title: Townshend Acts

text: To better collect the new taxes, the Commissioners of Customs Act 1767 established the American Board of Customs Commissioners, which was modeled on the British Board of Customs. The Board was created because of the difficulties the British Board faced in enforcing trade regulations in the distant colonies. Five commissioners were appointed to the board, which was headquartered in Boston. The American Customs Board would generate considerable hostility in the colonies towards the British government. According to historian Oliver Dickerson, "The actual separation of the continental colonies from the rest of the Empire dates from the creation of this independent administrative board."


title: Townshend Acts

text: The American Board of Customs Commissioners was notoriously corrupt, according to historians. Political scientist Peter Andreas argues:


title: Townshend Acts

text: Another measure to enforce the trade laws was the Vice Admiralty Court Act 1768. Although often included in discussions of the Townshend Acts, this act was initiated by the Cabinet when Townshend was not present and was not passed until after his death. Before this act, there was just one vice admiralty court in North America, located in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Established in 1764, this court proved to be too remote to serve all of the colonies, and so the 1768 Vice Admiralty Court Act created four district courts, which were located at Halifax, Boston, Philadelphia, and Charleston. One purpose of the vice admiralty courts, which did not have juries, was to help customs officials prosecute smugglers since colonial juries were reluctant to convict persons for violating unpopular trade regulations.


title: Townshend Acts

text: Townshend also faced the problem of what to do about the New York General Assembly, which had refused to comply with the Quartering Act 1765 because its members saw the act's financial provisions as levying an unconstitutional tax. The New York Restraining Act, which according to historian Robert Chaffin was "officially a part of the Townshend Acts", suspended the power of the Assembly until it complied with the Quartering Act. The Restraining Act never went into effect because, by the time it was passed, the New York Assembly had already appropriated money to cover the costs of the Quartering Act. The Assembly avoided conceding the right of Parliament to tax the colonies by making no reference to the Quartering Act when appropriating this money; they also passed a resolution stating that Parliament could not constitutionally suspend an elected legislature.


title: Townshend Acts

text: Townshend knew that his program would be controversial in the colonies, but he argued that, "The superiority of the mother country can at no time be better exerted than now." The Townshend Acts did not create an instant uproar like the Stamp Act had done two years earlier, but before long, opposition to the programme had become widespread. Townshend did not live to see this reaction, having died suddenly on 4 September 1767.


title: Townshend Acts

text: The most influential colonial response to the Townshend Acts was a series of twelve essays by John Dickinson entitled "Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania", which began appearing in December 1767. Eloquently articulating ideas already widely accepted in the colonies, Dickinson argued that there was no difference between "internal" and "external" taxes, and that any taxes imposed on the colonies by Parliament for the sake of raising a revenue were unconstitutional. Dickinson warned colonists not to concede to the taxes just because the rates were low since this would set a dangerous precedent.


title: Townshend Acts

text: Dickinson sent a copy of his "Letters" to James Otis of Massachusetts, informing Otis that "whenever the Cause of American Freedom is to be vindicated, I look towards the Province of Massachusetts Bay". The Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by first sending a petition to King George asking for the repeal of the Revenue Act, and then sending a letter to the other colonial assemblies, asking them to join the resistance movement. Upon receipt of the Massachusetts Circular Letter, other colonies also sent petitions to the king. Virginia and Pennsylvania also sent petitions to Parliament, but the other colonies did not, believing that it might have been interpreted as an admission of Parliament's sovereignty over them. Parliament refused to consider the petitions of Virginia and Pennsylvania.


title: Townshend Acts

text: In Great Britain, Lord Hillsborough, who had recently been appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary, was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768 he sent a letter to the colonial governors in America, instructing them to dissolve the colonial assemblies if they responded to the Massachusetts Circular Letter. He also sent a letter to Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard, instructing him to have the Massachusetts House rescind the Circular Letter. By a vote of 92 to 17, the House refused to comply, and Bernard promptly dissolved the legislature.


title: Townshend Acts

text: When news of the outrage among the colonists finally reached Franklin in London he wrote a number of essays in 1768 calling for "civility and good manners", even though he did not approve of the measures. In 1770, Franklin continued writing essays against the Townsend Acts and Lord Hillsborough and wrote eleven attacking the Acts that appeared in the "Public Advertiser", a London daily newspaper. The essays were published between January 8 and February 19, 1770 and can be found in "The Papers of Benjamin Franklin".


title: Townshend Acts

text: Merchants in the colonies, some of them smugglers, organized economic boycotts to put pressure on their British counterparts to work for repeal of the Townshend Acts. Boston merchants organized the first non-importation agreement, which called for merchants to suspend importation of certain British goods effective 1 January 1768. Merchants in other colonial ports, including New York City and Philadelphia, eventually joined the boycott. In Virginia, the non-importation effort was organized by George Washington and George Mason. When the Virginia House of Burgesses passed a resolution stating that Parliament had no right to tax Virginians without their consent, Governor Lord Botetourt dissolved the assembly. The members met at Raleigh Tavern and adopted a boycott agreement known as the "Association".


title: Townshend Acts

text: The non-importation movement was not as effective as promoters had hoped. British exports to the colonies declined by 38 percent in 1769, but there were many merchants who did not participate in the boycott. The boycott movement began to fail by 1770 and came to an end in 1771.


title: Townshend Acts

text: The newly created American Customs Board was seated in Boston, so it was there that the Board concentrated on enforcing the Townshend Acts. The acts were so unpopular in Boston that the Customs Board requested assistance. Commodore Samuel Hood sent the fifty-gun fourth-rate ship HMS "Romney", which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768.


title: Townshend Acts

text: On 10 June 1768, customs officials seized the "Liberty", a sloop owned by leading Boston merchant John Hancock, on allegations that the ship had been involved in smuggling. Bostonians, already angry because the captain of the "Romney" had been impressing local sailors, began to riot. Customs officials fled to Castle William for protection. With John Adams serving as his lawyer, Hancock was prosecuted in a highly publicized trial by a vice-admiralty court, but the charges were eventually dropped.


title: Townshend Acts

text: Given the unstable state of affairs in Massachusetts, Hillsborough instructed Governor Bernard to try to find evidence of treason in Boston. Parliament had determined that the Treason Act 1543 was still in force, which would allow Bostonians to be transported to England to stand trial for treason. Bernard could find no one who was willing to provide reliable evidence, however, and so there were no treason trials. The possibility that American colonists might be arrested and sent to England for trial produced alarm and outrage in the colonies.


title: Townshend Acts

text: Even before the "Liberty" riot, Hillsborough had decided to send troops to Boston. On 8 June 1768, he instructed General Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief, North America, to send "such Force as You shall think necessary to Boston", although he conceded that this might lead to "consequences not easily foreseen". Hillsborough suggested that Gage might send one regiment to Boston, but the "Liberty" incident convinced officials that more than one regiment would be needed.


title: Townshend Acts

text: People in Massachusetts learned in September 1768 that troops were on the way. Samuel Adams organized an emergency, extralegal convention of towns and passed resolutions against the imminent occupation of Boston, but on 1 October 1768, the first of four regiments of the British Army began disembarking in Boston, and the Customs Commissioners returned to town. The "Journal of Occurrences", an anonymously written series of newspaper articles, chronicled clashes between civilians and soldiers during the military occupation of Boston, apparently with some exaggeration. Tensions rose after Christopher Seider, a Boston teenager, was killed by a customs employee on 22 February 1770. Although British soldiers were not involved in that incident, resentment against the occupation escalated in the days that followed, resulting in the killing of five civilians in the Boston Massacre of 5 March 1770. After the incident, the troops were withdrawn to Castle William.


title: Townshend Acts

text: On 5 March 1770— the same day as the Boston Massacre although news traveled slowly at the time, and neither side of the Atlantic was aware of this coincidence—Lord North, the new Prime Minister, presented a motion in the House of Commons that called for partial repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act. Although some in Parliament advocated a complete repeal of the act, North disagreed, arguing that the tea duty should be retained to assert "the right of taxing the Americans". After debate, the Repeal Act received the Royal Assent on 12 April 1770.


title: Townshend Acts

text: It would be inaccurate to claim that a major part of the Townshend Acts had been repealed. The revenue-producing tea levy, the American Board of Customs and, most important, the principle of making governors and magistrates independent all remained. In fact, the modification of the Townshend Duties Act was scarcely any change at all.


title: Townshend Acts

text: The Townshend duty on tea was retained when the 1773 Tea Act was passed, which allowed the East India Company to ship tea directly to the colonies. The Boston Tea Party soon followed, which set the stage for the American Revolution.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: The game was originally planned as an updated version of "Super Mario Galaxy", known as "Super Mario Galaxy More". However, it was later decided that the game would be expanded into a fully fleshed-out sequel when the development staff continued to build upon the game with dozens of new ideas. As such, development time expanded to two and a half years. Among the new additions are dynamic environments, new power-ups, and the addition of Yoshi.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: Upon release, "Super Mario Galaxy 2" was met with critical acclaim, and was considered an improvement over its already-lauded predecessor, with its creativity, level design, gameplay, music, and technological improvements over the original receiving high praise, although its high difficulty and watered-down story, in comparison to its predecessor, received some criticism. It is frequently considered by critics and fans to be one of the greatest video games of all time and is one of the best-selling games on the Wii, with over seven million copies sold worldwide.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: The gameplay of "Super Mario Galaxy 2" is near-identical to its predecessor's, with a focus on platforming based on and around 3D planets, grouped into levels known as galaxies. Planets and galaxies each have varying themes, sizes, landscapes, and climates. The player controls Mario (or later in the game, his brother Luigi, though using him is optional), who has special abilities such as the "Spin" attack, long jump, wall jumps, and a variety of somersaults. As in the original, the objective of the game is to travel to the various galaxies and collect Power Stars, which are awarded by completing levels and accomplishing tasks and are used to gain access to later levels. The game retains various gameplay mechanics introduced in the original, such as the blue Star Pointer that allows the player to collect Star Bits and shoot them at enemies, levels that restrict movement to a 2D plane, balance ball levels, and gravity-reversing background arrows.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: The game provides the player access to the game's galaxies through means of a map system similar to that in previous "Mario" games such as "Super Mario World" and "New Super Mario Bros. Wii". This is navigated via a mobile planet called Starship Mario that serves as a hub world, which can be visited anytime and is expanded when new abilities or levels are unlocked. The game contains forty-nine galaxies allotted among seven different regions in the universe (called "worlds"), with the general difficulty progressively increasing in each world. The first six worlds end with a boss level, in which the objective is to defeat Bowser or Bowser Jr. (the former being in even-numbered worlds, and the latter being in odd-numbered worlds), which then allows the player to access the next world. When the player collects all 120 Power Stars, 120 Green Star missions are unlocked. These levels, containing Green Stars that are hidden or placed in hard-to-reach areas, require intense exploration and precision and may cause instant death if the player fails. "Super Mario Galaxy 2" contains 242 unique Power Stars to collect overall.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: Most of the levels in "Super Mario Galaxy 2" offer a unique task based around its theme, and many focus on dynamic environments that change or alternate between various states. For example, some environments change to the beat of the background music, such as sudden shifts in the direction of gravity or the appearance or disappearance of platforms; and others feature a special switch that temporarily slows down time. Prankster Comets, which were featured in the original game and cause variation and tougher challenges in levels, no longer appear randomly in visited galaxies but instead require the collection of a Comet Medal in that galaxy in order for it to appear. In addition, Prankster Comets have become more general and offer any number of variations: while "Super Mario Galaxy" offered only five mutually exclusive variations, the Prankster Comets in "Super Mario Galaxy 2" range to any number of challenges that often mix or overlap. These include defeating all the enemies, collecting 100 Purple Coins, completing the level within a time limit, completing the level with only one maximum health unit, or avoiding Cosmic Clones (doppelgängers of Mario that imitate the player's actions). As a result, both the dynamic environments and the Prankster Comets often create challenges with puzzle elements, requiring precision and strategy in order to overcome them.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: All the original transformations in "Super Mario Galaxy" return, with the exception of Ice Mario and Flying Mario. Three new power-ups and items are introduced in the game. These include the Spin Drill, which allows the player to burrow through planets and emerge out the other side; Rock Mario, which allows the player to transform into a boulder and smash through enemies and other obstacles; and Cloud Mario, which allows the player to create up to 3 temporary platforms in midair.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: Mario is able to ride the dinosaur Yoshi in certain levels. When riding Yoshi, the player's blue Star Pointer is replaced by a red dot, which allows the player to point at various objects and manipulate them with Yoshi's tongue. Yoshi can also use his tongue to swing across gaps, pull levers, and swallow berries and enemies (with the option to spit the latter back out as projectiles). In addition, Yoshi allows the player to double jump. There are also three different power-up fruits available for Yoshi to eat that grant him temporary abilities. These are the Dash Pepper, the Blimp Fruit and the Bulb Berry. The Dash Pepper allows Yoshi to run at an extremely high speed, allowing him to run up walls and on water; the Blimp Fruit allows Yoshi to float in the air for a limited amount of time; the Bulb Berry allows Yoshi to reveal secret pathways. If the player takes damage while riding Yoshi, the player will fall off and Yoshi will run away until the player gets back on him. If the player does not get back on, Yoshi will retreat into his egg and to different nests which can only be found in certain areas of the level.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: Because of the game's increased difficulty over the original, "Super Mario Galaxy 2" offers some features that assist inexperienced or frustrated players. The most notable is the Cosmic Guide, similar to "New Super Mario Bros. Wii"'s "Super Guide" feature, who takes the form of Rosalina. The Cosmic Guide appears if the player has failed during a particular level a certain number of times, and allows the player to give computer control over Mario to complete the level. The drawback is that the player is awarded a Bronze Star, which is not added to the overall Power Star count, requiring the player to complete the level without using the Cosmic Guide to earn a golden Power Star. There are also monitors called "Hint TVs" that will demonstrate how to perform a specific move or optimal ways of using a power-up.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: Multiplayer gameplay has also been expanded upon over the original. In "Super Mario Galaxy", another player could use a second Wii Remote to control a second Star Pointer and assist Mario by grabbing enemies or collecting and shooting Star Bits. In "Super Mario Galaxy 2", the second player now controls an orange Luma who retains all the original abilities, but can also physically attack enemies and collect items, power-ups and 1-ups, making the player's involvement more useful.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: In a retelling of the first game's story, Princess Peach invites Mario to share a cake at the Star Festival, a centennial celebration that occurs when Star Bits rain down from the skies over the Mushroom Kingdom. On his way to Peach’s castle, Mario finds a lost baby Luma, who immediately befriends him and grants him the ability to spin. Shortly thereafter, Mario's nemesis Bowser, who has grown to an immense size after abusing the power of the Grand Stars, attacks the castle. Kidnapping Peach, Bowser escapes into outer space to recreate his empire at the center of the universe. After finding two Lumas who offer their help to Mario, one of them transforms into a Launch Star that launches Mario into outer space. After landing on and venturing through the first galaxy and obtaining his first Power Star, Mario arrives on a small planetoid functioning as a spaceship and meets Lubba, a large purple Luma who leads a small band of Lumas. Lubba explains that Power Stars are needed to power the spaceship and that he and his crew were attacked by Bowser earlier, with some Lumas having been thrown overboard. Lubba has realized that Bowser kidnapped Peach and offers his help in tracking him down and saving the princess. He offers to grant Mario temporary ownership of the spaceship in exchange for him bringing back more Power Stars. After Mario agrees, he instructs his Lumas to rebuild the ship in honor of Mario and they do so, rebuilding it in his image. Mario is then is then given control of Starship Mario, a mobile spaceship in the shape of his head, powered by Power Stars, and piloted by other Lumas. Starship Mario then sets off on its journey towards the center of the universe to save Peach. As Mario travels the cosmos, explores more galaxies, and obtains more Power Stars, he meets new species and joins up with his companion Yoshi, the Toad Brigade from the original "Super Mario Galaxy", and his brother Luigi, all whom join Mario on the starship.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: As Mario and his allies travel the universe, he encounters Bowser’s son Bowser Jr., who is once again aiding his father in his plan and hinders Mario’s progress by fighting him twice, losing both times. Mario also encounters Bowser twice in his own galaxies, also managing to defeat him in battle both times, although he escapes after each defeat. All the while, Mario collects Grand Stars, which are enhanced forms of Power Stars that create portals allowing access to another part of the universe. After traveling through various galaxies throughout the universe collecting Power and Grand Stars, Mario and his allies finally reach Bowser's giant starship generator, which is draining energy from what appears to be a comet. Mario infiltrates the starship and engages Bowser in a third battle. Once again, Mario defeats Bowser and causes him to revert to his normal size and fall to his presumed death. Just as he falls, the last Grand Star appears. Before Mario can grab it, Bowser emerges, having survived the fall. He consumes the Grand Star, once again increasing his size and making him more powerful. A final battle ensues, in which Mario manages to finally defeat Bowser by ground-pounding meteorites onto him, causing him to once again shrink and fall into the abyss. Mario grabs the last Grand Star and saves Peach. They return to Starship Mario and Rosalina and her Comet Observatory from the first game appear before Starship Mario. Rosalina thanks Mario for watching over baby Luma, who then returns to the Comet Observatory, taking Mario's hat (without his consent) with him. Mario and his friends return to the Mushroom Kingdom and celebrate their victory, whereas Bowser is revealed to once again have survived. However, he is enraged at having been shrunken down to a comically small size. The game ends with Starship Mario flying above Peach's Castle, with the Comet Observatory streaking across the sky.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: After Nintendo completed "Super Mario Galaxy", Shigeru Miyamoto approached the development team and suggested that a follow-up be produced. The game was originally planned to just do variations on the original game's planets and call the game ""Super Mario Galaxy More"", and was dubbed ""Super Mario Galaxy 1.5"" during early development, with a projected development time of approximately a year. The first elements that were implemented were anything that was scrapped from the original game, either to ensure game balance or simply because of time constraints, such as Yoshi and the concept of a planet shaped like Mario's head. Over time, more and more new elements and ideas were brought into the game, and it was decided that the game would be a fleshed-out sequel rather than a slightly modified follow-up. Thus, development took two and a half years. Takeshi Hayakawa, the lead programmer for "Super Mario Galaxy 2", created a development tool that allowed different staff members, including visual and sound designers, to easily design and create stages without waiting for programmers, many of which were incorporated into the final game.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: In order to help distinguish "Super Mario Galaxy 2" from its predecessor, the staff originally wanted the whole game to revolve around the concept of "switching", in which the game's environments would dramatically change under certain conditions. This concept ended up being particularly difficult to implement full-scale, so was relegated to only certain levels. Another idea that came up early on were cameo inclusions by other Nintendo characters (specifically Donkey Kong and Pikmin). The idea however was nixed by Miyamoto who stated that Pikmin characters wouldn't work within the Mario universe, and that there was no reason for other such cameos. Game tutorials were confined to an optional system called the "Tip Network" in order to benefit players already familiar with the original game. Miyamoto compared "Super Mario Galaxy 2" to "", in that both games use the same engines as their predecessors, yet build upon their foundations.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: The game was revealed at E3 2009 on June 2. In Miyamoto's private conference, it was stated that the game was very far along in development, but its release was held back to mid-2010 because of "New Super Mario Bros. Wii"s release in late 2009. Miyamoto also stated that the game has 95–99% new features, with the rest being previous features introduced in "Super Mario Galaxy". With regard to the original game, Nintendo of America President and CEO Reggie Fils-Aime stated in an interview that the sequel would be more challenging, and Miyamoto said in a "Wired" interview that the game would have less focus on plot. Miyamoto initially hinted that the game might utilize the "Super Guide" feature, introduced in "New Super Mario Bros. Wii", into the game, and this was confirmed by Nintendo's Senior Manager of Product Managing, Bill Trinen, who claimed that the feature was implemented differently compared to what "New Super Mario Bros. Wii" offered. The feature is called Cosmic Guide, where the Cosmic Spirit (Rosalina) takes control of Mario.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: The game made its playable debut at the Nintendo Media Summit 2010 on February 24, 2010, when a second trailer for the game was released, and its North American release date on May 23, 2010 was finally announced. The Japanese, European and Australian versions of the game came packaged with an instructional DVD manual, explaining the basic controls, as well as showing advanced play. The voice actors from "Super Mario Galaxy" reprise their roles for its sequel including Scott Burns (who voiced Bowser in previous games) and Dex Manley who played Lubba and Lakitu.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: In January 2015, late Nintendo president Satoru Iwata announced at a Nintendo Direct presentation that "Super Mario Galaxy 2", alongside other Wii games such as "Punch-Out!!" and "", would be re-released for download on the Wii U's Nintendo eShop. It was released on January 14, 2015.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: As with the original "Super Mario Galaxy", "Super Mario Galaxy 2" features a musical score written for and performed by a symphony orchestra (known as the Mario Galaxy Orchestra in the credits). Early in the development process, when the concept of "Super Mario Galaxy 1.5" was being considered, there were no plans to use different music from the first "Super Mario Galaxy". However, as the game evolved, the sound team, headed by Mahito Yokota, realized they needed new music that fit with the new gameplay mechanics that were being added. Although they were hesitant to use a symphony orchestra again because of recording difficulties, general producer Shigeru Miyamoto gave permission immediately – according to Yokota, Miyamoto felt that players would be expecting an orchestral soundtrack. Miyamoto also apparently suggested that players would want to hear arrangements from "Super Mario Galaxy", which is why the soundtrack is a mixture of brand new pieces and arrangements of themes from the original "Galaxy" as well as many past installments in the "Mario" series, such as "Super Mario World" and "Super Mario 64". Ryo Nagamatsu, who worked previously on "Mario Kart Wii", "Wii Sports Resort", and "New Super Mario Bros. Wii", contributed nine pieces to the soundtrack.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: Koji Kondo recruited sixty musicians for the orchestra, ten more than the number of musicians used for the original game's score, with an additional ten musicians providing a big band style of music with trumpets, trombones, saxophones and drums for a grand total of seventy players. The orchestral performances were conducted by Taizo Takemoto, renowned for his work with the Super Smash Bros. Concert in 2002, while Kondo served as a supervisor, while also contributing five pieces to the soundtrack. The soundtrack was available as a 2-disc set to Japanese Club Nintendo members with seventy songs taken from the game.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: Like its predecessor, "Super Mario Galaxy 2" was widely praised by major video game critics with numerous reviews praising the game for its creativity and technical improvements over the original. Most reviewers agreed that the game either lived up to or surpassed the original "Super Mario Galaxy". It has an average critic score of 97% at GameRankings and 97/100 at Metacritic, making it one of the highest-rated games on the sites.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: Tom McShea from "GameSpot" called it a "new standard for platformers", giving it a perfect 10, making it the seventh game in the site's history to earn that score. Other perfect scores came from "Edge", stating "This isn't a game that redefines the genre: this is one that rolls it up and locks it away," and "IGN" Craig Harris, who felt that the game "perfectly captures that classic videogame charm, the reason why most of us got into gaming from the start". "IGN" later placed "Super Mario Galaxy 2" fourth on their "Top Modern Games" list and listed it as the greatest Wii game of all time. "The Escapist" editor Susan Arendt echoed this view by stating it "doesn't tinker with the established formula very much, but we didn't really want it to", while "GameTrailers" commented that "there's something tremendous for just about everyone and games that we can truly recommend to almost everyone are rare". Ryan Scott at GameSpy regards it a much better game than the first "Super Mario Galaxy", stating, "For a series that's explored every conceivable angle of its genre, the "Mario" games keep coming up with ways to challenge our notions of what a platformer can and should do."


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: "Giant Bomb" Ryan Davis particularly praised the improved level designs, commenting that the designers were "bolder" and "more willing to take some weird risks with the planetoids and abstract platforming that set the tone in the original "Galaxy"", while Chris Kohler from "Wired" commented that the level concepts alone "could be made into full games on their own". Additionally, "1UP.com" Justin Haywald noted the expanded soundtrack as "sweeping". "X-Play" editor Andrew Pfister awarded "Super Mario Galaxy 2" a 5/5, calling it "the culmination of 20 years of Mario gaming into one fantastically-designed and creative platformer".


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: Despite this praise, some critics raised complaints over increased difficulty and the game's similarity to the original "Super Mario Galaxy". Chris Scullion from "Official Nintendo Magazine" called it the "new best game on Wii", but said it lacked the original's impact (though they admitted the extreme difficulty of this, due to the quality of the original). "Game Informer" editor Matt Helgeson was concerned with some of the challenges being potentially "frustrating", particularly towards the end of the game; similarly, Ben PerLee from "GamePro" remarked that the "increased difficulty and high proficiency requirement may turn new fans off". However, Worthplaying editor Chris DeAngelus praised the game's difficulty, stating that "there are very few sequences where death will feel like a result of bad design instead of player error, which helps keep the frustration down".


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: In Japan, "Super Mario Galaxy 2" sold 143,000 copies on its first day of release and 340,000 copies in its first week, about 90,000 more than the first "Super Mario Galaxy" sold in the same amount of time. In North America, the game sold 650,000 copies during the month of May 2010. In the United Kingdom, "Super Mario Galaxy 2" was the third best-selling game among multiplatform releases and the best-selling single platform release for the week ending June 26, 2010. As of July 16, 2010, the game has sold 1 million copies within the USA. As of April 2011, "Super Mario Galaxy 2" has sold 6.36 million copies worldwide.


title: Super Mario Galaxy 2

text: "Super Mario Galaxy 2" received Game of the Year 2010 awards from "Nintendo Power", "GamesMaster", "Official Nintendo Magazine", "Edge", "GamesTM", "Destructoid" and "Metacritic". It was named best "Wii Game of the Year" by "IGN", "GameTrailers", "GameSpot", "1UP.com", and many other media outlets. As of December 2010, IGN awarded "Super Mario Galaxy 2" the number 1 Wii game, overtaking its predecessor. In the March 2012 issue of "Official Nintendo Magazine", the publication named "Super Mario Galaxy 2" the 'Greatest Nintendo Game Ever Made' ranking at #1 out of 100. The game was also nominated for "Favorite Video Game" at the 2011 Kids' Choice Awards, but lost to "Just Dance 2".


title: Cherry angioma

text: Cherry angioma, also called cherry hemangioma, is a small bright red dome-shaped bump on the skin. It ranges between 0.5 – 6 mm in diameter and usually several are present, typically on the chest and arms, and increasing in number with age. If scratched, they may bleed.


title: Cherry angioma

text: They are a harmless benign tumour, containing an abnormal proliferation of blood vessels, and have no relationship to cancer. They are the most common kind of angioma, and increase with age, occurring in nearly all adults over 30 years.


title: Cherry angioma

text: Cherry angiomas are made up of clusters of capillaries at the surface of the skin, forming a small round dome ("papule"), which may be flat topped . They range in colour from bright red to purple. When they first develop, they may be only a tenth of a millimeter in diameter and almost flat, appearing as small red dots. However, they then usually grow to about one or two millimeters across, and sometimes to a centimeter or more in diameter . As they grow larger, they tend to expand in thickness, and may take on the raised and rounded shape of a dome. Multiple adjoining angiomas form a "polypoid angioma". Because the blood vessels comprising an angioma are so close to the skin's surface, cherry angiomas may bleed profusely if they are injured.


title: Cherry angioma

text: One study found that the majority of capillaries in cherry hemangiomas are fenestrated and stain for carbonic anhydrase activity.


title: Cherry angioma

text: Cherry angiomas appear spontaneously in many people in middle age but can also, less commonly, occur in young people. They can also occur in an aggressive eruptive manner in any age. The underlying cause for the development of cherry angiomas is not understood.


title: Cherry angioma

text: Cherry angioma may occur through two different mechanisms: angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels), and vasculogenesis (the formation of totally new vessels, which usually occurs during embryonic and fetal development).


title: Cherry angioma

text: One study published in 2010 found that a regulatory nucleic acid suppresses protein growth factors that cause vascular growth. This regulatory nucleic acid was lower in tissue samples of hemangiomas, and the growth factors were elevated, which suggests that the elevated growth factors may cause hemangiomas. The study found that the level of microRNA 424 is significantly reduced in senile hemangiomas compared to normal skin resulting in increased protein expression of MEK1 and cyclin E1. By inhibiting mir-424 in normal endothelial cells they could observe the same increased protein expression of MEK1 and cyclin E1 which, important for the development of senile hemangioma, induced cell proliferation of the endothelial cells. They also found that targeting MEK1 and cyclin E1 with small interfering RNA decreased the number of endothelial cells.


title: Cherry angioma

text: A study published in 2019 identified that somatic mutations in GNAQ and GNA11 genes are present in many cherry angiomas. These specific missense mutations found in hemangiomas are also associated with port-wine stains and uveal melanoma. As--the mostly juvenile--Waterhouse Friedrichsen Syndrome is caused by adrenal bleeding from bacterial infections, the 'senile' cherry angiomas may have to be researched for a viral and fungal pathology of the adrenals themselves or of the meninges affecting the adrenals with less dramatic bleeding compared to Waterhouse Friedrichsen's.


title: Cherry angioma

text: Chemicals and compounds that have been seen to cause cherry angiomas are mustard gas, 2-butoxyethanol, bromides, and cyclosporine.


title: Cherry angioma

text: A significant increase in the density of mast cells has been seen in cherry hemangiomas compared with normal skin.


title: Cherry angioma

text: The diagnosis is based on the clinical appearance of the lesions. Examination with a dermatoscope shows characteristic red, purple, or blue-black lagoons.


title: Cherry angioma

text: The differential diagnosis includes nodular basal cell carcinoma, amelanotic melanoma, and angiokeratoma.


title: Cherry angioma

text: These lesions generally do not require treatment. If they are cosmetically unappealing or are subject to bleeding angiomas may be removed by electrocautery, a process of destroying the tissue by use of a small probe with an electric current running through it. Removal may cause scarring. More recently pulsed dye laser or intense pulsed light (IPL) treatment has also been used.


title: Cherry angioma

text: Future treatment based on a locally acting inhibitor of MEK1 and Cyclin E1 could possibly be an option. A natural MEK1 inhibitor is myricetin.


title: Cherry angioma

text: In most patients, the number and size of cherry angiomas increases with advancing age. They are harmless, having no relation to cancer at all.


title: Cherry angioma

text: Eruptive cherry hemangiomatosis, has been rarely reported as a heralding sign of multicentric Castleman disease (MCD), multiple myeloma and other lymphoproliferative diseases.


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes is a 1978 American parody film produced by J. Stephen Peace and John DeBello, and directed by John DeBello based upon an original idea by Costa Dillon. The screenplay was written by Dillon, Peace, and DeBello. The film spoofs B movies and was made on a budget of less than US$ 100,000. The story involves tomatoes becoming sentient by unknown means and revolting against humanity.


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: Critical reception of "Attack of the Killer Tomatoes" were mostly negative. The box office success of the film led to three sequels, all co-written by the same three writers and directed by DeBello.


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: The film opens with a scroll saying that when Alfred Hitchcock's film "The Birds" (1963) was released, audiences laughed at the notion of birds revolting against humanity, but when an attack perpetrated by birds occurred in 1975, no one laughed. This is followed by a pre-credits sequence of a tomato rising out of a woman's garbage disposal. Her puzzlement turns into terror as the tomato draws her into a corner. Following the credits, the police investigate her death. One officer discovers that the red substance with which she is covered is not blood, but tomato juice.


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: A series of attacks perpetrated by tomatoes occurs (including a man dying by drinking tomato juice made from a killer tomato, a boy heard being gobbled up by a killer tomato, and a sequence where the tomatoes attack innocent swimmers, in a parody of "Jaws"). While the President's press secretary Jim Richardson tries to convince the public that no credible threat exists, the President puts together a team of specialists to stop the tomatoes, led by a man named Mason Dixon. Dixon's team includes Sam Smith, a disguise expert who is seen at various points dressed as, among other things, George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, and Adolf Hitler; scuba diver Greg Colburn; Olympic swimmer Gretta Attenbaum; and parachute-toting soldier Wilbur Finletter.


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: Smith is sent out to infiltrate the tomatoes at a campfire, eventually blowing his cover while eating a hotdog and asking if anyone could "pass the ketchup." Colburn and Gretta are sent to sectors, while Finletter stays with Mason. Meanwhile, the President sends Richardson to the fictitious ad agency Mind Makers, where executive Ted Swan spends vast amounts of money to develop virtually worthless ploys, including a bumper sticker with "STP" for "Stop Tomato Program" on it, a satirical reference to both the real "whip inflation now" campaign with its widely ridiculed "WIN" slogan and STP motor oil decals and bumper stickers which were commonplace in the 1970s. A human is revealed to be also plotting to stop Dixon when a masked assassin attempts to shoot him but misses. A senate subcommittee meeting is held where one secret pamphlet is leaked to a newspaper editor, who sends Lois Fairchild on the story. While she tails Finletter, he mistakes her for a spy and trashes a hotel room attempting to kill her. He then chases the assassin as the masked man fails again to kill Dixon, but loses him.


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: Gretta is killed and further regression has led leaders to bring in tanks and soldiers to the West Coast in a battle that leaves the American forces in shambles. Dixon, walking among the rubble, sees a trail of tomato juice and decides to investigate. He ends up being chased by a killer tomato to an apartment where an oblivious child is listening to the radio. The tomato is about to kill Dixon but suddenly flies out the window. Dixon peers out to see if it has died, and he spots the assassin hijacking his car. He chases the assassin in a "slow car chase" that has since been copied by other comedies. Dixon is eventually knocked out by his own car. Awakening, Dixon finds himself captured by Richardson. Though he did not create the killer tomatoes, he has discovered how to control them and plans to do so once civilization has collapsed – leaving him in control. He is about to reveal his secret of control to Dixon when Finletter charges in and runs him through with his sword. Dixon, picking up some strewn records, realizes that he has seen the tomatoes retreat at the sound of the song "Puberty Love", but had not put two and two together until now. He orders Finletter to gather all the remaining people and bring them to the stadium. Finletter remarks that "only crazy people" are left in the nearly deserted city, resulting in a motley assortment of people in costumes facing the attacking tomatoes at the stadium.


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: The tomatoes are cornered in a stadium. "Puberty Love" is played over the loudspeaker, causing the tomatoes to shrink and allowing the various people at the stadium to squash them by stomping on them repeatedly. Fairchild, meanwhile, is cornered by a giant tomato wearing earmuffs, hence cannot hear the music. Dixon saves her by showing the tomato the sheet music to "Puberty Love". He professes his love to her, in song. The film ends with a carrot that rises from the soil and says, "All right, you guys. They're gone now."


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: The film also contains the first screen appearance of Dana Ashbrook, then aged 10 or 11, as Boy on Boat (uncredited).


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: Filming took place in Oceanside and other parts of San Diego County. The finished film contains footage of a real helicopter crash. In a scene showing law enforcement officers firing their weapons to ward off tomatoes in a field, a $60,000 Hiller Aircraft UH-12E that had been rented for the production was supposed to have landed in the tomato patch behind the officers, but during the landing, its tail rotor struck the ground, causing the craft to spin out of control near the ground, roll over, and burst into flames. The helicopter pilot escaped without serious injury. The crash was caught on film as the cameras were rolling at the time. The crash was later worked into the film.


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: The theme song, written by DeBello, describes the tomatoes' rampages through the world, describing that they have killed a man named Herman Farbage while he was taking out the garbage, that the mayor is on vacation to get out of stopping them, that they have scared off the National Guard, and that they have even eaten the narrator's sister. This theme song is used in different variations over the course of the series, here simply sounding like the score of an old monster movie with lyrics and a more catchy tune. All other music was written by Gordon Goodwin and Paul Sundfor with lyrics by Dillon, DeBello, and Peace.


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: The song "Puberty Love" was sung by the then-teenaged Matt Cameron, who later became the drummer for Soundgarden and since 1998 has been the drummer for Pearl Jam.


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: Upon release, "Variety" wrote that the film "isn't even worthy of sarcasm." Emanuel Levy gave the film a score of 2 out of 5. "Time Out" called the film a "one-joke spoof". Eric Henderson, reviewing the DVD edition for "Slant Magazine" in 2003 opined that "even more so than the Samuel Arkoff-like opportunism of the producers, and more so than some of the worst framing this side of Coleman Francis, the really frustrating thing about Tomatoes is the toothlessness of its satire. And that's a major missed opportunity, considering that the irony of using a stereotypically foreign genre (Japanese monster movies) against a parody of America's jingoistic reliance on military power (the Army is useless against the giant tomatoes) should've been a comedic gold mine." "Rue Morgue" writer Michael Gingold later wrote, in a review of the Blu-ray edition in 2018, wrote that ""Attack of the Killer Tomatoes" may be one of history's most misunderstood films. It has often been celebrated as a prime example of "so bad it's funny" cinema, when in fact it's an attempt at intentional comedy that is, at best, a scattershot success."


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 27% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 11 reviews, with an average rating of 4.30/10. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 9 out of 100 based on 5 critic reviews, indicating "overwhelming dislike".


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: "Attack of the Killer Tomatoes" has become a cult film. A number of sequels and other spin-off material have been done in various media as a result of this movie. They include three movie sequels:


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: The sequel "Return of the Killer Tomatoes" picks up the story 10 years later. The film is notable for the casting of George Clooney in one of his first film roles.


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: American composer and orchestrator Gordon Goodwin, one of the original composers for the film, later wrote an Emmy-nominated, big-band piece inspired by the music for this film, to be played with his jazz ensemble Gordon Goodwin's Big Phat Band.


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: In 2008, a remake was announced. Kent Nichols and Douglas Sarine, creators of "Ask a Ninja", were developing the project. This was to be Nichols' directorial debut. M. Dal Walton III was co-producing along with Emmett/Furla Films. In 2011, John DeBello said that the "Ask a Ninja" creators were no longer involved.


title: Attack of the Killer Tomatoes

text: In July 2018, Steve Peace and Costa Dillon announced a reboot at the San Diego Comic-Con. Filming began in July 2019, directed by Dustin Ferguson.


title: Turtle ship

text: A Geobukseon (, ), also known as turtle ship in western descriptions, was a type of large Korean warship that was used intermittently by the Royal Korean Navy during the Joseon dynasty from the early 15th century up until the 19th century. It was used alongside the panokseon warships in the fight against invading Japanese naval ships. The ship's name derives from its protective shell-like covering. One of a number of pre-industrial armoured ships developed in Europe and in East Asia, this design has been described by some as the first armored ship in the world.


title: Turtle ship

text: The first references to older, first-generation turtle ships, known as gwiseon (귀선; 龜船, ), come from 1413 and 1415 records in the "Annals of the Joseon Dynasty", which mention a mock battle between a "gwiseon" and a Japanese warship. However, these early turtle ships soon fell out of use as Korea's naval preparedness decreased during a long period of relative peace.


title: Turtle ship

text: Turtle ships participated in the war against Japanese naval forces supporting Toyotomi Hideyoshi's attempts to conquer Korea from 1592 to 1598. Korean Admiral Yi Sun-sin, who won all battles against the Japanese Navy, is credited with designing the improved turtle ship. From their first appearance in the Battle of Sacheon, his turtle ships, equipped with at least five different types of cannon, greatly contributed to winning 16 times in 16 battles against the Japanese Navy until they were destroyed, under the command of Won Gyun, in the Battle of Chilcheollyang. Their most distinguishable feature was a dragon-shaped head at the bow (front) that could launch cannon fire or flames from the mouth. Each was also equipped with a fully covered deck to protect against arrow fire, musket-shots, and incendiary weapons. The deck was covered with iron spikes to discourage the enemy from attempting to board the ship.


title: Turtle ship

text: According to the "Nanjung ilgi", Yi's wartime diary, Yi decided to resurrect the turtle ship in 1591 from pre-existing designs (see picture, illustrated nearly 200 years later) after discussing the matter with his subordinates. Once concluding that a Japanese invasion was possible, if not imminent, Yi and his subordinate officers, among whom Na Dae-yong (羅大用) is named as the chief constructor, designed and built the first modern turtle ship. Yi's diary, along with the book entitled "Hangnok" written by his nephew Yi Beon, described numerous important details about the structures, construction progress, and the use of turtle ships in battle, as well as the testing of weaponry used in the ships.


title: Turtle ship

text: The mounted weapons, Korean cannons with ranges from about 300 to 500 metres, were tested on March 12, 1592. Yi completed his first turtle ship and launched it on March 27, 1592, one day before the Siege of Busanjin and the Battle of Dadaejin.


title: Turtle ship

text: It is unknown precisely how many of Admiral Yi's Turtle Ships were constructed. The cost of one of these armored warships would have been high, especially if the deck was lined with hexagonal iron plates as some sources suggest.


title: Turtle ship

text: Many different versions of the turtle ships served during the war, but in general they were about long, and strongly resembled the panokseon's bottom structure. The turtle ship was technically a hull that was placed on top of a panokseon with a large anchor held in the front of the ship and other minor modifications.


title: Turtle ship

text: On the bow of the vessel was mounted a dragon head which emitted sulfur smoke to effectively hide its movement from the enemy in short distance combat. The dragon head, which is considered the most distinguishing feature of the vessel, was large enough for a cannon to fit inside. The dragon head served as a form of psychological warfare, with the aim of striking fear to the enemy. Early versions of the turtle ship would burn poisonous materials in the dragon's head to release a poisonous smoke.


title: Turtle ship

text: In the front of the ship was a large anchor. Below the anchor was a wooden crest that was shaped like a face, and these were used to ram into enemy ships.


title: Turtle ship

text: Similar to the standard panokseon, the turtle ship had two masts and two sails. Oars were also used for maneuvering and increased speed. Another advantage the turtle ship had was that it could turn on its own radius.


title: Turtle ship

text: The turtle ship had 10 oars and 11 cannon portholes on each side. Usually, there was one cannon porthole in the dragon head's mouth. There were two more cannon portholes on the front and back of the turtle ship. The heavy cannons enabled the turtle ships to unleash a mass volley of cannonballs (some would use special wooden bolts several feet in length, with specially engineered iron fins). Its crew complement usually comprised about 50 to 60 fighting marines and 70 oarsmen, as well as the captain.


title: Turtle ship

text: Sources indicate that sharp iron spikes protruded from hexagonal plates covering the top of the turtle ship. An advantage of the closed deck was that it protected the Korean sailors and marines from small arms and incendiary fire. The spikes discouraged Japanese from engaging in their primary method of naval combat at the time, grappling an enemy ship with hooks and then boarding it to engage in hand-to-hand combat.


title: Turtle ship

text: Korean written descriptions all point to a maneuverable ship, capable of sudden bursts of speed. Like the panokseon, the turtle ship featured a U-shaped hull which gave it the advantage of a more stable cannon-firing platform, and this ability to turn within its own radius was useful to attack enemies by spinning at the same spot using cannons mounted on the four sides of the turtle ship as cannons in those days took considerable time after firing and before cooling and reloading. The main disadvantage of a U-shaped bottom versus a V-shaped bottom was a somewhat slower cruising speed.


title: Turtle ship

text: Later Turtle Ships held some structural changes as opposed to earlier versions. For example, later iterations of the Turtle Ship had a higher bulwark height. This alteration in the design was made so that more bulwark slots could be added. In turn, these slots could be used for additional weaponry or ventilation for the vessel's occupants. Early illustrations also show initial versions of the ship consisting of overlapping planks on the deck structure, while later depictions show the deck of the vessel covered with flush, hexagonal plates made of wood or iron. Nonetheless, in both earlier and later versions, the Turtle Ship was designed to be surprisingly fast, as it was both oar and sail-powered.


title: Turtle ship

text: There are sources that state that the turtle ship was covered with metal plates, making the first known ship of this kind in history. Sources that question claims of iron plating also exist. While it is clear from the available sources that the roof of the ship was covered with iron spikes to prevent boarding, there is split opinion among historians on whether the turtle ship was iron clad.


title: Turtle ship

text: One Japanese chronicle mentions a clash in August 1592 which involved three Korean turtle ships "covered in iron." However, according to Samuel Hawley, this phrase does not necessarily indicate that Koreans covered the vessels with iron plates; it could refer to the iron spikes protruding from their roofs, a fitting described for the first time three weeks earlier in Yi Sun-sin's diary. Stephen Turnbull, however, points out the fact that in February 1593


title: Turtle ship

text: the Japanese government ordered the military to use an iron plate in building ships, possibly in response to the Korean attacks.


title: Turtle ship

text: There are no contemporary Korean sources from Yi Sun-sin's time that refer to the turtle ship as ironclad. Admiral Yi Sun-sin himself makes no mention of such a design in his comprehensive war diary. His nephew Yi Beon, who also witnessed the war and left a historical account of the events, do not mention iron cladding either. The annals of King Seonjo, a many thousand pages long compilation of all kinds of official documents of the period, are also silent on the subject. Prime Minister Ryu Seong-ryong even explicitly described the turtle ship as "covered by wooden planks on top".


title: Turtle ship

text: There is also the question of motivation for adding metal plating. Since the Japanese did not commonly employ cannons on their ships until decades later, let alone use plunging cannon fire, any plating would have logically been designed as an anti-incendiary measure, not to withstand cannonballs. The Japanese did commonly use fire arrows and a form of exploding grenades called in naval battles during this period.


title: Turtle ship

text: As it was, Yi Sun-Sin, who was largely cut off from government supplies throughout his campaigns, found the small amount of fifty pounds of iron worth mentioning in his war diary. Therefore, Hawley believes that it is unlikely that Admiral Yi would have passed in silence over the estimated six tons (twelve thousand pounds) of iron necessary for even a single outfit. Such a large amount of iron was equivalent to one ship's entire ordnance and would have probably been considered more helpful in casting additional cannons, mainly since the Koreans were well aware that Japanese warships were practically devoid of naval guns. Confronted with a Japanese enemy who relied on small arms fire and boarding tactics, and faced by the logistical and financial difficulties involved in acquiring such a large amount of iron, any iron cladding of the Korean vessels have been deemed by Hawley inherently superfluous:


title: Turtle ship

text: Evidence for an iron-plated turtle ship is found, according to Stephen Turnbull, in a 1795 drawing of the turtle ship where the shell is shown as being covered by a distinct hexagonal pattern, implying that something is covering the wood shell. Hawley, however, questions the historical accuracy of this drawing since it departs in important ways from the 16th-century ships, such as its lack of the reported iron spikes (see image) and the different shape and number of the dragons' heads displayed at the bow. The Korean designation "turtle ship" is already attested in the year 1413, for an early type of the vessel which by all accounts did not feature any armor.


title: Turtle ship

text: Hawley puts forth the hypothesis that the idea of ironclad turtle ships has its origins in the writings of late 19th-century Westerners returning from Korea. The progression from simple comparison to a statement that the turtle ships anticipated the modern ironclad by centuries can be roughly charted in retrospect, starting no earlier than ca. 1880. Coming in touch with local tales of ancient armored ships in a period which saw the rise of Western-type ironclad warship to global prominence, these authors may have naturally conjured up the image of metal armor instead of a more traditional heavy timber shell. For instance, during the General Sherman Incident, the Koreans initially constructed an improvised turtle ship, which was protected by metal sheeting and cowhides to destroy General Sherman but failed to penetrate its iron hull at the cost of one of their sailors. When the French Navy threatened Korea, the government ordered an ironclad ship be built "like the turtle ship." However, despite all efforts the design failed to float. Turnbull believes that the 19th-century experience should not rule out a "limited amount of armor plating in 1592".


title: Turtle ship

text: The dragon's head was placed on the top of the ship at the bow. Several different versions of the dragon's head were used on the turtle ships. The dragon's head was first placed as an early form of psychological warfare in order to scare Japanese soldiers. One version carried a projector that could release a dense toxic smoke that was generated to obscure vision and interfere with the Japanese ability to maneuver and coordinate properly.


title: Turtle ship

text: Yi's own diary explains that a cannon could be fitted in the mouth of the dragon to be fired at enemy ships. This type of cannon was usually a hwangja-chongtong.


title: Turtle ship

text: Metal spikes were used to cover the top of the turtle ship to deter boarding tactics used by the Japanese. According to historical records, the spikes were covered with empty rice sacks or rice mats to lure the Japanese into trying to board, since the boarding would appear safe. However, modern authors have found this to be unlikely since such an arrangement would have invited enemy fire arrows.


title: Turtle ship

text: The turtle ship was equipped with "Cheonja" "Heaven", "Jija" "Earth", "Hyeonja" "Black", and "Hwangja" "Yellow" type chongtong (Joseon cannons). There was also an arquebus known as "Seungja" (Victory). The "Seungja" ranged while the "Hwangja" was the lightest but with a range of . According to Hae-Ill Bak, one Japanese record of the Battle of Angolpo records the experience of two Japanese commanders on July 9, 1592, in their battle against turtle ships: "their (turtle ships') attack continued until about 6 o'clock in the afternoon by firing large fire-arrows through repeated alternate approaches, even as close as 18–30 feet. As a result, almost every part of our ships — the turret, the passages and the side shielding — were totally destroyed..."


title: Turtle ship

text: Yi resurrected the turtle ship as a close-assault vessel, intended to ram enemy ships and sink them, similar to their use in past centuries. Despite smaller numbers, disabling or sinking enemy's lead command ship could severely damage command structure and morale of the enemy fleet. After ramming, the turtle ship would unleash a broadside volley of cannonballs. Because of this tactic, the Japanese called the turtle ships because they would blast and ram into enemy ships. This kind of attack was used during the Battle of Dangpo and Battle of Sacheon (1592).


title: Turtle ship

text: The turtle ship's main use of the plating was as an anti-boarding device, due to the top plating of the turtle ship and its protruded spikes. Grappling hooks could not gain direct hold on the plating, and jumping on top of the turtle ship often meant being impaled. The heavy timber plating deflected arrows and arquebus rounds.


title: Turtle ship

text: Later, the turtle ship was used for other purposes such as spearheading attacks or ambushing Japanese ships in tight areas such as in the Battle of Noryang.


title: Turtle ship

text: Despite popular depiction, the turtle ship was not an extremely slow ship. The turtle ship had oar propulsion as well as sails, and could turn on its axis like the panokseon. Admiral Yi constructed the turtle ship to be fast and agile for the purpose of ramming.


title: Turtle ship

text: Turtle Ships played a major role in the Korean victory over the Japanese navy in the Battle of Angolpo (also sometimes called the Battle of the Yellow Sea). At Angolpo, the Korean fleet of fifty-seven vessels under Admiral Yi Sun-sin faced off against a numerically superior Japanese fleet of one hundred fifty-five ships under Admirals Wakisaka Yasuharu, Kuki Yoshitaka, and Kato Yoshiaki. Admiral Yasuharu's fleet of sixty-three ships was lured into the Hansan Bay by the outnumbered Korean fleet of warships and Turtle Ships, where it was caught and enveloped in Yi Sun-sin's famous crane formation. The trapped Japanese fleet was eviscerated by the Turtle Ship's weaponry, and found themselves unable to effectively counterattack due to the Turtle Ship's unprecedented nimbleness and maneuverability on the sea. Admiral Yi's fleet then attacked the ships of Yoshitaka and Yoshiaki, during which, victory was cemented for the Joseon. Turtle Ships greatly contributed to the total Japanese fleet loss of fifty-nine ships in the Battle of Angolpo.


title: Turtle ship

text: A turtle ship has been reconstructed by "Geobukseon Research Center" (거북선연구원), a private commercial company. They have done extensive research on the original design of the turtle ship, and made several real-size reconstructions of them for commercial use. These were deployed in a Korean drama, "The Immortal Admiral Yi Sun-sin" (불멸의 이순신). Several museums host turtle ships on display, and people can visit and go inside a 1:1 scale turtle ship that is anchored at Yeosu. North Korean delegations to the south seem to be more reserved about the significance of its historical role.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: In mathematics, a product is the result of multiplication, or an expression that identifies objects (numbers or variables) to be multiplied, called "factors". For example, 30 is the product of 6 and 5 (the result of multiplication), and formula_1 is the product of formula_2 and formula_3 (indicating that the two factors should be multiplied together).


title: Product (mathematics)

text: The order in which real or complex numbers are multiplied has no bearing on the product; this is known as the "commutative law" of multiplication. When matrices or members of various other associative algebras are multiplied, the product usually depends on the order of the factors. Matrix multiplication, for example, is non-commutative, and so is multiplication in other algebras in general as well.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: There are many different kinds of products in mathematics: besides being able to multiply just numbers, polynomials or matrices, one can also define products on many different algebraic structures.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: The product operator for the product of a sequence is denoted by the capital Greek letter pi Π (in analogy to the use of the capital Sigma Σ as summation symbol). For example, the expression formula_4is another way of writing formula_5.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: The product of a sequence consisting of only one number is just that number itself; the product of no factors at all is known as the empty product, and is equal to 1.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: There are many different kinds of products in linear algebra. Some of these have confusingly similar names (outer product, exterior product) with very different meanings, while others have very different names (outer product, tensor product, Kronecker product) and yet convey essentially the same idea. A brief overview of these is given in the following sections.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: By the very definition of a vector space, one can form the product of any scalar with any vector, giving a map formula_13.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: In formula_19-dimensional Euclidean space, the standard scalar product (called the dot product) is given by:


title: Product (mathematics)

text: The cross product of two vectors in 3-dimensions is a vector perpendicular to the two factors, with length equal to the area of the parallelogram spanned by the two factors.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: A linear mapping can be defined as a function "f" between two vector spaces "V" and "W" with underlying field F, satisfying


title: Product (mathematics)

text: in which b and b denote the bases of "V" and "W", and "v" denotes the component of v on b, and Einstein summation convention is applied.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: Now we consider the composition of two linear mappings between finite dimensional vector spaces. Let the linear mapping "f" map "V" to "W", and let the linear mapping "g" map "W" to "U". Then one can get


title: Product (mathematics)

text: The composition of more than two linear mappings can be similarly represented by a chain of matrix multiplication.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: There is a relationship between the composition of linear functions and the product of two matrices. To see this, let r = dim(U), s = dim(V) and t = dim(W) be the (finite) dimensions of vector spaces U, V and W. Let


title: Product (mathematics)

text: In other words: the matrix product is the description in coordinates of the composition of linear functions.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: Given two finite dimensional vector spaces "V" and "W", the tensor product of them can be defined as a (2,0)-tensor satisfying:


title: Product (mathematics)

text: The tensor product, outer product and Kronecker product all convey the same general idea. The differences between these are that the Kronecker product is just a tensor product of matrices, with respect to a previously-fixed basis, whereas the tensor product is usually given in its intrinsic definition. The outer product is simply the Kronecker product, limited to vectors (instead of matrices).


title: Product (mathematics)

text: In general, whenever one has two mathematical objects that can be combined in a way that behaves like a linear algebra tensor product, then this can be most generally understood as the internal product of a monoidal category. That is, the monoidal category captures precisely the meaning of a tensor product; it captures exactly the notion of why it is that tensor products behave the way they do. More precisely, a monoidal category is the class of all things (of a given type) that have a tensor product.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: In set theory, a Cartesian product is a mathematical operation which returns a set (or product set) from multiple sets. That is, for sets "A" and "B", the Cartesian product is the set of all ordered pairs —where and .


title: Product (mathematics)

text: The class of all things (of a given type) that have Cartesian products is called a Cartesian category. Many of these are Cartesian closed categories. Sets are an example of such objects.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: The empty product on numbers and most algebraic structures has the value of 1 (the identity element of multiplication), just like the empty sum has the value of 0 (the identity element of addition). However, the concept of the empty product is more general, and requires special treatment in logic, set theory, computer programming and category theory.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: A few of the above products are examples of the general notion of an internal product in a monoidal category; the rest are describable by the general notion of a product in category theory.


title: Product (mathematics)

text: All of the previous examples are special cases or examples of the general notion of a product. For the general treatment of the concept of a product, see product (category theory), which describes how to combine two objects of some kind to create an object, possibly of a different kind. But also, in category theory, one has:


title: Litmus test (politics)

text: In politics, a litmus test is a question asked of a potential candidate for high office, the answer to which would determine whether the nominating official would proceed with the appointment or nomination. The expression is a metaphor based on the litmus test in chemistry, in which one is able to test the general acidity of a substance, but not its exact pH. Those who must approve a nominee may also be said to apply a litmus test to determine whether the nominee will receive their vote. In these contexts, the phrase comes up most often with respect to nominations to the judiciary.


title: Litmus test (politics)

text: The metaphor of a litmus test has been used in American politics since the mid-twentieth century. During United States presidential election campaigns, litmus tests the nominees might use are more fervently discussed when vacancies for the U.S. Supreme Court appear likely. Advocates for various social ideas or policies often wrangle heatedly over what litmus test, if any, the president ought to apply when nominating a new candidate for a spot on the Supreme Court. Support for, or opposition to, abortion is one example of a common decisive factor in single-issue politics; another might be support of strict constructionism. Defenders of litmus tests argue that some issues are so important that it overwhelms other concerns (especially if there are other qualified candidates that pass the test).


title: Litmus test (politics)

text: The political litmus test is often used when appointing judges. However, this test to determine the political attitude of a nominee is not without error. Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren was appointed under the impression that he was conservative but his tenure was marked by liberal dissents. Today, the litmus test is used along with other methods such as past voting records when selecting political candidates.


title: Litmus test (politics)

text: The Republican Liberty Caucus is opposed to litmus tests for judges, stating in their goals that they "oppose 'litmus tests' for judicial nominees who are qualified and recognize that the sole function of the courts is to interpret the Constitution. We oppose judicial amendments or the crafting of new law by any court."


title: Litmus test (politics)

text: Professor Eugene Volokh believes that the legitimacy of such tests is a "tough question", and argues that they may undermine the fairness of the judiciary:


title: Litmus test (politics)

text: Imagine a justice testifies under oath before the Senate about his views on (say) abortion, and later reaches a contrary decision [after carefully examining the arguments]. "Perjury!" partisans on the relevant side will likely cry: They'll assume the statement made with an eye towards confirmation was a lie, rather than that the justice has genuinely changed his mind. Even if no calls for impeachment follow, the rancor and contempt towards the justice would be much greater than if he had simply disappointed his backers' expectations. Faced with that danger, a justice may well feel pressured into deciding the way that he testified, and rejecting attempts at persuasion. Yet that would be a violation of the judge's duty to sincerely consider the parties' arguments.


title: Flag of Chicago

text: The flag of Chicago consists of two light blue horizontal bars, or stripes, on a field of white, each bar one-sixth the height of the full flag, and placed slightly less than one-sixth of the way from the top and bottom. Four bright red stars, with six sharp points each, are set side by side, close together, in the middle third of the flag's surface.


title: Flag of Chicago

text: The City of Chicago's flag was adopted in 1917 after the design by Wallace Rice won a City Council sponsored competition. It initially had two stars until 1933, when a third was added. The four-star version has existed since 1939. The three sections of the white field and the two bars represent the geographical features of the city, the stars symbolize historical events, and the points of the stars represent important virtues or concepts. The historic events represented by the stars are the establishment of Fort Dearborn, the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, and the Century of Progress Exposition of 1933–34.


title: Flag of Chicago

text: In a review by the North American Vexillological Association of 150 American city flags, the Chicago city flag was ranked second-best with a rating of 9.03 out of 10, behind only the flag of Washington, D.C.


title: Flag of Chicago

text: The three white background areas of the flag represent, from top to bottom, the North, West, and South sides of the city. The top blue bar represents Lake Michigan and the North Branch of the Chicago River. The bottom blue bar represents the South Branch of the river and the "Great Canal", over the Chicago Portage. The light blue of the flag's two bars is variously called sky blue or pale blue; in a 1917 article of a speech by designer, Wallace Rice, it was called "the color of water".


title: Flag of Chicago

text: There are four red six-pointed stars on the center white bar. Six-pointed stars are used because five-pointed stars represent sovereign states and because the star as designed was found on no other known flags as of 1917. From the hoist outwards, the stars represent:


title: Flag of Chicago

text: Additional stars have been proposed, with varying degrees of seriousness. The following reasons have been suggested for possible additions of a fifth star:


title: Flag of Chicago

text: Per the Municipal Code of Chicago, it is unlawful to use the flag, or any imitation or design thereof, except for the usual and customary purposes of decoration or display. Causing to be displayed on the flag, any letter, word, legend, or device not provided for in the Code is also prohibited. Violators are subject to fines between $5.00 and $25.00 for each offense. However, the First Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits this section from being enforced (U.S. v. Eichman).


title: Flag of Chicago

text: In 1915, Mayor William Hale Thompson appointed a municipal flag commission chaired by Alderman James A. Kearnes. Among the commission members were wealthy industrialist Charles Deering and impressionist painter Lawton S. Parker. Parker asked lecturer and poet Wallace Rice to develop the rules for an open public competition for the best flag design. Over a thousand entries were received. The 318th Cavalry Regiment (United States) incorporated the flag into their insignia.


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: Sulfur trioxide (alternative spelling sulphur trioxide, also known as "nisso sulfan") is the chemical compound with the formula SO. It has been described as "unquestionably the most important economically" sulfur oxide. It is prepared on an industrial scale as a precursor to sulfuric acid.


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: Sulfur trioxide exists in several forms - gaseous monomer, crystalline trimer, and solid polymer. Sulfur trioxide is a solid at just below room temperature with a relatively narrow liquid range. Gaseous SO is the primary precursor to acid rain.


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: The molecule SO is trigonal planar. As predicted by VSEPR theory, its structure belongs to the D point group. The sulfur atom has an oxidation state of +6 and may be assigned a formal charge value as low as 0 (if all three sulfur-oxygen bonds are assumed to be double bonds) or as high as +2 (if the Octet Rule is assumed). When the formal charge is non-zero, the S-O bonding is assumed to be delocalized. In any case the three S-O bond lengths are equal to one another, at 1.42 Å. The electrical dipole moment of gaseous sulfur trioxide is zero.


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: Both liquid and gaseous SO exists in an equilibrium between the monomer and the cyclic trimer. The nature of solid SO is complex and at least 3 polymorphs are known, with conversion between them being dependent on traces of water.


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: Absolutely pure SO freezes at 16.8 °C to give the "γ"-SO form, which adopts the cyclic trimer configuration [S(=O)("μ"-O)].


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: If SO is condensed above 27 °C, then "α"-SO forms, which has a melting point of 62.3 °C. "α"-SO is fibrous in appearance. Structurally, it is the polymer [S(=O)("μ"-O)]. Each end of the polymer is terminated with OH groups. "β"-SO, like the alpha form, is fibrous but of different molecular weight, consisting of an hydroxyl-capped polymer, but melts at 32.5 °C. Both the gamma and the beta forms are metastable, eventually converting to the stable alpha form if left standing for sufficient time. This conversion is caused by traces of water.


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: Relative vapor pressures of solid SO are alpha < beta < gamma at identical temperatures, indicative of their relative molecular weights. Liquid sulfur trioxide has a vapor pressure consistent with the gamma form. Thus heating a crystal of "α"-SO to its melting point results in a sudden increase in vapor pressure, which can be forceful enough to shatter a glass vessel in which it is heated. This effect is known as the "alpha explosion".


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: Gaseous sulfur trioxide fumes profusely even in a relatively dry atmosphere owing to formation of a sulfuric acid mist.


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: SO is aggressively hygroscopic. The heat of hydration is sufficient that mixtures of SO and wood or cotton can ignite. In such cases, SO dehydrates these carbohydrates.


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: SO is a strong Lewis acid readily forming adducts with Lewis bases. With pyridine, it give the sulfur trioxide pyridine complex. Related adducts form from dioxane and trimethylamine.


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: Sulfur trioxide is a potent sulfonating agent, i.e. it adds SO groups to substrates. Often the substrates are organic, as in aromatic sulfonation. For activated substrates, Lewis base adducts of sulfur trioxide are effective sulfonating agents.


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: Industrially SO is made by the contact process. Sulfur dioxide is produced by the burning of sulfur or iron pyrite (a sulfide ore of iron). After being purified by electrostatic precipitation, the SO is then oxidised by atmospheric oxygen at between 400 and 600 °C over a catalyst. A typical catalyst consists of vanadium pentoxide (VO) activated with potassium oxide KO on kieselguhr or silica support. Platinum also works very well but is too expensive and is poisoned (rendered ineffective) much more easily by impurities.


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: Sulfur trioxide can be prepared in the laboratory by the two-stage pyrolysis of sodium bisulfate. Sodium pyrosulfate is an intermediate product:


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: Sulfur trioxide is a reagent in sulfonation reactions. These processes afford detergents, dyes, and pharmaceuticals. Sulfur trioxide is generated in situ from sulfuric acid or is used as a solution in the acid.


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: BO stabilized sulfur trioxide was traded by Baker & Adamson under the tradename ""Sulfan"" in the 20th century.


title: Sulfur trioxide

text: Along with being an oxidizing agent, sulfur trioxide is highly corrosive. It reacts violently with water to produce highly corrosive sulfuric acid.


title: Tina Fey filmography

text: The following is the complete filmography of actress, comedian, writer, producer, and playwright Tina Fey.


title: Tina Fey filmography

text: Fey also performed at The Second City, both touring and then on the main stage from 1992 to 1997, as well as at ImprovOlympic.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: Santa Barbara County, California, officially the County of Santa Barbara, is located in Southern California. As of the 2020 census, the population was 448,229. The county seat is Santa Barbara, and the largest city is Santa Maria.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: Santa Barbara County comprises the Santa Maria-Santa Barbara, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area. Most of the county is part of the California Central Coast. Mainstays of the county's economy include engineering, resource extraction (particularly petroleum extraction and diatomaceous earth mining), winemaking, agriculture, and education. The software development and tourism industries are important employers in the southern part of the county.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: Southern Santa Barbara County is sometimes considered the northern cultural boundary of Southern California.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: The Santa Barbara County area, including the Northern Channel Islands, was first settled by Native Americans at least 13,000 years ago. Evidence for a Paleoindian presence has been found in the form of a fluted Clovis-like point found in the 1980s along the western Santa Barbara Coast, as well as the remains of Arlington Springs Man found on Santa Rosa Island in the 1960s. For thousands of years, the area was home to the Chumash tribe of Native Americans, complex hunter-gatherers who lived along the coast and in interior valleys leaving rock art in many locations, including Painted Cave.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: Europeans first contacted the Chumash in AD 1542, when three Spanish ships under the command of Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo explored the area. The Santa Barbara Channel received its name from Spanish explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno when he sailed along the California coast in 1602; his ships entered the channel on December 4, the day of the feast of Santa Barbara. Spanish ships associated with the Manila Galleon trade probably made emergency stops along the coast during the next 167 years, but no permanent settlements were established.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: The first land expedition to explore California, led by Gaspar de Portolà explored the coastal area in 1769, on its way to Monterey Bay. The party traveled the same route on the return to San Diego in January 1770. That same year, a second expedition to Monterey again passed through the area. The DeAnza expeditions of 1774-76 followed Portola's trail.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: The Presidio of Santa Barbara was established in 1782 (4th of 5 in California), followed by Mission Santa Barbara in 1786 – both in what is now the city of Santa Barbara. The presidio and mission kept Vizcaino's denomination, as did the later city and county – a common practice which has preserved the names of many of the 21 California Missions. Other missions in Santa Barbara County are located in Santa Ynez and Lompoc.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: European contacts had devastating effects on the Chumash people, including a series of disease epidemics that drastically reduced Chumash population. The Chumash survived, however, and thousands of Chumash descendants still live in the Santa Barbara area or surrounding counties. A tribal homeland was established in 1901, the Santa Ynez Reservation.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: Following the Mexican secularization of the missions in the 1830s, the mission pasture lands were mostly broken up into large "ranchos" and granted mainly to prominent local citizens who already lived in the area. 604 of these land grants were later confirmed by the state of California, with 36 in Santa Barbara County.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: Santa Barbara County was one of the 27 original counties of California, formed in 1850 at the time of statehood. The county's territory was later divided to create Ventura County in 1873.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (27.8%) is water. Four of the Channel Islands – San Miguel Island, Santa Cruz Island, Santa Rosa Island and Santa Barbara Island – are in Santa Barbara County. They form the largest part of the Channel Islands National Park (which also includes Anacapa Island in Ventura County).


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: Santa Barbara County has a mountainous interior abutting several coastal plains on the west and south coasts of the county. The largest concentration of population is on the southern coastal plain, referred to as the "south coast" – meaning the part of the county south of the Santa Ynez Mountains. This region includes the cities of Santa Barbara, Goleta, and Carpinteria, as well as the unincorporated areas of Hope Ranch, Summerland, Mission Canyon, Montecito, and Isla Vista, along with stretches of unincorporated area such as Noleta. North of the Santa Ynez range in the Santa Ynez Valley are the towns of Solvang, Buellton, and Lompoc; the unincorporated towns of Santa Ynez, Los Olivos and Ballard; the unincorporated areas of Mission Hills and Vandenberg Village; and Vandenberg Space Force Base, where the Santa Ynez River flows out to the sea. North of the Santa Ynez Valley are the cities of Santa Maria and Guadalupe, and the unincorporated towns of Orcutt, Los Alamos, Casmalia, Garey, and Sisquoc. In the extreme northeastern portion of the county are the small cities of New Cuyama, Cuyama, and Ventucopa. As of January 1, 2006, Santa Maria has become the largest city in Santa Barbara County.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: The principal mountain ranges of the county are the Santa Ynez Mountains in the south, and the San Rafael Mountains and Sierra Madre Mountains in the interior and northeast. Most of the mountainous area is within the Los Padres National Forest, and includes two wilderness areas: the San Rafael Wilderness and the Dick Smith Wilderness. The highest elevation in the county is 6820 feet (2079 m) at Big Pine Mountain in the San Rafaels.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: North of the mountains is the arid and sparsely populated Cuyama Valley, portions of which are in San Luis Obispo and Ventura Counties. Oil production, ranching, and agriculture dominate the land use in the privately owned parts of the Cuyama Valley; the Los Padres National Forest is adjacent to the south, and regions to the north and northeast are owned by the Bureau of Land Management and the Nature Conservancy.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: The four Channel Islands in Santa Barbara County are Santa Barbara Island, San Miguel Island, Santa Rosa Island, and the large Santa Cruz Island. All of them contain native and endemic wildlife, like the island oak and Torrey Pine. All four have the deer mouse living on them, the three latter, the island fox, and the two latter, the island spotted skunk. There used to be skunks on San Miguel Island, but due to predation from marine life, birds, and foxes, the San Miguel Island skunk has gone extinct.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: Santa Barbara County has a mild warm-summer Mediterranean climate. Along the coast, temperatures rarely exceeds in the summer, but rarely dip below freezing in winter. In the interior, however, summertime temperatures can soar over . Above , temperatures can frequently fall below freezing during the winter months. The area experiences nearly all of its rainfall during the winter months, and rarely sees any rain at all during the summer months.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: The area's dry, warm summers often lead to high wildfire danger in the fall. An example of this is the massive Thomas Fire, which started in Ventura County and rapidly spread into southern Santa Barbara County in December 2017. At the time, the fire was the largest wildfire ever to burn in California in terms of geographical size, but was topped only eight months later in the Mendocino Complex Fire in northern California. Heavy rainfall occurred the following January, causing massive mudslides and debris flows from the steep, fire-denuded hillsides. The community of Montecito was especially hard-hit. As of February 3, 2018, 21 are known dead and 2 are still missing.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: Air quality in the county, unlike much of southern California, is generally good because of the prevailing winds off of the Pacific Ocean. The county is in attainment of federal standards for ozone and particulate matter. In July 2020 the county was designated as attainment for the state ozone standard, but it still does not attain the state PM10 standard.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: "Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race."


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that Santa Barbara County had a population of 423,895. The ethnic makeup of Santa Barbara County was 295,124 (69.6%) White, 8,513 (2.0%) African American, 5,485 (1.3%) Native American, 20,665 (4.9%) Asian (1.6% Filipino, 1.0% Chinese, 0.5% Japanese, 0.5% Korean, 0.3% Vietnamese, 0.4% Indian), 806 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 73,860 (17.4%) from other races, and 19,442 (4.6%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 181,687 persons (42.9%); 38.5% of Santa Barbara County is Mexican, 0.4% Salvadoran, 0.4% Guatemalan, and 0.3% Puerto Rican.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 399,347 people, 136,622 households, and 89,487 families residing in the county. The population density was 146 people per square mile (56/km). There were 142,901 housing units at an average density of 52 per square mile (20/km). The ethnic makeup of the county was 72.7% White, 2.3% Black or African American, 1.2% Native American, 4.1% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 15.2% from other races, and 4.3% from two or more races. 34.2% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 9.1% were of German, 8.5% English and 6.5% Irish ancestry according to Census 2000. 26.6% of the population reported speaking Spanish at home.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: There were 136,622 households, out of which 32.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.4% were married couples living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.5% were non-families. 24.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.8 and the average family size was 3.33.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: In the county, the population was spread out, with 24.9% under the age of 18, 13.3% from 18 to 24, 29.0% from 25 to 44, 20.1% from 45 to 64, and 12.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females there were 100.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.1 males.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: The median income for a household in the county was $46,677, and the median income for a family was $54,042. Males had a median income of $37,997 versus $29,593 for females. The per capita income for the county was $23,059. About 8.5% of families and 14.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.3% of those under age 18 and 6.2% of those age 65 or over.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: The population of the area south of the Santa Ynez Mountain crest—the portion known as "South County"—was 201,161 according to the 2000 census; thus the population is almost exactly split between north and south. Recent years have shown slow or even negative growth for regions in the south county, while areas in the north county have continued to grow at a faster rate.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: The County is governed by a five-member Board of Supervisors. The Board's three-vote majority has shifted over the years between the north and south. The Board now includes two members from South County, two members from North County, and one member from Mid-County.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: The Board of Supervisors appoints a County Executive Officer, who serves at the pleasure of the Board, to operate the County governmental organization. The County government includes 4296 employees and a budget of $757 million. The County provides various services ranging from health services to law enforcement.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: All of Santa Barbara County is located within . Prior to the 2012 redistricting in California, the county was divided into two congressional districts, which reflected the north and south divide – the hallmark of the county's politics. Lois Capps represented the coastal areas, while Elton Gallegly, a Republican, represented the northern part of the county.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: In the California State Senate, Santa Barbara is in . In the California State Assembly, Santa Barbara is split between , and .


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: The Santa Barbara County Sheriff provides court protection, jail management, and coroner service for the entire county. It provides patrol and detective services for the unincorporated areas of the county and two cities by contract. Incorporated municipalities within the county that have their own municipal police departments are Santa Maria, Lompoc, and Santa Barbara City. Carpinteria and Goleta by contract with the Sheriff.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: The Santa Barbara County Probation Department provides services for those placed on probation or detained in Santa Maria Juvenile Hall or Los Prietos Boys Camp. Tanja Heitman is the current Chief Probation Officer. The department was established in 1909 following the enactment of California's first probation laws. After 106 years in service, there are currently 241 probation officers and juvenile institutions officers keeping tabs on 6,600 adults and 1,350 juveniles as of 2015. The probation department has locations in Santa Maria, Santa Barbara, and Lompoc.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: For most of the 20th century, Santa Barbara County was a Republican stronghold. From 1920 to 1988, it was only carried by two Democrats: Franklin D. Roosevelt and Lyndon B. Johnson. However, the county has leaned to the left in recent years. Overall, Santa Barbara is a Democratic-leaning county in Presidential and congressional elections. The last Republican to win a majority in the county was George H. W. Bush in 1988. However, there is a dramatic difference in gradient between the "conservative" northern areas and the "liberal" southern areas of the county.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: Santa Barbara County has long been divided between competing political interests. North of the Santa Ynez Mountains, agricultural activities and oil development have long provided jobs. The northern portion also contains a large military base, Vandenberg Space Force Base, and thus military interests are prominent. These influences have created a Republican-leaning northern half.


title: Santa Barbara County, California

text: On the other hand, the southern portion of Santa Barbara county has had an economy based on tourism, with a significant percentage of people with white-collar jobs, formerly in aerospace but more recently in software and other high-tech pursuits. Additionally, the University of California, Santa Barbara contributes to a liberal populace. The southern portion of the county has a strong history of left-wing activism, with anti-war protests common in Santa Barbara. It is generally believed that the inspiration for Earth Day was the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill; however, Gaylord Nelson, the senator who proposed the idea, has never directly cited any direct cause for the establishment of the holiday.