title: Bobby's World

text: Mitch Schauer drew the designs for the main characters. Bobby's character design was based on Schauer's then 4-year-old son.


title: Bobby's World

text: On February 12, 2007, the character Bobby made a surprise appearance on an episode of "Deal or No Deal".


title: Bobby's World

text: Episodes often consist of a short live-action segment either before or after the main story (and sometimes both before and after). The segment would include Mandel describing some aspect of the story and often relating it back to his personal childhood. Sometimes during these segments, the character of Bobby would appear in animated form and converse with Mandel. Other times, a live action child would appear and exchange words with Mandel. Endings of the show also featured Mandel breaking the "fourth wall" by talking to viewers about the preceding episode. In some part of the episode, Bobby will break the fourth wall by telling the audience his perspective on life.


title: Bobby's World

text: In November 2014, it was announced that Mandel told a crowd at Comikaze that plans to revive the series were in motion.


title: Bobby's World

text: During its original run, "Bobby's World" was seen on Fox Kids. After it was cancelled in 1998, reruns began airing on Fox Family until 2001.


title: Bobby's World

text: The series was available in its entirety on Netflix instant streaming and Kabillion as well. It was available on Amazon Prime Instant Video. Episodes can occasionally be seen in syndication, on a variety of websites, on Netflix or on Comcast's OnDemand service.


title: Bobby's World

text: In the United States, starting in 1996, the show was open-captioned; this was intended as an aid to help younger children learn to read.


title: Bobby's World

text: In 2004, Anchor Bay Entertainment released two best-of compilations, "Classic Scratch 'n' Sniff Episodes" and "The Signature Episodes", on DVD in Region 1.


title: Bobby's World

text: On December 15, 2011, it was announced that MoonScoop Group had acquired the rights to the series and planned to release all seven seasons of "Bobby's World" on DVD in Region 1 via Amazon.com's CreateSpace program in early 2012. These are manufacture-on-demand releases, available exclusively through Amazon.com. All seasons were made available for purchase on March 13, 2012.


title: Bobby's World

text: A video game adaptation of "Bobby's World" was made for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1995. It was developed by Riedel Software Productions and published by Hi Tech Entertainment. Versions for the Sega Genesis and Game Boy were in development but both never released.


title: Bobby's World

text: In the game, Bobby's mother tells him to clean his room. As he is cleaning his room, Bobby starts daydreaming about a toy. After beating a level, Bobby has another daydream about another toy that he puts away.


title: Bobby's World

text: Bobby's World is a platform game. In some stages, the gameplay changes to something similar to a shoot 'em up. The player is asked to control Bobby and make him jump, squat, walk, run, and throw objects at the enemies – the objects often change according to the level's thematic – and use Webbly to defend Bobby. On some stages, Webbly can be used to do other things too, like reach higher platforms, throw it at their enemies or even using it as a mount.


title: Bobby's World

text: The game is relatively short and can be finished in few minutes. On the title screen, there's the "Start, Password" and "Options". The passwords works similar to Disney's Aladdin, wheres the player needs to organize the characters on the screen to continue your progress. In "Options", the player can change the commands, increase/decrease lives and continues quantity (up to 5 on each one) and listen to the various music tracks or sound effects.


title: Khakassia

text: Khakassia (; , "Khakasiya", "Khakas Çiri"), officially the Republic of Khakassia (, ; , tr. "Khakas Respublikazy"), is a federal subject (a republic) of Russia. Its capital city is Abakan, which is also the largest city in the republic. As of the 2010 Census, the republic's population was 532,403.


title: Khakassia

text: The republic is located in the southwestern part of Eastern Siberia and borders Krasnoyarsk Krai in the north and east, the Tuva Republic in the southeast and south, the Altai Republic in the south and southwest, and Kemerovo Oblast in the west and northwest. It stretches for from north to south and for from east to west. Mountains (eastern slopes of Kuznetsk Alatau and the Abakan Range) cover two-thirds of the republic's territory and serve as the natural boundaries of the republic. The highest point is Kyzlasov Peak. The remaining territory is flat, with the Minusinsk Hollow being the most prominent feature. The Yenisei is the largest river in the republic. Other significant rivers include the Abakan, Tom’, Bely Iyus, Black Iyus, and the Chulym (between the Yenisei and the eastern mountains), with all except the Abakan part of the Ob river basin. There are over three hundred lakes in the republic, both salt- and fresh-water. Climate is continental, with the average annual temperature of . Natural resources are abundant and include iron, gold, silver, coal, oil, and natural gas. Molybdenum deposits are the largest in Russia. Forests cover the south and the west of the republic.


title: Khakassia

text: The territory of modern Khakassia formed the core of the Yenisei Kirghiz state from the 6th century CE. In the 13th century, following defeat by the Mongols, the majority of the Kyrgyz people migrated southwest to Central Asia to the area of present-day Kyrgyzstan. Modern Khakas people regard themselves as the descendants of those Kyrgyz who remained in Siberia. Khakassia was incorporated into the Russian state under Peter the Great ().


title: Khakassia

text: This incorporation was confirmed in a treaty - the - between Russia and China in 1729. As it was common to deport convicted criminals from European Russia to Siberia, forts were quickly constructed in Khakassia (1707 and 1718). Many prisoners remained even after release. Many of the indigenous Khakas people converted to the Russian Orthodox faith and gradually abandoned their nomadic way of life.


title: Khakassia

text: By the time of the 1917 Russian Revolution, Russians made up approximately half of the population. Under Soviet rule, autonomy was granted on 20 October 1930, when the Khakas Autonomous Oblast was established. The borders of the autonomous oblast are the same as the borders of the modern Khakas Republic.


title: Khakassia

text: During the 1920s and 1930s, the Soviet authorities resettled an estimated quarter of a million Russians in the region. These were followed by 10,000 Volga Germans deported during World War II. By the time of the 1959 Census, ethnic Khakas people represented little more than 10% of the population of the Khakas oblast.


title: Khakassia

text: Until 1991, the Khakas Autonomous Oblast was administratively subordinated to Krasnoyarsk Krai. In July 1991, it was elevated in status to that of a Soviet socialist republic within the Russian Federation, and in February 1992 it became the Republic of Khakassia.


title: Khakassia

text: In 2007, the republic recorded a positive natural increase of population for the first time in many years (Although very small, less than +0.01% per year), being one of the 20 Russian regions to have a positive natural population growth rate.


title: Khakassia

text: According to the 2010 Russian Census, ethnic Russians make up 81.7% of the republic's population, while the ethnic Khakas are only 12.1%. Other groups include ethnic Germans (1.1%), Ukrainians (1%), Tatars (0.6%), and a host of smaller groups, each accounting for less than 0.5% of the total population.


title: Khakassia

text: According to a 2012 survey, 31.6% of the population of Khakassia adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 6% are unaffiliated Christians, 1% are Orthodox Christian believers without belonging to any church or are members of other (non-Russian) Orthodox churches. 2% of the population adheres to Slavic native faith (Rodnovery) or Khakas Tengrism and folk religion, 1% to Islam, 1% to forms of Protestantism, 0.4% to forms of Hinduism (Vedism, Krishnaism or Tantrism) and another 0.4% to Tibetan Buddhism. In addition, 38% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 16% is atheist, and 2.6% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.


title: Khakassia

text: Federal highway R-257 runs through Khakassia. Other major highways include the regional highway A161 south from R-257 in Abakan along the Abakan valley to Abaza and across the mountains to Ak-Dovurak (Tuva). The most developed sections of roads are Abakan - Sayanogorsk, Abakan - Beya, Abakan - Abaza, Abakan - Sorsk, Bograd - Shira - Kopyevo, and Kopyevo - Priiskovy.


title: Khakassia

text: Roads to other smaller settlements are mainly dirt roads, although they are currently being replaced with a hard surface.


title: Khakassia

text: 663 km of railways, electrified from Abakan to Kaltas. Other non-electrified sections are Tigey - Kopievo, Askiz - Abaza, Biskamzha - Toya.


title: Khakassia

text: The section of the Tigey-Kopyёvo railway and further to Uzhur, Achinsk connects two railway arteries: the Trans-Siberian Railway and Yuzhsib (South-Siberian: Taishet - Abakan - Novokuznetsk - Artyshta - Barnaul - Kulunda - Pavlodar - Astana - Tobol - Kartaly - Magnitogorsk). In addition to Abakan, the central station is Biskamzha. The city of Sayanogorsk is connected to the railway network through the station Kamyshta.


title: Khakassia

text: Airports: Abakan International Airport has regular flights to Moscow, Norilsk, Novosibirsk, Tomsk, and Krasnoyarsk.


title: Khakassia

text: Sayany-Khakassia has been playing in the highest division of Russian bandy, the Russian Bandy Super League, for a long time, but was relegated after the 2012–13 season. Now they play in the 2nd highest division.


title: Slaughter (band)

text: Slaughter is an American glam metal band formed in Las Vegas by lead vocalist/rhythm guitarist Mark Slaughter and bassist Dana Strum. The band reached stardom in 1990 with their first album "Stick It to Ya", which spawned several hit singles including "Up All Night", "Spend My Life", "Mad About You" and "Fly to the Angels.” The album reached double platinum status in the United States.


title: Slaughter (band)

text: Slaughter formed in Las Vegas, Nevada, in late 1988, out of the ashes of lead vocalist Mark Slaughter and bassist Dana Strum's previous band, Vinnie Vincent Invasion. Vinnie Vincent Invasion's record company, Chrysalis Records, took the $4 million contract away from Vinnie Vincent for exceeding his credit line with the label, and transferred the contract to former members Slaughter and Strum. By 1989, Slaughter and Strum completed the lineup by recruiting lead guitarist Tim Kelly and drummer Blas Elias.


title: Slaughter (band)

text: Slaughter's debut album "Stick It to Ya" had three singles released that hit the "Billboard" Hot 100: the hit "Fly to the Angels" (US#19), and the moderate hits "Up All Night" (US#27) and "Spend My Life" (US#39). During this time, a song was released from the soundtrack to the film "Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey". That song, titled "Shout It Out", was accompanied by a music video but failed to make the US Hot 100.


title: Slaughter (band)

text: In 1992, the band released their second album, titled "The Wild Life". It reached number eight on the US Billboard Top 200 Album Chart and was certified gold, but did not produce any Top 40 hits on the US Hot 100. The only single to reach the Hot 100 was the first single "Real Love" (US#69).


title: Slaughter (band)

text: The band planned to record their third album in early 1994. However, in 1993 guitarist Tim Kelly was arrested for charges of drug trafficking, while bassist Dana Strum had a motorcycle accident that injured his playing hand. The delayed album was completed in February 1994 and the first single "Searchin'" was released. However, following Chrysalis Records absorption into EMI Records, Slaughter was dropped from EMI.


title: Slaughter (band)

text: The band subsequently signed with CMC International, a new label at the time that signed many hard rock and metal bands in the face of the new grunge popularity. The label had major distribution through BMG. In 1995, Slaughter released the album "Fear No Evil". The album did not have much success in North America, Europe, or much of Asia but performed well in Japan. Guitarist Dave Marshall (ex-Vince Neil band) had to fill in for Kelly at times, due to his legal problems.


title: Slaughter (band)

text: Kelly's legal troubles ended and the band committed to their next album. In 1997, "Revolution" was released. The album featured a more eclectic and psychedelic sound, but failed to make an impact. On February 5, 1998, tragedy struck when guitarist Tim Kelly was killed in an auto accident in the Arizona desert. This deeply affected the group, but they were committed to continue with the band. Dave Marshall briefly performed as a touring guitarist for Slaughter in Japan. In 1998, they hired Jeff Blando as Kelly's replacement and began working on their next album. A live album titled "Eternal Live" was released featuring some of the band's last performances with Kelly.


title: Slaughter (band)

text: In 1999, they released the album "Back to Reality", featuring Blando as the new guitarist. Blando was previously in Left For Dead and Saigon Kick. Slaughter continues to play many rock package tours with other acts that saw prominence during the glam era of the 1980s and early 1990s. During the summer of 1999, while on the "Rock Never Stops Tour" (which included Ted Nugent and Night Ranger), Slaughter saw some of their previous singles on compilation albums. The VH-1 album "Power Ballads" included "Fly To The Angels"; "Up All Night" was included on Rhino Records "Hard Hitters". Slaughter also took part in the Summer 2000 "Poison, Cinderella, Dokken and Slaughter" tour.


title: Slaughter (band)

text: In 2001, Slaughter was a part of the "Voices of Metal" tour featuring Vince Neil of Mötley Crüe, Ratt, and Vixen. Mark Slaughter and Dana Strum's former Vinnie Vincent Invasion bandmate Bobby Rock played as a touring drummer for Slaughter, filling in for Blas Elias on some shows of the Rock Never Stops Tour. In April 2004, Slaughter released a DVD-A entitled "Then and Now" that features 12 songs and 50 photos of the band over the years. Slaughter also released a DVD that features all of the music videos and behind the scenes footage during the 2004 season.


title: Slaughter (band)

text: On July 13, 2007, Slaughter performed at glam metal festival Rocklahoma. However, Strum and Blando were not present during the band's performance, though they did perform with Vince Neil the following night. At the end of January 2008 Slaughter performed a show at Motley Cruise, a four-day cruise in the Caribbean with Vince Neil, Skid Row, Ratt, Endeverafter, Lynam.


title: Slaughter (band)

text: Slaughter continues to tour and in 2017 they are scheduled to appear on the Monsters of Rock cruise and at Rocklahoma along with several other scheduled concerts.


title: Hypostatic union

text: Hypostatic union (from the Greek: "hypóstasis", "sediment, foundation, substance, subsistence") is a technical term in Christian theology employed in mainstream Christology to describe the union of Christ's humanity and divinity in one hypostasis, or individual existence.


title: Hypostatic union

text: The most basic explanation for the hypostatic union is Jesus Christ being both fully God and fully man. He is both perfectly divine and perfectly human, having two complete and distinct natures at once.


title: Hypostatic union

text: The Athanasian Creed recognized this doctrine and affirmed its importance, stating that "He is God from the essence of the Father, begotten before time; and he is human from the essence of his mother, born in time; completely God, completely human, with a rational soul and human flesh; equal to the Father as regards divinity, less than the Father as regards humanity. Although he is God and human, yet Christ is not two, but one. He is one, however, not by his divinity being turned into flesh, but by God's taking humanity to himself. He is one, certainly not by the blending of his essence, but by the unity of his person. For just as one human is both rational soul and flesh, so too the one Christ is both God and human."


title: Hypostatic union

text: The Greek term "hypostasis" (ὑπόστασις) had come into use as a technical term prior to the Christological debates of the late fourth and fifth centuries. In pre-Christian times, Greek philosophy (primarily Stoicism) used the word. Some occurrences of the term "hypostasis" in the New Testament foreshadow the later, technical understanding of the word. Although it can translate literally as "substance", this has been a cause of some confusion; accordingly the New American Standard Bible translates it as "subsistence". "Hypostasis" denotes an actual, concrete existence, in contrast to abstract categories such as Platonic ideals.


title: Hypostatic union

text: In Kierkegaard's "Philosophical Fragments", the dual nature of Christ is explored as a paradox, i.e. as "the ultimate paradox", because God, understood as a perfectly good, perfectly wise, perfectly powerful being, fully became a human, in the Christian understanding of the term: burdened by sin, limited in goodness, knowledge, and understanding. This paradox can only be resolved, Kierkegaard believed, by a leap of faith away from one's understanding and reason towards belief in God.


title: Hypostatic union

text: As the precise nature of this union is held to defy finite human comprehension, the hypostatic union is also referred to by the alternative term "mystical union".


title: Hypostatic union

text: Apollinaris of Laodicea was the first to use the term hypostasis in trying to understand the Incarnation. Apollinaris described the union of the divine and human in Christ as being of a single nature and having a single essence — a single hypostasis.


title: Hypostatic union

text: In the 5th century, a dispute arose between Cyril of Alexandria and Nestorius in which Nestorius claimed that the term "theotokos" could not be used to describe Mary, the mother of Christ. Nestorius argued for two distinct substances or hypostases, of divinity and humanity, in Christ. He maintained that divinity could not be born from a human because the divine nature is unoriginate. The Council of Ephesus in 431, under the leadership of Cyril himself as well as the Ephesian bishop Memnon, labeled Nestorius a neo-adoptionist, implying that the man Jesus is divine and the Son of God only by grace and not by nature, and deposed him as a heretic. In his letter to Nestorius, Cyril used the term "hypostatic" (Greek, καθ᾽ ὑπόστασιν "kath' hypóstasin") to refer to Christ's divine and human natures being one, saying, “We must follow these words and teachings, keeping in mind what ‘having been made flesh’ means ... We say ... that the Word, by having united to himself hypostatically flesh animated by a rational soul, inexplicably and incomprehensibly became man.” Cyril also stressed on “μία φύσις τοῦ θεοῦ λόγου σεσαρκωμένη, meaning "one physis of the Word of God made flesh" (or "... of God the Word made flesh")”


title: Hypostatic union

text: The preeminent Antiochene theologian Theodore of Mopsuestia, contending against the monophysite heresy of Apollinarism, is believed to have taught that in Christ there are two natures (dyophysite), human and divine, and two corresponding hypostases (in the sense of "subject", "essence" but not "person") which co-existed. However, in Theodore's time the word "hypostasis" could be used in a sense synonymous with "ousia" (which clearly means "essence" rather than "person") as it had been used by Tatian and Origen. The Greek and Latin interpretations of Theodore's Christology have come under scrutiny since the recovery of his "Catechetical Orations" in the Syriac language.


title: Hypostatic union

text: In 451, the Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon promulgated the Chalcedonian Definition. It agreed with Theodore that there were two natures in the Incarnation. However, the Council of Chalcedon also insisted that hypostasis be used as it was in the Trinitarian definition: to indicate the person (prosopon) and not the nature as with Apollinaris.


title: Hypostatic union

text: The Oriental Orthodox Churches, having rejected the Chalcedonian Definition, were known as Miaphysites because they maintain the Cyrilian definition that characterized the incarnate Son as having one nature. The Chalcedonian "in two natures" formula (based, at least partially, on Colossians 2:9) was seen as derived from and akin to a Nestorian Christology. Contrariwise, the Chalcedonians saw the Oriental Orthodox as tending towards Eutychian Monophysitism. However, the Oriental Orthodox persistently specified that they have never believed in the doctrines of Eutyches, that they have always affirmed that Christ's humanity is consubstantial with our own, and they thus prefer the term Miaphysite to be referred to as a reference to Cyrillian Christology, which used the phrase "", ""mía phýsis toû theoû lógou sesarkōménē"". The term "miaphysic" means "one united nature" as opposed to one singular nature (monophysites). Thus the Miaphysite position maintains that although the nature of Christ is from two, it may only be referred to as one in its incarnate state because the natures always act in unity.


title: Hypostatic union

text: In recent times, leaders from the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches have signed joint statements in an attempt to work towards reunification. Likewise the leaders of the Assyrian Church of the East, which venerates Nestorius and Theodore, have in recent times signed a joint agreement with leaders of the Roman Catholic Church acknowledging that their historical differences were over terminology rather than the actual intended meaning.


title: Backmasking

text: Backmasking is a recording technique in which a message is recorded backward onto a track that is meant to be played forward. It is a deliberate process, whereas a message found through phonetic reversal may be unintentional.


title: Backmasking

text: Artists have since used backmasking for artistic, comedic and satiric effect, on both analogue and digital recordings. It has also been used to censor words or phrases for "clean" releases of explicit songs.


title: Backmasking

text: In 1969, rumors of a backmasked message in the Beatles song "Revolution 9" sparked the Paul is dead urban legend. Since at least the early 1980s, Christian groups in the United States alleged that backmasking was being used by prominent rock musicians for Satanic purposes, leading to record-burning protests and proposed anti-backmasking legislation by state and federal governments during the 1980s, as part of the Satanic panic movement of the time.


title: Backmasking

text: Many popular musicians were accused of including backmasked messages in their music. However, apparent backmasked messages may in fact be examples of pareidolia (the brain's tendency to recognize patterns in meaningless data), coincidental phonetic reversal, or as deliberate responses to the allegations themselves.


title: Backmasking

text: The backwards playing of records was advised as training for magicians by occultist Aleister Crowley, who suggested in his 1913 book "Magick (Book 4)" that an adept "train himself to think backwards by external means", one of which was to "listen to phonograph records, reversed". In the movie "Gold Diggers of 1935", the end of the dancing-pianos musical number, "The Words Are in My Heart," is filmed in reverse motion, with the accompanying instrumental score incidentally being reversed.


title: Backmasking

text: In 1959, a vocal group called The Eligibles released a record called "Car Trouble", which contains two nonsense passages. When reversed, they reveal the phrases "And you can get my daughter back by 10:30, you bum!" and (perhaps inevitably) "Now, lookit here, cats, stop running these records backwards!". Peaking at #107 on the Billboard magazine charts that summer, "Car Trouble" is believed to be the first hit record to contain backmasking.


title: Backmasking

text: The Beatles, who incorporated the techniques of "concrète" into their recordings, were responsible for popularizing the concept of backmasking. Singer John Lennon and producer George Martin both claimed they discovered the backward recording technique during the recording of 1966's "Revolver"; specifically the album tracks "Tomorrow Never Knows" and "I'm Only Sleeping", and the single "Rain". Lennon stated that, while under the influence of marijuana, he accidentally played the tapes for "Rain" in reverse and enjoyed the sound. The following day he shared the results with the other Beatles, and the effect was used first in the guitar solo for "Tomorrow Never Knows" and later in the coda of "Rain". According to Martin, the band had been experimenting with changing the speeds of and reversing the "Tomorrow Never Knows" tapes, and Martin got the idea of reversing Lennon's vocals and guitar, which he did with a clip from "Rain". Lennon then liked the effect and kept it. Regardless, "Rain" was the first Beatles song to feature a backmasked message: "Sunshine ... Rain ... When the rain comes, they run and hide their heads" (; the last line is the reversed first verse of the song).


title: Backmasking

text: The Beatles were involved in the spread of backmasking both as a recording technique and as the center of a controversy. The latter has its roots in an event in 1969, when WKNR-FM DJ Russ Gibb received a phone call from a student at Eastern Michigan University who identified himself as "Tom". The caller asked Gibb about a rumor that Beatle Paul McCartney had died, and claimed that the Beatles song "Revolution 9" contained a backward message confirming the rumor. Gibb played the song backwards on his turntable, and heard "Turn me on, dead man ... turn me on, dead man ... turn me on, dead man ...". Gibb began telling his listeners about what he called "The Great Cover-up", and to the original clue were added various others, including the alleged backmasked message "Paul is a dead man, miss him, miss him, miss him", in "I'm So Tired".


title: Backmasking

text: The "Paul is dead" rumor popularized the idea of backmasking in popular music. After Gibb's show, many more songs were found to contain phrases that sounded like known spoken languages when reversed. Initially, the search was done mostly by fans of rock music; but, in the late 1970s, during the rise of the Christian right in the United States, fundamentalist Christian groups began to claim that backmasked messages could bypass the conscious mind and reach the unconscious mind, where they would be unknowingly accepted by the listener. In 1981, Christian DJ Michael Mills began stating on Christian radio programs that Led Zeppelin's "Stairway to Heaven" contained hidden Satanic messages that were heard by the unconscious.


title: Backmasking

text: In early 1982, the Trinity Broadcasting Network's Paul Crouch hosted a show with self-described neuroscientist William Yarroll, who argued that rock stars were cooperating with the Church of Satan to place hidden subliminal messages on records. Also in 1982, fundamentalist Christian pastor Gary Greenwald held public lectures on dangers of backmasking, along with at least one mass record-smashing. During the same year, thirty North Carolina teenagers, led by their pastor, claimed that singers had been possessed by Satan, who used their voices to create backward messages, and held a record-burning at their church.


title: Backmasking

text: Allegations of demonic backmasking were also made by social psychologists, parents and critics of rock music, as well as the Parents Music Resource Center (formed in 1985), which accused Led Zeppelin of using backmasking to promote Satanism.


title: Backmasking

text: One result of the furor was the firing of five radio DJs who had encouraged listeners to search for backward messages in their record collections. A more serious consequence was legislation by the state governments of Arkansas and California. The 1983 California bill was introduced to prevent backmasking that "can manipulate our behavior without our knowledge or consent and turn us into disciples of the Antichrist". Involved in the discussion on the bill was a California State Assembly Consumer Protection and Toxic Materials Committee hearing, during which "Stairway to Heaven" was played backwards, and William Yaroll testified. The successful bill made the distribution of records with undeclared backmasking an invasion of privacy for which the distributor could be sued. The Arkansas law passed unanimously in 1983, referenced albums by the Beatles, Pink Floyd, Electric Light Orchestra, Queen and Styx, and mandated that records with backmasking include a warning sticker: "Warning: This record contains backward masking which may be perceptible at a subliminal level when the record is played forward." However, the bill was returned to the state senate by Governor Bill Clinton and defeated. House Resolution 6363, introduced in 1982 by Representative Bob Dornan (R-California), proposed mandating a similar label; the bill was referred to the Subcommittee on Commerce, Transportation and Tourism and was never passed. Government action was also called for in the legislatures of Texas and Canada.


title: Backmasking

text: With the advent of compact discs in the 1980s, but prior to the advent of sound editing technology for personal computers in the 1990s, it became more difficult to listen to recordings backwards, and the controversy died down.


title: Backmasking

text: Although the backmasking controversy peaked in the 1980s, the general belief in subliminal manipulation became more widespread in the United States during the following decade, with belief in Satanic backmasking on records persisting into the 1990s. At the same time, the development of sound editing software with audio reversal features simplified the process of reversing audio, which previously could only be done with full fidelity using a professional tape recorder. The Sound Recorder utility, included with Microsoft Windows from Windows 95 to Windows XP, allows one-click audio reversal, as does popular open source sound editing software Audacity. Following the growth of the Internet, backmasked message searchers used such software to create websites featuring backward music samples, which became a widely used method of exploring backmasking in popular music.


title: Backmasking

text: In January 2014, the first backmasked video was released as part of a Grammy Awards promotional campaign. A customized video player allowed the user to watch a piece of film accompanied by a music soundtrack both forwards and backwards. The backwards content contained a hidden visual story and the words 'music unleashes you' embedded into the reversed audio track.


title: Backmasking

text: Backmasking has been used as a recording technique since the 1960s. In the era of magnetic tape sound recording, backmasking required that the source reel-to-reel tape actually be played backwards, which was achieved by first being wound onto the original takeup reel, then reversing the reels so as to use that reel as the source (this would reverse the stereo channels as well).


title: Backmasking

text: Backmasked words are unintelligible when played forward, but when played backwards are clear speech. Listening to backmasked audio with most turntables requires disengaging the drive and rotating the album by hand in reverse (though some can play records backwards). With magnetic tape, the tape must be reversed and spliced back into the cassette. Compact discs were difficult to reverse when first introduced, but digital audio editors, which were first introduced in the late 1980s and became popular during the next decade, allow easy reversal of audio from digital sources.


title: Backmasking

text: In the "I Love Lucy" episode "Home Movies", Lucy makes an audition film that features clips that are played backwards.


title: Backmasking

text: In the 1973 film "The Exorcist", a tape of noises from the possessed victim was discovered to contain a message when the tape was played backwards. This scene might have inspired subsequent copycat musical effects. Stanley Kubrick used "Masked Ball", an adaptation by Jocelyn Pook of her earlier work "Backwards Priests" (from the album Flood) featuring reversed Romanian chanting, as the background music for the masquerade ball scene in "Eyes Wide Shut".


title: Backmasking

text: Backmasking was also parodied in a 2001 episode of the television series "The Simpsons" titled "New Kids on the Blecch". Bart Simpson joins a boy band called the Party Posse, whose song "Drop da Bomb" includes the repeated lyric "Yvan eht nioj". Lisa Simpson becomes suspicious and plays the song backward, revealing the backmasked message "Join the Navy", which leads her to realize that the boy band was created as a subliminal recruiting tool for the United States Navy.


title: Backmasking

text: The "Futurama" episode "Calculon 2.0" also has a scene where an installation disc is played backward on what looks like an old fashioned gramophone player, with the words "rise from the dead in the name of Satan" coming from it.


title: Backmasking

text: On 19 April 1981, English extreme metal band Venom released the song "In League with Satan" (recorded January 1981) which included a backmasked message "Satan, raised in hell, raised in hell, I'm gonna burn your soul, crush your bones, I'm gonna make you bleed, you gonna bleed for me." This is perhaps the earliest instance of a true backtracked message referencing Satan.


title: Backmasking

text: During the Judas Priest subliminal message trial, lead singer Rob Halford admitted to recording the words "In the dead of the night, love bites" backwards into the track "Love Bites", from the 1984 album "Defenders of the Faith". Asked why he recorded the message, Halford stated that "When you're composing songs, you're always looking for new ideas, new sounds."


title: Backmasking

text: Backmasking has been used by heavy metal bands to deliberately insert messages in their lyrics or imagery. Bands have utilized Satanic imagery for commercial reasons. For example, thrash metal band Slayer included at the start of the band's 1985 album "Hell Awaits" a deep backmasked voice repeatedly chanting "join us". Cradle of Filth, another band that has employed Satanic imagery, released a song entitled "Dinner at Deviant's Palace", consisting almost entirely of unusual sounds and a reversed reading of the Lord's Prayer. Oingo Boingo has a Christian message promoting salvation through Christ backmasked into one of their songs, "Cry of the Vatos", a satire on claims of Satanism in their music.


title: Backmasking

text: At the end of "Before I Forget" by Slipknot, lead singer Corey Taylor's voice can be heard saying "... You're wasting it" which is in reference to how Rick Rubin, the producer of their album "", wanted Taylor to change the chorus vocal melody because he felt it wasn't catchy; however, Taylor stood his ground and the chorus stayed unchanged.


title: Backmasking

text: Artists often use backmasking of sounds or instrumental audio to produce interesting sound effects. One such sound effect is the reverse echo. When done on tape, such use of backmasking is known as "reverse tape effects". Backmasking has been used for artistic effect by Missy Elliott ("Work It",), Jay Chou ("You Can Hear") At the Drive-In ("300 MHz"), Klaatu ("Anus of Uranus"/"Silly Boys", and Lacuna Coil ("Self Deception")


title: Backmasking

text: A related technique is to reverse an entire instrumental track. John Lennon originally wanted to do so with "Rain", but objections by producer George Martin and bandmate Paul McCartney cut the backward section to 30 seconds. Danish band Mew's 2009 album "No More Stories..." contains a track, "New Terrain", which, when listened to in reverse, reveals a new song, entitled "Nervous". Soul duo Gnarls Barkley released a companion version of their album "The Odd Couple", an instrumental album called "elpuoc ddo eht", consisting of the original album, fused into a single 38:44-long track, and reversed. This album can be legally obtained by owners of the original, as it is meant to complement it, and be a resource to samplers.


title: Backmasking

text: The B-side of the 1966 Napoleon XIV single "They're Coming to Take Me Away, Ha-Haaa!" is a reversed version of the entire forwards record, titled "!aaaH-aH ,yawA eM ekaT oT gnimoC er'yehT". The forward version reached #3 in the US charts and #4 in the UK.


title: Backmasking

text: Seattle-based grunge band Soundgarden parodied the phenomenon of Satanic backmasking on their 1989 album "Ultramega OK". When played backwards, the songs "665" and "667" reveal a song about Santa Claus.


title: Backmasking

text: Matthew Sweet's 1999 album "In Reverse" includes reversed guitar parts which were played directly onto a tape running in reverse. For live concerts, the guitar parts were played live on stage using a backward emulator.


title: Backmasking

text: The Beatles song "Free as a Bird" was originally composed and recorded in 1977 as a home demo by John Lennon. In 1995 a studio version of the recording, incorporating contributions from Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, was released as a new single from "The Beatles Anthology 1" project, 25 years after their break-up and 15 years after Lennon's death. In a humorous self-parody and tribute to Lennon, the surviving Beatles inserted a backmasked clip of Lennon saying "Turned out nice again" at the very end of the song.


title: Backmasking

text: The first line may refer to former lead singer Syd Barrett, who is thought to have had a nervous breakdown years earlier.


title: Backmasking

text: In "Weird Al" Yankovic's "Nature Trail to Hell", from 1984's ""Weird Al" Yankovic in 3-D", Yankovic's backmasked voice declares that "Satan eats Cheez Whiz". Another early example can be found on the J. Geils Band track "No Anchovies, Please", from 1980s album "Love Stinks". The message, disguised as a foreign-sounding language spoken under the narration, is, "It doesn't take a genius to tell the difference between chicken shit and chicken salad." Belgian act Poésie Noire included a satirical backmasked message on their 1988 album "Tetra" saying "You fucking asshole, play the record in the normal way". Tenacious D includes the backmasked message "Eat Donkey Crap" at the end of "Karate" from their self-titled first album.


title: Backmasking

text: Electric Light Orchestra and Styx, following their involvement in the 1980s backmasking controversy, released songs that parody the allegations made against them. ELO, after being accused of Satanic backmasking on their 1974 album "Eldorado", included backmasked messages in two songs on their next album, 1975's "Face the Music". "Down Home Town" begins with a voice twice repeating (in reverse) "Face the mighty waterfall". And the opening instrumental "Fire On High" contains the backmasked message "The music is reversible, but time is not. Turn back! Turn back! Turn back! Turn back!" (). In 1983, ELO released an entire album, "Secret Messages", in response to the controversy. Among the many backmasked messages on the album are: "Welcome to the big show" (2x); "Thank you for listening"; "Look out there's danger ahead"; "Hup two three four"; "Time After Time"; and "You're playing me backwards". Styx also released an album in response to allegations of Satanic backmasking: 1983's "Kilroy Was Here", which deals with an allegorical group called the "Majority for Musical Morality" that outlaws rock music. A sticker on the album cover contains the message, "By order of the Majority for Musical Morality, this album contains secret backward messages", and the song "Heavy Metal Poisoning" does in fact contain the backmasked Latin words ""Annuit cœptis, Novus ordo seclorum"" ("[God] has favored our undertakings; a new order for the ages")—part of the Great Seal which encircles the pyramid on the back of the American dollar bill.


title: Backmasking

text: Iron Maiden's 1983 album "Piece of Mind" features a short backwards message, included by the band in response to allegations of Satanism that were surrounding them at the time. Between the songs "The Trooper" and "Still Life" is inebriated drummer Nicko McBrain doing an impression of Idi Amin Dada: "'What ho', sed de t'ing wid de t'ree bonce [said the thing with the three heads]. Don't meddle wid t'ings you don't understand," followed by a belch. Prince's controversial song "Darling Nikki" includes the backmasked message, "Hello, how are you? I am fine, because I know that the Lord is coming soon." The Waitresses' 1982 EP "I Could Rule the World if I Could Only Get the Parts" included a backwards masking warning on the cover and a message masked within the song "The Smartest Person I Know": "Anyone who believes in backwards masking is a fool."


title: Backmasking

text: Some messages chastise or poke fun at the listener who is playing the song backwards. One such message was included by "Weird Al" Yankovic in "I Remember Larry", from the 1996 album "Bad Hair Day", on which Yankovic lightly chastises the listener with the backmasked remark, "Wow, [you] must have an awful lot of free time on your hands". Similarly, the B-52's song "Detour Through Your Mind", from the 1986 LP "Bouncing off the Satellites", contains the message, "I buried my parakeet in the backyard. Oh no, you're playing the record backwards. Watch out, you might ruin your needle." A similar message comes from the Canadian band Frozen Ghost from their 1987 self-titled debut album: "You are ruining your needle!"


title: Backmasking

text: Meanwhile, Christian rock group Petra included in their song "Judas' Kiss", from the 1982 album "More Power to Ya", the message, "What are you looking for the devil for, when you ought to be looking for the Lord?" Bloodhound Gang's 1996 controversy-begging track "Lift Your Head Up High (And Blow Your Brains Out)" mocked the Judas Priest controversy directly, and included the backmasked phrase "Devil child, wake up and eat Chef Boyardee Beefaroni". The band Mindless Self Indulgence released a song titled "Backmaskwarning!", which contains the forward lyrics "Play that record backwards / Here's a message yo for the suckas / Play that record backwards / And go fuck yourself". The backwards messages in the song include, "clean your room", "do your homework", "don't stay out too late", and "eat your vegetables".


title: Backmasking

text: Devo's hit song "Whip It" has Mark Mothersbaugh saying "Hey come over here!" when the song is played backwards.


title: Backmasking

text: WWE wrestler Al Snow had a theme song that had backmasking in it. The song was mostly instrumental, but at one point a clearly audible voice can be heard saying a line of gibberish. When the song is played backward, the gibberish is actually saying: "I AM THE ONE IN CONTROL." The message played on Al Snow's character as an unstable mad man.


title: Backmasking

text: Backmasking has been used to avoid censorship. On Frank Zappa's track "Hot Poop", from "We're Only in It for the Money" (1968), the released version contains at the end of its side "A" the backmasked message "Better look around before you say you don't care. / Shut your fucking mouth 'bout the length of my hair. / How would you survive / If you were alive / shitty little person?" This profanity-laced verse, originally from the song "Mother People", was censored by Verve Records, so Zappa edited the verse out, reversed it, and inserted it elsewhere in the album as "Hot Poop" (though even in the backward message the word "fucking" is censored). On the same album, a modified backmasking can be heard in "Harry, You're a Beast" with Madge saying, "Don't come in me, in me" repeatedly before she starts crying. In at least one bootleg version of the album, these words are very clear.


title: Backmasking

text: Another example is found in Roger Waters' 1992 album "Amused to Death", on which Waters recorded a backward message, possibly critical of film director Stanley Kubrick, who had refused to let Waters sample a breathing sound from "". The message appears in the song "Perfect Sense Part 1", in which Waters' backmasked voice says, "Julia, however, in light and visions of the issues of Stanley, we have changed our minds. We have decided to include a backward message, Stanley, for you and all the other book burners."


title: Backmasking

text: On the other hand, backmasking can be used to censor words and phrases deemed inappropriate on radio edits and "clean" album releases. For example, the Fugees' clean version of the album "The Score" contains various backmasked profanities; thus, when playing the album backwards, the censored words are clearly audible among the backward gibberish. When used with the word "shit", this type of backmasking results in a sound similar to "ish". As a result, "ish" became a euphemism for "shit".


title: Backmasking

text: Iron Maiden used a similar technique on the radio edit of their "Holy Smoke" single, in which there are two rare instances of profanity in their lyrics, which were reversed to give "Flies around tish/Bees around honey" and "I've lived in filth, I've lived in sin/And I still smell cleaner than the tish you're in".


title: Backmasking

text: In Britney Spears' 2011 song "Till the World Ends", Spears says "if you want this good shit". However, on the official version, "shit" is reversed, creating the "ish" sound; therefore, the official version says "if you want this good ish". Backmasking is also used to censor the word "joint" in the video for "You Don't Know How It Feels" by Tom Petty, resulting in the line "Let's roll another tnioj".


title: Backmasking

text: Artists who have been accused of backmasking include Led Zeppelin, the Beatles, Pink Floyd, Electric Light Orchestra, Queen, Styx, Judas Priest, the Eagles, The Rolling Stones, Jefferson Starship, AC/DC, Black Oak Arkansas, Rush, Britney Spears, and Eminem.


title: Backmasking

text: Electric Light Orchestra was accused of hiding a backward Satanic message in their 1974 album "Eldorado". The title track, "Eldorado", was said to contain the message "He is the nasty one / Christ, you're infernal / It is said we're dead men / Everyone who has the mark will live." ELO singer and songwriter Jeff Lynne responded by calling this accusation (and the related charge of being "devil-worshippers") "skcollob", and stating that the message "is absolutely manufactured by whoever said, 'That's what it said.' It doesn't say anything of the sort." The group included several backward messages in later albums in response to the accusations.


title: Backmasking

text: In 1981, Styx was accused of putting the backward message "Satan move through our voices" on the song "Snowblind", from "Paradise Theatre". Guitarist James Young called these charges "rubbish," and responded, "If we want to make a statement, we'll do it in a way that people can understand us and not in a way where you have to go out and buy a $400 tape player to understand us." The vinyl reproduction of "Paradise Theatre" had laser etching on side one, spelling out Styx at the top, and two ladies facing each other on the sides. But on side two, the side with the song (Snow Blind) it had a black label with a small hole cut out where you could place the eraser side of a pencil, and play the album backwards to hear the backward message. In 1983, the band released a concept album, "Kilroy Was Here", satirizing the Moral Majority.


title: Backmasking

text: A well-known alleged message is found in Led Zeppelin's 1971 song "Stairway to Heaven". The backwards playing of a portion of the song purportedly results in words beginning with "Here's to my sweet Satan" (). Swan Song Records issued a statement to the contrary: "Our turntables only play in one direction—forwards." Led Zeppelin vocalist Robert Plant denied the accusations in an interview: "To me it's very sad, because 'Stairway to Heaven' was written with every best intention, and as far as reversing tapes and putting messages on the end, that's not my idea of making music." Another widely known alleged message, "It's fun to smoke marijuana", in Queen's song "Another One Bites the Dust", is similarly disclaimed by the group's spokesperson.


title: Backmasking

text: Various fundamentalist Christian groups have declared that Satan—or Satan-influenced musicians—use backmasked messages to subliminally alter behavior. Pastor Gary Greenwald claimed that subliminal messages backmasked into rock music induce listeners towards sex and drug use. Minister Jacob Aranza wrote in his 1982 book "Backward Masking Unmasked" that rock groups "are using backmasking to convey Satanic and drug related messages to the subconscious." Christian DJ Michael Mills argued in 1981 that "the subconscious mind is being successfully affected by the repetition of beat and lyrics—being affected through a subliminal message." Mills has toured America warning Christian parents about subliminal messages in rock music.


title: Backmasking

text: Some Christian websites have claimed that backmasking is widely used for Satanic purposes. The web page for Alabama group Dial-the-Truth Ministries argues for the existence of Satanic backmasking in "Stairway to Heaven", saying that the song contains the backward message, "It's my sweet Satan ... Oh I will sing because I live with Satan."


title: Backmasking

text: In 1985, Joe Stuessy testified to the United States Congress at the Parents Music Resource Center hearings that:


title: Backmasking

text: Serial killer Richard Ramirez, on trial in 1988, stated that AC/DC's music, and specifically the song "Night Prowler" on "Highway to Hell", inspired him to commit murder. Reverse speech advocate David John Oates claimed that "Highway to Hell", on the same album, contains backmasked messages including "I'm the law", "my name is Lucifer", and "she belongs in hell". AC/DC's Angus Young responded that "you didn't need to play [the album] backwards, because we never hid [the messages]. We'd call an album "Highway to Hell", there it was right in front of them."


title: Backmasking

text: In 1990, British heavy metal band Judas Priest was sued over a suicide pact made by two young men in Nevada. The lawsuit by their families claimed that the 1978 Judas Priest album "Stained Class" contained hidden messages, including the forward subliminal words "Do it" in the song "Better by You, Better than Me" (a cover version of a Spooky Tooth song), and various backward subliminal messages. The case was dismissed by the judge for insufficient evidence of Judas Priest's placement of subliminal messages on the record, and the judge's ruling stated that "The scientific research presented does not establish that subliminal stimuli, even if perceived, may precipitate conduct of this magnitude. There exist other factors which explain the conduct of the deceased independent of the subliminal stimuli." Judas Priest members commented that if they wanted to insert subliminal commands in their music, messages leading to the deaths of their fans would be counterproductive, and they would prefer to insert the command "Buy more of our records."


title: Backmasking

text: Skeptic Michael Shermer says that the emergence of the "Paul is dead" phenomenon, including the alleged message at the end of "I'm So Tired", was caused by faulty perception of a pattern. Shermer argues that the human brain evolved with a strong pattern recognition ability that was necessary to process the large amount of noise in man's environment, but that today this ability leads to false positives. Stanford University psychology professor Brian Wandell postulates that the observance of backward messages is a mistake arising from this pattern recognition facility, and argues that subliminal persuasion theories are "bizarre" and "implausible." Rumors of backmasking in popular music have been described as auditory pareidolia. James Walker, president of Christian research group Watchman Fellowship, states that "You could take a Christian hymn, and if you played it backwards long enough at different speeds, you could make that hymn say anything you want to"; Led Zeppelin publicist BP Fallon concurs, saying "Play anything backwards, and you'll find something." Eric Borgos of audio reversal website talkbackwards.com states that "Mathematically, if you listen long enough, eventually you'll find a pattern", while Jeff Milner recounts, "Most people, when I show them the site, say that they're not able to hear anything, until, of course, I show them the reverse lyrics."


title: Backmasking

text: Audio engineer Evan Olcott says that messages by artists including Queen and Led Zeppelin are coincidental phonetic reversals, in which the spoken or sung phonemes form new combinations of words when listened to backwards. Olcott states that "Actually engineering or planning a phonetic reversal is next to impossible, and even more difficult when trying to design it with words that fit into a song."


title: Backmasking

text: In 1985, University of Lethbridge psychologists John Vokey and J. Don Read conducted a study using Psalm 23 from the Bible, Queen's "Another One Bites the Dust", and other sound passages made up for the experiment. Vokey and Read concluded that if backmasking does exist, it is ineffective. Participants had trouble noticing backmasked phrases when the samples were played forwards, were unable to judge the types of messages (Christian, Satanic, or commercial), and were not led to behave in a certain way as a result of being exposed to the backmasked phrases. Vokey concluded that "we could find no effect of the meaning of engineered, backward messages on listeners' behaviour, either consciously or unconsciously." Similar results to Vokey and Read's were obtained by D. Averill in 1982. A 1988 experiment by T.E. Moore found "no evidence that listeners were influenced,


title: Backmasking

text: consciously or unconsciously, by the content of the backward messages." In 1992, an experiment found that exposure to backward messages did not lead to significant changes in attitude. Psychology professor Mark D. Allen says that "delivering subliminal messages via backward masking is totally and ridiculously impossible".


title: Backmasking

text: The finding of backward Satanic messages has been explained as caused by the observer-expectancy effect. The "Skeptic's Dictionary" states that "you probably won't hear [backmasked] messages until somebody first points them out to you. Perception is influenced by expectation and expectation is affected by what others prime you for." In 1984, S. B. Thorne and P. Himelstein found that "when vague and unfamiliar stimuli are presented, [test subjects] are highly likely to accept suggestions, particularly when the suggestions are presented by someone with prestige and authority." Vokey and Read concluded from their 1985 experiment that "the apparent presence of backward messages in popular music is a function more of active construction on the part of the perceiver than of the existence of the messages themselves."


title: Backmasking

text: Backmasking has been satirized in the comic strip "Bloom County" on several occasions when one "expert" claims to have found Satanic verses hidden in songs recorded by Debby Boone and Billy Joel; and by Milo Bloom investigating the fictional heavy metal group Billy and the Boingers (formerly Deathtöngue).


title: Backmasking

text: A page in Frank Miller's comic "The Dark Knight Returns" depicts a character named "Arnold Cimp," who becomes convinced Led Zeppelin is trying to kill him after hearing "Stairway To Heaven" backwards.


title: Backmasking

text: In the Gravity Falls episode "Wendy's Song", Dipper and Uncle Stan play a record backwards and discover it was used to brainwash their friend Wendy.


title: Gabi Butler

text: Gabriella “Gabi” Butler (born 1998) is an American cheerleader, YouTuber, television personality, and professional wrestler that is currently signed to WWE. She received national recognition after appearing in the Netflix docuseries "Cheer" and had been on many teams before her appearance in the Netflix show, such as the California All Stars Smoed, Top Gun TGLC, Cheer Athletics Wildcats, and Gymtyme Blink. She is most recently a member of the Weber State University and the Navarro College cheer teams. career


title: Gabi Butler

text: Gabi Butler has been doing competitive cheerleading since she was eight years old and is known for her flexibility and her great talent in flying. She appeared regularly on AwesomenessTV's YouTube series "Cheerleaders" for a couple of seasons when she was on the California All Stars team Smoed (a portmanteau of "small" and "coed") between 2012 and 2014 and occasionally appeared on a few episodes of later seasons. She has won the cheerleading world championships twice, in both 2013 and 2014 with Smoed. In January 2020, she appeared on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", along with other members of the Navarro College cheer team. She also has a YouTube channel, which gives viewers a behind the scenes look into her cheer life. As of 2021, she attends Weber State University in Ogden, Utah.


title: Gabi Butler

text: In November 2022 it was reported that Butler had signed a contract with WWE and would begin training at the WWE Performance Center.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: Civita di Bagnoregio is a town in the Province of Viterbo in central Italy, a "suburb" of the comune of Bagnoregio, east from it. It is about north of Rome. The only access is a footbridge from the nearby town, with a toll introduced in 2013. Due to the toll, communal taxes were abolished in Civita and nearby Bagnoregio. Due to its unstable foundation that often erodes, Civita is famously known as "the dying city".


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: Civita is situated in the valley of the badlands ("Valle dei Calanchi"), a region east of Lake Bolsena and west of the Tiber Valley, in the municipality of Bagnoregio. It consists of two main valleys: the "Fossato del Rio Torbido" and the "Fossato del Rio Chiaro." Originally these places might have been easier to reach and were crossed by an ancient road which linked the Tiber Valley to Lake Bolsena.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: The morphology of this region was caused by erosion and landslides. The territory is made up of two different formations of rocks, different in chronology and in constitution. The most ancient formation is that of clay; it comes from the sea and it forms the base layer which is particularly subject to erosion. The top layers are made up of tuff and lava material. The fast erosion is due to the streams, to atmospheric agents but also to deforestation.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: Civita, which is inhabited by only 16 people, is situated in a solitary area and it is reachable only by a reinforced concrete pedestrian bridge built in 1995. The bridge is generally restricted to pedestrians, but to meet the requirements of residents and workers the Municipality of Bagnoregio issued a statement that these people may cross the bridge by bike or by motorcycle at certain times. The reason for its isolation is the progressive erosion of the hill and the nearby valley which create the badlands; this process is still ongoing and there is the danger that the village could disappear. This is why Civita is also known as "The Dying Town".


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: Civita di Bagnoregio was founded by Etruscans more than 2,500 years ago. Formerly there were five city gates to access the ancient town of Civita, nowadays instead, "Porta Santa Maria" (known as "Porta Cava", as well) is the main gateway of the city. It is also possible to enter the town of Civita from the badlands valley through a tunnel carved into the rock.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: The layout of the whole town is of Etruscan origin, based on a cardo and decumanus orthogonal street system according to the Etruscan and Roman use, while the entire architectural cladding is of medieval and Renaissance origin.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: There are numerous traces of Etruscan civilisation in Civita, especially in the "San Francesco Vecchio" area: a little Etruscan necropolis was found in the cliff located in the area below "Belvedere di San Francesco Vecchio". The cave of St Bonaventure (where it is said that Saint Francis healed the little Giovanni Fidanza, who later became Saint Bonaventure) is also an Etruscan chamber tomb.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: The Etruscans made Civita (whose original name is unknown) a flourishing city, thanks to its strategic position favourable for trade and thanks to its proximity to the most important communication routes of the times.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: Many traces of the Etruscan period are still suggestive spots: the so-called "Bucaione", for example, is a deep tunnel which goes through the lowest part of the city and gives access to badlands valley directly from the town.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: In the past, many chamber tombs were visible. They were dug at the base of Civita’s cliff and nearby tuff walls and, over the centuries, they were destroyed by several rockfalls. Indeed, the Etruscans themselves had to face problems of seismic activity and instability, like the earthquake of 280 B.C.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: When the Romans arrived in 265 B.C., they took up and carried on the rainwater drainage and the stream containment works that were first started by the Etruscans.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: Civita (or City) was the birthplace of Saint Bonaventure, who died in 1274. The location of his boyhood house has long since fallen off the edge of the cliff. By the 16th century, Civita di Bagnoregio was beginning to decline, becoming eclipsed by its former suburb Bagnoregio.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: At the end of the 17th century, the bishop and the municipal government were forced to move to Bagnoregio because of a major earthquake that accelerated the old town's decline. At that time, the area was part of the Papal States. In the 19th century, Civita di Bagnoregio's location was turning into an island and the pace of the erosion quickened as the layer of clay below the stone was reached in the area where today's bridge is situated.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: Bagnoregio continues as a small but prosperous town, while the older site became known in Italian as "La città che muore" ("The Dying Town"). Civita di Bagnoregio has only recently been experiencing a tourist revival.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: CNN in January 2020 associated the "over-tourism" with the mayor deciding to charge a minor fee for entry, which increased publicity and subsequently attendance. CNN also noted that the town had more feline inhabitants than its 12 human residents.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: The only access is a footbridge from the nearby town, with a €1.50 toll introduced in 2013 and increased in August 2017 to €3 on weekdays and €5 on Sundays and public holidays. Civita had 40,000 visitors in 2010, and was estimated to attract 850,000 visitors in 2017. Due to the toll, communal taxes were abolished in Civita and nearby Bagnoregio, making Bagnoregio the only town without communal taxes.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: The town is noted for its striking position on top of a plateau of friable volcanic tuff overlooking the Tiber river valley. It is in constant danger of destruction as the edges of the plateau collapse due to erosion, leaving the buildings to crumble as their underlying support falls away. , there were plans to reinforce the plateau with steel rods to prevent further geological damage.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: The city is also much admired for its architecture spanning several hundred years. Civita di Bagnoregio owes much of its unaltered condition to its relative isolation; the town was able to withstand most intrusions of modernity as well as the destruction brought by two world wars. The population today is 11 people, but due to a healthy amount of bed-and-breakfasts the village gets busy in the summer months.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: The town was placed on the World Monuments Fund's 2006 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites, because of threats it faces from erosion and unregulated tourism.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: Inside the village there are several medieval houses; the church of San Donato, which overlooks the main square and inside which the holy wooden crucifix is kept; Alemanni Palace, home of the Geological and Landslides Museum; the Bishop’s Palace, a mill of the 16th century; the remains of the house where St. Bonaventure was born and the door of Santa Maria, with two lions holding a human head between their paws, in memory of a popular revolt of the inhabitants of Civita against the Orvieto family of Monaldeschi.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: The old village is part of the association I Borghi più belli d'Italia. Thanks to its evocative geographical position and to its medieval buildings, the town attracts many tourists, and several times it has been used as a movie set.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: In January 2021, the mayor of Bagnoregio submitted a proposal to UNESCO to designate Civita a World Heritage Site.


title: Civita di Bagnoregio

text: On Good Friday, the Holy Crucifix is laid on a coffin in the church of San Donato in order to be transported in the secular "Processione del Venerdì Santo di Bagnoregio" ("Good Friday Procession of Bagnoregio"). The legend narrates that during a plague epidemic, which in 1449 hit the whole territory around Bagnoregio, the cross talked to a pious woman, who went every day before the venerated image asking with her prayers for the end of that agony. One day, while the woman was praying to Christ, she heard a voice that reassured her, saying that the Lord had fulfilled her prayers and that the pestilence would end. And indeed, after a few days, the plague was over, at the same time as the death of the pious woman.


title: Cleveland-class cruiser

text: The "Cleveland" class was a group of light cruisers built for the U.S. Navy during World War II. They were the most numerous class of light cruisers ever built. Fifty-two were ordered, and 36 completed, 27 as cruisers and 9 as light aircraft carriers. They were deactivated within a few years after the end of the war, but six were converted into missile ships and some of these served into the 1970s. One ship of the class remains as a museum ship.


title: Cleveland-class cruiser

text: A development of the preceding , the "Cleveland" class were designed with increased cruising range, anti-aircraft armament, and torpedo protection, compared with earlier U.S. cruisers.


title: Cleveland-class cruiser

text: After the London Naval Treaty of 1930, the US Navy took up a renewed interest in the 6" gun-armed light cruiser, partially due to the Navy complaining about the 8" gun's slow rate of fire, of 3 rounds per minute compared to the 10 rounds per minute of 6" guns. At this time, the US Navy began to deploy drones to use as targets for anti-aircraft targets, which could simulate both dive and torpedo bombers. The simulations showed that without fire control directors and computers, the ships of the fleet would be almost helpless against the density of aircraft attack envisioned in any future war. Mechanical computers alone could weigh up to 10 tons and had to be housed below decks for both weight and protection measures. As World War II was to prove, the pre-war assumptions were optimistic as eventually, every anti-aircraft gun platform above 20mm would end up having remote power, with fire control and radar aiming.


title: Cleveland-class cruiser

text: As designed the "Cleveland" class was already a tight design but requests to widen the ship were turned down as it would affect production rates. Shortly after the Fall of France, the Two-Ocean Navy Act changed those production rates rapidly. In order to fit the new heavier fire control and radar systems within the allotted tonnage for a cruiser, the No. 3 gun turret was omitted. This also gave room for the enlargement of the bridge spaces to accommodate the new combat information center and necessary radars, along with enough tonnage to fit an additional pair of 5"/38 twin mounts, located fore and aft of the superstructure, with wider arcs of fire. Despite the loss of three 6-inch guns compared to the preceding "Brooklyn" and "St. Louis"-class, the more advanced fire control gave the "Cleveland" class a firepower advantage in practical use.


title: Cleveland-class cruiser

text: Towards the end of World War II, the increase of light anti-aircraft weapons made the class top-heavy so to compensate, some ships had one of the two catapults, and No. 1 turret rangefinders removed. Top weight issues would plague the class with every addition of equipment having to be weighed against what would have to be removed, for example, the tighter installation of the control radar necessitated the removal of the 20mm clipping rooms, where 20mm rounds were loaded into their magazines.


title: Cleveland-class cruiser

text: Fifty-two ships were originally planned, but nine of them were completed as the light aircraft carriers of the , and two were completed to a different design, with a more compact superstructure and a single stack, called the . Of the 27 "Cleveland" class commissioned, one () was completed as a guided missile cruiser and five later modified as and guided missile cruisers. Two of each of these had enlarged superstructures to serve as flagships. Following the naming convention at the time, all the ships completed as cruisers were named for US cities or towns.


title: Cleveland-class cruiser

text: The "Cleveland"-class cruisers served mainly in the Pacific Fleet during World War II, especially with the Fast Carrier Task Force and some served off the coasts of Europe and Africa in the U.S. Atlantic Fleet. All of these warships, though worked heavily, survived the war. All were initially decommissioned by 1950, except for , which remained in service until 1956. None were recommissioned for the Korean War, as they required a crew almost as large as the ships, so those were reactivated instead. All non-converted ships were sold off from the reserve fleet for scrapping beginning in 1959. The six that were completed as or converted into guided missile cruisers were reactivated during the 1950s and then served into the 1970s. All, particularly the Talos-armed ships, suffered from greater stability problems than the original design due to the extra top weight. This was particularly severe in "Galveston", leading to its premature decommissioning in 1970. and had to have a large amount of ballast and internal rearrangement to allow service into the 1970s. The last of these missile ships in service, "Oklahoma City", was decommissioned in December 1979.


title: Cleveland-class cruiser

text: One "Cleveland"-class ship remains. The , refit in 1960 and re-designated as "Galveston"-class guided missile light cruiser CLG-4 (later CG-4), is now a museum ship at the Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park in Buffalo, New York, alongside the , and the , .


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: The Gilgamesh flood myth is a flood myth in the "Epic of Gilgamesh". Many scholars believe that the flood myth was added to Tablet XI in the "standard version" of the Gilgamesh Epic by an editor who used the flood story from the Epic of Atrahasis. A short reference to the flood myth is also present in the much older Sumerian Gilgamesh poems, from which the later Babylonian versions drew much of their inspiration and subject matter.


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: Gilgamesh's supposed historical reign is believed to have been approximately 2700 BC, shortly before the earliest known written stories. The discovery of artifacts associated with Aga and Enmebaragesi of Kish, two other kings named in the stories, has lent credibility to the historical existence of Gilgamesh.


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: The earliest Sumerian Gilgamesh poems date from as early as the Third dynasty of Ur (2100–2000 BC). One of these poems mentions Gilgamesh’s journey to meet the flood hero, as well as a short version of the flood story. The earliest Akkadian versions of the unified epic are dated to ca. 2000–1500 BC. Due to the fragmentary nature of these Old Babylonian versions, it is unclear whether they included an expanded account of the flood myth; although one fragment definitely includes the story of Gilgamesh's journey to meet Utnapishtim. The "standard" Akkadian version included a long version of the story and was edited by Sin-liqe-unninni, who lived sometime between 1300 and 1000 BC.


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: The Gilgamesh flood tablet XI was discovered in Nineveh. It contains additional story material besides the flood. The flood story was included because in it, the flood hero Utnapishtim is granted immortality by the gods and that fits the immortality theme of the epic. The main point seems to be that Utnapishtim was granted eternal life in unique, never-to-be-repeated circumstances. As if to demonstrate this point, Utnapishtim challenges Gilgamesh to stay awake for six days and seven nights. However, as soon as Utnapishtim finishes speaking Gilgamesh falls asleep. Utnapishtim instructs his wife to bake a loaf of bread for every day he is asleep so that Gilgamesh cannot deny his failure. Gilgamesh, who wants to overcome death, cannot even conquer sleep.


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: As Gilgamesh is leaving, Utnapishtim's wife asks her husband to offer a parting gift. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh of a boxthorn-like plant at the very bottom of the ocean that will make him young again. Gilgamesh obtains the plant by binding stones to his feet so he can walk on the bottom of the sea. He recovers the plant and plans to test it on an old man when he returns to Uruk. Unfortunately, when Gilgamesh stops to bathe it is stolen by a serpent that sheds its skin as it departs, apparently reborn. Gilgamesh, having failed both chances, returns to Uruk, where the sight of its massive walls provokes him to praise this enduring work of mortal men. The implication may be that mortals can achieve immortality through lasting works of civilization and culture.


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: In addition to the flood story material, (lines 1–203), tablet XI contains the following flood story elements:


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: These are some of the sentences copied more or less directly from the "Atrahasis" version to the "Gilgamesh" epic:


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: The Epic of Atrahasis provides additional information on the flood and flood hero that is omitted in Gilgamesh XI and other versions of the Ancient Near East flood myth. According to Atrahasis III ii, lines 40–47 the flood hero was at a banquet when the storm and flood began: "He invited his people ... to a banquet ... He sent his family on board. They ate and they drank. But he (Atrahasis) was in and out. He could not sit, could not crouch, for his heart was broken and he was vomiting gall."


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: According to Tigay, Atrahasis tablet III iv, lines 6–9 clearly identify the flood as a local river flood: "Like dragonflies they [dead bodies] have filled the river. Like a raft they have moved in to the edge [of the boat]. Like a raft they have moved in to the riverbank." The sentence "Like dragonflies they have filled the river." was changed in Gilgamesh XI line 123 to "Like the spawn of fishes, they fill the sea." Tigay holds that we can see the mythmaker's hand at work here, changing a local river flood into an ocean deluge.


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: Most other authorities interpret the Atrahasis flood as universal. A. R. George, and Lambert and Millard make it clear that the gods' intention in Atrahasis is to "wipe out mankind". The flood destroys "all of the earth". The use of a comparable metaphor in the Gilgamesh epic suggests that the reference to "dragonflies [filling] the river" is simply an evocative image of death rather than a literal description of the flood


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: Other editorial changes were made to the Atrahasis text in Gilgamesh to lessen the suggestion that the gods may have experienced human needs. For example, Atrahasis OB III, 30–31 "The Anunnaki, the great gods [were sitt]ing in thirst and hunger" was changed in Gilgamesh XI, line 113 to "The gods feared the deluge." Sentences in Atrahasis III iv were omitted in Gilgamesh, e.g. "She was surfeited with grief and thirsted for beer" and "From hunger they were suffering cramp."


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: These and other editorial changes to Atrahasis are documented and described in the book by Prof. Tigay (see below) who is associate professor of Hebrew and Semitic languages and literature in the University of Pennsylvania. Prof. Tigay comments: "The dropping of individual lines between others which are preserved, but are not synonymous with them, appears to be a more deliberate editorial act. These lines share a common theme, the hunger and thirst of the gods during the flood."


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: Although the 18th century BC copy of the Atrahasis (Atra-Hasis) epic post-dates the early Gilgamesh epic, we do not know whether the Old-Akkadian Gilgamesh tablets included the flood story, because of the fragmentary nature of surviving tablets. Some scholars argue that they did not. Tigay, for example, maintains that three major additions to the Gilgamesh epic, namely the prologue, the flood story (tablet XI), and tablet XII, were added by an editor or editors, possibly by Sin-leqi-unninni, to whom the entire epic was later attributed. According to this view, the flood story in tablet XI was based on a late version of the Atrahasis story.


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: As with most translations, especially from an ancient, dead language, scholars differ on the meaning of ambiguous sentences.


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: For example, line 57 in Gilgamesh XI is usually translated (with reference to the boat) "ten rods the height of her sides", or "its walls were each 10 times 12 cubits in height". A rod was a dozen cubits, and a Sumerian cubit was about 20 inches. Hence these translations imply that the boat was about 200 feet high, which would be impractical with the technology in Gilgamesh's time (about 2700 BC). There is no Akkadian word for "height" in line 57. The sentence literally reads "Ten dozen-cubits each I-raised its-walls." A similar example from an unrelated house building tablet reads: "he shall build the wall [of the house] and raise it four ninda and two cubits." This measurement (about 83 feet) means wall length not height.


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: Line 142 in Gilgamesh XI is usually translated "Mount Niṣir held the boat, allowing no motion." Niṣir is often spelled "Nimush", which is described as the newer reading. The Akkadian words translated "Mount Niṣir" are "KUR-ú KUR ni-ṣir". The word KUR could mean hill or country; it is capitalized because it is a Sumerian word. The first KUR is followed by a phonetic complement "-ú" which indicates that KUR-ú is to be read in Akkadian as "šadú" (hill) and not as "mātu" (country). Since "šadú" (hill) could also mean "mountain" in Akkadian, and scholars knew the Biblical expression "Mount Ararat", it has become customary to translate "šadú" as "mountain" or "mount". The flood hero was Sumerian, according to the WB-62 Sumerian King List. In Sumerian the word KUR's primary meaning is "mountain" as attested by the sign used for it. From the word mountain, the meaning "foreign country" is developed due to mountainous countries bordering Sumer. KUR in Sumerian also means "land" in general. The second KUR lacks a phonetic complement and is therefore read in Akkadian as "mātu" (country). Hence, the entire clause reads "The hill/mound country niṣir held the boat".


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: Lines 146-147 in Gilgamesh XI are usually translated "I ... made sacrifice, incense I placed on the peak of the mountain." Similarly "I poured out a libation on the peak of the mountain." But Kovacs provides this translation of line 156: "I offered incense in front of the mountain-ziggurat." Parpola provides the original Akkadian for this sentence: "áš-kun sur-qin-nu ina UGU ziq-qur-rat KUR-i" Áš-kun means I-placed; sur-qin-nu means offering; ina-(the preposition) means on-(upon); UGU means top-of; ziq-qur-rat means temple tower; and KUR-i means hilly. Parpola's glossary (page 145) defines ziq-qur-rat as "temple tower, ziggurat" and refers to line 157 so he translates ziq-qur-rat as temple tower in this context. The sentence literally reads "I placed an offering on top of a hilly ziggurat." A ziggurat was an elevated platform or temple tower where priests made offerings to the temple god. Most translators of line 157 disregard ziq-qur-rat as a redundant metaphor for peak. There is no authority for this other than previous translations of line 157. Kovacs' translation retains the word ziggurat on page 102.


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: One of the Sumerian cities with a ziggurat was Eridu located on the southern branch of the Euphrates River next to a large swampy low-lying depression known as the apsû. The only ziggurat at Eridu was at the temple of the god Ea (Enki), known as the apsû-house. In Gilgamesh XI, line 42 the flood hero said "I will go down [the river] to the apsû to live with Ea, my Lord."


title: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: Lines 189–192 (lines 198–201) in Gilgamesh XI are usually translated "Then Enlil came aboard the boat. He took hold of my hand and brought me on board. He brought aboard my wife and made her kneel at my side. Standing between us, he touched our foreheads to bless us." In the first sentence "Then dingir-kabtu came aboard the boat" the Akkadian determinative dingir is usually translated as "god", but can also mean "priest" Dingir-kabtu literally means "divine important-person". Translating this as Enlil is the translator's conjecture.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow (; or ; 13 October 18215 September 1902) was a German physician, anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist, writer, editor, and politician. He is known as "the father of modern pathology" and as the founder of social medicine, and to his colleagues, the "Pope of medicine".


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: Virchow studied medicine at the Friedrich Wilhelm University under Johannes Peter Müller. While working at the Charité hospital, his investigation of the 1847–1848 typhus epidemic in Upper Silesia laid the foundation for public health in Germany, and paved his political and social careers. From it, he coined a well known aphorism: "Medicine is a social science, and politics is nothing else but medicine on a large scale". His participation in the Revolution of 1848 led to his expulsion from Charité the next year. He then published a newspaper "Die Medizinische Reform" ("The Medical Reform"). He took the first Chair of Pathological Anatomy at the University of Würzburg in 1849. After five years, Charité reinstated him to its new Institute for Pathology. He co-founded the political party Deutsche Fortschrittspartei, and was elected to the Prussian House of Representatives and won a seat in the Reichstag. His opposition to Otto von Bismarck's financial policy resulted in duel challenge by the latter. However, Virchow supported Bismarck in his anti-Catholic campaigns, which he named "Kulturkampf" ("culture struggle").


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: A prolific writer, he produced more than 2000 scientific writings. "Cellular Pathology" (1858), regarded as the root of modern pathology, introduced the third dictum in cell theory: "Omnis cellula e cellula" ("All cells come from cells"). He was a co-founder of "Physikalisch-Medizinische Gesellschaft" in 1849 and "Deutsche Gesellschaft für Pathologie" in 1897. He founded journals such as "Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für Klinische Medicin" (with Benno Reinhardt in 1847, later renamed "Virchows Archiv"), and "Zeitschrift für Ethnologie" ("Journal of Ethnology"). The latter is published by German Anthropological Association and the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology and Prehistory, the societies which he also founded.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: Virchow was the first to describe and name diseases such as leukemia, chordoma, ochronosis, embolism, and thrombosis. He coined biological terms such as "neuroglia", "agenesis", "parenchyma", "osteoid", "amyloid degeneration", and "spina bifida"; terms such as Virchow's node, Virchow–Robin spaces, Virchow–Seckel syndrome, and Virchow's triad are named after him. His description of the life cycle of a roundworm "Trichinella spiralis" influenced the practice of meat inspection. He developed the first systematic method of autopsy, and introduced hair analysis in forensic investigation. Opposing the germ theory of diseases, he rejected Ignaz Semmelweis's idea of disinfecting. He was critical of what he described as "Nordic mysticism" regarding the Aryan race. As an anti-Darwinist, he called Charles Darwin an "ignoramus" and his own student Ernst Haeckel a "fool". He described the original specimen of Neanderthal man as nothing but that of a deformed human.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: Virchow was born in Schievelbein, in eastern Pomerania, Prussia (now Świdwin, Poland). He was the only child of Carl Christian Siegfried Virchow (1785–1865) and Johanna Maria "née" Hesse (1785–1857). His father was a farmer and the city treasurer. Academically brilliant, he always topped his classes and was fluent in German, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, English, Arabic, French, Italian and Dutch. He progressed to the gymnasium in Köslin (now Koszalin in Poland) in 1835 with the goal of becoming a pastor. He graduated in 1839 with a thesis titled "A Life Full of Work and Toil is not a Burden but a Benediction". However, he chose medicine mainly because he considered his voice too weak for preaching.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: In 1840, he received a military fellowship, a scholarship for gifted children from poor families to become army surgeons, to study medicine at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin (now Humboldt University of Berlin). He was most influenced by Johannes Peter Müller, his doctoral advisor. Virchow defended his doctoral thesis titled "De rheumate praesertim corneae" (corneal manifestations of rheumatic disease) on 21 October 1843. Immediately on graduation, he became subordinate physician to Müller. But shortly after, he joined the Charité Hospital in Berlin for internship. In 1844, he was appointed as medical assistant to the prosector (pathologist) Robert Froriep, from whom he learned microscopy which interested him in pathology. Froriep was also the editor of an abstract journal that specialised in foreign work, which inspired Virchow for scientific ideas of France and England.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: Virchow published his first scientific paper in 1845, giving the earliest known pathological descriptions of leukemia. He passed the medical licensure examination in 1846 and immediately succeeded Froriep as hospital prosector at the Charité. In 1847, he was appointed to his first academic position with the rank of "privatdozent". Because his articles did not receive favourable attention from German editors, he founded "Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für Klinische Medicin" (now known as "Virchows Archiv") with a colleague Benno Reinhardt in 1847. He edited alone after Reinhardt's death in 1852 till his own. This journal published critical articles based on the criterion that no papers would be published that contained outdated, untested, dogmatic or speculative ideas.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: Unlike his German peers, Virchow had great faith in clinical observation, animal experimentation (to determine causes of diseases and the effects of drugs) and pathological anatomy, particularly at the microscopic level, as the basic principles of investigation in medical sciences. He went further and stated that the cell was the basic unit of the body that had to be studied to understand disease. Although the term 'cell' had been coined in 1665 during the English scientist Robert Hooke's early application of the microscope to biology, the building blocks of life were still considered to be the 21 tissues of Bichat, a concept described by the French physician Xavier Bichat.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: The Prussian government employed Virchow to study the typhus epidemic in Upper Silesia in 1847–1848. It was from this medical campaign that he developed his ideas on social medicine and politics after seeing the victims and their poverty. Even though he was not particularly successful in combating the epidemic, his 190-paged "Report on the Typhus Epidemic in Upper Silesia" in 1848 became a turning point in politics and public health in Germany. He returned to Berlin on 10 March 1848, and only eight days later, a revolution broke out against the government in which he played an active part. To fight political injustice he helped found "Die Medizinische Reform (Medical Reform)", a weekly newspaper for promoting social medicine, in July of that year. The newspaper ran under the banners "medicine is a social science" and "the physician is the natural attorney of the poor". Political pressures forced him to terminate the publication in June 1849, and he was expelled from his official position.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: In November 1848, he was given an academic appointment and left Berlin for the University of Würzburg to hold Germany's first chair of pathological anatomy. During his six-year period there, he concentrated on his scientific work, including detailed studies of venous thrombosis and cellular theory. His first major work there was a six-volume "Handbuch der speciellen Pathologie und Therapie (Handbook on Special Pathology and Therapeutics)" published in 1854. In 1856, he returned to Berlin to become the newly created Chair for Pathological Anatomy and Physiology at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-University, as well as Director of the newly built Institute for Pathology on the premises of the Charité. He held the latter post for the next 20 years.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: Virchow is credited with several key discoveries. His most widely known scientific contribution is his cell theory, which built on the work of Theodor Schwann. He was one of the first to accept the work of Robert Remak, who showed that the origin of cells was the division of pre-existing cells. He did not initially accept the evidence for cell division and believed that it occurs only in certain types of cells. When it dawned on him in 1855 that Remak might be right, he published Remak's work as his own, causing a falling-out between the two.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: Virchow was particularly influenced in cellular theory by the work of John Goodsir of Edinburgh, whom he described as "one of the earliest and most acute observers of cell-life both physiological and pathological". Virchow dedicated his "magnum opus" "Die Cellularpathologie" to Goodsir. Virchow's cellular theory was encapsulated in the epigram "Omnis cellula e cellula" ("all cells (come) from cells"), which he published in 1855. (The epigram was actually coined by François-Vincent Raspail, but popularized by Virchow.) It is a rejection of the concept of spontaneous generation, which held that organisms could arise from nonliving matter. For example, maggots were believed to appear spontaneously in decaying meat; Francesco Redi carried out experiments that disproved this notion and coined the maxim "Omne vivum ex ovo" ("Every living thing comes from a living thing" — literally "from an egg"); Virchow (and his predecessors) extended this to state that the only source for a living cell was another living cell.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: In 1845, Virchow and John Hughes Bennett independently observed abnormal increases in white blood cells in some patients. Virchow correctly identified the condition as a blood disease, and named it "leukämie" in 1847 (later anglicised to leukemia). In 1857, he was the first to describe a type of tumour called chordoma that originated from the clivus (at the base of the skull).


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: Virchow was the first to correctly link the origin of cancers from otherwise normal cells. (His teacher Müller had proposed that cancers originated from cells, but from special cells, which he called blastema.) In 1855, he suggested that cancers arise from the activation of dormant cells (perhaps similar to cells now known as stem cells) present in mature tissue. Virchow believed that cancer is caused by severe irritation in the tissues, and his theory came to be known as chronic irritation theory. He thought, rather wrongly, that the irritation spread in the form of liquid so that cancer rapidly increases. His theory was largely ignored, as he was proved wrong that it was not by liquid, but by metastasis of the already cancerous cells that cancers spread. (Metastasis was first described by Karl Thiersch in the 1860s.)


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: He made a crucial observation that certain cancers (carcinoma in the modern sense) were inherently associated with white blood cells (which are now called macrophages) that produced irritation (inflammation). It was only towards the end of the 20th century that Virchow's theory was taken seriously. It was realised that specific cancers (including those of mesothelioma, lung, prostate, bladder, pancreatic, cervical, esophageal, melanoma, and head and neck) are indeed strongly associated with long-term inflammation. In addition it became clear that prolonged use of anti-inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin, reduced cancer risk. Experiments also show that drugs that block inflammation simultaneously inhibit tumour formation and development.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: Virchow was one of the leading physicians to Kaiser Frederick III, who suffered from cancer of the larynx. While other physicians such as Ernst von Bergmann suggested surgical removal of the entire larynx, Virchow was opposed to it because no successful operation of this kind had ever been done. The British surgeon Morell Mackenzie performed a biopsy of the Kaiser in 1887 and sent it to Virchow, who identified it as "pachydermia verrucosa laryngis". Virchow affirmed that the tissues were not cancerous, even after several biopsy tests.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: The Kaiser died on 15 June 1888. The next day a post-mortem examination was performed by Virchow and his assistant. They found that the larynx was extensively damaged by ulceration, and microscopic examination confirmed epidermal carcinoma. "Die Krankheit Kaiser Friedrich des Dritten (The Medical Report of Kaiser Frederick III)" was published on 11 July under the lead authorship of Bergmann. But Virchow and Mackenzie were omitted, and they were particularly criticised for all their works. The arguments between them turned into a century-long controversy, resulting in Virchow being accused of misdiagnosis and malpractice. But reassessment of the diagnostic history revealed that Virchow was right in his findings and decisions. It is now believed that the Kaiser had hybrid verrucous carcinoma, a very rare form of verrucous carcinoma, and that Virchow had no way of correctly identifying it. (The cancer type was correctly identified only in 1948 by Lauren Ackerman.)


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: It was discovered approximately simultaneously by Virchow and Charles Emile Troisier that an enlarged left supraclavicular node is one of the earliest signs of gastrointestinal malignancy, commonly of the stomach, or less commonly, lung cancer. This sign has become known as Virchow's node and simultaneously Troisier's sign.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: Virchow is also known for elucidating the mechanism of pulmonary thromboembolism (a condition of blood clotting in the blood vessels), coining the terms embolism and thrombosis. He noted that blood clots in the pulmonary artery originate first from venous thrombi, stating in 1859: [T]he detachment of larger or smaller fragments from the end of the softening thrombus which are carried along by the current of blood and driven into remote vessels. This gives rise to the very frequent process on which I have bestowed the name of Embolia." Having made these initial discoveries based on autopsies, he proceeded to put forward a scientific hypothesis; that pulmonary thrombi are transported from the veins of the leg and that the blood has the ability to carry such an object. He then proceeded to prove this hypothesis by well-designed experiments, repeated numerous times to consolidate evidence, and with meticulously detailed methodology. This work rebutted a claim made by the eminent French pathologist Jean Cruveilhier that phlebitis led to clot development and that thus coagulation was the main consequence of venous inflammation. This was a view held by many before Virchow's work. Related to this research, Virchow described the factors contributing to venous thrombosis, Virchow's triad.


title: Rudolf Virchow

text: Virchow founded the medical fields of cellular pathology and comparative pathology (comparison of diseases common to humans and animals). His most important work in the field was "Cellular Pathology" ("Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische und pathologische Gewebelehre") published in 1858, as a collection of his lectures. This is regarded as the basis of modern medical science, and the "greatest advance which scientific medicine had made since its beginning."