title: Cardiff University

text: Cardiff University was ranked joint 168th in Best Global Universities by US News in 2021. It was ranked 164th among universities around the world by SCImago Institutions Rankings in 2021. The Round University Rankings ranked Cardiff University 162nd globally in 2021. The Center for World University Rankings listed Cardiff University 159th in the world in 2021.


title: Cardiff University

text: According to QS World University Rankings by Subject in 2021, Cardiff University ranked within the world's top 50 universities in communication and media studies (28), and in architecture and built environment (37). Other subjects ranked within the top 100 are dentistry, and mineral and mining engineering (49) civil and structural engineering, geography, social policy and administration, pharmacy and pharmacology, English language and literature, psychology, and sociology.


title: Cardiff University

text: In terms of average UCAS points of entrants, Cardiff ranked 26th in Britain in 2018. The university gave offers of admission to 75.2 per cent of its applicants in 2015, the 13th lowest amongst the Russell Group.


title: Cardiff University

text: According to the 2017 "Times" and "Sunday Times" Good University Guide, approximately 15 per cent of Cardiff's undergraduates come from independent schools. In the 2016–2017 academic year, the university had a domicile breakdown of 76:5:19 of UK:EU:non-EU students respectively with a female to male ratio of 59:41.


title: Cardiff University

text: The university maintains 15 student halls and a number of student houses throughout the city of Cardiff; providing a total of 5,362 student places in accommodation. They are in a variety of architectural styles and ages, from the Gothic Aberdare Hall, built in 1895, to the modern Talybont Gate Building, completed in 2014. All first-year students are guaranteed a place in university owned and managed halls. The Cardiff University Halls are:


title: Cardiff University

text: The Cardiff University Students' Union is a student-run organisation aiming to promote student interests within the university and further afield. The Cardiff University Students' Union building is near Cathays Park, next to Cathays railway station. It has shops, a night club and the studios of Xpress Radio and Gair Rhydd, the student newspaper. It is democratically controlled by the student body through the election of seven full-time officers, who manage the running of the Union. The Union provides a range of services, including a number of cafes, bars and shops, as well as advice, training and representation. The Union is an affiliated member of the National Union of Students.


title: Cardiff University

text: The Union also supports over 260 other clubs and societies across a wide range of interests, including: Cardiff University Debating Society, and Act One, the student dramatic society. All clubs offer opportunities for beginners and the more experienced students.


title: Cardiff University

text: The Union provides facilities and support for several student media groups, including: "Gair Rhydd", an award-winning, free student newspaper that is released every Monday of term; "Quench", a monthly arts and lifestyle magazine that specialises in the local music scene as well as original investigative feature articles; and CUTV, the student television channel.


title: Cardiff University

text: Xpress Radio is the student radio station. It broadcasts daily during term from studios in the Students' Union building, with programming such as comedy panel shows, new music showcases, local music showcases, and film reviews.


title: Cardiff University

text: The Cardiff University Athletic Union is the body that supports student sport at Cardiff, it oversees more than 60 competitive and non-competitive sports clubs, many of which compete in the British Universities and Colleges Sport league. The university's Ice Hockey team, the Cardiff Redhawks (which also recruits players from other Welsh universities) competes in the British Universities Ice Hockey Association leagues.


title: Cardiff University

text: The university's sports teams also take part in the annual Welsh Varsity against Swansea University, which includes the Welsh Boat Race, and several other sporting competitions. The Welsh Varsity rugby match has been described as "probably... the second biggest Varsity Game next to Oxford vs Cambridge".


title: Cardiff University

text: Cardiff participates in British Universities and Colleges Sport which manages a sporting framework of competitive fixtures and events for over 150 institutions around the UK. Cardiff registers nearly 100 teams in the various leagues and competitions each year and sees students travelling around the country to represent Cardiff University. In 2013 Cardiff team achieved 15th position overall across the 50 different sports hosting events.


title: Cardiff University

text: Cardiff University's motto is "Gwirionedd, Undod a Chytgord". The Welsh motto translates as "Truth, Unity and Concord" or "Truth, Unity and Harmony". It is taken from the prayer for the Church militant as it appears in the 1662 "Book of Common Prayer".


title: Cardiff University

text: Cardiff University's current coat of arms was granted by the College of Arms in 1988 following the merger of University College Cardiff and the University of Wales Institute of Science and Technology. The coat of arms incorporates features from the heraldry of both former institutions. The three chevrons are derived from the arms of the de Clare lords of Glamorgan. The open book signifies learning; on it are the crescent and annulet, marks of cadence that indicate that University College Cardiff was the second of the University of Wales' institutions, and that the University of Wales Institute of Science and Technology was the fifth.


title: Cardiff University

text: A notable feature of the arms are the supporters, which in heraldry are rarely granted to universities. The supporters are an angel from University College Cardiff and a Welsh Dragon from the University of Wales Institute of Science and Technology. The crest is a Welsh dragon in the stance of a lion; it stands on the helmet. Both the dragon and the helmet are distinguished by being front-facing rather than in profile as is more usually found in Welsh heraldry.


title: Cardiff University

text: List of Vice-Chancellors and Principals of Cardiff University and its predecessors (shown in brackets):


title: Cardiff University

text: On 19 February 2018, Malcolm Anderson, a university lecturer committed suicide by jumping off a university building and died at age 48. The inquiry determined that Anderson's suicide was the result of a high-pressure workload.


title: Cardiff University

text: In 2020, Grace Krause, a PhD student employed at Cardiff University started experiencing headaches and back pain after lengthy work at a computer. She tweeted that "Staff are marking hundreds of essays in an impossibly short time. It is exhausting. Everyone is in crisis mode. Stressed, moody, morose, everyone feels like they’re drowning." Soon after, an email from the university was sent to all PhD students asking for these comments to be deleted, in order to avoid negative media attention. This has since sparked a debate about freedom of speech between employers and employees.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: The Reichskommissariat Ostland (RKO) was established by Nazi Germany in 1941 during World War II. It became the civilian occupation regime in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the western part of Byelorussian SSR. German planning documents initially referred to an equivalent "Reichskommissariat Baltenland". The political organization for this territory – after an initial period of military administration before its establishment – involved a German civilian administration, nominally under the authority of the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories led by Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg, but actually controlled by the Nazi official Hinrich Lohse, its appointed "Reichskommissar".


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: Germany's main political objectives for the "Reichskommissariat", as laid out by the Ministry within the framework of Nazism's policies for the east established by Adolf Hitler, included the genocide of the Jewish population, as well as the "Lebensraum" settlement of ethnic Germans along with the expulsion of some of the native population and the Germanization of the rest of the populace. These policies applied not only to the "Reichskommissariat Ostland" but also to other German-occupied Soviet territories. Through the use of the Order Police battalions and "Einsatzgruppen" A and B, with active participation of local auxiliary forces, over a million Jews were killed in the "Reichskommissariat Ostland". The Germanization policies, built on the foundations of the "Generalplan Ost", would later be carried through by a series of special edicts and guiding principles for the general settlement plans for Ostland.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: In the course of 1943 and 1944, the Soviet Red Army gradually recaptured most of the Ostland territory in their advance westwards, but Wehrmacht forces held out in the Courland Pocket until May 1945. With the end of World War II in Europe and the defeat of Germany in 1945, the "Reichskommissariat" ceased to exist.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: Originally the "Reichsminister" for the Occupied Eastern Territories (), Alfred Rosenberg envisioned usage of the term "Baltenland" ("Baltic Land") before the summer of 1941 for the area that would eventually be known as "Ostland". Otto Bräutigam, a major colleague of Rosenberg at the time, opposed this idea. In a later declaration he alleged that Rosenberg (himself a Baltic German), was influenced by his "Baltic friends" in forwarding this initiative, in which a "Baltic "Reichskommissariat"" with the addition of Belarus would be formed, "and with this the White Ruthenians would also be regarded as Balts". A more important additional colleague of Rosenberg, Georg Leibbrandt, spoke out against this. He argued that the sympathy of the Baltic peoples, who would naturally want the use of their own terminology, could be lost entirely. They would therefore not be won over either as supporters of the German war effort, nor as racially valuable settlers for the region.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: After the German invasion of the Soviet Union, vast areas were conquered to Germany's east. At first these areas would remain under military occupation by Wehrmacht authorities (Army Group Rear Areas), but as soon as the military situation allowed it, a more permanent form of administration under German rule for these territories would be instituted.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: "Führer" Decree of 17 July 1941 provided for this move. It established "Reichskommissariats" in the east, as administrative units of the Greater German Reich. The structure of each "Reichskommissariat" was defined by the same decree. Each of these territories would be led by a German civil governor known as a Reichskommissar appointed by Hitler and answerable only to him. The official appointed for Ostland was Hinrich Lohse, the "Oberpräsident" and "Gauleiter" of Schleswig-Holstein. Local government in the "Reichskommissariat" was to be organized under a "National Director" ("Reichskomissar") in Estonia, a "General Director" in Latvia, and a "General Adviser" in Lithuania.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: Rosenberg's ministerial authority was, in practice, severely limited. The first reason was that many of the practicalities were determined elsewhere: the Wehrmacht and the SS managed the military and security aspects, Fritz Sauckel as Reich Director of Labour had control over manpower and working areas, Hermann Göring and Albert Speer had total management of economic aspects in the territories and the Reich Postal Service administered the Eastern territories' postal services. These German central government interventions in the affairs of Ostland overriding the appropriate ministries were known as "special administrations" ("Sonderverwaltungen"). Later, from September 1941, the civil administration that had been decreed in the previous July was actually set up. Lohse and Erich Koch objected to these breaches of their supposed responsibilities, seeking to administer their territories with the independence and authority of Gauleiters. On 1 April 1942, an "arbeitsbereich" (lit. "working sphere", a name for the party cadre organisation outside the Reich proper) was established in the civilian-administered parts of the occupied Soviet territories, whereupon Koch and Lohse gradually ceased communication with Rosenberg, preferring to deal directly with Adolf Hitler through Martin Bormann and the Party Chancellery. In the process they also displaced all other actors including notably the SS, except in central Belarus where HSSPF Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski had a special command encompassing both military and civil administration territories and engaged in Nazi security warfare.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: In July 1941, the civil administration was declared in much of the occupied Soviet territories before one had materialised in the field. A power vacuum emerged which the SS filled with its SS and Police Leadership Structure, exercising unlimited power over security and policing which it gave up only grudgingly in the autumn when civil administration came into being; indeed Heinrich Himmler would use various tactics until as late as 1943 in unsuccessful efforts to regain this power. This partly explains the strained relations between the SS and the civil administration. In Ostland, matters were further complicated by the personality of the local superior SS officer Friedrich Jeckeln, attacked by the SS's opponents for his alleged corruption, brutality and mindless foolhardiness.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: The short-term political objectives for Ostland differed from those for the Ukraine, the Caucasus or the Moscow regions. The Baltic lands, which were to be joined together with Belarus (to serve as a spacious hinterland of the coastal areas), would be organised as one Germanized protectorate prior to union with Germany itself in the near future. Rosenberg said that these lands had a fundamentally "European" character, resulting from 700 years of history under Swedish, Danish, and German rule, and should therefore provide Germany with "Lebensraum", an opinion shared by Hitler and other leading Nazis. The Belarusians, however, were considered by the scholars of the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories as "little and weak peasant people" dwelling in "folkish indifference", but also "the most harmless and because of this the least dangerous for us of all the peoples in the Eastern Space" and an ideal object of exploitation. Rosenberg suggested that Belarus would be in the future an appropriate reception area of various undesirable population elements from the Baltic part of Ostland and German-occupied Poland. He also toyed with the idea of turning the country into a huge nature reserve.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: The regime planned to encourage the post-war settlement of Germans to the region, seeing it as a region traditionally inhabited by Germans (see the Teutonic Order and the Northern Crusades) that had been overrun by Slavs. During the war itself in Pskov province ethnic Germans were resettled from Romania with some Dutch. The settlement of Dutch settlers was encouraged by the "Nederlandsche Oost-Compagnie", a Dutch-German organisation.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: Historical German and Germanic-sounding placenames were also retained (or introduced) for many Baltic cities, such as "Reval" (Tallinn), "Kauen" (Kaunas), and "Dünaburg" (Daugavpils), among many others. To underscore the region's planned incorporation into Germany some Nazi ideologists further suggested the future use of the names "Peipusland" for Estonia and "Dünaland" for Latvia once they had become part of Germany. The ancient Russian city of Novgorod, the easternmost foreign trading post of the Hanseatic League, was to be renamed "Holmgard". During the occupation, the Germans also published a "local" German-language newspaper, the "Deutsche Zeitung im Ostland".


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: The Reichskommissariat Ostland was sub-divided into four "General Regions" ("Generalbezirke"), namely Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and White Ruthenia (Belarus), headed by a "Generalkommissar". The regions were further divided into "Districts" ("Kreisgebiete"). In the three Baltic states their previous counties (Es:Maakonad, Lv:Aprinka, Lt:Apskritys) were also retained as a further sub-division ("Kreise"). The conquered territories further to the east were under military control for the entirety of the war. The intention was to include these territories in the anticipated future extension of Ostland. This would have incorporated Ingria ("Ingermannland"), as well as the Smolensk, Pskov, and Novgorod areas into the Reichskommissariat. Estonia's new eastern border was planned to be extent to the Leningrad-Novgorod line, with Lake Ilmen and Volkhov River forming the new eastern border of the Baltic country, while Latvia was to reach the Velikiye Luki region. Belarus was to extend east to include the Smolensk region.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: The local administration of the Reichskommissariat Ostland was headed by "Reichskommissar" Hinrich Lohse. Below him there was an administrative hierarchy: a "Generalkomissar" led each "Generalbezirk", while "Gebietskommissars" administered "Kreisgebieten", respectively. The German administrative center for the entire region, as well as the seat of the "Reichskommissar", was in Riga, Latvia.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: Set up across the territory of the Belarusian SSR (including West Belarus, previously Wilno and Nowogródek regions of the eastern territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union). On 1 April 1944, "Generalbezirk Weissruthenien" was detached from Reichskommissariat Ostland and was placed directly under the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: SS and Police Leader: Jakob Sporrenberg (1941); Carl Zenner (1941–1942); Karl Schäfer (1942); Curt von Gottberg (1942–1943); Erich Ehrlinger (1943–1944)


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: In March 1943, Wilhelm Kube succeeded in installing the Belarusian Central Rada (a collaborationist puppet regime), which existed concurrently with the German civil administration.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: The military command was controlled by the "Wehrmachtbefehlshaber Ostland" ("Military Commander Ostland"). He was responsible for security within the occupied territories, to protect traffic connections and to record the harvest. These commanders were :


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: Upon taking control, Hinrich Lohse proclaimed the official decree ("Verkündungsblatt für das Ostland") on November 15, 1941, whereby all Soviet state and party properties in the Baltic area and Belarus were confiscated and transferred to the German administration.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: In Ostland, the administration returned lands nationalised by the Soviets to the former peasant owners. In towns and cities, small workshops, industries and businesses were returned to their former owners, subject to promises to pay taxes and quotas to the authorities. Jewish properties were confiscated. In Belarus, a state enterprise was established to manage all former Soviet government properties. One of the German administrators was General commissar Wilhelm Kube.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: "Ostgesellschaften" (state monopolies) and so-called "Patenfirmen", private industrial companies linked to the German government, were quickly appointed to manage confiscated enterprises. The Hermann Göring Workshops, Mannesmann, IG Farben and Siemens assumed control of all former Soviet state enterprises in Ostland and Ukraine. An example of this was the takeover, by Daimler-Benz and Vomag, of heavy repair workshops, in Riga and Kiev, for the maintenance of all captured Russian T-34 and KV-1 tanks, linked with their repair workshops in Germany.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: In Belarus, the German authorities lamented the "Jewish-Bolshevik" policies that had allegedly denied the people knowledge of the basic concepts of private property, ownership, or personal initiative. Unlike the Baltic area, where the authorities saw that "during the war and the occupation's first stages, the population gave examples of sincere collaboration, a way for possibly giving some liberty to autonomous administration".


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: According to Schwerin von Krosigk, the Reich Minister of Finances, until February 1944, Reich Government made a net profit of in taxes after deduction of occupation costs. The German Ministry of East Affairs required Lohse and the Reichskommissar in Ukraine to deliver immediately slave labor from the occupied territories to Germany: 380,000 farm workers and 247,000 industrial workers.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: The Germans viewed the Slavs as a pool of slave work labor for use by the German Reich; if necessary they could be worked to death.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: At the time of the German invasion in June 1941 there were significant Jewish minorities in Ostland — nearly 480,000 people. To these were added deportees from Austria, Germany, and elsewhere.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: Jews were confined to Nazi ghettos in Riga and Kauen, which rapidly became overcrowded and squalid. From these they were taken to execution sites.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: The Soviet Red Army reported the discovery of Vilna and Kauen extermination centres as apparently part of the Nazi "Final Solution". The extermination of the resident Jews began almost immediately after the invasion and was later extended to the deportees.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: In autumn 1943, the ghettos were "liquidated", and the remaining occupants were moved to camps at Kaiserwald and Stutthof near Danzig or, if not capable of work, killed.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: Aside from the German political leaders mentioned above, including Reich Minister Alfred Rosenberg, General Commissar Karl-Siegmund Litzmann and General Commissar Wilhelm Kube, the regional collaborationist structures across "Reichskommissariat Ostland" included Estonian political leaders such as Hjalmar Mäe, Oskar Angelus, Alfred Wendt (or Vendt), Otto Leesment, Hans Saar, Oskar Öpik, Arnold Radik, Johannes Soodla; Latvian political leaders with Oskars Dankers, and ; Lithuanian political leaders: Juozas Ambrazevičius, and Petras Kubiliūnas; as well as the Belarusian nationalist leaders from the Belarusian Central Council.


title: Reichskommissariat Ostland

text: German and local security authorities were kept busy by Soviet partisan activities in Belarus. They noted that "infected zones" of partisan action included an area of 500 or 600 km, around Minsk, Pinsk, Gomel, Briansk, Smolensk and Vitebsk, including the principal roads and railways in these areas.


title: Kaurava

text: Kaurava is a Sanskrit term which refers to descendants of Kuru, a legendary king of India who is the ancestor of many of the characters of the epic "Mahabharata". Usually, the term is used for the 100 sons of King Dhritarashtra and his wife Gandhari. Duryodhana, Dushasana, Vikarna and Chitrasena are the most popular among the brothers. They also had a sister named Dussala and a half-brother named Yuyutsu.


title: Kaurava

text: The rest of this article deals with the Kaurava in the narrower sense, that is, the children of Dhritarashtra by Gandhari. When referring to these children, a more specific term is also used – (Sanskrit: धार्तराष्ट्र), a derivative of Dhritarashtra.


title: Kaurava

text: After Gandhari was married to Dhritarashtra, she wrapped a cloth over her eyes and vowed to share the darkness that her husband lived in. Once Sage Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa came to visit Gandhari in Hastinapur and she took great care of the comforts of the great saint and saw that he had a pleasant stay in Hastinapur. The saint was pleased with Gandhari and granted her a boon. Gandhari wished for one hundred sons who would be as powerful as her husband. Dwaipayan Vyasa granted her the boon and in due course of time, Gandhari found herself to be pregnant. But two years passed and still, the baby was not born. Meanwhile, Kunti received a son from Yama whom she called Yudhishthira. After two years of pregnancy, Gandhari gave birth to a hard piece of lifeless flesh that was not a baby at all. Gandhari was devastated as she had expected a hundred sons according to the blessing of Rishi Vyasa. She was about to throw away the piece of flesh while Rishi Vyasa appeared and told her that his blessings could not have been in vain and asked Gandhari to arrange for one hundred jars to be filled with ghee. He told Gandhari that he would cut the piece of flesh into a hundred pieces and place them in the jars, which would then develop into the one hundred sons that she so desired. Gandhari told Vyasa then that she also wanted to have a daughter. Vyasa agreed, cut the piece of flesh into one hundred and one-pieces, and placed them each into a jar. After two more years of patient waiting the jars were ready to be opened and were kept in a cave. Bhima was born on the same day on which Duryodhana was born thus making them of the same age. Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva were born after Duryodhana was born.


title: Kaurava

text: The children of Dhritarashtra by Gandhari are also referred by a more specific and frequently encountered term - , a derivative of (Dhritarashtra).


title: Kaurava

text: According to the epic, Gandhari wanted a hundred sons and Vyasa granted her a boon that she would have these. Another version says that she was unable to have any children for a long time and she eventually became pregnant but did not deliver for two years, after which she gave birth to a lump of flesh. Vyasa cut this lump into a hundred and one-pieces and these eventually developed into a hundred boys and one girl.


title: Kaurava

text: The birth of these children is relevant to the dispute over the succession of the kingdom's throne. It attributes the late birth of Duryodhana, the eldest son of Dhritarashtra, despite his father's early marriage and legitimizes the case for his cousin Yudhishthira to claim the throne, since he could claim to be the eldest of his generation. All the sons of Dhritarashtra (excluding Yuyutsu) were killed in the Battle of Kurukshetra.


title: Kaurava

text: The Mahabharata notes the names of all Kauravas, of which only Duryodhana, Dushasana, Vikarna and Chitrasena play a significant role. The Kauravas also had a half-brother, Yuyutsu, and a sister, Duhsala.


title: Kaurava

text: All the 100 Kauravas were mentioned to have wives in the Adi Parva. Some of them had children - Duryodhana was mentioned to have a Kalinga princess as his wife, named in folklores as Mayuri. They had 3 children - a son Laxman Kumara and two daughters named Lakshmana and one unnamed daughter. Lakshman Kumar participated in the Kurukshetra War and killed Shikhandi's son Kshatradeva on the 12th day of the war. He is killed by Abhimanyu on the 13th day of the War.<br> Lakshmana was said to have married Krishna's son Samba, and they had a son Ushneek. Dushasana was also said to have two sons, who killed Abhimanyu in the war. Dushasana's first son was ultimately killed by Shrutasena in the War. Dushasan's second son was killed by Abhimanyu and Dushasan also had an unnamed daughter. Chitrasena's son was said to have been killed by Shrutakarma in the Kurukshetra War. Chitrasena also had an unnamed daughter. However, it was mentioned that all these sons of the Kauravas were killed by the sons of the Pandavas.


title: Kaurava

text: The term Kaurava is used as the name of a fictional planetary system in the 2008 real-time strategy video game "", as well as the names of the system's planets.


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: The Mitsubishi Galant VR-4 (Viscous Realtime 4WD) was the range-topping version of Mitsubishi Motors' Galant model, available in the sixth (1987–93), seventh (1993–96) and eighth (1996–2002) generations of the vehicle. Originally introduced to comply with the new Group A regulations of the World Rally Championship, it was soon superseded as Mitsubishi's competition vehicle by the Lancer Evolution, and subsequently developed into a high-performance showcase of the company's technology.


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Mitsubishi Motors Corporation (MMC) sought to improve its image through the established path of participation in motorsport. The Lancer 1600 GSR and Pajero/Montero/Shogun both achieved great success in rallying and rally raid events, and eventually the company planned an attempt on the Group B class of the World Rally Championship with a four-wheel drive version of its Starion coupé. However, the class was outlawed following several fatal accidents in 1985 and '86, and Mitsubishi was forced to reassess its approach. It instead homologated the recently introduced sixth generation of its Galant sedan for the Group A class, using the mechanical underpinnings from its aborted Starion prototype. Between 1988 and '92, it was campaigned by the official factory outfit, Mitsubishi Ralliart Europe, winning three events in the hands of Mikael Ericsson (1989 1000 Lakes Rally), Pentti Airikkala (1989 Lombard RAC Rally) and Kenneth Eriksson (1991 Swedish Rally). It was also driven to outright victory in the Asia-Pacific Rally Championships by Kenjiro Shinozuka (1988) and Ross Dunkerton (1991–92), and the American National GT Championship (1992) by Tim O'Neil.


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: However, Mitsubishi — and their competitors — realised that the WRC cars of the '80s were simply too big and ungainly for the tight, winding roads of rally stages. Sometime around 1992, Ford migrated the Sierra/Sapphire Cosworth to a smaller Escort-based bodyshell; Subaru developed the Impreza to succeed their Legacy; Toyota eventually replaced the Celica coupe with the Corolla; and Korea's Hyundai migrated their front-wheel drive Coupe-based rally car to a smaller 3-door Accent hatchback-based bodyshell in 1999. Mitsubishi, meanwhile, carried the VR-4's engine/transmission over to the new Lancer Evolution, bringing to an end the Galant's representation in MMC's motorsport efforts.


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: Group A regulations dictated a turbocharged engine of 2.0 L displacement and a four-wheel drive transmission. In order to satisfy the mandatory minimum sales requirements of 5,000 units, Mitsubishi made it available in North America, New Zealand, Australia, Japan, and other Asian Pacific Rim territories, with 2,000 reaching the United States in 1991, and 1000 units imported in 1992. It also satisfied Japanese regulations concerning external dimensions and engine displacement, thereby reducing a sales handicap in Japan with regards to additional taxes paid by Japanese owners. In road-going trim the four-door sedan produced up to 195 horsepower depending on market, giving the car a top speed of over and allowing it to accelerate from 0–60 in 7.3 seconds, with a quarter mile elapsed time of 15.3 seconds. This car also featured power-assisted speed-sensitive four-wheel steering: the rear wheels steered in the same phase as the front wheels above , up to 1.5 degrees.


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: A liftback version was also produced, known as the Eterna ZR-4. This had some minor cosmetic differences, but mechanically was the same as the VR-4 sedan. And also there are some special trim levels introduced, included VR-4 R (1987), VR-4 RS (1988), Super VR-4 (1990), VR-4 Monte Carlo (1990) and VR-4 Armed by Ralliart (1991).


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: Mitsubishi developed its first high performance four-wheel drive vehicle in 1987, when it equipped the Galant VR-4 with ""Dynamic Four"" (Mitsubishi AWC), which featured a center differential-type full-time four-wheel drive system (this system incorporated a viscous coupling unit), a four wheel steering system, four-wheel independent suspension, and a four-wheel ABS (the first total integration of these systems in the world that were highly advanced at the time).


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: For 1992, the emergence of the homologated Lancer Evolution meant that the top-spec Galant VR-4 was no longer constrained by sporting regulations. The new generation thus became a less overtly competition oriented vehicle. The existing, proven 4WD transmission was carried over, in keeping with Mitsubishi's reputation for performance-enhancing technology, but the old inline-four was superseded by a smoother twin-turbo 2.0-litre V6, and mated either to a conventional five-speed manual, or a four-speed "INVECS" auto complete with "fuzzy logic", which allowed the transmission to adapt to the driver's style and road conditions "on the fly". It was capable of accelerating from 0–60 mph (97 km/h) in about 6.5 seconds, and if derestricted could reach about .


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: Variants of the VR-4 using the same engine and drivetrain were sold in Japan as the Eterna XX-4 liftback (1992) and Galant Sports GT liftback (1994–96) and the Evo 3 1994.


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: The final VR-4 (Viscous Realtime Four Wheel Drive) was introduced in 1996. The engine capacity was enlarged substantially to 2.5 L, which pushed the power up by 15 percent to the Japanese voluntary limit of ( for the pre-facelift automatic version. The car was now capable of over when derestricted, and could accelerate from 0–60 mph (0–96 km/h) in 5.3 seconds for the 5-speed manual and 5.7 seconds for the 5-speed INVECS-II Auto, which was now an advanced self-learning automatic based on Porsche's Tiptronic transmission.


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: With the eighth generation of the Galant, Mitsubishi introduced a station wagon (known in many markets as the Legnum) to replace the old 5-door hatchback, and the VR-4 was now available in both body styles.


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: The Type V Eighth generation was introduced to the line up as the base model VR-4 in the manual configuration and due to the popularity of the car,The Mitsubishi Galant VR-4 Type V shared the same engine as all the other eighth generation variants, twin turbo V6 6A13 and was offered in both manual and automatic transmissions. The type V never came with AYC (active yaw control)


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: The Type S eighth generation was originally introduced with manual and INVECS-II from 1996 to 1998 and the facelift (1998-2002) was only offered in INVECS-II automatic and was thus marginally slower than a manual optioned Type V. To combat this many extras were included on the car to increase performance, such as Active Yaw Control (AYC), Traction Control Logic (TCL)and Active Stability control (ASC). The most notable difference is the flared guards of the Type S to fit the wider tyres offered to the automatic only. While the automatic was still slower than the manual by 4 tenths when measuring 0-100 times, the automatic Mitsubishi had manufactured was very sophisticated and offered much more similar performance between manual and automatic models than many other cars of the time.


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: All of the variants for the pre-facelift model offered the Active Yaw Control (AYC). This complex rear diff was first seen on the Lancer Evolution IV, and used an array of sensors to detect and quell oversteer, giving the ultimate VR-4 great agility for a vehicle of its size and weight.


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: The Super VR-4 trim level from this model was based on the pre-facelift Type-S and sold only in January 1998 on both the Galant sedan and the Legnum wagon, with a limited run of approximately 800 units. Only available in two colors, Redma, a bright red and Hamilton Silver. There are some cosmetic changes for the interior such as Recaro front seats and Momo steering wheel.


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: The facelift model was introduced in August 1998. The Recaro front seats and Momo steering wheel from the Super VR-4 could be optioned on all models. The ASC and TCL system was now optional on the automatic variants rather than included. The Type-S remained INVECS-II automatic only for the Galant sedan but manual could be available for the Legnum wagon from May 1999, along with the flared guards.


title: Mitsubishi Galant VR-4

text: North America and Europe were again denied this model which was originally planned to be exclusively for the Japanese domestic market, much like the Nissan Skyline GTR but the burgeoning grey import trade meant that it developed a cult following in several overseas territories, especially United Kingdom, New Zealand and Australia. This model also sold in Hong Kong by grey import and official dealer (only Galant VR-4s with INVECS-II were officially imported). In 2000 MMC's motorsport partner Ralliart was contracted to type-approve Galants and Lancers for UK sales, and 200 VR-4s were officially imported before production finally ceased two years later due to the revision of vehicle emission standards in Japan.


title: Countable set

text: In mathematics, a set is countable if either it is finite or it can be made in one to one correspondence with the set of natural numbers. Equivalently, a set is "countable" if there exists an injective function from it into the natural numbers; this means that each element in the set may be associated to a unique natural number, or that the elements of the set can be counted one at a time, although the counting may never finish due to an infinite number of elements.


title: Countable set

text: In more technical terms, assuming the axiom of countable choice, a set is "countable" if its cardinality (its number of elements) is not greater than that of the natural numbers. A countable set that is not finite is said countably infinite.


title: Countable set

text: The concept is attributed to Georg Cantor, who proved the existence of uncountable sets, that is, sets that are not countable; for example the set of the real numbers.


title: Countable set

text: Although the terms "countable" and "countably infinite" as defined here are quite common, the terminology is not universal. An alternative style uses "countable" to mean what is here called countably infinite, and "at most countable" to mean what is here called countable. To avoid ambiguity, one may limit oneself to the terms "at most countable" and "countably infinite", although with respect to concision this is the worst of both worlds. The reader is advised to check the definition in use when encountering the term "countable" in the literature.


title: Countable set

text: The terms "enumerable" and denumerable may also be used, e.g. referring to countable and countably infinite respectively, but as definitions vary the reader is once again advised to check the definition in use.


title: Countable set

text: The most concise definition is in terms of cardinality. A set formula_1 is "countable" if its cardinality formula_2 is less than or equal to formula_3 (aleph-null), the cardinality of the set of natural numbers formula_4. A set formula_1 is "countably infinite" if formula_6. A set is "uncountable" if it is not countable, i.e. its cardinality is greater than formula_3; the reader is referred to Uncountable set for further discussion.


title: Countable set

text: In 1874, in his first set theory article, Cantor proved that the set of real numbers is uncountable, thus showing that not all infinite sets are countable. In 1878, he used one-to-one correspondences to define and compare cardinalities. In 1883, he extended the natural numbers with his infinite ordinals, and used sets of ordinals to produce an infinity of sets having different infinite cardinalities.


title: Countable set

text: A "set" is a collection of "elements", and may be described in many ways. One way is simply to list all of its elements; for example, the set consisting of the integers 3, 4, and 5 may be denoted {3, 4, 5}, called roster form. This is only effective for small sets, however; for larger sets, this would be time-consuming and error-prone. Instead of listing every single element, sometimes an ellipsis ("...") is used to represent many elements between the starting element and the end element in a set, if the writer believes that the reader can easily guess what ... represents; for example, {1, 2, 3, ..., 100} presumably denotes the set of integers from 1 to 100. Even in this case, however, it is still "possible" to list all the elements, because the number of elements in the set is finite. If we number the elements of the set 1,2, and so on, up to formula_28, this gives us the usual definition of "sets of size formula_28".


title: Countable set

text: Some sets are "infinite"; these sets have more than formula_28 elements where formula_28 is any integer that can be specified. (No matter how large the specified integer formula_28 is, such as formula_33, infinite sets have more than formula_28 elements.) For example, the set of natural numbers, denotable by {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...}, has infinitely many elements, and we cannot use any natural number to give its size. It might seem natural to divide the sets into different classes: put all the sets containing one element together; all the sets containing two elements together; ...; finally, put together all infinite sets and consider them as having the same size. This view works well for countably infinite sets and was the prevailing assumption before Georg Cantor's work. For example, there are infinitely many odd integers, infinitely many even integers, and also infinitely many integers overall. We can consider all these sets to have the same "size" because we can arrange things such that, for every integer, there is a distinct even integer:


title: Countable set

text: or, more generally, formula_36 (see picture). What we have done here is arrange the integers and the even integers into a "one-to-one correspondence" (or "bijection"), which is a function that maps between two sets such that each element of each set corresponds to a single element in the other set. This mathematical notion of "size", cardinality, is that two sets are of the same size if and only if there is a bijection between them. We call all sets that are in one-to-one correspondence with the integers "countably infinite" and say they have cardinality formula_3.


title: Countable set

text: Georg Cantor showed that not all infinite sets are countably infinite. For example, the real numbers cannot be put into one-to-one correspondence with the natural numbers (non-negative integers). The set of real numbers has a greater cardinality than the set of natural numbers and is said to be uncountable.


title: Countable set

text: By definition, a set formula_1 is "countable" if there exists a bijection between formula_1 and a subset of the natural numbers formula_40. For example, define the correspondence


title: Countable set

text: Since every element of formula_41 is paired with "precisely one" element of formula_42, "and" vice versa, this defines a bijection, and shows that formula_1 is countable. Similarly we can show all finite sets are countable.


title: Countable set

text: As for the case of infinite sets, a set formula_1 is countably infinite if there is a bijection between formula_1 and all of formula_10. As examples, consider the sets formula_47, the set of positive integers, and formula_48, the set of even integers. We can show these sets are countably infinite by exhibiting a bijection to the natural numbers. This can be achieved using the assignments "n" ↔ "n+1" and "n" ↔ 2"n", so that


title: Countable set

text: Every countably infinite set is countable, and every infinite countable set is countably infinite. Furthermore, any subset of the natural numbers is countable, and more generally:


title: Countable set

text: The set of all ordered pairs of natural numbers (the Cartesian product of two sets of natural numbers, formula_49 is countably infinite, as can be seen by following a path like the one in the picture: The resulting mapping proceeds as follows:


title: Countable set

text: This form of triangular mapping recursively generalizes to formula_28-tuples of natural numbers, i.e., formula_51 where formula_24 and formula_28 are natural numbers, by repeatedly mapping the first two elements of an formula_28-tuple to a natural number. For example, (0, 2, 3) can be written as ((0, 2), 3). Then (0, 2) maps to 5 so ((0, 2), 3) maps to (5, 3), then (5, 3) maps to 39. Since a different 2-tuple, that is a pair such as ("a", "b"), maps to a different natural number, a difference between two n-tuples by a single element is enough to ensure the n-tuples being mapped to different natural numbers. So, an injection from the set of formula_28-tuples to the set of natural numbers formula_10 is proved. For the set of formula_28-tuples made by the Cartesian product of finitely many different sets, each element in each tuple has the correspondence to a natural number, so every tuple can be written in natural numbers then the same logic is applied to prove the theorem.


title: Countable set

text: The set of all integers formula_58 and the set of all rational numbers formula_59 may intuitively seem much bigger than formula_10. But looks can be deceiving. If a pair is treated as the numerator and denominator of a vulgar fraction (a fraction in the form of formula_61 where formula_62 and formula_63 are integers), then for every positive fraction, we can come up with a distinct natural number corresponding to it. This representation also includes the natural numbers, since every natural number formula_28 is also a fraction formula_65. So we can conclude that there are exactly as many positive rational numbers as there are positive integers. This is also true for all rational numbers, as can be seen below.


title: Countable set

text: Sometimes more than one mapping is useful: a set formula_68 to be shown as countable is one-to-one mapped (injection) to another set formula_69, then formula_68 is proved as countable if formula_69 is one-to-one mapped to the set of natural numbers. For example, the set of positive rational numbers can easily be one-to-one mapped to the set of natural number pairs (2-tuples) because formula_72 maps to formula_73. Since the set of natural number pairs is one-to-one mapped (actually one-to-one correspondence or bijection) to the set of natural numbers as shown above, the positive rational number set is proved as countable.


title: Countable set

text: With the foresight of knowing that there are uncountable sets, we can wonder whether or not this last result can be pushed any further. The answer is "yes" and "no", we can extend it, but we need to assume a new axiom to do so.


title: Countable set

text: This only works if the sets formula_74 are disjoint. If not, then the union is even smaller and is therefore also countable by a previous theorem.


title: Countable set

text: This set is the union of the length-1 sequences, the length-2 sequences, the length-3 sequences, each of which is a countable set (finite Cartesian product). So we are talking about a countable union of countable sets, which is countable by the previous theorem.


title: Countable set

text: The elements of any finite subset can be ordered into a finite sequence. There are only countably many finite sequences, so also there are only countably many finite subsets.


title: Countable set

text: Cantor's theorem asserts that if formula_68 is a set and formula_78 is its power set, i.e. the set of all subsets of formula_68, then there is no surjective function from formula_68 to formula_78. A proof is given in the article Cantor's theorem. As an immediate consequence of this and the Basic Theorem above we have:


title: Countable set

text: The set of real numbers is uncountable, and so is the set of all infinite sequences of natural numbers.


title: Countable set

text: If there is a set that is a standard model (see inner model) of ZFC set theory, then there is a minimal standard model ("see" Constructible universe). The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem can be used to show that this minimal model is countable. The fact that the notion of "uncountability" makes sense even in this model, and in particular that this model "M" contains elements that are:


title: Countable set

text: The minimal standard model includes all the algebraic numbers and all effectively computable transcendental numbers, as well as many other kinds of numbers.


title: Countable set

text: In both examples of well orders here, any subset has a "least element"; and in both examples of non-well orders, "some" subsets do not have a "least element".


title: Hyundai Venue

text: The Hyundai Venue () is a subcompact crossover SUV manufactured by the South Korean manufacturer Hyundai, as a tightly related variant of the Kia Soul sharing the Hyundai Accent platform.


title: Hyundai Venue

text: As Hyundai's smallest crossover globally prior to the introduction of the Casper, the Venue debuted at the 2019 New York International Auto Show and fits between the Kona or Creta, and above the Casper in Hyundai's international lineup.


title: Hyundai Venue

text: Two versions of the Venue were developed and produced for different markets. The Korean-made Venue is code named "QX" or "QX1", while the Indian-oriented, internally code named as "QXi", is shorter in length and wheelbase than the Korean version.


title: Hyundai Venue

text: The Venue is not marketed in Europe in favour of the European-focused, Hyundai i20-based Bayon which was introduced in 2021.


title: Hyundai Venue

text: The Venue was launched on May 21, 2019, in India and was initially available in 5 trim levels: E, S, SX, SX+ and SX(O). As of December 2019, bookings had crossed the 100,000 mark.


title: Hyundai Venue

text: In the Indian market, the Venue occupies the sub-4 metre SUV category, benefiting from the Indian tax advantages for cars shorter than 4 metres. The length is reduced to achieve the sub-4 metre mark by fitting a less protruding rear bumper. The Venue is powered by a 1.2-litre 4-cylinder naturally aspirated petrol engine that produces and of torque, paired with a 5-speed manual transmission, and a 1.0-litre 3-cylinder turbocharged GDI petrol engine that offers and of torque. The turbo petrol exclusively gets an option of a 7-speed dual-clutch automatic transmission and a 6-speed manual as well.


title: Hyundai Venue

text: The 1.4-litre diesel engine which the Venue was originally launched with, was replaced by a 1.5-litre Bharat Stage 6-compliant diesel engine in March 2020. The larger engine produces and of torque, which is 10 hp and 20 Nm more than the 1.4-litre engine's output. The 1.5-litre diesel engine is paired with a 6-speed manual transmission.


title: Hyundai Venue

text: In July 2020, a 6-speed clutch less manual transmission option was introduced for the 1.0-litre engine. It is marketed as "iMT" technology. It functions with an intention sensor on the gear lever, hydraulic actuator and transmission control unit (TCU). The TCU receives a signal from the lever intention sensor, indicating the driver’s intention to change gears, which then sends a signal to engage hydraulic actuator forming hydraulic pressure. The hydraulic pressure is then sent to the concentric slave cylinder (CSC) through the clutch tube. The CSC uses this pressure to control the clutch and pressure plate, thereby engaging and disengaging the clutch.


title: Hyundai Venue

text: In 2022, Hyundai also launched the facelift version of Venue. It has Connecting Tail lamps, Home to Car with Amazon Alexa and Google Assistant support, New Drive Modes, 10 Regional Language with AVNT, Nature Sounds and 60+ BlueLink Connected features.


title: Hyundai Venue

text: In the North American market, the Venue is powered by the 1.6-litre "Smart stream" gasoline straight-four engine producing and of torque. Both a 6-speed manual transmission (available only on base SE trim) and an Intelligent Variable Transmission (IVT) will be available (the latter is standard on the SEL and Denim, optional on the SE), and the Venue is available exclusively with front-wheel drive (FWD). Trim levels are base SE and up-level SEL. The manual transmission was discontinued for the 2021 model year due to low sales.


title: Hyundai Venue

text: Standard features on all Venue trim levels include Forward Collision-Avoidance Assistance with Pedestrian Detection, Lane Keep Assist, Driver Attention Warning, and an 8-inch display infotainment system with Android Auto and Apple CarPlay smartphone integration. Available options include Blind-Spot Collision Warning, Rear Cross-Traffic Collision Warning, LED lamps, alloy wheels, sunroof, two-tone roof, navigation, Hyundai Blue Link technology, a 6-speaker audio system, and roof side rails. There is also a lifestyle version called the Venue Denim, only available in Denim Blue with a White roof combined with a Denim and light gray leatherette interior. The Denim was renamed to the Limited trim after 2021.


title: Hyundai Venue

text: Launched in September 2019, Australian bound Venues come in three grades consisting of Go, Active & Elite, and sit below the dimensionally larger Hyundai Kona. A 'Launch Edition' grade based on the Elite was also initially available and limited to 100 units, featuring unique exterior colours and a power sunroof. All are powered by the 1.6-litre "Gamma" inline-four petrol engine available with a 6-speed manual transmission or 6-speed automatic transmission depending on the variant.


title: Hyundai Venue

text: For the Australian market, the Venue acts as an indirect replacement of the fourth-generation Hyundai Accent, due to the lack of right-hand-drive fifth-generation Accent production from South Korea for the time being. The entry price for the Venue has been kept low in order to maintain future entry-level customers.


title: Hyundai Venue

text: In 2021, the IIHS awarded the Hyundai Venue a Top Safety Pick Key award, and NHTSA rated it at four out of five stars for safety, with one star deducted due to rollover and front risk ratings of four stars. Safety features include six airbags, electronic stability control system, vehicle stability management system, forward collision warning alarm, pedestrian detection warning alarm, blind-spot detection and rear cross-traffic assistance. The active lane-keeping assistance, automatically adjustable high beams LED headlights and blind-spot detection are given as standard in all SEL trims. The Hyundai Venue has had 1 recall for seat belt pretensioners, with 72,142 units at risk, due to risk of explosion.


title: Tarabai

text: Tarabai Bhosale (Pronunciation: ]; "née" Mohite) was the regent of the Maratha Empire of India from 1700 until 1708. She was the queen of Rajaram Bhonsale, and daughter-in-law of the empire's founder Shivaji. She is acclaimed for her role in keeping alive the resistance against Mughal occupation of Maratha territories after the death of her husband, and acting as the regent during the minority of her son, Shivaji II.


title: Tarabai

text: Tarabai came from Mohite clan. She was daughter of Commander-in-Chief Hambirrao Mohite of Shivaji, the founder-king of the Maratha empire. Hambirrao's sister Soyarabai was the queen of Shivaji and mother of his younger son Rajaram I. Tarabai married Rajaram at the age of 8 in 1682, becoming his second wife.


title: Tarabai

text: After the death of his step-brother and predecessor Sambhaji, Rajaram ruled the Maratha Empire from 1689 to 1700, when his first wife Jankibai was the empress consort. On Rajaram's death in March 1700, Tarabai proclaimed her infant son, Shivaji II (later known as Shivaji I of Kolhapur) as Rajaram's successor and herself as the regent.


title: Tarabai

text: As the regent, Tarabai took charge of the war against the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb's forces. Tarabai was skilled in cavalry movement and made strategic movements herself during wars. She personally led the war and continued the fight against the Mughals. A truce was offered to the Mughals in such a way that the Mughal emperor promptly rejected it and Tarabai continued the Maratha resistance. By 1705, Marathas had crossed the Narmada River and made small incursions in Malwa, retreating immediately. In 1706, Tarabai was captured by Mughal forces for a brief period of 4 days but she escaped after the Mughal camp - in which she was being held - was ambushed by the Marathas. The Maratha country was relieved at the news of the death of Aurangzeb who died at Ahmadnagar and buried at Khuldabad near Aurangabad, Maharashtra in 1707.


title: Tarabai

text: Of the years 1700–1707, Jadunath Sarkar, a prominent Indian historian especially of the Mughal dynasty, has opined: "During this period, the supreme guiding force in Maharashtra was not any minister but the dowager queen Tarabai. Her administrative genius and strength of character saved the nation in that awful crisis."


title: Tarabai

text: In order to divide the Maratha onslaught, the Mughals released Shahu I, Sambhaji's son and Tarabai's nephew, on certain conditions. He immediately challenged Tarabai and her son Shivaji II for leadership of the Maratha polity. Shahu eventually prevailed, sidelining Tarabai, due to his legal position and Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath's diplomacy. Tarabai established a rival court in Kolhapur in 1709, and established her son Shivaji II as the first Chhatrapati of Kolhapur known as Shivaji I of Kolhapur. However, Shivaji I of Kolhapur was deposed in 1714 by Rajaram's other widow, Rajasabai, who put her own son, Sambhaji II, on the throne. Sambhaji II imprisoned Tarabai and her son. Shivaji I of Kolhapur died in 1726. Tarabai later reconciled with Shahu I in 1730 and went to live in Satara but without any political power.


title: Tarabai

text: In 1740s, during the last years of Shahu's life, Tarabai presented to the heirless Shahu I a young man, who she claimed was her grandson, and thus, a direct descendant of Shivaji. She claimed that Rajaram had been concealed after his birth for his protection and had been raised by the wife of a soldier. Shahu, who did not have a son of his own, adopted the young man who later succeeded him as Rajaram II (also known as Ramaraja).


title: Tarabai

text: After Shahu's death in 1749, Rajaram II succeeded him as the "Chhatrapati". When Balaji Baji Rao left for the Mughal frontier, Tarabai urged Rajaram II to remove him from the post of Peshwa. When Rajaram refused, she imprisoned him in a dungeon at Satara, on 24 November 1750. She also claimed that he was an impostor and she had falsely presented him as her grandson to Shahu.


title: Tarabai

text: In early October 1750, Tarabai had met Umabai Dabhade, who also held a grudge against the Peshwa. Umabai dispatched 15,000 troops led by Damaji Rao Gaekwad in support of Tarabai. Gaekwad defeated a 20,000-strong force led by the Peshwa loyalist Trimbakrao Purandare at Nimb, a small town north of Satara. He then marched to Satara, where he was received by Tarabai. However, Trimbakrao re-formed his army and on 15 March, attacked Gaekwad's army, which was encamped on the banks of Venna River. Gaekwad was defeated in this battle and forced to retreat with heavy losses.


title: Tarabai

text: Meanwhile, Balaji Baji Rao returned from the Mughal frontier, reaching Satara on 24 April. He stormed the Yavateshwar garrison in Satara, defeating Tarabai's forces. He surrounded the Satara fort and asked Tarabai to release Rajaram II, whose physical and mental condition had deteriorated considerably. Tarabai refused and Balaji Baji Rao left for Pune since a siege of the well-provisioned and strong Satara fort would not be easy. Meanwhile, Damaji Gaekwad, Umabai Dabhade and their relatives were arrested by the Peshwa's men.


title: Tarabai

text: A section of Tarabai's troops in the Satara garrison unsuccessfully rebelled against her. She beheaded the rebel leader Anandrao Jadhav. However, she realized that she would not be able to fight Balaji Baji Rao, and agreed to meet him in Pune for a peace agreement. Janoji Bhonsle, also a rival of Balaji Baji Rao, was in the neighbourhood of Pune with a strong army and agreed to protect her against any harm. In Pune, Balaji Baji Rao treated her respectfully and after some reluctance, Tarabai accepted Balaji Baji Rao's superiority. She agreed to dismiss her lieutenant Baburao Jadhav, whom Balaji Baji Rao disliked. In return, the Balaji Baji Rao forgave her. On 14 September 1752, the two took oaths at Khandoba temple in Jejuri, promising mutual peace. At this oath ceremony, Tarabai also swore that Rajaram II was not her grandson. Nevertheless, Balaji Baji Rao retained Rajaram II as the titular Chhatrapati and a powerless figurehead.


title: Malay Archipelago

text: The Malay Archipelago (Indonesian/Malay: , ) is the archipelago between mainland Indochina and Australia. It has also been called the "Malay world," "Nusantara", "East Indies", Indo-Australian Archipelago, Spices Archipelago and other names over time. The name was taken from the 19th-century European concept of a Malay race, later based on the distribution of Austronesian languages.


title: Malay Archipelago

text: Situated between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, the archipelago of over 25,000 islands and islets is the largest archipelago by area and fourth by number of islands in the world. It includes Brunei, East Timor, Indonesia, Malaysia (East Malaysia), Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and Singapore. The term is largely synonymous with Maritime Southeast Asia.


title: Malay Archipelago

text: The term was derived from the European concept of a "Malay race" (the Austronesian peoples), a racial concept proposed by European explorers based on their observations of the influence of the Srivijaya empire, which was based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. However, the Malay Archipelago does not include all islands inhabited by the Malay race such as Madagascar and Taiwan, and it includes the islands inhabited by Melanesians such as Maluku Islands and New Guinea.


title: Malay Archipelago

text: The 19th-century naturalist Alfred Wallace used the term "Malay Archipelago" as the title of his influential book documenting his studies in the region. Wallace also referred to the area as the "Indian Archipelago" and the "Indo-Australian" Archipelago. He included within the region the Solomon Islands and the Malay Peninsula due to physiographic similarities. As Wallace noted, there are arguments for excluding Papua New Guinea for cultural and geographical reasons: Papua New Guinea is culturally quite different from the other countries in the region, and it is geologically not part of the continent of Asia, as the islands of the Sunda Shelf are (see Australia).


title: Malay Archipelago

text: The archipelago was called the "East Indies" from the late 16th century and throughout the European colonial era. It is still sometimes referred to as such, but broader usages of the "East Indies" term had included Indochina and the Indian subcontinent. The area is called "Nusantara" in the Indonesian language. The area is also referred to as the "Indonesian archipelago". The term "Maritime Southeast Asia" is largely synonymous, covering both the islands in Southeast Asia and nearby island-like communities, such as those found on the Malay Peninsula.


title: Malay Archipelago

text: Insulindia is a somewhat archaic geographical term for Maritime Southeast Asia, sometimes extending as far as Australasia. More common in Portuguese and Spanish, it is also sometimes used in art history or anthropology to describe the interface zone between the cultures of Oceania and Southeast Asia.


title: Malay Archipelago

text: Insulindia is used as a geopolitical term in academic discussions of the former European colonial possessions within Maritime Southeast Asia, especially Dutch East Indies and Portuguese East Indies (""Portuguese Insulindia"") much as former French colonial possessions in Southeast Asia are still termed French Indochina. It is also used to describe and locate the Chinese cultural diaspora (the ""insulindian Chinese"") across the islands of Southeast Asia.


title: Malay Archipelago

text: The land and sea area of the archipelago exceeds 2 million km. The more than 25,000 islands of the archipelago consist of many smaller archipelagoes.


title: Malay Archipelago

text: The major island groupings in the Indonesian Archipelago include the Maluku Islands, New Guinea, and the Sunda Islands. The Sunda Islands comprise two island groups: the Greater Sunda Islands and the Lesser Sunda Islands.


title: Malay Archipelago

text: The major island groupings in the Philippine Archipelago include Luzon, Mindanao, and the Visayan Islands.


title: Malay Archipelago

text: The seven largest islands are New Guinea, Borneo, Sumatra, Sulawesi and Java in Indonesia; and Luzon and Mindanao in the Philippines.


title: Malay Archipelago

text: Geologically, the archipelago is one of the most active volcanic regions in the world. Producing many volcanoes especially in Java, Sumatra and Lesser Sunda Islands region where most volcanoes over are situated. Tectonic uplifts also produce large mountains, including the highest in Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with a height of 4,095.2 m and Puncak Jaya on Papua, Indonesia at . Other high mountains in the archipelago include Puncak Mandala, Indonesia at and Puncak Trikora, Indonesia, at .


title: Malay Archipelago

text: Wallace used the term "Malay Archipelago" as the title of his influential book documenting his studies in the region. He proposed what would come to be known as the "Wallace Line", a boundary that separated the flora and fauna of Asia and Australia. The ice age boundary was formed by the deep water straits between Borneo and Sulawesi; and through the Lombok Strait between Bali and Lombok. This is now considered the western border of the Wallacea transition zone between the zoogeographical regions of Asia and Australia. The zone has a mixture of species of Asian and Australian origin, and its own endemic species.


title: Malay Archipelago

text: The people living there are predominantly from Austronesian sub-groupings and correspondingly speak western Malayo-Polynesian languages. The main religions in this region are Islam (62%), Christianity (33%), as well as Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism and traditional folk religions.


title: Malay Archipelago

text: Culturally, the region is often seen as part of "Farther India" or Greater India—the Coedes' "Indianized states of Southeast Asia" refers to it as "Island Southeast Asia".


title: Ashley Laurence

text: Ashley Laurence is an American actress and visual artist. She made her film debut in 1987 as the lead character, Kirsty Cotton, in Clive Barker's horror film "Hellraiser" (1987), a role she later reprised in "" (1988), "" (1992), and "" (2002). The film franchise established her as a prominent actress in horror, and she subsequently starred in "Mikey" (1992) and "The Lurking Fear" (1994).


title: Ashley Laurence

text: Laurence's other notable film roles include Jenny Graves in "Lightning Bug" (2004) and Mrs. McCormack in "Red" (2008). In addition to film, Laurence has had guest appearances on several television series including "" (1996), "Suddenly Susan" (1997), "Beverly Hills, 90210" (1999).


title: Ashley Laurence

text: In addition to acting in live action film and television, Laurence made her voice acting debut as Missy Carter in the video game "The Vanishing of Ethan Carter" (2014). Six years later, she returned to voice acting for the animated comedy television series "JJ Villard's Fairy Tales" (2020) which premiered on Adult Swim.


title: Ashley Laurence

text: She was confirmed to appear on the upcoming second season of the Shudder anthology series "Creepshow" (2021).


title: Ashley Laurence

text: Laurence began her career with guest roles on television series. In 1984, she made her acting debut with a recurring role on the CBS soap opera "Capitol" as Brenda Clegg. In 1986, Laurence had a guest appearance as Genna in an episode of the television series "Highway to Heaven". In 1987, she made her film debut as the heroine Kirsty Cotton in Clive Barker's "Hellraiser" (1987). She starred alongside Clare Higgins and Doug Bradley as Pinhead. The film was a critical and commercial success, earning more than $14 million at the American box office. When discussing how she obtained the part, in a retrospective interview Laurence credited Barker for her being cast as the lead, stating:


title: Ashley Laurence

text: In 1988, Laurence reprised her role as Kirsty in Tony Randel's sequel "". In 1989, Laurence guest-starred on the television series "Monsters" and "Hunter".


title: Ashley Laurence

text: In 1990, Laurence portrayed Jane in the film "Face the Edge". In 1992, she appeared in the films "Deuce Coupe", "Hellraiser III: Hell on Earth", and "Mikey". In 2000, Laurence starred in the film "Cypress Edge" and guest-starred on an episode of "".


title: Ashley Laurence

text: In 1994, Laurence starred in "The Lurking Fear" and "Stranger by Night". In 1995, she starred in the martial arts Western "Savate". The same year, she guest-starred on "Legends" and appeared in the television films "Triplecross" and "American Cop". In 1996, Laurence starred in the film "Livers Ain't Cheap" and guest-starred on "".


title: Ashley Laurence

text: In 1997, she starred as Jennifer Taylor in the film "Cupid" and guest starred on the television series "Suddenly Susan". In 1999, Laurence portrayed Janine DeVrie in the thriller film "A Murder of Crows" and Kris Miller in the horror film "". The same year, she guest starred on the television series "Beverly Hills, 90210".


title: Ashley Laurence

text: In 2002, Laurence reprised her role as Kirsty Cotton in the horror film "Hellraiser: Hellseeker" and portrayed Dakota in the television film "Gentle Ben". The following year, she reprised her role as Dakota in the television film sequel "Gentle Ben 2: Danger on the Mountain". In 2004, she portrayed Jenny Graves in the drama film "Lightning Bug" and had a guest role on the television series "ER".


title: Ashley Laurence

text: In 2008, she appeared in the drama film "Red", based on the novel by Jack Ketchum. In 2009, Laurence appeared in Slipknot's music video for their song "Snuff". In 2014, Laurence made her voice-over debut in the video game "The Vanishing of Ethan Carter". In 2016, Laurence starred in the film "The Green Fairy".


title: Ashley Laurence

text: In 2021, Laurence was confirmed to star alongside Keith David and Josh McDermitt in the upcoming second season of Shudder's anthology series "Creepshow" (2021).


title: Kym Herjavec

text: Kym Herjavec (née Johnson; born 4 August 1976) is an Australian professional ballroom dancer and television performer who appeared in the first three seasons of the Australian version of "Dancing with the Stars" as a professional dancer, before moving to the U.S. version of the franchise from 2006 to 2015. Johnson returned as a professional to the U.S. series in 2017 for its 24th season. She also served as a judge on the Australian version of the show from 2013 to 2015. She is married to Robert Herjavec.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: Johnson began dancing at the age of three. She began ballroom dancing at 13 years of age. In 1998, she and her partner, Lithuanian Tomas Atkocevicius, placed second at the Australian Dancesport Championship in the Open Amateur Modern Ballroom. They also were finalists as the U.K. Ballroom Championships at Blackpool. She retired from competitive ballroom dance in 2001, but continued dancing on stage.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: Johnson's first major television appearance was as a professional on "Dancing with the Stars", a televised ballroom dance competition.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: She appeared on Seasons 1-3 of "Dancing with the Stars" in Australia in 2004 and 2005. In Season 2, she and her partner, television presenter Tom Williams were the winning couple; they both then performed in the Champion of Champion series. Johnson also made a cameo during the 4th Australian series "Dancing with the Stars" Grand Final, performing with musician Alex Lloyd.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: In early 2006, she appeared on the Australian program "Australian Celebrity Survivor: Vanuatu" on behalf of the Merry Makers. She was the first one voted out of her Moso tribe and the game. She received all 6 votes, 5 from her tribemates and her own vote. Johnson is one of the few Survivor contestants worldwide to vote herself out of the game, as self-voting is generally against the rules in most editions.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: In 2013 Johnson appeared on season three of "The Celebrity Apprentice Australia" but got fired on the fourth week as the losing project manager.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: Later the same year (2006), Johnson appeared on season 3 of the US "Dancing with the Stars", partnering with talk show icon Jerry Springer. They proved to be popular and were the 7th couple sent off. During the series Johnson wrote a Behind the Scenes' Diary for OK! Magazine Australia.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: Johnson later continued to tour America with the "Dancing with the Stars" Tour, but was unable to perform in every show due to an arm injury.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: Johnson returned to the ballroom on 19 March for Season 4, this time partnered with member of N'Sync Joey Fatone. She became the runner-up professional dancer of this season. After the completion of Dancing with the Stars, Johnson and Joey Fatone celebrated by going on the inaugural Mediterranean cruise for the Disney Cruise Line. The two performed for the ship's guests on 2 June 2007. Billionaire Mark Cuban was her Season 5 Partner. They were voted off in the fifth week. In season 6 she competed with magician Penn Jillette, but they were the first voted off in the Double-Elimination in the second week. Johnson competed on season 7 partnered with former NFL Player Warren Sapp. They finished in second place behind Brooke Burke and Derek Hough. This was Johnson's second time being the professional runner-up.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: Johnson returned to the ballroom for Season 8, and she was paired with actor David Alan Grier. They were eliminated in the fifth week of competition on 7 April 2009.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: For Season 9, Johnson was paired with Donny Osmond. Osmond and Johnson were crowned the champions on 24 November 2009, making Johnson the only dance professional to have won the title in two different countries. During this season, Johnson wrote a behind-the-scenes blog of her experiences for www.okmagazine.com.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: In Season 11 Johnson was partnered with actor David Hasselhoff. Hasselhoff and Johnson were the first to be eliminated, making it the second time she was eliminated in the first round including the double elimination in Season 6 and the fourth professional dancer to come in last place more than once after Alec Mazo, Edyta Sliwinska & Jonathan Roberts.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: Along with Maksim Chmerkovskiy and Ashly DelGrosso-Costa, Johnson appears in the DVD "Dancing With The Stars: Cardio Dance".


title: Kym Herjavec

text: For season 12 of DWTS, Johnson partnered with professional athlete Hines Ward. During rehearsal after Episode 19, Johnson suffered a neck injury, and reported that she was "shaken up" but would be all right. The couple performed the dance as scheduled, and went on to win the season on 24 May 2011.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: For season 13, Johnson was partnered with actor and producer David Arquette. They were voted off in the seventh week of the competition and came in 6th place.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: In Season 14, Johnson was partnered with Jaleel White. They were the sixth couple to be eliminated, finishing in 7th place.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: For Season 15, She danced with her Season 4 partner Joey Fatone. They were the second couple to be eliminated, finishing in 12th place. During week eight, she returned to perform a trio Salsa with Emmitt Smith and Cheryl Burke. The trio earned a 30 from the judges.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: For Season 16, she partnered with "General Hospital" star Ingo Rademacher. They made it to the semi-finals, but were eliminated, landing them in fifth place.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: It was announced on 11 February 2015, that Johnson would return to the United States as a professional dancer on the 20th season of "Dancing with the Stars". She was paired with "Shark Tank" star and her future husband Robert Herjavec. They were the seventh couple to be eliminated, finishing in 6th place.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: It was announced on 27 February 2017, that Johnson would return as a pro on 24th season of "Dancing with the Stars". She is partnered with actor and retired professional wrestler Mr. T. They were eliminated in Week 4, and finished in 10th place


title: Kym Herjavec

text: In October 2015, Johnson announced that she would be releasing her first fitness DVD, "5678 Fitness", and a book entitled "The 5678 Diet", in January 2016.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: "5678 Fitness" is a full-length at home fitness program based on cardio-Latin dance, combining high energy dance routines with a total body workout. In conjunction with the launch of her personal fitness and lifestyle brand, Kym Johnson shares her life lessons, nutrition and exercise plans, and entertainment style through anecdotes, recipes, and contributions from her celebrity dance partners in her first book The 5678 Diet.


title: Kym Herjavec

text: In September 2015, Johnson confirmed that she and her "Dancing with the Stars" season 20 partner, businessman Robert Herjavec, were in a relationship. On February 27, 2016, the couple became engaged. She and Herjavec married on July 31, 2016 in Los Angeles, and she has since changed her last name. Herjavec gave birth to the couple's twins in 2018.


title: History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)

text: The time period in China from the founding of the People's Republic in 1949 until Mao's death in 1976 is commonly known as Maoist China and Red China. The history of the People's Republic of China is often divided distinctly by historians into the Mao era and the post-Mao era. The country's Mao era lasted from the founding of the People's Republic on 1 October 1949 to Deng Xiaoping's consolidation of power and policy reversal at the Third Plenum of the 11th Party Congress on 22 December 1978. The Mao era focuses on Mao Zedong's social movements from the early 1950s on, including land reform, the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. The Great Chinese Famine, one of the worst famines in human history, occurred during this era.


text: The founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC) was formally proclaimed by Mao Zedong, the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, on October 1, 1949, at 3:00 pm in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. The establishment of the Central People's Government of the PRC, the government of the new nation, was officially declared during the proclamation speech at the founding ceremony. A military parade took place during the foundation ceremony.


text: The People's Republic of China was founded on a land that was ravaged by a century of foreign invasion and civil wars. Both urban and rural communities, as well as both agriculture and industry, experienced significant growth between 1949 and 1959. Mao's government carried out land reform, instituted collectivisation and implemented the "laogai" camp system.


text: Economically, the country followed up on the Soviet model of five-year plans with its own first five-year plan from 1953 to 1957. The country went through a transformation whereby means of production were transferred from private to public entities, and through nationalization of industry in 1955, the state controlled the economy in a similar fashion to the economy of the Soviet Union.


text: China's role in the Korean war has been evaluated by each participant in sharply different ways. Soon after its founding, the newly born People's Republic of China was drawn into its first international conflict. On June 25, 1950, Kim Il-sung's North Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel, invaded South Korea, and eventually advanced as far as the Pusan Perimeter in south-east Korea. United Nations forces entered the war on side of the South, and American General Douglas MacArthur, having forced a Communist retreat, proposed to end the war by Christmas 1950. The Soviet Union and China saw a UN (and consequently, American) victory as a major political victory to the United States, a prospect seen as dangerous in the beginnings of the Cold War. However, Stalin had no desire to go to war with the United States, and left China the responsibility of saving the regime in Pyongyang. Up to this time, the Truman Administration was thoroughly disgusted with the corruption of Chiang Kai-shek's government and considered simply recognizing the PRC. On June 27, the US 7th Fleet was sent to the Taiwan Straits both to prevent a Communist invasion of the island and to prevent an attempted reconquest of the mainland. China meanwhile warned that it would not accept a US-backed Korea on its border. After the UN forces liberated Seoul in September, Beijing countered by saying that ROK troops could cross into North Korea, but not American ones. MacArthur ignored this, believing that the South Korean army was too weak to attack on its own. After Pyongyang fell in October, the UN troops approached the strategically sensitive Yalu River area. China responded by sending waves of troops south, in what became known as the People's Volunteers in order to disassociate them from the PLA. The Chinese army was poorly equipped but contained many veterans of the civil war and the conflict with Japan. In addition, it possessed huge reserves of manpower.


text: The United States was on its way to the height of military power, and historians contend that Mao's participation in the war asserted China as a new power to not be taken lightly. Known as the "Resist America, Aid Korea" Campaign in China, the first major offensive of the Chinese forces was pushed back in October, but by Christmas 1950, the "People's Volunteer Army" under the command of Gen. Peng Dehuai had forced the United Nations to retreat back to the 38th Parallel. However, the war was very costly to the Chinese side, as more than just "volunteers" were mobilised, and because of the lack of experience in modern warfare and the lack of modern military technology, China's casualties vastly outnumbered that of the United Nations. On 11 April 1951, a U.S. Seventh Fleet destroyer approached close to the port of Swatow (Shantou), on the southwest coast of China, provoking China to send an armada of more than forty armed powered junks to confront and surround the destroyer for nearly five hours before the destroyer departed the area without either side widening the conflict by initiating hostile fire. Declining a UN armistice, the two sides fought intermittently on both sides of the 38th Parallel until the armistice was signed on July 27, 1953. The Korean War ended any possibility of normalised relations with the United States for years. Meanwhile, Chinese forces invaded and annexed Tibet in October 1950. Tibet had been nominally subject to the Chinese emperors in past centuries, but declared its independence in 1912.


text: Under Mao's direction, China built its first atomic bomb in its nuclear program, Project 596, testing it on October 16, 1964 at Lop Nor; it was the fifth country to conduct a successful nuclear test.


text: The Korean War had been enormously costly to China, especially coming on the heels of the civil war, and it delayed postwar reconstruction. In 1949, Mao Zedong declared that the nation would "lean to one side", meaning that the Soviet Union and the communist bloc would be its principal allies. Three months after the PRC was established in October 1949, Mao and his delegation traveled to Moscow. They were not received warmly by Stalin, who doubted if they really were Marxist-Leninists and not simply a group of Chinese nationalists. He had also recognized Chiang Kai-Shek's government, and furthermore distrusted any communist movement that was not under his direct control. After a meeting with Mao, the Soviet leader remarked "What sort of a man is Mao? He seems to have some idea of revolution involving the peasants, but not the workers." Eventually, a frustrated Mao was ready to go home, but Zhou Enlai refused to leave without a formal agreement. Thus, the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Friendship was signed and the Chinese at last departed in February 1950.


text: According to Hua-yu Li, writing in "Mao and the Economic Stalinization of China, 1948–1953" in 1953, Mao, misled by glowing reports in "History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolshevik): Short Course", authorized by Stalin of social and economic progress in the Soviet Union, abandoned the liberal economic programs of "New Democracy" and instituted the "general line for socialist transition", a program to build socialism based on Soviet models. He was reportedly moved in part by personal and national rivalry with Stalin and the Soviet Union.


text: The Soviet Union provided considerable economic aid and training during the 1950s. Many Chinese students were sent to study in Moscow. Factories and other infrastructure projects were all based on Soviet designs, for China was an agrarian country with little established industry. In 1953, Mao Zedong told the Indonesian ambassador that they had little to export except agricultural products. Several jointly owned Sino-Soviet corporations were established, but Mao considered these to impinge on Chinese sovereignty and in 1954 they were quietly dissolved.


text: By 1956, Mao was becoming bored with the day-to-day running of the state and also worried about growing red tape and bureaucracy. The 8th Party Congress that year declared that socialism had more-or-less been established and so the next few years would be devoted to rest and consolidation.


text: In February 1957, Mao gave one of his most famous addresses in which he said, "Let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools of thought contend." The Hundred Flowers Campaign was promoted by the CCP as a way of furthering socialist ideology through open debate, but many took it as an invitation to express open disdain for the Communist Party. Many began to voice their opposition to the Party-State's rule. Thoroughly shocked, Mao put an end to this and then launched the Anti-Rightist Campaign. Scores of intellectuals and common workers were purged, jailed, or disappeared. Many were not "rehabilitated" until the 1970s.


text: Mao's social and cultural programs, including collectivization, were most popular in the early 1950s. However, China's strained relations with new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev and newfound contradictions between the Chinese and Soviet schools of communism seeded a novel and radical drive to reform China's economic system in its entirety. This split developed after Stalin's death in 1953 when new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced him. The "secret speech" in 1956 stunned the communist world. China rejected de-Stalinization and in fact displayed large Stalin portraits at the May Day celebrations that year. Mao declared that despite some faults, Stalin had basically been a good, well-meaning Marxist. He felt that the Soviets were not treating China as an equal partner. Cultural differences also contributed to friction between the two communist giants. Khrushchev's idea of peaceful competition with the United States rather than overt hostility did not resonate well with Beijing. Mao said that "Do you think the capitalists will put down their butcher knife and become Buddhas?"


text: Khrushchev's 1958 suggestion of a joint Sino-Soviet fleet to counter the US 7th Fleet was angrily rejected by Mao Zedong, who told the Soviet ambassador "If you want to talk about joint cooperation, fine. We can practice joint cooperation in government, military, cultural, and economic matters and you can leave us with a guerrilla force." When the Soviet premier himself visited China the following year, Mao again asked him to explain what a joint fleet was. He stated that the Soviets were not welcome to put any troops on Chinese soil in peacetime and added "Listen carefully. We have worked long and hard to drive out the Americans, the British, the Japanese, and others. Never again will we allow foreigners to use our territory for their purposes." Khrushchev also thought that the Chinese were too soft on the Dalai Lama (Tibet's spiritual leader) and failed to support them in a border dispute with India, saying that the territory in question was "just a frozen waste where nobody lives."


text: Under Mao's leadership, China broke with the Soviet model and announced a new economic program, the "Great Leap Forward", in 1958, aimed at rapidly raising industrial and agricultural production. Specific to industrial production, Mao announced the goal of surpassing the steel production output of Great Britain by 1968. Giant cooperatives, otherwise known as people's communes, were formed. Within a year almost all Chinese villages had been reformed into working communes of several thousand people in size, where people would live and work together as envisioned by an ideal communist society. Rather than build steel mills, small "backyard furnaces" would be used.


text: The results, however, were disastrous. Normal market mechanisms were disrupted, agricultural production fell behind, and people exhausted themselves producing shoddy, unsellable goods. Because of the reliance on the government providing and distributing food and resources and their rapid depletion due to poor planning, starvation appeared even in fertile agricultural areas. From 1960 to 1961, the combination of poor planning during the Great Leap Forward, political movements incited by the government, as well as unusual weather patterns and natural disasters resulted in widespread famine and many deaths. A significant number of the deaths were not from famine but were killed or overworked by the authorities. According to various sources, the resulting death toll was likely between 20 and 40 million. The steel produced in backyard furnaces at low temperatures proved to be useless. Finally, the peasants hated the lack of privacy and the militarization of their lives.


text: One of the loudest opponents of the GLF was Defense Minister Peng Dehuai. Peng was a believer in orthodox Soviet-style economic planning and totally against experimentations. Several years earlier, he had been instrumental in trying to develop the PLA into a well-equipped, professional fighting force, as opposed to Mao's belief that soldiers who were revolutionary enough could overcome any obstacle. The army had had no ranks during the civil war and Korea. This system worked rather poorly in those conflicts, and so a rank system (modeled after the Soviet one) was implemented in 1954.


text: While taking a trip through the countryside, Peng was horrified at the wreckage of the Great Leap Forward. Everywhere fields were dotted with abandoned communes, ruined crops, and lumps of useless pig iron. Afterwards, he accused Mao of being responsible for this disaster and was in turn denounced as a rightist and removed from office. Peng then lived retired in disgrace for the next several years until he was arrested and beaten by Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution. He survived the torture, but sustained permanent injuries and died in 1974. After Mao's death, Peng was posthumously rehabilitated with full honors.


text: The already strained Sino-Soviet relationship deteriorated sharply in 1959, when the Soviets started to restrict the flow of scientific and technological information to China. The dispute escalated, and the Soviets withdrew all of their personnel from China by August 1960, leaving many construction projects dormant. In the same year, the Soviets and the Chinese began to have disputes openly in international forums. The relationship between the two powers reached a low point in 1969 with the Sino-Soviet border conflict, when Soviet and Chinese troops met in combat on the Manchurian border.


text: The disaster of the Great Leap Forward decreased Mao's stature as national leader and even more so as an economic planner. Mao was subject to criticism within the Central Committee. Few were as vocal as Peng Dehuai had been, but the general consensus was that the chairman's grand experiment had failed completely. In the early 1960s, President Liu Shaoqi, CCP Secretariat leader Deng Xiaoping, and Premier Zhou Enlai took over direction of the party and adopted pragmatic economic policies at odds with Mao's communitarian vision, and disbanded communes, attempting to rework the system to pre-Leap standards. Private handicrafts and street vendors were permitted, and peasants could sell surplus crops for profit after meeting their state production quotas. Living in semi-retirement, Mao continued to make occasional public appearances and voice his opinion on various issues, but played little active part in the daily management of the country from 1961 to 1964. Newspapers printed sarcastic comments about the chairman and frequently used his name in the past tense. Deng, Zhou, and Liu all seem to have concluded that Mao's policies were irrational and so they would run things while using him as an empty symbol for the people to rally around. Dissatisfied with China's new direction and his own reduced authority, Mao became increasingly annoyed. He complained that "They're invoking my name like a dead ancestor." and that landlords and capitalists were regaining power. The fall of Khrushchev in the Soviet Union also left Mao concerned that that might eventually be his fate.


text: As far as foreign policy was concerned, relations with the United States continued to be hostile. The US still maintained that the Nationalists were China's rightful government even though the possibility of their retaking the mainland became smaller every year. Taiwan also occupied China's seat at the United Nations, and in 1962, Mao suddenly became fearful of a Nationalist invasion. The American and Chinese ambassadors met in Warsaw, Poland (as the US had no embassy in China) and the latter were assured that no American-backed reconquest was planned.


text: President Kennedy felt that US policy towards China was nonsensical and he planned to restore relations in his second term. But his assassination, followed by the Vietnam War and the Cultural Revolution, ended any chance for the next several years.


text: Angry polemics with the Soviet Union continued during the early 1960s. Mao Zedong argued that Khrushchev's emphasis on material development would soften the people and cause them to lose their revolutionary spirit. The Soviet leader countered by saying "If we could promise the people nothing but revolution, they would scratch their heads and say 'Isn't it better to have good goulash?'" However, much of this hostility was directed at Khrushchev personally and after his expulsion from power in October 1964, the Chinese tried to mend relations. A few weeks later, Zhou Enlai headed a delegation to Moscow for the 47th anniversary of the 1917 revolution. They returned home disappointed when Leonid Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin said that they would repudiate some of Khrushchev's more eccentric policies, but that they had no intention of turning the clock back to the time of Stalin. Despite this, relations with the USSR remained amicable until the Cultural Revolution and China continued to send representatives to the anniversary celebration of the 1917 revolution up to 1966. The Cultural Revolution had been officiated by the Mao and the CCP by then, and at the celebrations that November, one Soviet politician remarked, "What's going on now in China is neither Marxist, cultural, or revolutionary."


text: Mao began a drive to regain power in 1963 when he launched the Socialist Education Movement, and in 1965 he attached a certain playwright who made a stage play that indirectly attacked him. This play featured a wise official (implied to be Peng Dehuai) who was removed from office by a foolish emperor (implied to be Mao). Mao appointed his wife Jiang Qing (an actress by trade) as Minister of Culture and put her to work purging art and literature of feudal and bourgeoisie themes. Assisting the chairman in this campaign was Lin Biao, who had succeeded Peng Dehuai as defense minister in 1960. Lin had been an important army commander in the 1930s, but struggled with ill health and did not participate in the expulsion of Chiang Kai-shek from the mainland in 1946-1949 or the Korean War. Army ranks were once again abolished. The new movement, termed the "Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution", was in theory an extension of the class struggles that were incomplete from the last revolution. Mao and his supporters contended that the "liberal bourgeoisie" and "capitalist roaders" continued to dominate society, and some of these so-called dangerous elements were present within government, even the highest echelons of the Communist Party. The movement was unprecedented in human history. For the first (and thus far, only) time, a section of the Chinese communist leadership sought to rally popular opposition against another leadership group, leading to massive social, cultural, political, and economic chaos that plagued the country for a ten-year period. The Cultural Revolution was formally inaugurated at a mass rally in Beijing during August 1966. Students wearing army uniforms were dubbed "Red Guards" and instructed to go through the country and eliminate capitalists and revisionists. To assist them, millions of copies of "Select Quotations from Chairman Mao" were printed. This soon-to-be famous book contained excerpts from all of Mao's major speeches from the 1930s to 1957, but not placed in any chronological order.


text: Among the first targets of the Cultural Revolution were Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi. Deng was stripped of his party membership and labeled a revisionist and a capitalist roader. He wrote a self-criticism and was banished to the countryside, but in time he would rise again. Liu was far less lucky. Mao seems to have had an exceptional hatred for him, and