictions against Protestants in Latin American countries occurred. According to one source, Protestants constituted respectively 2.5% of South Americans, 2% of Africans, and 0.5% of Asians in 1900. In 2000, these percentages had increased to 17%, more than 27%, and 5.5%, respectively. According to Mark A. Noll, 79% of Anglicans lived in the United Kingdom in 1910, while most of the remainder were found in the United States and across the British Commonwealth. By 2010, 59% of Anglicans were found in Africa. China is home to the world's largest Protestant minority.


title: Protestantism by country

text: Protestantism is growing in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania, while remaining stable or declining in Anglo America and Europe, with some exceptions such as France, where it was legally eradicated after the abolition of the Edict of Nantes by the Edict of Fontainebleau and the following persecution of Huguenots, but now is claimed to be stable in number or even growing slightly. According to some, Russia is another country to see Protestant growth. However, "by 2050 it is expected that less than 9% of Protestants will be European" and "sometime around 2040 half of all Protestants will likely live in Africa."


title: Protestantism by country

text: In 2010, the largest Protestant denominational families were historically Pentecostal denominations (10.8%), Anglican (10.6%), Lutheran (9.7%), Baptist (9%), United and uniting churches (unions of different denominations) (7.2%), Presbyterian or Reformed (7%), Methodist (3.4%), Adventist (2.7%), Congregationalist (0.5%), Brethren (0.5%), The Salvation Army (0.3%) and Moravian (0.1%). Other denominations accounted for 38.2% of Protestants.


title: Protestantism by country

text: The United States is home to approximately 20% of Protestants. According to a 2019 study, Protestant share of U.S. population dropped to 43%, further ending its status as religion of the majority. The decline is attributed mainly to the dropping membership of the Mainline Protestant churches and even among Evangelical Protestant churches while Black churches are relatively stable or continue to grow.


title: Protestantism by country

text: According to "Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States", a review of American Nobel prizes winners awarded between 1901 and 1972 by Harriet Zuckerman, 72% of American Nobel Prize laureates came from Protestant backgrounds. Overall, Protestants have won a total of 84.2% of all the American Nobel Prizes in Chemistry, 60% in Medicine, 58.6% in Physics, between 1901 and 1972.


title: Protestantism by country

text: By 2050, Protestantism is projected to rise to slightly more than half of the world's total Christian population. According to other experts such as Hans J. Hillerbrand, Protestants will be as numerous as Catholics.


title: Protestantism by country

text: According to Mark Jürgensmeyer of the University of California, popular Protestantism is the most dynamic religious movement in the contemporary world, alongside the resurgent Islam. According to various scholars and sources popular Protestantism is the fastest growing religion in the world. is one of the fastest growing religious categories in the world.


title: Protestantism by country

text: Evangelicals, Charismatics, Neo-charismatics and other revivalists are found virtually across every Protestant branch. Nondenominationals, various independents and Protestants from other denominations, not easily fitting in the traditional classification, are also taken into account.


title: Protestantism by country

text: Estimates of total Protestant population vary considerably. Most reliable sources claim a range of 800 million to more than 1 billion. Difficulties occur as there is no consensus among scholars which denominations should be considered Protestant.


title: Protestantism by country

text: The seven regions considered in the following table are the six traditional ones (Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Oceania), plus Middle East (i.e. countries with Islamic majority from the Mediterranean to Iran).


title: Protestantism by country

text: The following are summary tables of the numbers and percentages of Protestants in each region. Also included are the percentages of Protestants in the world that reside in that region ("% of Protestant total").


title: Rodney Crowell

text: Rodney Crowell (born August 7, 1950) is an American musician, known primarily for his work as a singer and songwriter in country music. Crowell has had five number one singles on Hot Country Songs, all from his 1988 album "Diamonds & Dirt". He has also written songs and produced for other artists.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: He was influenced by songwriters Guy Clark and Townes Van Zandt. Crowell played guitar and sang for three years in Emmylou Harris' Hot Band.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: He has won two Grammy Awards in his career, one in 1990 for Best Country Song for the song "After All This Time" and one in 2014 Best Americana Album for his album "Old Yellow Moon".


title: Rodney Crowell

text: Crowell was born on August 7, 1950, in Houston, Texas, to James Walter Crowell and Addie Cauzette Willoughby


title: Rodney Crowell

text: He came from a musical family, with one grandfather being a church choir leader and the other a bluegrass banjo player. His grandmother played guitar and his father sang semi-professionally at bars and honky tonks. At age 11, he started playing drums in his father's band. In his teen years, he played in various garage rock bands in Houston, performing hits of the day mixed with a few country numbers.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: In August 1972 he moved to Nashville, Tennessee, in search of a musical career and got a job as a songwriter after being discovered by Jerry Reed. He later met and befriended fellow songwriter Guy Clark, who became a major influence on his songwriting and vice versa. While there, he said, "I got a real cold splash in the face of what real songwriting is about. I started filling my mind with as many symbols and images as I could. I started reading. I got real hungry to have something to contribute". Emmylou Harris had recorded one of Crowell's songs, "Bluebird Wine", on her "Pieces of the Sky" album and made a request to meet him. After he sat in with Emmylou at her gig at the Armadillo World Headquarters in early January 1975, she asked him to play rhythm guitar in her backing band, The Hot Band. He accepted and left the following day to join Emmylou in Los Angeles.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: In 1977 as a side project, he formed a musical group, The Cherry Bombs, together with Vince Gill, Tony Brown and others. One year later, he signed a solo deal with Warner Bros. Records and in late 1978, released his debut album, "Ain't Living Long Like This".


title: Rodney Crowell

text: His debut album, as well as his following two albums, "But What Will the Neighbors Think" and "Rodney Crowell", were not commercially successful despite garnering a huge cult following. Crowell himself criticized his debut album for not translating onto vinyl the same clarity and energy he felt in the studio. His single "Ashes by Now" from "But What Will the Neighbors Think" reached No. 37 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1980.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: Though he had already several country hits by artists covering his songs (including "I Ain't Living Long Like This" by Waylon Jennings, "Leaving Louisiana..." by the Oak Ridge Boys, and several covers by Johnny Cash, Rosanne Cash, Emmylou Harris, Jerry Reed and others), Crowell got his first big taste of pop songwriting success with "Shame on the Moon". "Shame on the Moon" was recorded on the 1982 album "The Distance" by Bob Seger & the Silver Bullet Band. Glenn Frey joined Seger on background harmony on the song. Appealing to a broad cross-section of listeners, the song spent four weeks at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 pop singles chart, topped the adult contemporary chart, and placed in the Top 15 of the country chart in early 1983. The song's dark, poetic and hypnotic style helped boost Crowell's cult status.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: The album "Rodney Crowell" was released in 1981 (see 1981 in country music) by Warner Bros. Records and was his last album on that label before switching to Columbia. The first album Crowell produced by himself, it reached No. 47 on the Top Country Albums chart and No. 105 on the "Billboard" 200 albums chart. The songs "Stars on the Water" and "Victim or a Fool" were released as singles. "Stars on the Water" reached No. 30 on the Hot Country Songs chart, Crowell's highest charting song up to that point. It peaked at No. 21 on the Canadian country charts. "Victim or a Fool" reached No. 34 in the U.S.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: In 1983, Crystal Gayle had a number one country single with his song "'Til I Gain Control Again" from her first Elektra album, "True Love". The song was first recorded in 1975 by Emmylou Harris and appeared on "Elite Hotel" that year.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: In 1984, Crowell returned to working on his own music career and recorded what was to be a new album for Warner Bros., "Street Language". That album, a pop-sounding effort co–produced by David Malloy, was rejected by Warner Bros, and was rejected by the label and never released. Warner Bros. requested a more Nashville-friendly record, but Crowell negotiated a release from his contract and moved to Columbia Records.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: After producing Rosanne Cash's "Rhythm & Romance", Crowell signed to Columbia Records in 1986. His first album for that label was reworked "Street Language", co-produced with Booker T. Jones and featuring a blend of soul and country music. The album did not chart.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: Although best known as a songwriter and alternative country artist, Crowell enjoyed mainstream popularity during the late 1980s and early 1990s. His critically acclaimed album 1988's "Diamonds & Dirt" produced five consecutive No. 1 singles during a 17-month span in 1988 and 1989: "It's Such a Small World" (a duet with Cash), "I Couldn't Leave You If I Tried," "She's Crazy For Leavin'," "After All This Time" and "Above and Beyond" (a cover of Buck Owens' 1962 hit). Crowell's "After All This Time" won the 1990 Grammy Award for Best Country Song. His follow-up album, 1989's "Keys to the Highway", produced two top 5 hits in 1990, which were "Many a Long and Lonesome Highway" and "If Looks Could Kill."


title: Rodney Crowell

text: After 1992's "Life Is Messy", he left Columbia Records and signed to MCA Records where he released two more albums — "Let the Picture Paint Itself" and "Jewel of the South".


title: Rodney Crowell

text: Crowell continued to enjoy success as a songwriter in the 1990s and 2000s. Crowell's songs that reached to Top Ten in the country charts in the decade included "Song for the Life" by Alan Jackson, "Making Memories of Us" by Keith Urban, "Ashes by Now" by Lee Ann Womack, and "Please Remember Me" by Tim McGraw.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: In 2001, after a brief hiatus from recording, Crowell released "The Houston Kid" on Sugar Hill Records, his first studio album since 1995's "Jewel of the South". Many songs on the album were semi-autobiographical, and the album included a duet Crowell had recorded and released as a single in 1998 with his ex father-in-law Johnny Cash, "I Walk the Line Revisited". Crowell followed up this effort with "Fate's Right Hand" in 2003 and "The Outsider" in 2005, both of which appeared on Columbia Nashville, a division of Sony Music. Leading critics and Crowell consider these three albums his finest work as a solo artist.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: Rodney Crowell was inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2003 with fellow inductees Hal Blair, Paul Overstreet and John Prine.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: 2004 saw the release of "The Notorious Cherry Bombs", a reunion of Crowell's 1970s road band, including Vince Gill and Tony Brown. The future Keith Urban hit "Making Memories of Us" was included on this disc. In 2005, Crowell served as producer for established Irish singer-songwriter Kieran Goss on the album "Blue Sky Sunrise".


title: Rodney Crowell

text: Crowell released his next album, "Sex & Gasoline", on Yep Roc Records in 2008, ending his relationship with Sony Music. The album received a Grammy nomination for Best Contemporary Folk/Americana Album. Crowell figures prominently in musician-neuroscientist Daniel Levitin's book "The World in Six Songs" for which he was interviewed, and three Crowell songs, "Shame On The Moon," "I Know Love Is All I Need" and "I Walk the Line (Revisited)" are featured in the book.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: In 2009, Crowell wrote Wynonna Judd's title track to her album "", which also was released in 2009. The song was given several electronic dance music remixes, and sent to dance radio as Judd's second release from the album. In August 2009, the single reached No. 4 on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot Dance Club Songs chart.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: Crowell produced Chely Wright's 2009 album, "Lifted Off the Ground". Wright also made a cameo appearance in Crowell's 2008 music video for his single "Sex and Gasoline".


title: Rodney Crowell

text: Vintage Books published Crowell's memoir, "Chinaberry Sidewalks", in 2011. "Chinaberry Sidewalks" focuses primarily on Crowell's relationship with his parents’ marriage and his own early years growing up in Houston, Texas.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: In 2012, Vanguard Records released "KIN: Songs by Rodney Crowell and Mary Karr". Karr wrote the lyrics and Crowell set them to music. KIN was Karr's first foray into songwriting. Crowell performed four tracks on the album; one as a duet with Kris Kristofferson. A variety of other artists recorded the other songs on the album, including Norah Jones, Vince Gill, Lucinda Williams, Lee Ann Womack, Rosanne Cash, Kris Kristofferson and Emmylou Harris.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: On February 26, 2013, Crowell and Emmylou Harris released "Old Yellow Moon" on Harris' longtime label Nonesuch Records. The album reached Number 4 on "Billboard"s Country albums chart and Number 29 on the Billboard Hot 200 charts. In 2013, the album won the Americana Music Awards' Album of the Year award and Crowell and Harris were named group/duo of the year. On January 26, 2014, Crowell won his second Grammy Award when "Old Yellow Moon" won the Grammy for Best Americana Album. On May 11, 2015, Crowell and Emmylou Harris released "The Traveling Kind" on Nonesuch Records.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: Crowell released his first album on New West Records, "Tarpaper Sky", on April 15, 2014. Crowell co-produced the record with his long-time collaborator, Steuart Smith. In the fall of 2014, Crowell was hired as music director for the Hank Williams biopic "I Saw the Light".


title: Rodney Crowell

text: In 2015, Crowell provided background vocals on "It Doesn't Hurt Right Now", a song he co-wrote with Jewel for her album "Picking Up the Pieces" as well as on "Holy War", a track which appears on "I Am the Rain", a 2016 album by Chely Wright. On December 20, 2016, Crowell released a music video for the song "It Ain't Over Yet", which features guest vocals from Rosanne Cash and John Paul White as well as harmonia from Mickey Raphael. The song appears on his album "Close Ties", which was released in 2017. The album also features a duet with Sheryl Crow titled "I'm Tied To Ya".


title: Rodney Crowell

text: In 2019, Crowell received the Poet's Award from the Academy of Country Music for his achievements in songwriting. He also released a collaborative album, titled "TEXAS" on August 15, 2019.


title: Rodney Crowell

text: In 1975, Crowell married his Nashville girlfriend Martha Dant Watts, and their daughter Hannah was born in May 1976. The brief marriage ended in divorce, with Crowell retaining custody of Hannah. Crowell was subsequently married to Rosanne Cash (daughter of Johnny Cash) from 1979 to 1992 and they had an influence on each other's careers, with Crowell producing most of her albums during that period and her success influencing his songwriting. They collaborated on a number of duets, including 1988's "It's Such a Small World." Although Crowell and Cash are now divorced, they remain on friendly terms, performing together occasionally. Crowell and Cash have three daughters, Caitlin (b. 1980), Chelsea (b. 1982), and Carrie (b. 1988). Crowell married Claudia Church in 1998; they live south of Nashville.


title: Effects of high altitude on humans

text: The effects of high altitude on humans are considerable. The oxygen saturation of hemoglobin determines the content of oxygen in blood. After the human body reaches around above sea level, the saturation of oxyhemoglobin begins to decrease rapidly. However, the human body has both short-term and long-term adaptations to altitude that allow it to partially compensate for the lack of oxygen. There is a limit to the level of adaptation; mountaineers refer to the altitudes above as the death zone, where it is generally believed that no human body can acclimatize.


title: Effects of high altitude on humans

text: The human body can perform best at sea level, where the atmospheric pressure is 101,325 Pa or 1013.25 millibars (or 1 atm, by definition). The concentration of oxygen (O) in sea-level air is 20.9%, so the partial pressure of O (pO) is . In healthy individuals, this saturates hemoglobin, the oxygen-binding red pigment in red blood cells.


title: Effects of high altitude on humans

text: Atmospheric pressure decreases exponentially with altitude while the O fraction remains constant to about , so pO decreases exponentially with altitude as well. It is about half of its sea-level value at , the altitude of the Everest Base Camp, and only a third at , the summit of Mount Everest. When pO drops, the body responds with altitude acclimatization.


title: Effects of high altitude on humans

text: Mountain medicine recognizes three altitude regions which reflect the lowered amount of oxygen in the atmosphere:


title: Effects of high altitude on humans

text: Travel to each of these altitude regions can lead to medical problems, from the mild symptoms of acute mountain sickness to the potentially fatal high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE). The higher the altitude, the greater the risk. Expedition doctors commonly stock a supply of dexamethasone, to treat these conditions on site. Research also indicates elevated risk of permanent brain damage in people climbing to above .


title: Effects of high altitude on humans

text: Humans have survived for two years at , 475 millibars of atmospheric pressure), which is the highest recorded permanently tolerable altitude; the highest permanent settlement known, La Rinconada, is at .


title: Effects of high altitude on humans

text: At altitudes above , 383 millibars of atmospheric pressure), sleeping becomes very difficult, digesting food is near-impossible, and the risk of HAPE or HACE increases greatly.


title: Effects of high altitude on humans

text: The death zone in mountaineering, (originally the "lethal zone") was first conceived in 1953 by Edouard Wyss-Dunant, a Swiss physician and alpinist. It refers to altitudes above a certain point where the amount of oxygen is insufficient to sustain human life for an extended time span. This point is generally tagged as , less than 356 millibars of atmospheric pressure). All 14 summits in the death zone above 8000 m, called eight-thousanders, are located in the Himalaya and Karakoram mountain ranges.


title: Effects of high altitude on humans

text: Many deaths in high-altitude mountaineering have been caused by the effects of the death zone, either directly by loss of vital functions or indirectly through wrong decisions made under stress or physical weakening leading to accidents. In the death zone, the human body cannot acclimatize. An extended stay in the death zone without supplementary oxygen will result in deterioration of bodily functions, loss of consciousness, and, ultimately, death.


title: Effects of high altitude on humans

text: As of 2021, studies have shown that the about 81.6 million people who live at elevations above have adapted to the lower oxygen levels. These adaptations are especially pronounced in people living in the Andes and the Himalayas. Compared with acclimatized newcomers, native Andean and Himalayan populations have better oxygenation at birth, enlarged lung volumes throughout life, and a higher capacity for exercise. Tibetans demonstrate a sustained increase in cerebral blood flow, elevated resting ventilation, lower hemoglobin concentration (at elevations below 4000 metres), and less susceptibility to chronic mountain sickness (CMS). Andeans possess a similar suite of adaptations but exhibit elevated hemoglobin concentration and a normal resting ventilation. These adaptations may reflect the longer history of high altitude habitation in these regions.


title: Effects of high altitude on humans

text: A lower mortality rate from cardiovascular disease is observed for residents at higher altitudes. Similarly, a dose–response relationship exists between increasing elevation and decreasing obesity prevalence in the United States. This is not explained by migration alone. On the other hand, people living at higher elevations also have a higher rate of suicide in the United States. The correlation between elevation and suicide risk was present even when the researchers control for known suicide risk factors, including age, gender, race, and income. Research has also indicated that oxygen levels are unlikely to be a factor, considering that there is no indication of increased mood disturbances at high altitude in those with sleep apnea or in heavy smokers at high altitude. The cause for the increased suicide risk is as yet unknown.


title: Effects of high altitude on humans

text: The human body can adapt to high altitude through both immediate and long-term acclimatization. At high altitude, in the short term, the lack of oxygen is sensed by the carotid bodies, which causes an increase in the breathing depth and rate (hyperpnea). However, hyperpnea also causes the adverse effect of respiratory alkalosis, inhibiting the respiratory center from enhancing the respiratory rate as much as would be required. Inability to increase the breathing rate can be caused by inadequate carotid body response or pulmonary or renal disease.


title: Effects of high altitude on humans

text: In addition, at high altitude, the heart beats faster; the stroke volume is slightly decreased; and non-essential bodily functions are suppressed, resulting in a decline in food digestion efficiency (as the body suppresses the digestive system in favor of increasing its cardiopulmonary reserves).