title: Date rape

text: Date rape was widely discussed on college campuses in North America during the 1980s but first attracted significant media attention in 1991, when an unnamed 29-year-old woman accused William Kennedy Smith, a nephew of former President John F. Kennedy, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, and Senator Ted Kennedy, of raping her on a nearby beach after meeting in a Florida bar. Millions of people watched the trial on television. Also in 1991, Katie Koestner came forward publicly about her own experience with date rape. Koestner was featured on the cover of "Time" magazine, appeared on shows such as "Larry King Live" and "The Oprah Winfrey Show". Her efforts helped bring a human face to victims of date rape and helped bring the term into common use. Koestner was featured in a 1993 HBO special, "No Visible Bruises: The Katie Koestner Story" as part of the series, "".


title: Date rape

text: British ska band The Special AKA, with Rhoda Dakar, released the single The Boiler in 1982, which follows a woman who recounts being date raped by a boiler; the single reached No. 35 in the UK charts. Hip hop band A Tribe Called Quest has a song titled "The Infamous Date Rape", included in their album "The Low End Theory", which was released shortly after the William Kennedy Smith incident. American ska punk band Sublime released a humorous song called "Date Rape" in 1991; the song ends with the date rapist being sent to prison and being anally raped by a fellow inmate.


title: Date rape

text: Date rape received more media attention in 1992, when former boxer Mike Tyson was convicted of rape after inviting 18-year-old Desiree Washington to a party and then raping her in his hotel room.


title: Date rape

text: In her 1994 book "The Morning After: Sex, Fear, and Feminism", American author Katie Roiphe wrote about attending Harvard and Princeton in the late 1980s and early 1990s, amid what she described as a "culture captivated by victimization", and argued "If a woman's 'judgment is impaired' and she has sex, it isn't always the man's fault; it isn't necessarily always rape."


title: Date rape

text: In 2007, American journalist Laura Sessions Stepp wrote an article for "Cosmopolitan" magazine titled "A New Kind of Date Rape", in which she popularized the term "gray rape" to refer to "sex that falls somewhere between consent and denial". The term was afterwards picked up and discussed by "The New York Times", "Slate", and PBS, and was criticized by many feminists, including "Bitch" founding editor Lisa Jervis, who argued that gray rape and date rape "are the same thing", and that the popularization of gray rape constituted a backlash against women's sexual empowerment and risked rolling back the gains women had made in having rape taken seriously.


title: Shanice

text: Shanice Lorraine Wilson-Knox (née Wilson; born May 14, 1973) is an American singer-songwriter, actress and dancer. Shanice had the "Billboard" hit singles "I Love Your Smile" and "Silent Prayer" in 1991 and "Saving Forever for You" in 1993. In 1999, Shanice scored another hit song, "When I Close My Eyes", which peaked at No. 12 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. Shanice is recognized for her coloratura soprano voice and her ability to sing in the whistle register.


title: Shanice

text: Shanice Wilson was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and relocated to Los Angeles, California with her mother Crystal, and her aunt Penni. Her mother and aunt went to Los Angeles in pursuit of careers in the music industry. They shifted their focus to Shanice and formed the management company Crystal Penni to cultivate and promote her talents. Shanice was nine years old when she appeared in a Kentucky Fried Chicken commercial with the legendary jazz vocalist Ella Fitzgerald. In 1984, she was part of the regular cast in the first thirteen episodes of the children's program "Kids Incorporated." Shanice competed on "Star Search" as an eleven-year old, and later signed with A&M Records.


title: Shanice

text: In 1987, at the age of 14, A&M Records released her debut album, "Discovery". It produced two top-ten R&B hits, "(Baby Tell Me) Can You Dance" and "No ½ Steppin'". Shanice went on to sign a deal with Motown Records in the summer of 1990, releasing "Inner Child" in late 1991, which included her best-known hit single "I Love Your Smile". It reached the top ten in 22 countries, including the U.S. "Billboard" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and No. 2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The album also featured a cover of Minnie Riperton's 1974 hit "Lovin' You", a rendition that brought attention to her three-and-a-half octave vocal range.


title: Shanice

text: After "Inner Child", Shanice continued to record albums, including 1994's "21… Ways to Grow" with producer Rhett Lawrence, a Los Angeles session musician and Earth Wind & Fire guitarist Dick Smith. This effort was followed by a move to LaFace Records in 1997, who later released the 1999 album "Shanice." While she has not achieved significant commercial success with subsequent albums, she has contributed to various film soundtracks, such as "Boomerang" ("Don't Wanna Love You") and "The Meteor Man" ("It's for You"). Shanice also achieved success with her top-ten hit "Saving Forever for You", from the "Beverly Hills 90210 Soundtrack". She later recorded "If I Never Knew You", a duet with Jon Secada, for the original soundtrack of Disney's 1995 film "Pocahontas." While still with Motown, she also recorded a cover version of "If I Were Your Woman" by Gladys Knight and the Pips. Tami Roman and the fellow members of her 90's R&B group quartet, "Female", provided the backing vocals in the song, released via the Panther soundtrack on May 2, 1995, weeks before the Pocahontas soundtrack was released on May 30, 1995.


title: Shanice

text: Shanice occasionally does background vocals for other artists; she can be heard on Toni Braxton's "Come on Over Here" and "Un-Break My Heart", as well as Usher's "Bedtime". In 2010 she performed vocals on the track "Behind the Mask", from Michael Jackson's posthumous album "Michael". Shanice recorded the song "A Midnight Rendezvous" for the 2012 Kinect game " Rhythm Party". She also performed "Love Is the Gift", the English theme song for the video game "The Bouncer". Shanice returned to recording after a five-year hiatus and released her fifth studio album "Every Woman Dreams" on her own label Imajah (named for her two children). The album peaked at No. 30 on the R&B Albums Chart.


title: Shanice

text: In 2019, Shanice returned with the new single "He Won't". In 2022, she was selected to sing the theme song of the Sesame Street spinoff series Mecha Builders, alongside Eric Bellinger.


title: Shanice

text: In addition to singing, Shanice is also an actress, first appearing in "Rock Enroll", a season five episode of "Family Matters". In 1997, she became the first Black performer to star in the role of Eponine in the musical "Les Misérables" on Broadway. In 2001, Shanice made an appearance as a singer on her husband Flex's TV show One on One. That same year, she starred in the made-for-TV movie " One Special Moment," an adaptation of Brenda Jackson's 1998 novel of the same name. In 2011, Shanice joined Niecy Nash and Frenchie Davis for the 21st Annual "Divas Simply Singing" HIV/AIDS charity event. Shanice and her husband, Flex, also starred in the OWN reality show "Flex & Shanice", which premiered on November 1, 2014.


title: Shanice

text: On February 19, 2000, Shanice married actor/comedian Flex Alexander. They have two children, daughter Imani Shekinah Knox (born August 23, 2001) and son Elijah Alexander Knox (born March 5, 2004).


title: Shanice

text: The Grammy Awards (originally called the Gramophone Awards) — or Grammys – are presented annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States for outstanding achievements in the music industry. The awards ceremony features performances by prominent artists, and some of the awards of more popular interest are presented in a widely viewed televised ceremony.


title: Shanice

text: The Soul Train Music Awards is an annual award show aired in national television syndication that honors the best in Black music and entertainment. It is produced by the makers of "Soul Train", the program from which it takes its name, and features musical performances by various R&B and hip hop music recording artists interspersed throughout the ceremonies.


title: Gary Sanchez Productions

text: Gary Sanchez Productions was an American film and television production company founded by Will Ferrell and Adam McKay.


title: Gary Sanchez Productions

text: Gary Sanchez Productions was founded in 2006 by comedians and filmmakers Will Ferrell and Adam McKay. The company is named after a fictional "Paraguayan entrepreneur and financier", Gary Sanchez. In 2007, McKay and Ferrell also founded the video site Funny or Die, under the ownership of the production company.


title: Gary Sanchez Productions

text: On April 8, 2019, it was announced that Ferrell and McKay would be dissolving their partnership, and that all developed projects at that time would continue to be completed. In October 2019, McKay founded Hyperobject Industries. In January 2020, it was announced that Ferrell opened the doors of Gloria Sanchez Productions, taking on new projects with a reorganized company.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The common chaffinch or simply the chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) is a common and widespread small passerine bird in the finch family. The male is brightly coloured with a blue-grey cap and rust-red underparts. The female is more subdued in colouring, but both sexes have two contrasting white wing bars and white sides to the tail. The male bird has a strong voice and sings from exposed perches to attract a mate.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The chaffinch breeds in much of Europe, across the Palearctic to Siberia and in northwestern Africa. The female builds a nest with a deep cup in the fork of a tree. The clutch is typically four or five eggs, which hatch in about 13 days. The chicks fledge in around 14 days, but are fed by both adults for several weeks after leaving the nest. Outside the breeding season, chaffinches form flocks in open countryside and forage for seeds on the ground. During the breeding season, they forage on trees for invertebrates, especially caterpillars, and feed these to their young. They are partial migrants; birds breeding in warmer regions are sedentary, while those breeding in the colder northern areas of their range winter further south.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The eggs and nestlings of the chaffinch are taken by a variety of mammalian and avian predators. Its large numbers and huge range mean that chaffinches are classed as of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The common chaffinch was described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the 10th edition of his "Systema Naturae" under its current binomial name. "Fringilla" is the Latin word for finch, while "caelebs" means unmarried or single. Linnaeus remarked that during the Swedish winter, only the female birds migrated south through Belgium to Italy.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The English name comes from the Old English "ceaffinc", where "ceaf" is "chaff" and "finc" "finch". Chaffinches were likely given this name because after farmers thresh their crops, these birds sometimes spend weeks picking through heaps of discarded chaff for grain. The chaffinch is one of the many birds depicted in the marginal decoration of the 15th-century English illuminated manuscript the Sherborne Missal. The English naturalist William Turner described the common chaffinch in his book on birds "Avium praecipuarum", published in 1544. Although the text is in Latin, Turner gives the English name as chaffinche and lists two folk names: sheld-appel and spink. The word "sheld" is a dialectal word meaning pied or multicoloured (as in shelduck). Appel may be related to "Alp", an obsolete word for a bullfinch. The name "spink" is probably derived from the bird's call note. The names spink and shell apple are among the many folk names listed for the common chaffinch by Reverend Charles Swainson in his "Provincial Names and Folk Lore of British Birds" (1885).


title: Common chaffinch

text: The Fringillidae are all seed-eaters with stout conical bills. They have similar skull morphologies, nine large primaries, 12 tail feathers and no crop. In all species, the female builds the nest, incubates the eggs, and broods the young. Finches are divided into two subfamilies, the Carduelinae, containing around 28 genera with 141 species and the Fringillinae containing a single genus, "Fringilla", with four species: the common chaffinch ("F. coelebs"), the Gran Canaria blue chaffinch ("F. polatzeki"), the Tenerife blue chaffinch ("F. teydea"), and the brambling ("F. montifringilla"). Fringilline finches raise their young almost entirely on arthropods, while the cardueline finches raise their young on regurgitated seeds.


title: Common chaffinch

text: A number of subspecies of the common chaffinch have been described, based principally on the differences in the pattern and colour of the adult male plumage. The subspecies can be divided into three groups: the ""coelebs" group" that occurs in Europe and Asia, the ""spondiogenys" group" in North Africa, and the ""canariensis" group" on the Canary Islands. The subspecies from Madeira and the Azores are placed either in the ""canariensis" group" or in the ""spondiogenys" group". Genetic studies indicate that members of the ""coelebs" group" and the ""spondiogenys" group" are more closely related to each other than they are to members of the ""canariensis" group".


title: Common chaffinch

text: Within the ""spondiogenys" group", the gradual clinal variation over the large geographic range and the extensive intergradation means that the geographical limits and acceptance of the various subspecies varies between authorities. The International Ornithologists' Union lists 11 subspecies from this group, whereas Peter Clement in the Birds of the World lists seven and considers the features of the subspecies "balearica" (Mallorca), "caucasica" (the southern Caucasus), "schiebeli" (southern Greece, Crete and western Turkey), and "tyrrhenica" (Corsica) to fall within the variation of the nominate subspecies. He also suggests that the subspecies "alexandrovi", "sarda", "solomkoi", and "syriaca" may represent variations of the nominate subspecies.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The authors of a 2009 molecular phylogenetic study on the three subspecies that were recognised on the Canary Islands concluded that they are sufficiently distinct in both genotype and phenotype to be considered as separate species within the genus "Fringilla". They also proposed a revised distribution of the subspecies on the islands in which the birds on La Palma ("palmae") and El Hierro ("ombrioso") are grouped together as a single subspecies, while the current "canariensis" subspecies is split into two, with one subspecies occurring only on Gran Canaria and the other on La Gomera and Tenerife. The results of a study published in 2018 confirmed the earlier findings. The authors formerly described the Gran Canaria variety as a subspecies and coined the trinomial name "Fringilla coelebs bakeri".


title: Common chaffinch

text: The common chaffinch is about long, with a wingspan of and a weight of . The adult male of the nominate subspecies has a black forehead and a blue-grey crown, nape and upper mantle. The rump is a light olive-green; the lower mantle and scapulars form a brown saddle. The side of head, throat and breast are a dull rust-red merging to a pale creamy-pink on the belly. The central pair of tail feathers are dark grey with a black shaft streak. The rest of the tail is black apart from the two outer feathers on each side which have white wedges. Each wing has a contrasting white panel on the coverts and a buff-white bar on the secondaries and inner primaries. The flight feathers are black with white on the basal portions of the vanes. The secondaries and inner primaries have pale yellow fringes on the outer web whereas the outer primaries have a white outer edge.


title: Common chaffinch

text: After the autumn moult, the tips of the new feathers have a buff fringe that adds a brown cast to the coloured plumage. The ends of the feathers wear away over the winter so that by the spring breeding season the underlying brighter colours are displayed. The eyes have dark brown irises and the legs are grey-brown. In winter the bill is a pale grey and slightly darker along the upper ridge or culmen, but in spring the bill becomes bluish-grey with a small black tip.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The male of the subspecies resident in the British Isles ("F. c. gengleri") closely resembles the nominate subspecies, but has a slightly darker mantle and underparts. The males of the two North African subspecies "F. c. africana" and "F. c. spodiogenys" have a blue-grey crown and nape that extends down to the sides of the head and neck, a black forehead and lore, a broken white eye-ring, a bright olive-green saddle and a pink-buff throat and breast. The males of "F. c. canariensis" and "F. c. palmae" in the Canary Islands have deep slate-blue upperparts and lack a contrasting mantle. Male chaffinches in Madeira ("F. c. maderensis") and the Azores ("F. c. moreletti") are similar in appearance to "F. c. canariensis", but have a bright green mantle.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The adult female is much duller in appearance than the male. The head and most of the upperparts are shades of grey-brown. The underparts are paler. The lower back and rump are a dull olive green. The wings and tail are similar to those of the male. The juvenile resembles the female.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The acquisition by the young common chaffinch of its song was the subject of an influential study by British ethologist William Thorpe. Thorpe determined that if the young common chaffinch is not exposed to the adult male's song during a certain critical period after hatching, it will never properly learn the song. He also found that in adult common chaffinches, castration eliminates the song, but injection of testosterone induces such birds to sing even in November, when they are normally silent.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The common chaffinch breeds in wooded areas where the July isotherm is between . The breeding range includes northwestern Africa and most of Europe and extends eastwards across temperate Asia to the Angara River and the southern end of Lake Baikal in Siberia. There are also a number of distinctive subspecies on the Azores, the Canary Islands and the Madeira Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. The common chaffinch was introduced from Great Britain into several of its overseas territories in the second half of the 19th century. In New Zealand, the common chaffinch had colonised both the North and South Islands by 1900 and is now one of the most widespread and common passerine species. In South Africa, a very small breeding colony in the suburbs of Constantia, Hout Bay, Pinelands and Camps Bay in Cape Town is the only remnant of another such introduction.


title: Common chaffinch

text: This bird is not migratory in the milder parts of its range, but vacates the colder regions in winter. It forms loose flocks outside the breeding season, sometimes mixed with bramblings. It occasionally strays to eastern North America, although some sightings may be escapees.


title: Common chaffinch

text: Common chaffinches first breed when they are 1 year old. They are mainly monogamous and the pair-bond for residential subspecies such as "gengleri" sometimes persists from one year to the next. The date for breeding is dependent on the spring temperature and is earlier in southwest Europe and later in the northeast. In Great Britain, most clutches are laid between late April and the middle of June. A male attracts a female to his territory through song.


title: Common chaffinch

text: Nests are built entirely by the female and are usually located in the fork of a bush or a tree several metres above the ground. The nest has a deep cup and is lined with a layer of thin roots and feathers. The outside is covered with a layer of lichen and spider silk over an inner layer of moss and grass. The eggs are laid in early morning at daily intervals until the clutch is complete. The clutch is typically 4–5 eggs, which are smooth and slightly glossy, but very variable in colour. They range from pale-blueish green to light red with purple-brown blotches, spots or steaks. The average size of an egg is with a weight of . The eggs are incubated for 10–16 days by the female. The chicks are altricial, hatching nearly naked with closed eyes, and are fed by both parents but mainly by the female, who broods them for around six days. They are mainly fed caterpillars. The nestlings fledge 11–18 days after hatching and disperse. The young birds are then assisted with feeding by both parents for a further three weeks. The parents only very rarely start a second brood, but when they do so it is always in a new nest. Juveniles undergo a partial moult at around five weeks of age in which they replace their head, body and many of their covert feathers, but not their primary and secondary flight feathers. After breeding adult birds undergo a complete annual moult which lasts around ten weeks.


title: Common chaffinch

text: In a study carried out in Britain using ring-recovery data, the survival rate for juveniles in their first year was 53 per cent, and the adult annual survival rate was 59 per cent. From these figures the typical lifespan is only 3 years, but the maximum age recorded is 15 years and 6 months for a bird in Switzerland.


title: Common chaffinch

text: Outside the breeding season, common chaffinches mainly eat seeds and other plant material that they find on the ground. They often forage in open country in large flocks. Common chaffinches seldom take food directly from plants and only very rarely use their feet for handling food. During the breeding season, their diet switches to invertebrates, especially defoliating caterpillars. They forage in trees and also occasionally make short sallies to catch insects in the air. The young are entirely fed with invertebrates which include caterpillars, aphids, earwigs, spiders and grubs (the larvae of beetles).


title: Common chaffinch

text: The eggs and nestlings of the common chaffinch are predated by crows, Eurasian red and eastern grey squirrels, domestic cats and probably also by stoats and weasels. Clutches begun later in the spring suffer less predation, an effect that is believed to be due to the increased vegetation making nests more difficult to find. Unlike the case for the closely related brambling, the common chaffinch is not parasitised by the common cuckoo.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The protozoal parasite "Trichomonas gallinae" was known to infect pigeons and raptors, but beginning in Great Britain in 2005, carcasses of dead European greenfinches and common chaffinches were found to be infected with the parasite. The disease spread and in 2008, infected carcasses were found in Norway, Sweden and Finland and a year later in Germany. The spread of the disease is believed to have been mediated by common chaffinches, as large numbers of the birds breed in northern Europe and winter in Great Britain. In Great Britain, the number of infected carcasses recovered each year declined after a peak in 2006. There was a reduction in the number of European greenfinches but no significant decline in the overall number of common chaffinches. A similar pattern occurred in Finland where, after the arrival of the disease in 2008, there was a reduction in the number of European greenfinches, but only a small change in the number of common chaffinches.


title: Common chaffinch

text: Common chaffinches can develop tumors on their feet and legs caused by the "Fringilla coelebs" papillomavirus. The size of the papillomas range from a small nodule on a digit to a large growth involving both the foot and the leg. The disease is uncommon: in a 1973 study undertaken in the Netherlands, of around 25,000 common chaffinches screened, only 330 bore papillomas.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The common chaffinch has an extensive range, estimated at 7 million square kilometres (3.7 million square miles) and a large population including an estimated 130–240 million breeding pairs in Europe. Allowing for the birds breeding in Asia, the total population lies between 530 and 1,400 million individuals. There is no evidence of any serious overall decline in numbers, so the species is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of Least Concern.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The endemic subspecies on the Macaronesian islands in the Atlantic are vulnerable to the loss of habitat, especially "F. c. ombriosa" on El Hierro in the Canary Islands, where the breeding population is between 1,000 and 5,000 pairs.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The common chaffinch was once popular as a caged songbird and large numbers of wild birds were trapped and sold. At the end of the 19th century, trapping even depleted the number of birds in London parks. In 1882, the English publisher Samuel Orchart Beeton issued a guide on the care of caged birds and included the recommendation: "To parents and guardians plagued with a morose and sulky boy, my advice is, buy him a chaffinch." Competitions were held where bets were placed on which caged common chaffinch would repeat its song the greatest number of times. The birds were sometimes blinded with a hot needle in the belief that this encouraged them to sing. This practice is the subject of the poem "The Blinded Bird" by the English author Thomas Hardy, which contrasts the cruelty involved in blinding the birds with their zestful song. In Great Britain, the practice of keeping common chaffinches as pets declined after the trapping of wild birds was outlawed by the Wild Birds Protection Acts of 1880 to 1896.


title: Common chaffinch

text: The common chaffinch is still a popular pet bird in some European countries. In Belgium, the traditional sport of vinkenzetting pits male common chaffinches against one another in a contest for the most bird calls in an hour.


title: Amelia Bullmore

text: Amelia Mary Bullmore (born 31 January 1964) is an English actress, screenwriter and playwright. She is known for her roles in "Coronation Street" (1990–1992), "I'm Alan Partridge" (2002), "Ashes to Ashes" (2008–2009), "Twenty Twelve" (2011–2012) and "Scott & Bailey" (2011–2014). Bullmore began writing in 1994. Her writing credits include episodes of "This Life", "Attachments", "Black Cab", and "Scott & Bailey."


title: Amelia Bullmore

text: Bullmore was born in Chelsea, London, to Jeremy Bullmore, an advertising executive, and Pamela Bullmore (née Green), a gardening writer. She has two older brothers, neuropsychiatrist and neuroscientist Edward Bullmore and documentary filmmaker Adam Bullmore.


title: Amelia Bullmore

text: Bullmore was part of a cabaret group named Red Stockings, along with Helen Edmundson. While performing at the Contact Theatre in Manchester, a casting director for "Coronation Street" saw her performance. Bullmore played Steph Barnes in "Coronation Street", and was a regular on the show from February 1990 to September 1991. She made brief returns in April 1992 and September 1995. She worked and lived in Manchester for 10 years, moving to London in 1995.


title: Amelia Bullmore

text: Bullmore appeared opposite Steve Coogan as Sonja, the Ukrainian girlfriend of Alan Partridge in the series two of the BBC2 comedy series "I'm Alan Partridge." She also appeared on BBC Radio 4's phone-in spoof "Down the Line."


title: Amelia Bullmore

text: From 2011 to 2014, Bullmore co-starred in the crime drama "Scott & Bailey." She also wrote seven episodes of the show.


title: Amelia Bullmore

text: In 2005, Bullmore wrote her first play, "Mammals," which was staged at Bush Theatre and went on to tour the UK regionally.


title: Amelia Bullmore

text: In 2013, Bullmore wrote a second play, "Di and Viv and Rose", which was staged at Hampstead Theatre. "Di and Viv and Rose" is about the friendship of three women over the course of 30 years, from 1983 when they are in university to 2013. The play eventually transferred to the West End in early 2015, where it ran at the Vaudeville Theatre before closing in March.


title: Amelia Bullmore

text: In 1993, Bullmore married Scottish actor Paul Higgins. They met in Manchester in 1992 while they were performing "A View from the Bridge." The couple have two daughters, Mary and Flora.


title: Availability heuristic

text: The availability heuristic, also known as availability bias, is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. This heuristic, operating on the notion that, if something can be recalled, it must be important, or at least more important than alternative solutions not as readily recalled, is inherently biased toward recently acquired information.


title: Availability heuristic

text: The mental availability of an action's consequences is positively related to those consequences' perceived magnitude. In other words, the easier it is to recall the consequences of something, the greater those consequences are often perceived to be. Most notably, people often rely on the content of their recall if its implications are not called into question by the difficulty they have in recalling it.


title: Availability heuristic

text: In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman began work on a series of papers examining "heuristic and biases" used in the judgment under uncertainty. Prior to that, the predominant view in the field of human judgment was that humans are rational actors. Kahneman and Tversky explained that judgment under uncertainty often relies on a limited number of simplifying heuristics rather than extensive algorithmic processing. Soon, this idea spread beyond academic psychology, into law, medicine, and political science. This research questioned the descriptive adequacy of idealized models of judgment, and offered insights into the cognitive processes that explained human error without invoking motivated irrationality. One simplifying strategy people may rely on is the tendency to make a judgment about the frequency of an event based on how many similar instances are brought to mind. In 1973, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman first studied this phenomenon and labeled it the "availability heuristic". An availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. As follows, people tend to use a readily available fact to base their beliefs on a comparably distant concept. There has been much research done with this heuristic, but studies on the issue are still questionable with regard to the underlying process. Studies illustrate that manipulations intended to increase the subjective experience of ease of recall are also likely to affect the amount of recall. Furthermore, this makes it difficult to determine whether the obtained estimates of frequency, likelihood, or typicality are based on participants' phenomenal experiences or on a biased sample of recalled information.


title: Availability heuristic

text: However, some textbooks have chosen the latter interpretation introducing the availability heuristic as "one's judgments are always based on what comes to mind". For example, if a person is asked whether there are more words in the English language that contain a t or a k, the person will probably be able to think of more words that begin with the letter t, concluding that t is more frequent than k. In this Wikipedia article itself, for example, there are multiple instances of words such as "likely", "make", "take", "ask", "work" and indeed "Wikipedia", but (aside from names) only a couple of initial K's: "know" and "key".


title: Availability heuristic

text: Chapman (1967) described a bias in the judgment of the frequency with which two events co-occur. This demonstration showed that the co-occurrence of paired stimuli resulted in participants overestimating the frequency of the pairings. To test this idea, participants were given information about several hypothetical mental patients. The data for each patient consisted of a clinical diagnosis and a drawing made by the patient. Later, participants estimated the frequency with which each diagnosis had been accompanied by various features of the drawing. The subjects vastly overestimated the frequency of this co-occurrence (such as suspiciousness and peculiar eyes). This effect was labeled the illusory correlation. Tversky and Kahneman suggested that availability provides a natural account for the illusory-correlation effect. The strength of the association between two events could provide the basis for the judgment of how frequently the two events co-occur. When the association is strong, it becomes more likely to conclude that the events have been paired frequently. Strong associations will be thought of as having occurred together frequently.


title: Availability heuristic

text: In Tversky & Kahneman's first examination of availability heuristics, subjects were asked, "If a random word is taken from an English text, is it more likely that the word starts with a K, or that K is the third letter?" They argue that English-speaking people would immediately think of many words that begin with the letter "K" (kangaroo, kitchen, kale), but that it would take a more concentrated effort to think of any words in which "K" is the third letter (acknowledge, ask). Results indicated that participants overestimated the number of words that began with the letter "K" and underestimated the number of words that had "K" as the third letter. Tversky and Kahneman concluded that people answer questions like these by comparing the availability of the two categories and assessing how easily they can recall these instances. In other words, it is easier to think of words that begin with "K", more than words with "K" as the third letter. Thus, people judge words beginning with a "K" to be a more common occurrence. In reality, however, a typical text contains twice as many words that have "K" as the third letter than "K" as the first letter.


title: Availability heuristic

text: In Tversky and Kahneman's seminal paper, they include findings from several other studies, which also show support for the availability heuristic. Apart from their findings in the "K" study, they also found:


title: Availability heuristic

text: Many researchers have attempted to identify the psychological process which creates the availability heuristic.


title: Availability heuristic

text: Tversky and Kahneman argue that the number of examples recalled from memory is used to infer the frequency with which such instances occur. In an experiment to test this explanation, participants listened to lists of names containing either 19 famous women and 20 less famous men or 19 famous men and 20 less famous women. Subsequently, some participants were asked to recall as many names as possible whereas others were asked to estimate whether male or female names were more frequent on the list. The names of the famous celebrities were recalled more frequently compared to those of the less famous celebrities. The majority of the participants incorrectly judged that the gender associated with more famous names had been presented more often than the gender associated with less famous names. Tversky and Kahneman argue that although the availability heuristic is an effective strategy in many situations when judging probability use of this heuristic can lead to predictable patterns of errors.


title: Availability heuristic

text: Schwarz and his colleagues, on the other hand, proposed the "ease of retrieval" explanation, in which is the ease with which examples come to mind, not the number of examples, is used to infer the frequency of a given class. In a study by Schwarz and colleagues to test their explanation, participants were asked to recall either six or twelve examples of their assertive or very unassertive behavior. Participants were later asked to rate their own assertiveness. Pretesting had indicated that although most participants were capable of generating twelve examples, this was a difficult task. The results indicated that participants rated themselves as more assertive after describing six examples of assertive compared with unassertive behavior, but rated themselves as less assertive after describing twelve examples of assertive compared with unassertive behavior. The study reflected that the extent to which recalled content impacted judgment was determined by the ease with which the content could be brought to mind (it was easier to recall 6 examples than 12), rather than the amount of content brought to mind.


title: Availability heuristic

text: Research by Vaughn (1999) looked at the effects of uncertainty on the use of the availability heuristic. College students were asked to list either three or eight different study methods they could use in order to get an A on their final exams. The researchers also manipulated the time during the semester they would ask the students to complete the questionnaire. Approximately half of the participants were asked for their study methods during the third week of classes, and the other half were asked on the last day of classes. Next, participants were asked to rate how likely they would be to get an A in their easiest and hardest classes. Participants were then asked to rank the difficulty they experienced in recalling the examples they had previously listed. The researchers hypothesized that students would use the availability heuristic, based on the number of study methods they listed, to predict their grade only when asked at the beginning of the semester and about their hardest final. Students were not expected to use the availability heuristic to predict their grades at the end of the semester or about their easiest final. The researchers predicted this use of the availability heuristic because participants would be uncertain about their performance throughout the semester. The results indicated that students used the availability heuristic, based on the ease of recall of the study methods they listed, to predict their performance when asked at the beginning of the semester and about their hardest final. If the student listed only three study methods, they predicted a higher grade at the end of the semester only on their hardest final. If students listed eight study methods, they had a harder time recalling the methods and thus predicted a lower final grade on their hardest final. The results were not seen in the easy final condition because the students were certain they would get an A, regardless of the study method. The results supported this hypothesis and gave evidence to the fact that levels of uncertainty affect the use of the availability heuristic.


title: Availability heuristic

text: After seeing news stories about child abductions, people may judge that the likelihood of this event is greater. Media coverage can help fuel a person's example bias with widespread and extensive coverage of unusual events, such as homicide or airline accidents, and less coverage of more routine, less sensational events, such as common diseases or car accidents. For example, when asked to rate the probability of a variety of causes of death, people tend to rate "newsworthy" events as more likely because they can more readily recall an example from memory. Moreover, unusual and vivid events like homicides, shark attacks, or lightning are more often reported in mass media than common and un-sensational causes of death like common diseases.


title: Availability heuristic

text: For example, many people think that the likelihood of dying from shark attacks is greater than that of dying from being hit by falling airplane parts when more people actually die from falling airplane parts. When a shark attack occurs, the deaths are widely reported in the media whereas deaths as a result of being hit by falling airplane parts are rarely reported in the media.


title: Availability heuristic

text: In a 2010 study exploring how vivid television portrayals are used when forming social reality judgments, people watching vivid violent media gave higher estimates of the prevalence of crime and police immorality in the real world than those not exposed to vivid television. These results suggest that television violence does in fact have a direct causal impact on participants' social reality beliefs. Repeated exposure to vivid violence leads to an increase in people's risk estimates about the prevalence of crime and violence in the real world. Counter to these findings, researchers from a similar study argued that these effects may be due to effects of new information. Researchers tested the new information effect by showing movies depicting dramatic risk events and measuring their risk assessment after the film. Contrary to previous research, there were no long-term effects on risk perception due to exposure to dramatic movies. However, the study did find evidence of idiosyncratic effects of the movies - that is, people reacted immediately after the movies with enhanced or diminished risk beliefs, which faded after a period of 10 days.


title: Availability heuristic

text: Another measurable effect is the inaccurate estimation of the fraction of deaths caused by terrorism compared to homicides with other causes.


title: Availability heuristic

text: Researchers examined the role of cognitive heuristics in the AIDS risk-assessment process. 331 physicians reported worry about on-the-job HIV exposure, and experience with patients who have HIV. By analyzing answers to questionnaires handed out, researchers concluded that availability of AIDS information did not relate strongly to perceived risk.


title: Availability heuristic

text: Participants in a 1992 study read case descriptions of hypothetical patients who varied on their sex and sexual preference. These hypothetical patients showed symptoms of two different diseases. Participants were instructed to indicate which disease they thought the patient had and then they rated patient responsibility and interaction desirability. Consistent with the availability heuristic, either the more common (influenza) or the more publicized (AIDS) disease was chosen.


title: Availability heuristic

text: One study sought to analyze the role of the availability heuristic in financial markets. Researchers defined and tested two aspects of the availability heuristic:


title: Availability heuristic

text: On days of substantial stock market moves, abnormal stock price reactions to upgrades are weaker, than those to downgrades. These availability effects are still significant even after controlling for event-specific and company-specific factors.


title: Availability heuristic

text: Similarly, research has pointed out that under the availability heuristic, humans are not reliable because they assess probabilities by giving more weight to current or easily recalled information instead of processing all relevant information. Since information regarding the current state of the economy is readily available, researchers attempted to expose the properties of business cycles to predict the availability bias in analysts' growth forecasts. They showed the availability heuristic to play a role in analysis of forecasts and influence investments because of this.


title: Availability heuristic

text: In effect, investors are using the availability heuristic to make decisions and subsequently, may be obstructing their own investment success. An investor's lingering perceptions of a dire market environment may be causing them to view investment opportunities through an overly negative lens, making it less appealing to consider taking on investment risk, no matter how small the returns on perceived "safe" investments. To illustrate, Franklin Templeton's annual Global Investor Sentiment Survey 1 asked individuals how they believed the S&P 500 Index performed in 2009, 2010, and 2011. 66 percent of respondents stated that they believed the market was either flat or down in 2009, 48 percent said the same about 2010 and 53 percent also said the same about 2011. In reality, the S&P 500 saw 26.5 percent annual returns in 2009, 15.1 percent annual returns in 2010, and 2.1 percent annual returns in 2011, meaning lingering perceptions based on dramatic, painful events are impacting decision-making even when those events are over.


title: Availability heuristic

text: Additionally, a study by Hayibor and Wasieleski found that the availability of others who believe that a particular act is morally acceptable is positively related to others' perceptions of the morality of that act. This suggests that availability heuristic also has an effect on ethical decision making and ethical behavior in organizations.


title: Availability heuristic

text: A study done by Craig R. Fox provides an example of how availability heuristics can work in the classroom. In this study, Fox tests whether the difficulty of recall influences judgment, specifically with course evaluations among college students. In his study he had two groups complete a course evaluation form. He asked the first group to write two recommended improvements for the course (a relatively easy task) and then write two positives about the class. The second group was asked to write ten suggestions where the professor could improve (a relatively difficult task) and then write two positive comments about the course. At the end of the evaluation, both groups were asked to rate the course on a scale from one to seven. The results showed that students asked to write ten suggestions (difficult task) rated the course less harshly because it was more difficult for them to recall the information. Most of the students in the group that was asked to fill in 10 suggestions didn't fill in more than two being unable to recall more instances where they were unsatisfied with the class. Students asked to do the easier evaluation with only two complaints had less difficulty in terms of availability of information, so they rated the course more harshly.


title: Availability heuristic

text: A study done was testing the memory of children and the ease of recall. They were asked to learn a list of names and then to recall different amounts. Researchers found that when asked to recall lower amounts compared to larger amounts and then asked what was easier to remember. They responded the shorter list going along with the theory of availability heuristic.


title: Availability heuristic

text: The media usually focuses on violent or extreme cases, which are more readily available in the public's mind. This may come into play when it is time for the judicial system to evaluate and determine the proper punishment for a crime. In one study, respondents rated how much they agreed with hypothetical laws and policies such as "Would you support a law that required all offenders convicted of unarmed muggings to serve a minimum prison term of two years?" Participants then read cases and rated each case on several questions about punishment. As hypothesized, respondents recalled more easily from long-term memory stories that contain severe harm, which seemed to influence their sentencing choices to make them push for harsher punishments. This can be eliminated by adding high concrete or high contextually distinct details into the crime stories about less severe injuries.


title: Availability heuristic

text: A similar study asked jurors and college students to choose sentences on four severe criminal cases in which prison was a possible but not an inevitable sentencing outcome. Respondents answering questions about court performance on a public opinion formulated a picture of what the courts do and then evaluated the appropriateness of that behavior. Respondents recalled public information about crime and sentencing. This type of information is incomplete because the news media present a highly selective and non-representative selection of crime, focusing on the violent and extreme, rather than the ordinary. This makes most people think that judges are too lenient. But, when asked to choose the punishments, the sentences given by students were equal to or less severe than those given by judges. In other words, the availability heuristic made people believe that judges and jurors were too lenient in the courtroom, but the participants gave similar sentences when placed in the position of the judge, suggesting that the information they recalled was not correct.


title: Availability heuristic

text: Researchers in 1989 predicted that mock jurors would rate a witness to be "more" deceptive if the witness testified truthfully "before" lying than when the witness was caught lying first before telling the truth. If the availability heuristic played a role in this, lying second would remain in jurors' minds (since it was more recent) and they would most likely remember the witness lying over the truthfulness. To test the hypothesis, 312 university students played the roles of mock jurors and watched a videotape of a witness presenting testimony during a trial. Results confirmed the hypothesis, as mock jurors were most influenced by the most recent act.


title: Availability heuristic

text: Previous studies have indicated that explaining a hypothetical event makes the event seem more likely through the creation of causal connections. However, such effects could arise through the use of the availability heuristic; that is, subjective likelihood is increased by an event becoming easier to imagine.


title: Availability heuristic

text: A study done asked those participating to pick between two illnesses. Those doing the study wanted to know which disease they thought was more likely to cause death. In the study, they asked participants to choose between a stroke and asthma as to which one someone was more likely to die from. The researchers concluded that it depended on what experiences were available to them. If they knew someone or heard of someone that died from one of the diseases that is the one they perceived to be a higher risk to die from.


title: Availability heuristic

text: Two studies with 108 undergraduates investigated vivid information and its impact on social judgment and the availability heuristic and its role in mediating vividness effects.


title: Availability heuristic

text: In study 1, Subjects listened to a tape recording that described a woman who lived with her 7-year-old son. Subjects then heard arguments about the woman's fitness as a parent and were asked to draw their own conclusions regarding her fitness or unfitness. The concrete and colorful language were found to influence judgments about the woman's fitness as a mother.


title: Availability heuristic

text: In study 2, a series of male and female names were presented to subjects; for each name, subjects were told the university affiliation of the individual (Yale or Stanford). When some names were presented, subjects were simultaneously shown a photograph that purportedly portrayed the named individual. Subsequently, to assess what subjects could remember (as a measure of availability), each name was represented, as well as the appropriate photograph if one had been originally presented. The study considered whether the display or non-display of photographs biased subjects' estimates as to the percentage of Yale (vs Stanford) students in the sample of men and women whose names appeared on the original list, and whether these estimated percentages were causally related to the respondents' memory for the college affiliations of the individual students on the list. The presence of photographs affected judgments about the proportion of male and female students at the two universities. Such effects have typically been attributed to the ready accessibility of vividly presented information in memory—that is, to the availability heuristic.


title: Availability heuristic

text: In both studies, vividness affected both availability (ability to recall) and judgments. However, causal modeling results indicated that the availability heuristic did not play a role in the judgment process.


title: Availability heuristic

text: In general, availability is correlated with ecological frequency, but it is also affected by other factors. Consequently, the reliance on the availability heuristic leads to systematic biases. Such biases are demonstrated in the judged frequency of classes of words, of combinatoric outcomes, and of repeated events. The phenomenon of illusory correlation is explained as an availability bias.


title: Availability heuristic

text: In the original Tversky and Kahneman (1973) research, three major factors that are discussed are the frequency of repetition, frequency of co-occurrence, and illusory correlation. The use of frequency of repetition aids in the retrieval of relevant instances. The idea behind this phenomenon is that the more an instance is repeated within a category or list, the stronger the link between the two instances becomes. Individuals then use the strong association between the instances to determine the frequency of an instance. Consequently, the association between the category or list and the specific instance often influences frequency judgement. Frequency of co-occurrence strongly relates to Frequency of repetition, such that the more an item-pair is repeated, the stronger the association between the two items becomes, leading to a bias when estimating the frequency of co-occurrence. Due to the phenomena of frequency of co-occurrence, illusory correlations also often play a big role.


title: Availability heuristic

text: Another factor that affects the availability heuristic in frequency and probability is exemplars. Exemplars are the typical examples that stand out during the process of recall. If asked what participants thought different set sizes were (how many men and how many women are in the class), participants would use exemplars to determine the size of each set. Participants would derive their answers on ease of recall of the names that stood out. Participants read a list of names of members of a class for 30 seconds, and then participants were asked the male to female ratio of the class. The participant's answer would depend on the recall of exemplars. If the participant reading the list recalled seeing more common male names, such as Jack, but the only female names in the class were uncommon names, such as Deepika, then the participant will recall that there were more men than women. The opposite would be true if there were more common female names on the list and uncommon male names. Due to the availability heuristic, names that are more easily available are more likely to be recalled, and can thus alter judgments of probability.


title: Availability heuristic

text: Another example of the availability heuristic and exemplars would be seeing a shark in the ocean. Seeing a shark has a greater impact on an individual's memory than seeing a dolphin. If someone sees both sharks and dolphins in the ocean, they will be less aware of seeing the dolphins, because the dolphins had less of an impact on their memory. Due to the greater impact of seeing a shark, the availability heuristic can influence the probability judgement of the ratio of sharks and dolphins in the water. Thus, an individual who saw both a shark and a dolphin would assume a higher ratio of sharks in the water, even if there are more dolphins in reality.


title: Availability heuristic

text: One of the earliest and most powerful critiques of the original Tversky and Kahneman study on the availability heuristic was the Schwarz et al. study which found that the ease of recall was a key component in determining whether a concept became available. Many studies since this criticism of the original availability heuristic model have repeated this initial criticism, that the ease of recall factor became an integral facet of the availability heuristic itself (see Research section).


title: Availability heuristic

text: Much of the criticism against the availability heuristic has claimed that making use of the content that becomes available in our mind is not based on the ease of recall as suggested by Schwarz et al. For example, it could be argued that recalling more words that begin with K than words with the third letter being K could arise from how we categorize and process words into our memory. If we categorize words by the first letter and recall them through the same process, this would show more support for the representative heuristic than the availability heuristic. Based on the possibility of explanations such as these, some researchers have claimed that the classic studies on the availability heuristic are too vague in that they fail to account for people's underlying mental processes. Indeed, a study conducted by Wanke et al. demonstrated this scenario can occur in situations used to test the availability heuristic.


title: Availability heuristic

text: A second line of study has shown that frequency estimation may not be the only strategy we use when making frequency judgments. A recent line of research has shown that our situational working memory can access long-term memories, and this memory retrieval process includes the ability to determine more accurate probabilities.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: The Common Law Admission Test (CLAT) is a centralized national level entrance test for admissions to twenty two National Law Universities (NLU) in India. Most private and self-financed law schools in India also use these scores for law admissions. Public sector undertakings in India like ONGC, Coal India, BHEL, Steel Authority of India, Oil India etc. use CLAT Post Graduation ( CLAT PG) scores for recruitment of legal positions in the companies.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: The test is taken after the Higher Secondary Examination or the 12th grade for admission to integrated under-graduate degree in Law (BA LLB) and after Graduation in Law for Master of Laws (LL.M) programs offered by these law schools. It is considered as one of the toughest entrance examinations in India with the acceptance rate being as low as 3 percent.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: Before the introduction of Common Law Admission Test, the National Law Universities conducted their own separate entrance tests, requiring the candidates to prepare and appear separately for each of these tests. The schedule of the administration of these tests sometimes conflicted with the other or with other major entrance tests such as the Indian Institute of Technology Joint Entrance Examination and the National Eligibility cum Entrance Test. This caused students to miss tests and experience much stress.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: There are twenty-three National Law Universities in India, the first of which is the National Law School of India University, which admitted its first batch of students in 1987. Out of twenty three, the National Law University, Delhi conducts its own separate entrance test known as All India Law Entrance Test. With the emergence of other law schools, which also sought to conduct their admission tests at around the same time, students faced a hard time preparing for them. From time to time this issue to conduct a common entrance exam to reduce the burden of the students to give multiple test was raised, but given the autonomous status of each law school, there was no nodal agency to co-ordinate action to this regard.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: The matter drew national attention when a Public Interest Litigation was filed by Varun Bhagat against the Union of India and various National Law Universities in the Supreme Court of India in 2006. The Chief Justice of India directed the Union of India to consult with the National Law Universities to formulate a common test. The move was strongly supported by the Bar Council of India.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: Given the lack of a central nodal authority to bring forth a consensus on the issue, the Ministry of Human Resources Development, (Government of India) and the University Grants Commission of India organised a meeting of the Vice-Chancellors of seven National Law Universities along with the Chairman of the Bar Council of India. After a few such meetings, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed by the Vice-Chancellors of the seven National Law Universities on 23 November 2007 to conduct a common admission test. The Common Law Admission Test was to be conducted each year by each of the law colleges and the responsibility of conducting the exam was to be rotated and given on the basis of seniority in the establishment. Nonetheless, the matter has not been resolved completely as there are other national law universities that were not taking part in CLAT. However, finally in 2015, a fresh MoU was signed by the sixteen National Law Universities, except for National Law University, Delhi for the CLAT 2015 being conducted by Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia National Law University, Lucknow whereby all the National Law Universities are now part of the centralized admission process without anyone being left out.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: The Consortium of National Law Universities was established on 19 August 2017 with the aim of improving the standard of legal education in the country and justice system through legal education with Prof. R. Venkata Rao, erstwhile Vice-Chancellor, NLSIU as President and Prof. Faizan Mustafa, Vice-Chancellor, NALSAR, as Vice-President.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: Only Indian nationals and NRIs can appear in the test. The foreign nationals desirous of taking admission to any course in any of the participating Law Universities may directly contact the concerned University having seats for foreign nationals. The Consortium of National Law Universities (NLUs) releases the CLAT eligibility criteria mentions details regarding the minimum educational qualification, minimum marks and age limit.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: Senior Secondary School/Intermediate (10+2) or its equivalent certificate from a recognized Board with not less than 45% marks in aggregate (40% in case of SC and ST candidates). There is no upper age restriction for the test.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: LL. B/B. L. Degree or an equivalent degree from a recognized University with not less than 50% marks in aggregate (45% in case of SC and ST candidates).


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: The candidates who have passed the qualifying degree examination through supplementary/ compartment and repeat attempts are also eligible for appearing in the test and taking Admission provided that such candidates will have to produce the proof of having passed the qualifying examination with fifty-five/fifty percent marks, as the case may be, on the date of their admission or within the time allowed by the respective universities.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: This law entrance exam is of two hours duration. The CLAT question paper consists of 150 multiple-choice questions. There are five sections in CLAT exam paper which are:


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: All the questions will be paragraph-based starting from CLAT 2020. One paragraph will be followed by 5-6 questions.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: Marking Scheme: For every correct answer, aspirants are given one mark and for each wrong answer 0.25 marks are deducted from their total score.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: The CLAT form provides the students with a preference list. Each student fills the preference list, according to the colleges he/she desires. On the basis of these preferences and ranks obtained, students are allocated colleges. As the NLUs are established by the respective state governments, therefore most NLUs also have reservations for their domiciled candidates.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: The first CLAT Core Committee consisting of Vice-Chancellors of the seven participating NLUs at that time decided that the test should be conducted by rotation in the order of their establishment. Accordingly, the first CLAT was conducted in 2008 by the National Law School of India University. Subsequently, CLAT-2009, CLAT-2010, CLAT-2011, CLAT-2012, CLAT-2013, CLAT-2014, CLAT-2015, CLAT-2016, CLAT-2017, CLAT-2018 CLAT-2019 and CLAT-2020 have been conducted by NALSAR University of Law, Hyderabad, National Law Institute University, The West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences, National Law University, Jodhpur, Hidayatullah National Law University, Gujarat National Law University, Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia National Law University, Rajiv Gandhi National University of Law, Chanakya National Law University, National University of Advanced Legal Studies and National Law University Odisha respectively. However, from 2019 , CLAT is conducted by Consortium of NLUs, a body consisting of Vice-chancellors of all the NLU's, which was formed in March, 2019.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: CLAT-2009, which was scheduled to be held on 17 May 2009 was rescheduled to 31 May 2009 due to leak of question papers.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: CLAT-2011 candidates were disappointed with the standard of exam, as up to 12 questions in the various sections had underlined answers due to the oversight of the organisers and students also found the paper lengthy in comparison to the time limit provided (i.e. 2 hours).


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: CLAT-2012 was marred by a number of controversies, which includes allegations of setting questions out of syllabus and out of the pre-declared pattern. The declared rank list also contained an error, due to which the first list was taken down and a fresh list was put up. The declared question-answer keys contained several errors, which resulted in petitions being filed by the aggrieved students in different High Courts.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: CLAT-2014 was conducted by GNLU, Gandhinagar and was also heavily criticized for being poorly conducted with results being withdrawn and declared again. Even lawsuits had been filed for re-examination. The uploaded OMRs were then allowed to be physically verified in the GNLU Campus after students demanded the same.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: CLAT-2018 students approached the Supreme Court since there were server problems during the examination. However the Court refused to order a re-examination.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: In 2020, NLSIU announced that it would be withdrawing from CLAT, and conducting its own entrance test, the National Law Aptitude Test (NLAT). However, the Supreme court of India struck down the separate entrance test conducted by NLSIU and ordered it to re-join CLAT.


title: Common Law Admission Test

text: In 2021, it was alleged that several questions in the Mathematics section were incorrect, with one question considering a person's expenditure to be 105% of their income. One question in the legal reasoning section was withdrawn after heavy criticism. Four questions were withdrawn.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Fernando Rubén Gago (; born 10 April 1986) is an Argentine professional former player and football manager of Racing Club.


title: Fernando Gago

text: During his 16-year club career, limited by multiple serious injuries, Gago played as a defensive midfielder and deep-lying playmaker for Boca Juniors, Real Madrid, Roma, Valencia and Vélez Sarsfield.


title: Fernando Gago

text: A full international from 2007 to 2017, Gago represented Argentina at the 2014 FIFA World Cup and at the Copa América in 2007, 2011 and 2015, as well as winning a gold medal at the 2008 Olympics.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Born in Ciudadela, Greater Buenos Aires, Gago came from the youth divisions of Boca Juniors. He had his professional debut with Boca in the 1–0 victory over Quilmes on 5 December 2004, in the Torneo Apertura. On 1 October 2006, he scored the first professional goal of his career and the only one of his initial Boca spell in a 3–2 win over Vélez Sarsfield at La Bombonera.


title: Fernando Gago

text: On 21 December 2006, Real Madrid confirmed the signing of Gago on a 6-year contract for a fee of €20 million, effective from the turn of the calendar year. His signing came shortly after that of fellow Argentine youngster Gonzalo Higuaín from River Plate, and teenage Brazilian full-back Marcelo.


title: Fernando Gago

text: He made his debut on 7 January 2007 in a 2–0 loss at Deportivo de La Coruña in La Liga, partnering Emerson in defensive midfield at the expense of Mahamadou Diarra and being substituted for forward Ronaldo after 58 minutes; local sports daily "Diario AS" commented that he barely influenced the game. On 20 May, away to Recreativo de Huelva in the 35th match, he gave away a penalty but in added time assisted Roberto Carlos for the 3–2 winner as Real Madrid maintained their league challenge, eventually winning the league.


title: Fernando Gago

text: In August 2008, Gago injured his left knee ligaments in a friendly against Peñarol, and missed the start of the new season. He returned on 17 September for a UEFA Champions League game against FC BATE Borisov, leaving the game after 36 minutes due to his left femural biceps and being sidelined for another month. On 7 December, he scored his only goal of his 121 Real Madrid games, equalising in a 4–3 loss to Sevilla at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium; on 31 January 2009 he was given his only red card for the club in a 2–0 win away to Numancia.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Before the 2009–10 season, Gago ceded his number 8 shirt to new signing Kaká to take the number 5 vacated by Fabio Cannavaro's return to Juventus; he had coveted the number as it had been worn by Zinedine Zidane before. Gago did not play any games for three months for Real Madrid around the turn of 2009 to 2010. Under new Madrid manager José Mourinho from 2010, Gago struggled to receive playing time due to both a lengthy injury spell and Mourinho's preference for the tandem of Xabi Alonso and Sami Khedira in defensive midfield.


title: Fernando Gago

text: On 31 August 2011, Gago moved on loan to Italian Serie A side Roma, with a view to a permanent move, until the end of the 2011–12 season. His number 5 jersey was conferred to the recently signed Nuri Şahin, formerly of Borussia Dortmund. Upon arriving in the Italian capital, he refuted suggestions that he was too similar to his new teammate Daniele De Rossi, by saying that the pair had differences that would work well together.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Gago made his debut on 11 September in a 2–1 home loss to Cagliari, as a substitute for Aleandro Rosi for the last 15 minutes. He scored his only goal for Roma against Lecce on 20 November, a long-range strike in a 2–1 victory; two weeks later he was sent off in a 3–0 defeat at Fiorentina.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Compared to his previous seasons at Real Madrid, Gago's one year at Roma was untroubled by injury. After a 7th-placed finish, the "Giallorossi" were unable to meet Madrid's offer of €7 million to make his deal permanent.


title: Fernando Gago

text: On 19 July 2012, shortly after returning from loan to Real Madrid, Valencia purchased Gago for a reported fee in the region of €3.5 million, on a four-year deal. He debuted on 19 August, playing the full 90 minutes in a 1–1 away draw against his previous club.


title: Fernando Gago

text: In January 2013, Vélez Sársfield signed Gago on a six-month loan without a buying option. He had previously rejected offers from Russia and Turkey. His brief spell at "El Fortín" was marred by further muscle and knee problems. In his seven games, he managed one goal, concluding a 3–0 home win over Chile's Deportes Iquique in the second stage of the 2013 Copa Libertadores on 20 February.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Boca Juniors bought 50% of Gago's playing rights from Valencia for a fee of €1.7 million in July 2013. He signed a three-year deal in the aim of making the Argentina squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. On 13 September 2015 in the Superclásico away to River Plate, he left the game after 24 seconds due to a left Achilles tendon injury; he returned to action in late January.


title: Fernando Gago

text: On 24 April 2016, Gago suffered the same injury after 44 minutes at home to River Plate, returning at the end of November. In March 2017, his contract was extended for three more years. He suffered another injury on international duty that October, and did not recover until May 2018.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Boca Juniors reached the 2018 Copa Libertadores Finals against rivals River, and the second leg had to be played at Gago's former club ground in Madrid due to hooliganism. He came on in the 89th minute for captain Pablo Pérez just before the game went to extra time, and suffered another Achilles injury in the 116th minute. Having used all four substitutes and had Wilmar Barrios sent off, Boca fell to a 3–1 loss with nine men.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Ahead of the 2019–20 season, Gago was released by Boca and signed a one-year contract with Vélez Sarsfield. His new manager was his former Real Madrid and international teammate, Gabriel Heinze. He made his comeback after nine months on 24 August 2019 in a 3–1 home win over Newell's Old Boys. In November 2020, he announced his retirement from professional football at the age of 34.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Gago was part of the under-20 squad which won the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship. He made his senior international debut on 7 February 2007 in a 1–0 friendly win away to France. He played in the 2007 Copa América, and was part of the team which won the gold medal at the 2008 Olympics.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Gago was one of over 100 players used by Diego Maradona in 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification, but also one of the highest-profile absentees for the final tournament in South Africa. He returned to the squad for the 2011 Copa América.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Gago was named in Argentina's 23-man squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. He made his World Cup debut in Argentina's 2–1 defeat of Bosnia and Herzegovina at the Estádio do Maracanã, coming on as a half-time substitute for Hugo Campagnaro. He was named in the starting line-up for the team's second match, a 1–0 win over Iran in Belo Horizonte, and remained a starter until being replaced by Lucas Biglia in the quarter-finals. Gago replaced Enzo Pérez after 86 minutes of the final, which Argentina lost 0–1 to Germany after extra time.


title: Fernando Gago

text: On 5 October 2017, Gago returned to the national team against Peru. In his final international match, he suffered cruciate ligament injuries to his right knee.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Gago relished operating in a holding role at Boca Juniors, functioning as a deep-lying playmaker in front of the defence, due to his intelligence and ability to dictate play in midfield with his passing; he has also played in a similar role with the Argentina national team and other clubs. Upon arriving in Europe in 2006, Gago drew comparisons to compatriot and former Real Madrid man Fernando Redondo, due to his ability to build up play and break down the oppositions' attacks, thus enabling him to contribute both offensively and defensively. His Real Madrid profile described Gago as a "very dynamic footballer who predicates his game on ball movement". He is also capable of reaching the opponent's box, possesses a tremendous vision for the game, [he] can cover much ground and knows how to protect the ball.


title: Fernando Gago

text: On 17 January 2021, Gago was appointed manager of Argentine Primera División side Aldosivi. He lost 2–1 at home to Godoy Cruz on his debut on 14 February. He resigned on 27 September after a run of six consecutive defeats left the team in 23rd.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Gago returned to work on 21 October 2021, signing with Racing Club until the end of the following year. Two days later, he lost 2–1 on his debut at Rosario Central.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Gago, Sergio Agüero and Lionel Messi had all been teammates as children back in Argentina. Together, the three of them won the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship in the Netherlands.


title: Fernando Gago

text: Gago is a literature and art enthusiast. The first thing he did after landing in Spain was visit the Museo del Prado. He earned the nickname "El Pintita" (roughly meaning "the little one trying to look good" in English) ever since Ramón Maddoni scolded him for playing with his hair. Also, his Boca Juniors teammates would call him so because his youth squad coach would scold him, "Stop trying to look good and run!"


title: Fernando Gago

text: Gago is married to professional tennis player Gisela Dulko with whom he has two sons and a daughter. The couple separated in 2021, after he had an affair with one of her friends.


title: Fernando Gago

text: In September 2005, Gago's father died of a stroke while Gago was playing for Boca Juniors against Racing Club. In February 2021, his brother died in the same way while Gago was managing Aldosivi against the same club.


title: Arcade Archives

text: "Arcade Archives" was first released for the PlayStation 4 in May 2014. It also supports various system specific features, in which players can share screenshots and videos, and compete with others scores for online ranking. The Xbox One version of the service was launched in February 2017 for the Xbox Games Store, and only includes Neo Geo games. The Nintendo Switch version of the service was also launched on the Nintendo eShop in March 2017, initially focusing on Neo Geo games before the addition of other arcade games, including Nintendo's own games. The Windows 10 version of the service was launched in December 2017 for the Microsoft Store, and like the Xbox One version, this version only includes Neo Geo games. "ACA Neo Geo" games arrived on iOS (through App Store) and Android (through Google Play) starting from November 30, 2021.


title: Arcade Archives

text: There are currently ' games on the original "Arcade Archives" list and ' games on the "ACA Neo Geo" list below.


title: Reindeer Games

text: Reindeer Games (alternatively titled Deception) is a 2000 American action crime thriller film directed by John Frankenheimer in his final feature directorial outing before his 2002 death. It stars Ben Affleck, Gary Sinise, Charlize Theron, Dennis Farina, James Frain, Donal Logue, Danny Trejo and Clarence Williams III.


title: Reindeer Games

text: "Reindeer Games" was released by Miramax Films on February 25, 2000. It received generally negative critical reception and was a box office failure, grossing $32 million against a budget of $42 million.


title: Reindeer Games

text: Prison cellmates Nick Cassidy and Rudy Duncan are two days from release. Nick has been exchanging letters with a young woman named Ashley Mercer, although they have never met. Nick plans to meet Ashley as soon as he is released, while Rudy wants to join his family for Christmas. During a fight between the prisoners, Nick is killed while protecting Rudy. Upon release, Rudy pretends to be Nick in order to meet Ashley. They go to a diner then have sex in a cabin.


title: Reindeer Games

text: The two are kidnapped by Gabriel, Ashley’s gang leader brother. He tells Rudy that the gang, composed of Pug, Merlin, and Jumpy, are planning to rob a casino where Nick used to work before going to prison. Rudy protests that he is not Nick, but Ashley reveals that she wrote to him knowing Gabriel would use him for the robbery. Realizing that the gang will likely kill him if they find out he knows nothing about the casino, Rudy resumes the ruse.


title: Reindeer Games

text: Rudy devises a robbery plan based on Nick’s prison cell stories, and tells Gabriel the biggest loot is in the "PowWow safe" in manager Jack Bangs's office. Gabriel wants Rudy to draw a map of the casino, but Rudy claims that the casino has been remodeled. At the casino Rudy, dressed as a cowboy, snoops around to see any changes, and is almost caught by Jack Bangs but escapes by switching clothes with a college student. Merlin discovers that the casino was never remodeled and has been the same since it opened. Rudy runs with Ashley to a frozen lake pursued by Gabriel and his thugs shooting at them. Ashley falls through the ice and Rudy jumps in to rescue her. The thugs pull them out and are seen by an ice fisherman, whom Gabriel kills.


title: Reindeer Games

text: Gabriel throws darts at Rudy to get some answers and rants about his life as a truck driver. He decides to give Rudy a second chance at drawing the map. Later, Rudy stumbles upon Gabriel and Ashley in the pool area and learns they are not siblings, but lovers. The casino robbery doesn't go according to plan due to the inaccurate details of Rudy's map. Pug is killed in the count room.


title: Reindeer Games

text: Everyone meets in the manager's office. Gabriel introduces Rudy to Jack as Nick, but the manager recognizes him only as the cowboy from earlier and not as Nick. Gabriel, furious at Rudy’s deception, spares him for a moment when he demands to know where the "PowWow" safe is. When Jack opens the safe, he grabs guns from inside and kills Jumpy as the rest flee. Jack dies during the shootout while Rudy kills Merlin. Rudy is grabbed out the back door by Gabriel and Ashley who tie him up in their 18-wheeler truck.


title: Reindeer Games

text: The two plan to drive Rudy off the cliff in a burning car with some of the money, so it will be assumed the stolen money had been burned. Ashley shoots and kills Gabriel, then Nick appears, having staged his death earlier. Ashley's real name is revealed to be Millie Bobeck, and she was aware of Rudy's identity the whole time. Millie and Nick had collaborated to rob the casino using Rudy, Gabriel, and the gang. They tie Rudy to the steering wheel. Rudy produces a knife he had gotten earlier, cuts his bindings, hot wires the car, and reverses it, crushing Nick's legs. Millie desperately tries to shoot him but Rudy rams the burning car into her. He dives out as the car and Millie go over the cliff. Nick tries to convince Rudy to share the money, but Rudy locks him in the truck and sends it over the cliff.


title: Reindeer Games

text: Rudy picks up the cash and begins distributing it in mailboxes on the way home to his family, where he joins them for Christmas dinner.


title: Reindeer Games

text: In addition, some brief appearances include Ashton Kutcher, then starring in the sitcom "That '70s Show", as a college student, while porn star Ron Jeremy (credited under his real name, Ron Hyatt) plays a prison inmate.


title: Reindeer Games

text: The film was set in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan but was shot in Vancouver and Prince George, British Columbia, Canada. Shooting began on March 15, 1999.


title: Reindeer Games

text: Vin Diesel was originally cast as Pug, but had disagreements with John Frankenheimer in relation to the script and his character that led to him leaving the project before production began.


title: Reindeer Games

text: The film was screened to test audiences who had a mixed response. This resulted in additional editing and some scenes being re-shot; the release date was pushed back from Christmas 1999 to February 2000.


title: Reindeer Games

text: The theatrical cut of the film was released on DVD in the US on August 8, 2000, and included an audio commentary by director John Frankenheimer. An extended director's cut, running 124 mins, was released on DVD in the US on March 27, 2001, including a new second audio commentary by Frankenheimer and additional deleted and alternate scenes. The Director's Cut was released on Blu-Ray on March 6, 2012.


title: Reindeer Games

text: "Reindeer Games" received generally poor reviews and was not a commercial success. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 25% of critics gave the film a positive review, based on a sample of 88 reviews, with an average score of 4.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Despite a decent cast, subpar acting and a contrived plot disappointed reviewers". Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score to reviews, gave a film rating of 37 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Reindeer Games

text: In a 2007 interview with "Esquire", Charlize Theron said that she considered this movie as the worst film she ever did, saying that ""Reindeer Games" was not a good movie, but I did it because I loved John Frankenheimer". A CNN review said: ""Reindeer Games" isn't at the bottom of his creative barrel, but it's close".


title: Emergency medicine

text: Emergency medicine is the medical speciality concerned with the care of illnesses or injuries requiring immediate medical attention. Emergency physicians (often called “ER doctors” in the United States) continuously learn to care for unscheduled and undifferentiated patients of all ages. As first-line providers, in coordination with Emergency Medical Services, they are primarily responsible for initiating resuscitation and stabilization and performing the initial investigations and interventions necessary to diagnose and treat illnesses or injuries in the acute phase. Emergency physicians generally practise in hospital emergency departments, pre-hospital settings via emergency medical services, and intensive care units. Still, they may also work in primary care settings such as urgent care clinics.


title: Emergency medicine

text: Sub-specializations of emergency medicine include; disaster medicine, medical toxicology, point-of-care ultrasonography, critical care medicine, emergency medical services, hyperbaric medicine, sports medicine, palliative care, or aerospace medicine.


title: Emergency medicine

text: Various models for emergency medicine exist internationally. In countries following the Anglo-American model, emergency medicine initially consisted of surgeons, general practitioners, and other generalist physicians. However, in recent decades it has become recognised as a speciality in its own right with its training programmes and academic posts, and the speciality is now a popular choice among medical students and newly qualified medical practitioners. By contrast, in countries following the Franco-German model, the speciality does not exist, and emergency medical care is instead provided directly by anesthesiologists (for critical resuscitation), surgeons, specialists in internal medicine, paediatricians, cardiologists or neurologists as appropriate. Emergency medicine is still evolving in developing countries, and international emergency medicine programs offer hope of improving primary emergency care where resources are limited.


title: Emergency medicine

text: Emergency Medicine is a medical speciality—a field of practice based on the knowledge and skills required to prevent, diagnose, and manage acute and urgent aspects of illness and injury affecting patients of all age groups with a full spectrum of undifferentiated physical and behavioural disorders. It further encompasses an understanding of the development of pre-hospital and in-hospital emergency medical systems and the skills necessary for this development.


title: Emergency medicine

text: The field of emergency medicine encompasses care involving the acute care of internal medical and surgical conditions. In many modern emergency departments, emergency physicians see many patients, treating their illnesses and arranging for disposition—either admitting them to the hospital or releasing them after treatment as necessary. They also provide episodic primary care to patients during off-hours and those who do not have primary care providers. Most patients present to emergency departments with low-acuity conditions (such as minor injuries or exacerbations of chronic disease), but a small proportion will be critically ill or injured. Therefore, the emergency physician requires broad knowledge and procedural skills, often including surgical procedures, trauma resuscitation, advanced cardiac life support and advanced airway management. They must have some of the core skills from many medical specialities—the ability to resuscitate a patient (intensive care medicine), manage a difficult airway (anesthesiology), suture a complex laceration (plastic surgery), set a fractured bone or dislocated joint (orthopaedic surgery), treat a heart attack (cardiology), manage strokes (neurology), work-up a pregnant patient with vaginal bleeding (obstetrics and gynaecology), control a patient with mania (psychiatry), stop a severe nosebleed (otolaryngology), place a chest tube (cardiothoracic surgery), and conduct and interpret x-rays and ultrasounds (radiology). This generalist approach can obviate barrier-to-care issues seen in systems without specialists in emergency medicine, where patients requiring immediate attention are instead managed from the outset by speciality doctors such as surgeons or internal physicians. However, this may lead to barriers through acute and critical care specialities disconnecting from emergency care.


title: Emergency medicine

text: Emergency medicine may separate from urgent care, which refers to primary healthcare for less emergent medical issues, but there is obvious overlap, and many emergency physicians work in urgent care settings. Emergency medicine also includes many aspects of acute primary care and shares with family medicine the uniqueness of seeing all patients regardless of age, gender or organ system . The emergency physician workforce also includes many competent physicians who have medical skills from other specialities.


title: Emergency medicine

text: Physicians specializing in emergency medicine can enter fellowships to receive credentials in subspecialties such as palliative care, critical care medicine, medical toxicology, wilderness medicine, pediatric emergency medicine, sports medicine, disaster medicine, tactical medicine, ultrasound, pain medicine, pre-hospital emergency medicine, or undersea and hyperbaric medicine.


title: Emergency medicine

text: The practice of emergency medicine is often quite different in rural areas where there are far fewer other specialities and healthcare resources. In these areas, family physicians with additional skills in emergency medicine often staff emergency departments. Rural emergency physicians may be the only health care providers in the community and require skills that include primary care and obstetrics.


title: Emergency medicine

text: Patterns vary by country and region. In the United States, the employment arrangement of emergency physician practices are either private (with a co-operative group of doctors staffing an emergency department under contract), institutional (physicians with or without an independent contractor relationship with the hospital), corporate (physicians with an independent contractor relationship with a third-party staffing company that services multiple emergency departments), or governmental (for example, when working within personal service military services, public health services, veterans' benefit systems or other government agencies).


title: Emergency medicine

text: In the United Kingdom, all consultants in emergency medicine work in the National Health Service, and there is little scope for private emergency practice. In other countries like Australia, New Zealand, or Turkey, emergency medicine specialists are almost always salaried employees of government health departments and work in public hospitals, with pockets of employment in private or non-government aeromedical rescue or transport services, as well as some private hospitals with emergency departments; they may be supplemented or backed by non-specialist medical officers, and visiting general practitioners. Rural emergency departments are sometimes run by general practitioners alone, sometimes with non-specialist qualifications in emergency medicine.


title: Emergency medicine

text: During the French Revolution, after seeing the speed with which the carriages of the French flying artillery maneuvered across the battlefields, French military surgeon Dominique Jean Larrey applied the idea of ambulances, or "flying carriages", for rapid transport of wounded soldiers to a central place where medical care was more accessible and practical. Larrey operated ambulances with trained crews of drivers, corpsmen and litter-bearers and had them bring the wounded to centralized field hospitals, effectively creating a forerunner of the modern MASH units. Dominique Jean Larrey is sometimes called the father of emergency medicine for his strategies during the French wars.


title: Emergency medicine

text: Emergency medicine as an independent medical speciality is relatively young. Before the 1960s and 1970s, hospital emergency departments (EDs) were generally staffed by physicians on staff at the hospital on a rotating basis, among them family physicians, general surgeons, internists, and a variety of other specialists. In many smaller emergency departments, nurses would triage patients, and physicians would be called in based on the type of injury or illness. Family physicians were often on call for the emergency department and recognized the need for dedicated emergency department coverage. Many of the pioneers of emergency medicine were family physicians and other specialists who saw a need for additional training in emergency care.


title: Emergency medicine

text: During this period, physicians began to emerge who had left their respective practices to devote their work entirely to the ED. In the UK in 1952, Maurice Ellis was appointed as the first "casualty consultant" at Leeds General Infirmary. In 1967, the Casualty Surgeons Association was co-established with Maurice Ellis as its first President. In the US, the first of such groups managed by Dr James DeWitt Mills in 1961, along with four associate physicians; Dr Chalmers A. Loughridge, Dr William Weaver, Dr John McDade, and Dr Steven Bednar, at Alexandria Hospital in Alexandria, Virginia, established 24/7 year-round emergency care, which became known as the "Alexandria Plan".


title: Emergency medicine

text: It was not until Dr. John Wiegenstein founded the American College of Emergency Physicians (ACEP)(https://www.annemergmed.com/article/S0196-0644(04)01836-0/fulltext#relatedArticles) the recognition of emergency medicine training programs by the AMA and the AOA, and in 1979 a historic vote by the American Board of Medical Specialties that emergency medicine became a recognized medical speciality in the US. The first emergency medicine residency program in the world began in 1970 at the University of Cincinnati. Furthermore, the first Department of Emergency Medicine at a US medical school occurred in 1971 at the University of Southern California. The second residency program in the United States soon followed at what was then called Hennepin County General Hospital in Minneapolis, with two residents entering the program in 1971.


title: Emergency medicine

text: In 1990 the UK's Casualty Surgeons Association changed its name to the British Association for Accident and Emergency Medicine and subsequently became the British Association for Emergency Medicine (BAEM) in 2004. In 1993, an intercollegiate Faculty of Accident and Emergency Medicine (FAEM) became a "daughter college" of six royal medical colleges in England and Scotland to arrange professional examinations and training. In 2005, the BAEM and the FAEM became a single unit to form the College of Emergency Medicine, now the Royal College of Emergency Medicine, which conducts membership and fellowship examinations and publishes guidelines and standards for the practice of emergency medicine.


title: Emergency medicine

text: Many hospitals and care centres feature departments of emergency medicine, where patients can receive acute care without an appointment. While many patients get treated for life-threatening injuries, others utilize the emergency department (ED) for non-urgent reasons such as headaches or a cold. (defined as "visits for conditions for which a delay of several hours would not increase the likelihood of an adverse outcome"). As such, EDs can adjust staffing ratios and designate an area of the department for faster patient turnover to accommodate various patient needs and volumes. Policies have improved to assist better ED staff (such as Emergency Medical Technicians, paramedics). Mid-level providers such as physicians assistants and nurse practitioners direct patients towards more appropriate medical settings, such as their primary care physician, urgent care clinics or detoxification facilities. The emergency department, welfare programs, and healthcare clinics serve as a critical part of the healthcare safety net for uninsured patients who cannot afford medical treatment or adequately utilise their coverage.


title: Emergency medicine

text: Emergency physicians are compensated at a higher rate than some other specialities, ranking 10th out of 26 physician specialities in 2015, at an average salary of $306,000 annually. They are compensated in the mid-range (averaging $13,000 annually) for non-patient activities, such as speaking engagements or acting as an expert witness; they also saw a 12% increase in salary from 2014 – 2015 (which was not out of line with many other physician specialities that year). While emergency physicians work 8–12 hour shifts and do not tend to work on-call, the high level of stress and need for solid diagnostic and triage capabilities for the undifferentiated, acute patient contributes to arguments justifying higher salaries for these physicians. Emergency care must be available every hour of every day and requires a doctor to be available on-site 24/7, unlike an outpatient clinic or other hospital departments with more limited hours and may only call a physician in when needed. The necessity to have a physician on staff and all other diagnostic services available every hour of every day is thus a costly arrangement for hospitals.