title: OpenSSL

text: OpenSSL versions 1.0.1 through 1.0.1f have a severe memory handling bug in their implementation of the TLS Heartbeat Extension that could be used to reveal up to 64 KB of the application's memory with every heartbeat (). By reading the memory of the web server, attackers could access sensitive data, including the server's private key. This could allow attackers to decode earlier eavesdropped communications if the encryption protocol used does not ensure perfect forward secrecy. Knowledge of the private key could also allow an attacker to mount a man-in-the-middle attack against any future communications. The vulnerability might also reveal unencrypted parts of other users' sensitive requests and responses, including session cookies and passwords, which might allow attackers to hijack the identity of another user of the service.


title: OpenSSL

text: At its disclosure on April 7, 2014, around 17% or half a million of the Internet's secure web servers certified by trusted authorities were believed to have been vulnerable to the attack. However, Heartbleed can affect both the server and client.


title: OpenSSL

text: The CCS Injection Vulnerability () is a security bypass vulnerability that results from a weakness in OpenSSL methods used for keying material.


title: OpenSSL

text: This vulnerability can be exploited through the use of a man-in-the-middle attack, where an attacker may be able to decrypt and modify traffic in transit. A remote unauthenticated attacker could exploit this vulnerability by using a specially crafted handshake to force the use of weak keying material. Successful exploitation could lead to a security bypass condition where an attacker could gain access to potentially sensitive information. The attack can only be performed between a vulnerable client "and" server.


title: OpenSSL

text: OpenSSL clients are vulnerable in all versions of OpenSSL before the versions 0.9.8za, 1.0.0m and 1.0.1h. Servers are only known to be vulnerable in OpenSSL 1.0.1 and 1.0.2-beta1. Users of OpenSSL servers earlier than 1.0.1 are advised to upgrade as a precaution.


title: OpenSSL

text: This vulnerability () allows anyone to take a certificate, read its contents and modify it accurately to abuse the vulnerability causing a certificate to crash a client or server. If a client connects to an OpenSSL 1.0.2 server and renegotiates with an invalid signature algorithms extension, a null-pointer dereference occurs. This can cause a DoS attack against the server.


title: OpenSSL

text: A Stanford Security researcher, David Ramos, had a private exploit and presented it to the OpenSSL team, which then patched the issue.


title: OpenSSL

text: This vulnerability () allows, when some particular circumstances are met, to recover the OpenSSL server's private Diffie–Hellman key. An Adobe System Security researcher, Antonio Sanso, privately reported the vulnerability.


title: OpenSSL

text: In 2009, after frustrations with the original OpenSSL API, Marco Peereboom, an OpenBSD developer at the time, forked the original API by creating Agglomerated SSL (assl), which reuses OpenSSL API under the hood, but provides a much simpler external interface. It has since been deprecated in light of the LibreSSL fork circa 2016.


title: OpenSSL

text: In April 2014 in the wake of Heartbleed, members of the OpenBSD project forked OpenSSL starting with the 1.0.1g branch, to create a project named LibreSSL. In the first week of pruning the OpenSSL's codebase, more than 90,000 lines of C code had been removed from the fork.


title: OpenSSL

text: In June 2014, Google announced its own fork of OpenSSL dubbed BoringSSL. Google plans to co-operate with OpenSSL and LibreSSL developers. Google has since developed a new library, Tink, based on BoringSSL.


title: MagSafe

text: MagSafe is a series of proprietary magnetically attached power connectors developed by Apple Inc. for Mac laptops. MagSafe was introduced on January 10, 2006, in conjunction with the MacBook Pro, the first Intel-based Mac laptop, at the Macworld Expo. The connector is held in place magnetically so that if it is tugged (for example, by someone tripping over the cord) it will pull out of the socket without damaging the connector or the computer power socket, and without pulling the computer off of its surface. A thinner and wider version, called MagSafe 2, was introduced in 2012. It was discontinued across Apple's product lines between 2016 and 2019 and replaced with USB-C. MagSafe returned to Mac laptops with the introduction of updated MacBook Pro models with MagSafe 3 in 2021.


title: MagSafe

text: The basic concept of MagSafe is derived from the magnetic power connectors that are part of many deep fryers and Japanese countertop cooking appliances since the early 2000s in order to avoid spilling their dangerously hot contents. MagSafe was introduced on January 10, 2006 in the first-generation MacBook Pro. Apple was granted for MagSafe ("Magnetic connector for electronic device", issued in 2007) as MagSafe was deemed to be a sufficient improvement due to the connector being symmetrical and reversible, and the fact that magnets within a connector are arranged in opposing polarities for improved coupling strength.


title: MagSafe

text: Apple phased out MagSafe with the release of the 12-inch MacBook and 2016 MacBook Pro that replaced it with USB-C for charging and data. The last product with MagSafe, the 2017 MacBook Air, was discontinued on July 9, 2019. The MagSafe connector returned in 2021 with the introduction of updated 14-inch and 16-inch MacBook Pro models.


title: MagSafe

text: Apple also uses the MagSafe name for a wireless power transfer and accessory-attachment standard for the iPhone based on the Qi standard, introduced with the iPhone 12 and 12 Pro.


title: MagSafe

text: MagSafe has connector pins that are designed so the rectangular connector can be inserted in either orientation. Originally the connector was T-shaped, with the cable directed straight out; later it became L-shaped, with the cable directed along the side of the computer, but still capable of being inserted in either orientation, unless simultaneous use of neighboring ports such as USB required directing the cable toward the rear. LEDs on both the top and bottom of the connector show green if the computer battery is fully charged and amber or red if the battery is charging. MagSafe can be found on the MacBook (2006–2011), MacBook Pro (2006–2012) and MacBook Air (2008–2011) notebook computers. The Apple LED Cinema Display and Thunderbolt Display include built-in MagSafe chargers.


title: MagSafe

text: The MacBook and the 13-inch MacBook Pro use a 60 W MagSafe charger, whereas the 15- and 17-inch MacBook Pro use an 85 W version. The MacBook Air used a lower-powered 45 W version. According to Apple, an adapter with a higher wattage than that originally provided may be used without problems.


title: MagSafe

text: Apple formerly offered a "MagSafe Airline Adapter" for use on certain compatible airplanes. It had a DC input (instead of AC like the original MagSafe chargers) and would power the computer, but would "not" charge the battery.


title: MagSafe

text: MagSafe 2 was introduced on the MacBook Air and MacBook Pro with Retina Display at the 2012 Worldwide Developers Conference on June 11, 2012. It was made thinner to fit the thinner laptops, and also wider to preserve magnetic grip force. It also returns to the T-shaped design that points straight out, rather than the L-shape that runs along the side of the machine. MagSafe 2 can be found on the MacBook Pro (2012–2015) and MacBook Air (2012–2017) notebook computers.


title: MagSafe

text: The resulting shape is incompatible with the older MagSafe connector; Apple released a MagSafe to MagSafe 2 adapter that was also bundled with the Thunderbolt Display, which used the original MagSafe connector.


title: MagSafe

text: On October 18, 2021, Apple announced the M1 Pro and M1 Max 14-inch and 16-inch MacBook Pro models with MagSafe 3. MagSafe 3 is slimmer than its predecessor and connects to a power supply using a removable cable with a USB-C end. It supports up to 140W power delivery on the 16-inch MacBook Pro with its bundled 140W GaN power supply that supports USB-C Power Delivery 3.1. In June 2022, Apple announced the M2 MacBook Air with MagSafe 3, and three new color-matching cables.


title: MagSafe

text: The MagSafe connector pins allow for the adapter to be inserted in either orientation. The first and second pins on each side of the tiny central pin have continuity with their mirror pins.


title: MagSafe

text: The rectangular metal shroud surrounding the pins acts as shielding for the electrical pins and a ferrous attractor for the magnet in the laptop.


title: MagSafe

text: Apple does not license the MagSafe connector to third-parties, though manufacturers devised a workaround: their MagSafe items use the actual connector from Apple's AC adapter, grafted onto their own products. Since this uses an actual Apple product, purchased legally, manufacturers believe that no licensing agreements are needed (a principle referred to as the first sale doctrine) and no patent was violated. However, in 2010 Apple still sued one such manufacturer, Sanho Corporation for selling its very popular HyperMac battery extension products which Apple claimed violated their patents. Sanho has since ceased to sell their connector cable for the HyperMac series of external batteries.


title: MagSafe

text: Some fake MagSafe 2 chargers have appeared on sites such as Amazon. These chargers are often unsafe, have spelling mistakes on the charger itself, and/or have inconsistencies that the official product does not contain, e.g. the LEDs on the connector do not follow the correct color code, or the charger is referred to as a MagSafe 1 charger rather than the second generation charger.


title: MagSafe

text: Many users have reported () problems with the quality of the construction of the MagSafe cords, giving the product low marks on the Apple Store's website.<ref name="MA538LL/B"></ref> Common complaints included plug separating from the cord, transformer shorting, and pin springs losing elasticity.


title: MagSafe

text: Several methods have been devised to protect the MagSafe from failure, including wrapping the cable with tape or sliding protective plastic around the cable.


title: MagSafe

text: In 2008, Apple posted an official response acknowledging problems with MagSafe adapters, which include incomplete circuit connection and adapter's white insulation separating from the magnetic end of the MagSafe connector. Following the release of a Knowledge Base article, a class-action lawsuit was filed on May 1, 2009, in the US District Court for the Northern District of California's San Jose office, alleging that the MagSafe power adapter is prone to frayed wires and overheating, and as such represents a fire hazard.


title: MagSafe

text: Apple released a firmware update in October 2010 that it claims resolves this issue. However, the installer for the firmware update will not run on certain older MacBooks, which means that the firmware can not be updated. This, in turn, means that it is not possible to use the new MagSafe power adapter with these MacBooks. However, as of 2022, Apple still sells power adapters for both MagSafe 1 and MagSafe 2.


title: MagSafe

text: In 2011, Apple posted a support document about the strain-relief problems with the MPM-1 ("T")-style MagSafe power cables, and issued settlement offer for buyers of Apple 60 W or 85 W MagSafe MPM-1 adapter within the first three years of purchase.


title: Ashe (singer)

text: Ashlyn Rae Willson (born April 24, 1993), better known as Ashe, is an American singer and songwriter. She is best known for her 2019 single "Moral of the Story", which was featured in the Netflix film "" (2020) and was produced by Noah Conrad with additional production from Finneas O'Connell. Ashe also co-wrote Demi Lovato's 2017 single "You Don't Do It for Me Anymore" and has toured with Louis the Child, Lauv and Whethan. She was nominated for a Juno Award for her gold-certified single "Let You Get Away" with Shaun Frank. Her debut studio album "Ashlyn" was released on May 7, 2021. Her second album, "Rae", was released on October 14, 2022.


title: Ashe (singer)

text: Ashlyn Rae Willson was born on April 24, 1993, in San Jose, California. She began attending piano and vocal lessons at the age of 8. Ashe says that she grew up listening only to Christian radio and that she thanks her grandfather for introducing her to music from names like Bob Dylan, The Beatles and Jefferson Airplane. She attended Berklee College of Music and graduated with a major in contemporary writing and production in 2015.


title: Ashe (singer)

text: Ashe started out by singing demos in Nashville before catching the attention of Swedish deep house producer Ben Phipps, who asked her to sing on his track "Sleep Alone" in 2015. Over the next two years, Ashe specialized in appearing on a number of dance and house tracks from names like Louis the Child and Whethan. Her 2016 single "Can't Hide" with Whethan was her fifth No. 2 on both the US and Global Spotify Viral 50 charts. Her 2017 single "Let You Get Away" with Canadian DJ Shaun Frank was nominated for Dance Recording of the Year at the 2017 Juno Awards and was certified gold in Canada in 2019. Ashe assisted Demi Lovato in composing her 2017 single "You Don't Do It For Me Any More" from their US platinum-certified album "Tell Me You Love Me" (2017). Between October 2017 and January 2018, Ashe embarked on tours with Louis the Child, Lauv, and Whethan. After signing to Mom + Pop independent label, she released her debut single "Used to It" in June 2017 and "Girl Who Cried Wolf" in November 2017. "Used to It" was her second single to reach No. 1 on the Global Spotify Viral 50 chart. Ashe was placed alongside Billie Eilish and Lewis Capaldi on Vevo's list of Artists to Watch in 2018. Throughout April 2017, Ashe supported The Chainsmokers during their Memories Do Not Open Tour and performed onstage with Big Gigantic during Coachella Festival 2017.


title: Ashe (singer)

text: By the time Ashe had released her debut EP, "The Rabbit Hole," in June 2018, she had clocked over 200 million accumulative streams and nine No. 1 songs on Hype Machine. The EP was described as "a versatile and compelling seven-track affair." Ashe supported Quinn XCII on his "From Michigan with Love World Tour," during which she also released her single "Moral of the Story""."


title: Ashe (singer)

text: On April 5, 2019, Ashe released the four-track EP, "Moral of the Story: Chapter 1", which Finneas O'Connell entirely produced. O'Connell also produced three of the four tracks on her sequel EP, "Moral of the Story: Chapter 2."


title: Ashe (singer)

text: In February 2020, the single "Moral of the Story" was used in the Netflix teen rom-com "" (2020), which caused the song to reach number 2 on both Global and US Spotify Viral 50 chart. Ashe made her debut chart appearance on the "Billboard" Hot 100 with "Moral of the Story" and the "Billboard" 200 with "Moral of the Story: Chapter 1". Ashe has also recently released a duet of "Moral of the Story" featuring Niall Horan. As of June 2020, the single has been used in over 901,400 videos on the online platform TikTok. As of september 2022, her collaboration with Niall Horan has reached over 160 million streams on Spotify.


title: Ashe (singer)

text: In March 2021, Ashe released another song with O'Connell titled "Till Forever Falls Apart". Her debut album "Ashlyn" was released on May 7, 2021, including the songs "I'm Fine" and "When I'm Older" issued prior to the album, along with "Me Without You", released on May 5. "Ashlyn" debuted at number 194 on the "Billboard" 200 dated May 22, 2021.


title: Ashe (singer)

text: On March 3, 2022, Ashe released the single "Another Man's Jeans" after releasing snippets of the song on social media. Ashe released another single, "Hope You're Not Happy" on May 6, 2022.


title: Ashe (singer)

text: Three months after her song, "Hope You're Not Happy" released. She returned to her "home", which is the Bay Area in San Francisco as was set to perform exclusively at Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival on the 6th of August.


title: Ashe (singer)

text: The day of the 6th she performed at the Twin Peaks stage at 3:45 pm. She sung a few of her singles off her, new "Rae" such as, "Angry Woman", "Shower With My Clothes on", and "Another Man's Jeans" off her album that would release a two months after. During her set she also sang, "Somebody To Love" by Queen (band)


title: Ashe (singer)

text: Soon after, Ashe announced her second studio album, "Rae", on June 22, 2022, the same day that she released the song "Angry Woman". The album was released on October 14, 2022.


title: Ashe (singer)

text: Before the release of the album, Ashe released three more of its songs; "Shower with My Clothes On" on July 29, "Emotional" on August 26, and "OMW" along with its music video on October 12, 2022.


title: Ashe (singer)

text: On November 4th, 2022 she released a single with Stephen Sanchez, titled "Missing You" with a duration of 3 minutes and 55 seconds.


title: Ashe (singer)

text: Ashe says that jazz music, Diane Keaton, and Carole King are major influences and inspirations to her own music. Ashe put an "e" on her stagename to pay homage to Carole King. Artists she admires are Stevie Nicks, Carole King, John Mayer, Justin Vernon and Bon Iver.


title: Hockenheimring

text: The Hockenheimring Baden-Württemberg () is a motor racing circuit situated in the Rhine valley near the town of Hockenheim in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, located on the Bertha Benz Memorial Route. Amongst other motor racing events, it has hosted the German Grand Prix, most recently in 2019. The circuit has very little differences in elevation. The circuit has an FIA Grade 1 license.


title: Hockenheimring

text: Originally called "Dreieckskurs" (triangle course), the Hockenheimring was built in 1932. The man behind it is Ernst Christ, a young timekeeper who felt that a racing track should be built in his hometown of Hockenheim. He submitted the plans to the mayor and they were approved on Christmas day, in 1931. This first layout of the track was around twelve kilometres long and consisted of a large triangle-like section, a hairpin in the city and two straights connecting them.


title: Hockenheimring

text: In 1938, the circuit dramatically shortened, from twelve kilometres down to just over seven and a half, and the Ostkurve corner, which lasted until 2001, was introduced for the first time. In that year, the track was also renamed to "Kurpfalzring". The track was damaged by tanks during World War II. After the war, the track was repaired, and renamed to "Hockenheimring". Former DKW and NSU factory rider and world record setter Wilhelm Herz became the manager of the track in 1954 and promoted the track successfully; Grand Prix motorcycle racing events were held, with the German motorcycle Grand Prix alternating between the Hockenheimring and other tracks. This version of the circuit was just over seven and a half kilometres long and consisted of the original two long straights, with the Ostkurve in the forest and the original hairpin inside Hockenheim joining them together.


title: Hockenheimring

text: In 1965, when the new Autobahn A 6 separated the village from the main part of the track, a new version of Hockenheim circuit was built, with the "Motodrom" stadium section, designed by John Hugenholtz, who also designed Suzuka. After Jim Clark was killed on 7 April 1968 in a Formula 2 racing accident, two fast chicanes were added and the track was lined with crash barriers in 1970. A small memorial was placed near the first chicane (which was named after him), at the site of his accident. In 1982, another chicane was added at the Ostkurve ("east curve"), after Patrick Depailler was killed there in 1980, and the first chicane was made slower as well. For the 1992 German Grand Prix, the Ostkurve was changed yet again, from a quick left turn into a more complex right-left-right chicane, after Érik Comas crashed there in 1991. The second chicane was renamed after Ayrton Senna, after his death at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix.


title: Hockenheimring

text: This version used to be quite large, with a very long and very fast section going through forests essentially consisting of four straights of roughly , separated by a chicane sequence, followed by a more tight and twisty "stadium" section (so called because of all the grandstands situated there) named "Motodrom". This made the setting up of racing cars difficult, since a choice had to be made – whether to run low downforce to optimize speed through the straights and compromise grip in the stadium section, or vice versa. The long track length also meant that a typical Formula One race had only 45 laps, limiting the spectators' experience of the race to only that many passes through the stadium.


title: Hockenheimring

text: During the mid-1980s "turbo era" of Formula One where fuel was restricted to either 220 (1984–1985), 195 (1986–1987) or 150 (1988) litres for races for the turbo powered cars, Hockenheim also saw drivers, including World Champion Alain Prost, at times fail to finish due to simply running out of fuel near the end of the race. Prost ran out at the end of the 1986 race, pushing his McLaren towards the line before giving up. He was placed 3rd when he ran dry and was eventually classified 6th, gaining a valuable championship point that would help him with his second World Championship.


title: Hockenheimring

text: Many problems came to light during the 2000 German Grand Prix, which was won by Brazilian driver Rubens Barrichello from having started 18th on the grid. The race finished in changeable weather conditions, with pouring rain in the stadium sector and almost completely dry forest straights. All the overtaking moves that took place during the race were in the chicanes of the forest sector, meaning hardly any spectators saw most of the best action. Midway through the race, a former Mercedes-Benz employee, who had been dismissed, breached the track's security barriers on the first forest straight, showing vulnerable security facilities in the forest and leading to the deployment of the safety car that neutralized a comfortable lead for the two Mercedes-powered McLarens. Later on, French driver Jean Alesi collided with Brazilian Pedro Diniz in the braking zone for the third chicane and his car spun uncontrollably down the track, which caused him to suffer dizziness for three days.


title: Hockenheimring

text: These events prompted much protest from the FIA to greatly improve spectator viewing, safety, and security at the track, claiming that the track was no longer suited to modern Formula One racing.


title: Hockenheimring

text: In the early 2000s, F1 officials demanded the track be shortened and threatened to discontinue racing there, threatening to relocate to other tracks such as the EuroSpeedway Lausitz and sites in Asia. The state government of Baden-Württemberg secured the financing for the redesign by Hermann Tilke for the 2002 German Grand Prix. The stadium section remained mostly intact, despite a new surface and a tighter Turn 1 ("Nordkurve"). However, the circuit was dramatically shortened, with the long, forested straights section chopped off in favour of more tight corners. More than half of the first straight and almost all of the straight between the Ostkurve and Senna chicane were cut and the rest was connected with a new long straight called the "Parabolika", with a small kink being added between the first straight and the new one. A small right-left-right complex was added to the remaining part of the final straight, with a new grandstand overlooking it. In an extremely controversial move, the old forest section was torn up and replanted with trees, eliminating any chance of using the old course either for future F1 events or for historic car events.


title: Hockenheimring

text: There was and still remains a great deal of criticism of the track redesign, in terms of ruining the previous unique technical challenges of the old Hockenheim circuit and delivering a new homogenised "assembly line" circuit without the character of the previous layout, whilst being beset by the perceived problems of other Tilke circuits. Several drivers and team principals, including Ron Dennis, Jarno Trulli and Juan Pablo Montoya, criticised the changes and stated their preference for the old circuit.


title: Hockenheimring

text: The change in the track layout also saw the installation of a new memorial to Jim Clark. This is located at the outside of the current track's turn 2, where the old track continued out into the forests, and the new shortened track turns to the right.


title: Hockenheimring

text: The new track has a seating capacity of 120,000, due to new large grandstands sponsored by Mercedes-Benz. The complex also features a quarter-mile track for drag racing. It hosts one of the largest drag racing events in Europe, known as the "NitrOlympx", and was one of the last Top Fuel circuits to race to before the FIA switched the nitro categories to the now-recognised distance in 2012.


title: Hockenheimring

text: The Hockenheim Circuit hosted the German Grand Prix for the first time in 1970 when the F1 drivers decided at the French Grand Prix to boycott the allegedly dangerous Nürburgring unless major changes were made. The next year the German Grand Prix went back to the Nürburgring until the 1976 German Grand Prix. From to , the Hockenheimring hosted the German Grand Prix with the exception of 1985, when the race was held at the reconfigured Nürburgring.


title: Hockenheimring

text: In July 2006, Bernie Ecclestone announced that from 2007 onwards, there would be only one Grand Prix per year in Germany. Since , there had been two Grands Prix every year in Germany; the German Grand Prix at Hockenheim, plus either the European Grand Prix or the Luxembourg Grand Prix at the Nürburgring. From 2007, the Nürburgring and Hockenheimring alternated hosting the German Grand Prix, starting with the Nürburgring in 2007.


title: Hockenheimring

text: Ongoing deficits of the Formula One races, amounting to up to 5.3 million Euro per race that had to be covered by the local communities, made it likely the contract between the Hockenheimring and Formula One Management would not be extended after the Grand Prix of 2010. However, in October 2009 the contract for the circuit to hold the German GP was extended to 2018, with the FOA agreeing to cover any losses the event incurs. Neither Hockenheim nor the Nürburgring hosted a Grand Prix in 2015 or 2017 after the Nürburgring failed to complete an agreement with Formula 1's commercial rights holder Bernie Ecclestone.


title: Hockenheimring

text: From 1986 to 1988, the start–finish straight was used for 1/8 mile drag racing. In 1989, a proper drag strip was built by connecting the Opel-Kurve and the first turn entering the Motodrom section. The finish line was at the beginning of the forest, with a very long run-off on the straight in the forest. Competitors had to travel around the full race track in opposite direction to return to the paddock.


title: Hockenheimring

text: The drag strip is only used for two events in August, the "Public Race Days" and the "" main event a week later. Originally named the "Nitrolympics" and featuring Top Fuel dragsters, it was renamed to NitrolympX.


title: Hockenheimring

text: When the Hockenheimring was shortened in 2002, the drag strip was moved back, closer to the new tall Tower stands that allow an unusual view along the drag strip. Even though the run off was cut in half it remains one of the longest in drag racing. The NitrolympX usually host most European Drag Racing Championship, sanctioned by FIA or FIM, plus jet dragsters and other entertaining events on the Saturday night show that draws 40,000 spectators.


title: Hockenheimring

text: The drag strip in 2008 was christened "Rico Anthes Quartermile" after the German former Top Fuel driver and long-time organizer of the NitrolympX had retired in 2007. As the dragstrip can only be prepared for professional drag racing after the last major circuit event, mainly the Formula One race, the grip is often sub par compared to permanent drag strips that host two Euro Championship events each year, like Santa Pod Raceway in England or Tierp Arena in Sweden. The best performances on the full quarter-mile were significantly below those in Santa Pod, and the best ET was set in 2005: 4.873 sec. and 458 km/h by Brady Kalivoda (USA).


title: Hockenheimring

text: In 2012, some Pro classes could not find traction as Formula One had demanded a new surface. In subsequent years, the organizers provided a better track, with support from Santa Pod personnel and machinery. In 2016, Hockenheim, and mainland Europe, finally saw the first 3-second Top Fuel 1000 ft passes, with 3.939 sec. and 486.91 km/h by Anita Mäkelä (FIN). An overall European record for Super Street Bike was set by Garry Bowe (GB) with 7.04s 340,69 km/h.


title: Hockenheimring

text: The DTM (Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters) series has regularly raced at the Hockenheimring since its revival in 2000. In most years, the DTM has competed there twice during a season.


title: Hockenheimring

text: Located in the stadia section of the track, the rallycross track uses a section of track from turns 11 to 16, combined with a dirt section in front of the grandstands. It hosted first ever World RX of Hockenheim, round 2 of FIA World Rallycross Championship in 2015 as supporting event of DTM. WRX also combined with the DTM for an event there in 2017.


title: Hockenheimring

text: Official record lap times are only set during the race. The fastest ever lap on the track is 1:11.212 set by Sebastian Vettel in a Ferrari SF71H during qualifying at the 2018 German Grand Prix. The official race lap records at the Hockenheimring are listed as:


title: Legal history of cannabis in the United States

text: In the United States, increased restrictions and labeling of cannabis (legal term "marijuana" or "marihuana") as a poison began in many states from 1906 onward, and outright prohibitions began in the 1920s. By the mid-1930s cannabis was regulated as a drug in every state, including 35 states that adopted the Uniform State Narcotic Drug Act. The first national regulation was the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937.


text: Cannabis was officially outlawed for any use (medical included) with the passage of the 1970 Controlled Substances Act (CSA). Multiple efforts to reschedule cannabis under the CSA have failed, and the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in "United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative" and "Gonzales v. Raich" that the federal government has a right to regulate and criminalize cannabis, even for medical purposes. Despite this, states and other jurisdictions have continued to implement policies that conflict with federal law, beginning with the passage of California's Proposition 215 in 1996. By 2016 a majority of states had legalized medical cannabis, and in 2012 the first two states, Colorado and Washington, legalized recreational use.


text: In 1619, King James I decreed that the American colonists of Jamestown would need to step up efforts to do their fair share towards supporting England. The Virginia Company enacted the decree, asking Jamestown's land owners to grow and export 100 hemp plants to help support England's cause. Later the colonists would grow it to support its expansion in the Americas. Cannabis cultivation played a central role in the establishment of the United States. George Washington grew hemp at Mount Vernon as one of his three primary crops. The use of hemp for rope and fabric later became ubiquitous throughout the 18th and 19th centuries in the United States. Medicinal preparations of cannabis became available in American pharmacies in the 1850s following an introduction to its use in Western medicine by William O'Shaughnessy a decade earlier in 1839.


text: Around the same time, efforts to regulate the sale of pharmaceuticals began, and laws were introduced on a state-to-state basis that created penalties for mislabeling drugs, adulterating them with undisclosed narcotics, and improper sale of those considered "poisons". Poison laws generally either required labels on the packaging indicating the harmful effects of the drugs or prohibited sale outside of licensed pharmacies and without a doctor's prescription. Those that required labeling often required the word "poison" if the drug was not issued by a pharmacy. Other regulations were prohibitions on the sale to minors, as well as restrictions on refills. Some pharmaceutical laws specifically enumerated the drugs that came under the effect of the regulations, while others did not—leaving the matter to medical experts. Those that did generally included references to cannabis, either under the category of "cannabis and its preparations" or "hemp and its preparations."


text: A 1905 Bulletin from the United States Department of Agriculture lists twenty-nine states with laws mentioning cannabis. Eight states and territories are listed with "sale of poisons" laws that specifically mention cannabis: North Carolina, Ohio, Wisconsin, Louisiana, Vermont, Maine, Montana; and the District of Columbia. Among those states that required a prescription for sale were Wisconsin and Louisiana. Several "sale of poison" laws did not specify restricted drugs, including in Indiana, Rhode Island, Hawaii, Nebraska, Kentucky, Mississippi, and New York. Many states did not consider cannabis a "poison" but required it be labeled.


text: In New York, the original law did enumerate cannabis, and was passed in 1860 following a string of suicides allegedly involving the substances later categorized as poisons. The first draft of the bill 'An act to regulate the sale of poisons' prohibited the sale of cannabis—as with the other substances—without the written order of a physician. The final bill as passed allowed the sale without a prescription so long as the purpose to which it was issued and name and address of the buyer was recorded, and in addition, all packaging of such substances—whether sold with a prescription or not—had to have the label "poison" on them in uppercase red letters. In 1862, the section which enumerated the substances was repealed with an amendatory act, though cannabis was still required to be labeled.


text: In some states where poison laws excluded cannabis, there were nonetheless attempts to include it. A bill introduced in 1880 in the California state legislature was titled 'An act to regulate the sale of opium and other narcotic poisons' and would have forbidden anyone to keep, sell, furnish, or give away any "preparations or mixtures made or prepared from opium, hemp, or other narcotic drugs" without a doctor's prescription at a licensed store. That bill was withdrawn in favor of one specifically aimed at opium, though further bills including hemp-based drugs were introduced in 1885 and in 1889.


text: As early as 1853, recreational cannabis was listed as a "fashionable narcotic". By the 1880s, oriental-style hashish parlors were flourishing alongside opium dens, to the point that one could be found in every major city on the east coast. It was estimated there were around 500 such establishments in New York City alone.


text: An article in Harper's Magazine (1883), attributed to Harry Hubbell Kane, describes a hashish-house in New York frequented by a large clientele, including males and females of "the better classes," and further talks about parlors in Boston, Philadelphia and Chicago. Hemp cigarettes were reported to be used by Mexican soldiers as early as 1874.


text: The Pure Food and Drug Act was then passed by the United States Congress in 1906 and required that certain special drugs, including cannabis, be accurately labeled with contents. Previously, many drugs had been sold as patent medicines with secret ingredients or misleading labels. Even after the passage of regulations, there continued to be criticism about the availability of narcotics and around 1910 there was a wave of legislation aimed to strengthen requirements for their sale and remove what were commonly referred to as "loopholes" in poison laws. The new revisions aimed to restrict all narcotics, including cannabis, as poisons, limit their sale to pharmacies, and require doctors' prescriptions. The first instance was in the District of Columbia in 1906, under "An act to regulate the practice of pharmacy and the sale of poisons in the District of Columbia, and for other purposes". The act was updated in 1938 to the Federal Pure Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act of 1938 which remains in effect even today, creating a legal paradox for federal sentencing. Under this act, the framework for prescription and non-prescription drugs and foods are set, along with standards as well as the enforcing agency, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). "Goods found in violation of the law were subject to seizure and destruction at the expense of the manufacturer. That, combined with a legal requirement that all convictions be published (Notices of Judgment), proved to be important tools in the enforcement of the statute and had a deterrent effect upon would-be violators." Marijuana remains under this law defined as a "dangerous drug".


text: Further regulation of cannabis followed in Massachusetts (1911), New York (1914), and Maine (1914). In New York, reform legislation began under the Towns-Boylan Act, which targeted all "habit-forming drugs", restricted their sale, prohibited refills in order to prevent habituation, prohibited sale to people with a habit, and prohibited doctors who were themselves habituated from selling them. Shortly after, several amendments were passed by the New York Board of Health, including adding cannabis to the list of habit-forming drugs.


text: In the West, the first state to include cannabis as a poison was California. The Poison Act was passed in 1907 and amended in 1909 and 1911, and in 1913 an amendatory act was made to make possession of "extracts, tinctures, or other narcotic preparations of hemp, or loco-weed, their preparations and compounds" a misdemeanor. There is no evidence that the law was ever used or intended to restrict pharmaceutical cannabis; instead it was a legislative mistake, and in 1915 another revision placed cannabis under the same restriction as other poisons. In 1914, one of the first cannabis drug raids in the nation occurred in the Mexican-American neighborhood of Sonoratown in Los Angeles, where police raided two "dream gardens" and confiscated a wagonload of cannabis.


text: Other states followed with marijuana laws including: Wyoming (1915); Texas (1919); Iowa (1923); Nevada (1923); Oregon (1923); Washington (1923); Arkansas (1923); Nebraska (1927); Louisiana (1927); and Colorado (1929).


text: One source of tensions in the western and southwestern states was the influx of Mexicans to the U.S. following the 1910 Mexican Revolution. Many Mexicans also smoked marijuana to relax after working in the fields. It was also seen as a cheaper alternative to alcohol, due to Prohibition (which went into effect nationally in 1920). Later in the 1920s, negative tensions grew between the small farms and the large farms that used cheaper Mexican labor. Shortly afterwards, the Great Depression came which increased tensions as jobs and resources became more scarce. Because of that, the passage of the initial laws is often described as a product of racism.


text: In 1925, the United States supported regulation of Indian hemp, also known as hashish, in the International Opium Convention. The convention banned exportation of "Indian hemp", and the preparations derived therefrom, to countries that had prohibited its use and required importing countries to issue certificates approving the importation and stating that the shipment was required "exclusively for medical or scientific purposes". The convention did not ban trade in fibers and other similar products from European hemp, traditionally grown in the United States. According to the 1912 edition of the Swedish encyclopedia "Nordisk familjebok", the European hemp grown for its fibers lacks the THC content that characterizes Indian hemp.


text: The Uniform State Narcotic Drug Act, first tentative draft in 1925 and fifth final version in 1932, was a result of work by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws. It was argued that the traffic in narcotic drugs should have the same safeguards and the same regulation in all of the states. The committee took into consideration the fact that the federal government had already passed the Harrison Act in 1914 and the Federal Import and Export Act in 1922. Many people assumed that the Harrison Act was all that was necessary. The Harrison Act, however, was a revenue-producing act and, while it provided penalties for violation, it did not give the states themselves authority to exercise police power in regard to seizure of drugs used in illicit trade, or in regard to punishment of those responsible. The act was recommended to the states for that purpose. As a result of the Uniform State Narcotic Act, the Federal Bureau of Narcotics encouraged state governments to adopt the act. By the middle of the 1930s all member states had some regulation of cannabis.


text: The use of cannabis and other drugs came under increasing scrutiny after the formation of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) in 1930, headed by Harry J. Anslinger as part of the government's broader push to outlaw all recreational drugs.


text: Anslinger claimed cannabis caused people to commit violent crimes and act irrationally and overly sexual. The FBN produced propaganda films promoting Anslinger's views and Anslinger often commented to the press regarding his views on marijuana.


text: In 1936 the Convention for the Suppression of the Illicit Traffic in Dangerous Drugs (1936 Trafficking Convention) was concluded in Geneva. The U.S., led by Anslinger, had attempted to include the criminalization of all activities in the treaty – cultivation, production, manufacture and distribution – related to the use of opium, coca (and its derivatives), and cannabis, for non-medical and non-scientific purposes. Many countries opposed this and the focus remained on illicit trafficking. Article 2 of the Convention called upon signatory countries to use their national criminal law systems to "severely" punish, "particularly by imprisonment or other penalties of deprivation of liberty", acts directly related to drug trafficking. The U.S. refused to sign the final version because it considered the convention too weak, especially in relation to extradition, extraterritoriality and the confiscation of trafficking profits.


text: The Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 effectively made possession or transfer of marijuana illegal throughout the United States under federal law, excluding medical and industrial uses, through imposition of an excise tax on all sales of hemp. Annual fees were $24 ($637 adjusted for inflation) for importers, manufacturers, and cultivators of cannabis, $1 ($24 adjusted for inflation) for medical and research purposes, and $3 ($82 adjusted for inflation) for industrial users. Detailed sales logs were required to record marihuana sales. Selling marihuana to any person who had previously paid the annual fee incurred a tax of $1 per ounce or fraction thereof; however, the tax was $100 ($2,206 adjusted for inflation) per ounce or fraction thereof to sell any person who had not registered and paid the annual fee.


text: The American Medical Association (AMA) opposed the act because the tax was imposed on physicians prescribing cannabis, retail pharmacists selling cannabis, and medical cannabis cultivation and manufacturing; instead of enacting the Marihuana Tax Act the AMA proposed cannabis be added to the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act. This approach was unappealing to some legislators who feared that adding a new substance to the Harrison Act would subject that act to new legal scrutiny. Since the federal government had no authority under the 10th Amendment to regulate medicines, that power being reserved by individual states in 1937, a tax was the only viable way to legislate marijuana.


text: After the Philippines fell to Japanese forces in 1942, the Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Army urged farmers to grow hemp fiber and tax stamps for cultivation were issued to farmers. Without any change in the Marihuana Tax Act, over 400,000 acres of hemp were cultivated between 1942 and 1945. The last commercial hemp fields were planted in Wisconsin in 1957. New York Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia, who was a strong opponent of the 1937 Marihuana Tax Act, started the LaGuardia Commission that in 1944 contradicted the earlier reports of addiction, madness, and overt sexuality.


text: The decision of the United States Congress to pass the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 was based on poorly attended hearings and reports based on questionable studies. In 1936 the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) noticed an increase of reports of people smoking marijuana, which further increased in 1937. The Bureau drafted a legislative plan for Congress seeking a new law, and the head of the FBN, Harry J. Anslinger, ran a campaign against marijuana. Newspaper mogul William Randolph Hearst's empire of newspapers used the "yellow journalism" pioneered by Hearst to demonize the cannabis plant and spread a public perception that there were connections between cannabis and violent crime. Several scholars argue that the goal was to destroy the hemp industry, largely as an effort of Hearst, Andrew Mellon and the Du Pont family. They argue that with the invention of the decorticator hemp became a very cheap substitute for the wood pulp that was used in the newspaper industry. However, Hearst newspapers owed large debts to Canadian suppliers of paper, who used wood as raw material. If an alternative raw material for paper had emerged, it would have lowered the price of the paper needed to print Hearst's many newspapers—a positive thing for Hearst. Moreover, by the year 1916 there were at least five "machine brakes" for hemp and it is unlikely that in the 1930s hemp became a new threat for newspapers owners.


text: Mellon was Secretary of the Treasury, as well as the wealthiest man in America, and had invested heavily in nylon, DuPont's new synthetic fiber. He considered nylon's success to depend on it replacing the traditional resource, hemp.


text: The company DuPont and many industrial historians dispute a link between nylon and hemp. They argue that the reason for developing nylon was to produce a fiber that could compete with silk and rayon in, for example, thin stockings for women. Silk was much more expensive than hemp and imported largely from Japan. There was more money in a substitute for silk. DuPont focused early on thin stockings for women. As a commercial product, nylon was a revolution in textiles. Strong and water-resistant, it was possible to make very thin fibers from cheap raw materials. The first sales in 1938 in New York of nylon stockings created a line with 4000 middle class women. For years to come, nylon demand was greater than DuPont could produce. And the DuPont Group was very big; it could move on if nylon had not become a success.


text: In 1916, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) chief scientists Jason L. Merrill and Lyster H. Dewey created a paper, USDA Bulletin No. 404 "Hemp Hurds as Paper-Making Material", in which they stated that paper from the woody inner portion of the hemp stem broken into pieces, so called hemp hurds, was "favorable in comparison with those used with pulp wood". Merrill and Dewey's findings were not repeated in a later book by Dewey and have not been confirmed by paper production experts. The consistency of long fibers is too low in hemp hurds for commercial papermaking. Numerous machines had been devised for breaking and scutching hemp fibers, but none had been found to be fully satisfactory in actual commercial work. To produce fiber from hemp was a labor-intensive process if harvest, transport and processing are included. Technological developments decreased the labor but not sufficiently to eliminate this disadvantage.


text: There was also a misconception about the intoxicating effects of hemp because it has the same active substance, THC, which is in all cannabis strains. Hemp normally has a minimal amount of THC when compared to recreational cannabis strains but, in the 1930s, THC was not yet fully identified. The methods FBN used for predicting the psychoactive effect of different samples of cannabis and hemp therefore gave confusing results.


text: Mandatory sentencing and increased punishment were enacted when the United States Congress passed the Boggs Act of 1952 and the Narcotics Control Act of 1956. The acts made a first-time cannabis possession offense a minimum of two to ten years with a fine up to $20,000; however, in 1970 Congress repealed mandatory penalties for cannabis offenses.


text: In its 1969 "Leary v. United States" decision the U.S. Supreme Court held the Marijuana Tax Act to be unconstitutional, since it violated the Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination. In response, Congress passed the Controlled Substances Act as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, which repealed the Marijuana Tax Act. Although the new law did officially prohibit the use of cannabis for any purpose, it also eliminated mandatory minimum sentences and reduced simple possession of all drugs from a felony to a misdemeanor.


text: Under the CSA cannabis was assigned a Schedule I classification, deemed to have a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use – thereby prohibiting even medical use of the drug. The classification has remained since the CSA was first signed into law, despite multiple efforts to reschedule. Other drugs in the Schedule I category include heroin, LSD, and peyote.


text: In 1968 the United States Department of the Treasury subsidiary the Bureau of Narcotics, and the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare subsidiary the Bureau of Drug Abuse Control, merged to create the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs as a United States Department of Justice subsidiary.


text: In 1973 President Richard Nixon's "Reorganization Plan Number Two" proposed the creation of a single federal agency to enforce federal drug laws and Congress accepted the proposal, as there was concern regarding the growing availability of drugs. As a result, on July 1, 1973, the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (BNDD) and the Office of Drug Abuse Law Enforcement (ODALE) merged to create the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA).


text: During the Reagan administration the Sentencing Reform Act provisions of the Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984 created the Sentencing Commission, which established mandatory sentencing guidelines. The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 reinstated mandatory prison sentences, including large scale cannabis distribution. Later an amendment created a three-strikes law, which created mandatory 25-years imprisonment for repeated serious crimes – including certain drug offenses – and allowed the death penalty to be used against "drug kingpins".


text: The Solomon–Lautenberg amendment is a federal law enacted in 1990 that urges states to suspend the driver's license of anyone who commits a drug offense. A number of states passed laws in the early 1990s seeking to comply with the amendment, in order to avoid a penalty of reduced federal highway funds. These laws impose mandatory driver's license suspensions of at least six months for committing any type of drug offense, regardless of whether any motor vehicle was involved in the offense (thus the nickname "Smoke a joint, lose your license" laws, also referred to as "Possess a joint, lose your license" laws). An opt-out provision in the amendment allows states to avoid being penalized for non-compliance, however. As of 2021 all but three states (Alabama, Arkansas, and Florida) have formally opted out.


text: By the fall of 1998, California voters had approved Proposition 215 to legalize medical cannabis, and similar measures were up for vote in several more states. In response to these developments, House Joint Resolution 117 was passed by the U.S. House of Representatives on September 15, 1998, to declare support for "the existing Federal legal process for determining the safety and efficacy of drugs" and oppose "efforts to circumvent this process by legalizing marijuana ... for medicinal use without valid scientific evidence and [FDA] approval". The measure passed by a 310 to 93 vote.


text: Following the passage of Proposition 215, the Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative was created to "provide seriously ill patients with a safe and reliable source of medical cannabis, information, and patient support". In January 1998, the U.S. government sued Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative for violating federal laws created as a result of the Controlled Substances Act. On May 14, 2001, the Supreme Court ruled in "United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative" that federal anti-drug laws do not permit an exception for medical cannabis and rejected the common-law medical necessity defense to crimes enacted under the Controlled Substances Act, because Congress concluded cannabis has "no currently accepted medical use" when the act was passed in 1970.


text: "Gonzales v. Raich" 545 U.S. 1 (2005) was a decision in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled (6–3) that even where individuals or businesses in accordance with state-approved medical cannabis programs are lawfully cultivating, possessing, or distributing medical cannabis, such persons or businesses are violating federal marijuana laws. Therefore, under federal law violators are prosecuted because the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution grants the federal government jurisdiction, pursuant to the U.S. Controlled Substances Act, to prosecute marijuana offenses.


text: In "Gonzales" the defendants argued that because the cannabis in question had been grown, transported, and consumed entirely within California and in compliance with California medical cannabis laws, their activity did not implicate interstate commerce, and as such could not be regulated by the federal government through the Commerce Clause.


text: The Supreme Court disagreed, reasoning that cannabis grown within California for medical purposes is indistinguishable from illicit marijuana and that because the intrastate medical cannabis market contributes to the interstate illicit marijuana market, the Commerce Clause applies. Even where California citizens are using medical cannabis in compliance with state law, those individuals and businesses can still be prosecuted by federal authorities for violating federal law.


text: To combat state-approved medical cannabis legislation, the Drug Enforcement Administration continued the routine targeting and arrests of medical cannabis patients and the seizure of medical cannabis and the business assets of growers and medical dispensaries. This was finally curtailed with the passage of the Rohrabacher–Farr amendment in 2014, although prosecutions initially continued until a pair of court rulings determined the DOJ was interpreting the amendment incorrectly.


text: In January 2018, Attorney General Jeff Sessions rescinded the Cole Memorandum, an Obama-era policy that generally discouraged U.S. Attorneys from enforcing federal law against state-legal cannabis enterprises. The impact that rescinding the memo would have on enforcement activities was not immediately made clear by Justice Department officials.


text: In 1975, a Washington D.C. resident named Robert Randall was arrested for cultivating cannabis. Randall, who had discovered that cannabis relieved the symptoms of his glaucoma, employed a medical necessity defense at trial to justify his use of the drug. The charges against Randall were dismissed, and as a result of an ensuing petition filed with the FDA, Randall became the first person to receive cannabis from the federal government in 1976. After his supply was cut off in 1978, he filed a lawsuit to have it restored, setting in motion the creation of the Compassionate Investigational New Drug program shortly thereafter. The program allowed patients with serious medical conditions to receive a regular supply of cannabis from the federal government; however, only 13 patients ended up participating due to the very complicated and drawn-out application process involved.


text: The Compassionate IND program was closed to new patients in 1992, due to a flood of new applications from AIDS patients and concerns that the program undercut Bush administration efforts to discourage illegal drug use. Twenty-eight applications that had recently been approved were rescinded, and only the 13 patients who were already receiving cannabis were allowed to do so moving forward. All but two of the patients have since died; the surviving two patients are the only persons who currently receive cannabis through the program.


text: During the late 1970s and into the early 80s, a number of states passed legislation addressing the medical use of cannabis. New Mexico was the first to do so in 1978, and by the end of 1982 over thirty states had followed suit. The majority of these laws sought to provide cannabis through federally-approved research programs administered by the states, using cannabis supplied by the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Only seven states ended up implementing the programs, however, due to the large bureaucratic and regulatory obstacles involved. Other states passed laws allowing doctors to prescribe cannabis, or reclassifying cannabis in a state's internal drug scheduling system. Additionally, a few states passed legislation affirming the right of individuals to present a medical necessity defense at trial. These laws were all largely ineffectual though, due to the continued prohibition of medical cannabis at the federal level. By the mid-80s, efforts to pass new medical cannabis laws had ground to a halt, and a number of existing laws were either repealed or allowed to expire.


text: In 1972, the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws petitioned the BNDD (which later became the DEA) to remove cannabis from the list of Schedule I drugs, in order to allow it to be prescribed by physicians. After a decade of legal battles in which the DEA refused to consider the petition, public hearings were finally held on the matter beginning in 1986. In September 1988, after two years of extensive public hearings, DEA Chief Administrative Law Judge Francis L. Young ruled in favor of moving cannabis to a Schedule II classification, finding that "Marijuana, in its natural form, is one of the safest therapeutically active substances known to man." Young further concluded: "The evidence in this record clearly shows that marijuana has been accepted as capable of relieving the distress of great numbers of very ill people, and doing so with safety under medical supervision. It would be unreasonable, arbitrary and capricious for DEA to continue to stand between those sufferers and the benefits of this substance in light of the evidence in this record." As Young's ruling was only a non-binding recommendation, however, it was rejected by DEA Administrator John Lawn in December 1989. A 1994 U.S. Court of Appeals ruling upheld the DEA's final decision.


text: In 1991, 79% of San Francisco voters approved Proposition P, a non-binding ballot measure expressing support for the medical use of cannabis. The city board of supervisors soon followed with Resolution 141-92, which urged law enforcement not to prosecute individuals using cannabis under a doctor's care (as proven by a letter from a treating physician). The resolution enabled the open sale of cannabis to AIDS patients and others within the city, most notably through the San Francisco Cannabis Buyers Club which was operated by Dennis Peron. Similar clubs appeared outside San Francisco in the ensuing years as other cities passed legislation to support the medical use of cannabis. The Wo/Men's Alliance for Medical Marijuana was founded in 1993 after Santa Cruz voters approved Measure A in November 1992. And the Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative was founded in 1995 shortly before the city council passed multiple medical cannabis resolutions. These were the first cannabis dispensaries in the U.S., allowed to operate openly by city officials even though in violation of both state and federal law.


text: In California, following the success of Proposition P and other local initiatives, medical cannabis advocates turned attention towards reform efforts at the state level. A pair of medical cannabis bills was approved by state legislators in 1994 and 1995; however, both of these were vetoed by Governor Pete Wilson. Frustrated by these vetoes, medical cannabis advocates took the issue directly to the voters, collecting 775,000 signatures for qualification of a statewide ballot initiative in 1996.


text: On November 5, 1996, California voters approved Proposition 215 (Compassionate Use Act of 1996), making the state the first in the nation to legalize the medical use of cannabis. The measure, approved with 56% of the vote, allowed the use, possession, and cultivation of cannabis by patients with a physician's recommendation, for treatment of cancer, anorexia, AIDS, chronic pain, spasticity, glaucoma, arthritis, migraine, or "any other illness for which marijuana provides relief". The law also allowed patient caregivers to cultivate cannabis, and urged lawmakers to facilitate the "safe and affordable distribution of marijuana".


text: The passage of Proposition 215 was followed by the approval of five more medical cannabis ballot initiatives in 1998 (Washington, Oregon, Alaska, Nevada, and the District of Columbia). Maine followed in 1999, along with Nevada (for a second time) and Colorado in 2000. Also in 2000, Hawaii became the first state to legalize medical cannabis through an act of state legislature.


text: In 1998 Washington, D.C. residents approved Initiative 59 to legalize the medical use of cannabis, but a series of amendments introduced by Rep. Bob Barr and approved by Congress prevented its implementation for over a decade. The initial Barr amendment was enacted prior to the November 1998 election but after ballots had been printed, thereby allowing D.C. residents to vote on the initiative but preventing the results from being made public. The amendment was challenged in court by the American Civil Liberties Union on grounds that it violated First Amendment rights, and in September 1999 U.S. District Court Judge Richard W. Roberts agreed, overturning the Barr amendment. Rep. Barr then introduced a similar amendment which became law in November 1999, setting off a long legal battle until finally in December 2009 the Barr amendment was removed from the annual D.C. appropriations bill, allowing the original 1998 ballot initiative to move forward. Rep. Barr, who left Congress in 2003, helped lobby for defeat of the legislation he originally authored, having reversed his earlier opposition to the medical use of cannabis.


text: After Proposition 215 passed, the Clinton administration reiterated its firm opposition to the medical use of cannabis, and threatened to revoke the prescription-writing abilities of doctors who recommend or prescribe the drug. Additionally, threats were made by the administration to criminally prosecute physicians, and ban them from participating in Medicare and Medicaid. A group of physicians challenged this policy as a violation of First Amendment rights, and in September 2000 prevailed in the case "Conant v. McCaffrey", which affirmed the right of physicians to recommend (but not prescribe) cannabis. As a result, cannabis must be recommended instead of prescribed in all states where its medical use has been legalized.


text: In October 2009, the Ogden memo was issued by the Justice Department, advising U.S. attorneys to only prosecute medical cannabis providers who violate state law or engage in other federally-illegal activity (such as money laundering or illegal use of firearms). The memo did not have the effect that many expected, however, as raids on medical cannabis providers actually increased in frequency following its release. Prompted by public outcry and requests for clarification from numerous elected officials, a new memo was issued by Deputy Attorney General James M. Cole in June 2011. The 2011 Cole memo insisted that the 2009 Ogden memo was being adhered to, and that the Ogden memo's protections applied only to individual patients and not commercial operations. The crackdown on medical cannabis continued following the release of the 2011 memo, but was tempered somewhat by the issuance of a new Cole memo in 2013, which advised a more deferential approach towards the states (similar in nature to how the 2009 Ogden memo was widely interpreted).


text: In response to increased raids on medical cannabis providers, Congress passed the Rohrabacher–Farr amendment in 2014, to prohibit federal prosecution of individuals acting in accordance with state medical cannabis laws. The amendment passed the House by a 219–189 vote in May 2014, and was signed into law in December as part of an omnibus spending bill. It was renewed following a 242–186 House vote in 2015, and has since been included in a long series of spending bills approved by Congress.


text: After the amendment's 2014 enactment, the Justice Department initially continued to prosecute medical cannabis providers based on a new interpretation of the amendment that was being employed. U.S. District Judge Charles Breyer ruled against the DOJ in October 2015, however, stating that the interpretation "defies language and logic" and "tortures the plain meaning of the statute", and was "counterintuitive and opportunistic". The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals similarly rejected the DOJ's arguments in an August 2016 ruling.


text: In December 2022, President Joe Biden signed into law the Medical Marijuana and Cannabidiol Research Expansion Act, the first standalone cannabis reform bill enacted at the federal level. The bill contained provisions to expedite approval for cannabis research and the production of cannabis for research purposes, require the Department of Health and Human Services to investigate the medical utility of cannabis and barriers that exist to conducting research, require the Attorney General to conduct an annual review to ensure that cannabis is being adequately produced for research purposes, and clarify that it "shall not be a violation of the Controlled Substances Act for a State-licensed physician to discuss the currently known potential harms and benefits of marijuana ... as a treatment with the patient", among other reforms.


text: Following the passage of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, a commission was formed under decree of the act to study the rising use of cannabis in America, and subsequently make policy recommendations. Formally known as the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse, the Shafer Commission – led by former Pennsylvania governor Raymond P. Shafer – determined in its March 1972 report to the President and Congress that the societal harms caused by cannabis were limited, and recommended removal of criminal penalties for possession and distribution of small amounts of the drug. Although no federal reforms resulted, the report's findings helped influence the passage of decriminalization laws in a number of states during the 1970s.


text: In 1972, California became the first state to vote on a ballot measure attempting to legalize cannabis. Proposition 19 – the California Marijuana Initiative – sought to legalize the use, possession, and cultivation of cannabis, but did not allow for commercial sale. It was ultimately defeated by a wide margin (33–67%), but supporters were encouraged by the results, which provided momentum to other reform efforts in California in subsequent years.


text: In 1973 Oregon became the first state to decriminalize cannabis, reducing the penalty for up to one ounce to a $100 fine. States that decriminalized in the following years were: Alaska (1975), Maine (1975), Colorado (1975), California (1975), Ohio (1975), Minnesota (1976), Mississippi (1977), New York (1977), North Carolina (1977), and Nebraska (1978). NORML was actively involved in helping to pass these laws, lobbying in support of legislation and paying for decriminalization proponents (including members of the Shafer Commission) to travel to various states to testify.


text: Some cities also passed decriminalization laws in the 1970s, such as Ann Arbor in 1972 and Madison in 1977. Additionally, San Francisco voters approved a non-binding measure in 1978 to effectively legalize cannabis, but mayor George Moscone was assassinated shortly afterwards and the initiative was subsequently disregarded.


text: "Ravin v. State" was a 1975 decision by the Alaska Supreme Court that held the Alaska Constitution's right to privacy protects an adult's ability to use and possess a small amount of cannabis in the home for personal use. The Alaska Supreme Court thereby became the first—and only—state or federal court to announce a constitutional privacy right that protects some level of cannabis use and possession. This policy of effective legalization remained in place until it was overridden by a 1990 ballot initiative that recriminalized cannabis in the state.


text: In 2001, Nevada became the first state in over two decades to decriminalize cannabis. In the following years, major cities across the U.S. began to either decriminalize cannabis or make enforcement of cannabis laws the lowest priority. Among the first cities to do so were Seattle (2003), Oakland (2004), Denver (2005), and San Francisco (2006). The trend continued with Massachusetts decriminalizing in 2008, followed by Connecticut (2011), Rhode Island (2012), Vermont (2013), the District of Columbia (2014), Maryland (2014), Missouri (2014), the U.S. Virgin Islands (2014), Delaware (2015), Illinois (2016), and New Hampshire (2017), New Mexico (2019), North Dakota (2019), Hawaii (2019), and Virginia (2020).


text: On November 6, 2012, Colorado and Washington became the first states to legalize recreational use of cannabis when voters approved Colorado Amendment 64 and Washington Initiative 502. Each regulated cannabis in a way similar to alcohol, allowing possession of up to an ounce for adults ages 21 and older, with DUID provisions similar to those against drunk driving. Unlike Initiative 502, Amendment 64 allowed for personal cultivation of up to six plants. Both allowed for commercial cultivation and sales, subject to regulation and taxes.


text: After the first states legalized in 2012, the Justice Department issued the Cole Memorandum in August 2013, seeking to clarify how federal law would be enforced. The memo specified eight conditions which would merit enforcement of federal law, such as the distribution of cannabis to minors or the diversion of cannabis across state borders. Aside from these situations, the memo generally allowed for the commercial distribution of cannabis in states where such activity has been legalized. The Cole memo was later rescinded by Attorney General Jeff Sessions in 2018, introducing uncertainty into how federal law would be enforced.


text: In November 2014, the states of Alaska (Measure 2) and Oregon (Ballot Measure 91) along with Washington D.C. (Initiative 71) legalized the recreational use of cannabis. These laws were similar in nature to those of Colorado and Washington, except the D.C. initiative did not contain an allowance for commercial sale. A rider attached to the 2014 "Cromnibus" bill further prevented D.C. council members from enacting legislation to allow for commercial sale.


text: In December 2014, the Justice Department announced a policy to allow recognized Indian tribes to legalize the use and sale of cannabis on American Indian reservations. The laws on reservations are allowed to be different from state and federal laws, and as has been the case with state recreational legalization the federal government said it would not intervene as long as strict controls are maintained. In 2015, the Flandreau Santee Sioux Tribe (of South Dakota) voted to legalize the recreational use of cannabis. Others such as Yakama Nation and the Oglala Sioux Tribal Council have rejected legalization on their reservations.


text: In November 2016, the number of legal states doubled as four more states passed ballot measures to legalize cannabis: California, Nevada, Massachusetts, and Maine. This included the nation's most populous state (California), while Massachusetts and Maine became the first eastern states to legalize.


text: In January 2018, Vermont became the first state to legalize through an act of legislature, as opposed to ballot initiative with the previous eight states. Also differentiating Vermont's law is the fact that it does not allow for commercial sale, although a commission was set up to explore the possibility. The bill was signed into law by Republican governor Phil Scott.


text: The 2018 United States farm bill contained provisions legalizing hemp production with low levels of delta-9-THC. It may have inadvertently allowed cultivation of hemp plants with high levels of delta-8-THC, which is also psychoactive and has since become more popular recreationally across the U.S.


text: In June 2019, Illinois became the second state to legalize through an act of legislature and the first to legalize commercial sale in this way. The bill was signed into law by Gov. J. B. Pritzker after passing the House 66–47 and the Senate 38–17.


text: In November 2020, four states voted to legalize recreational marijuana via ballot measures: Arizona, Montana, New Jersey, and South Dakota. South Dakota's legalization amendment was subsequently overturned in court. Notably, South Dakota would have become the first state to legalize recreational use without first legalizing medical use and became the first state to have a legalization referendum overturned. With these approvals, recreational cannabis became legal in 14 states.


text: On December 4, 2020, the House of Representatives voted 228–164 to approve the Marijuana Opportunity Reinvestment and Expungement (MORE) Act. Included in the act were provisions to legalize cannabis at the federal level by removing it from the Controlled Substances Act, expunge cannabis offenses for non-violent offenders, and impose a federal tax on cannabis products (which would be used to fund restorative justice programs). Prior to the vote, neither chamber of Congress had voted on a cannabis legalization bill before.


title: Morax (demon)

text: In demonology, Morax is a Demon, Great Earl, and President of Hell, having thirty (thirty-two, according to other authors) legions of demons under his command. He teaches Astronomy and all other liberal sciences, and gives good and wise familiars that know the virtues of all herbs and precious stones. This profile of the demon can be seen in Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (Johann Weyer, 1577) as well as in Goetia (S.L. MacGregor Mathers, 1904).


title: Morax (demon)

text: It has been proposed that Morax is related to the Minotaur which Dante places in Hell ("Inferno", Canto xii). See Fred Gettings, Dictionary of Demons (1988)


title: Isaac Rochell

text: Isaac Christopher Rochell (born April 22, 1995) is an American football defensive end for the Cleveland Browns of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Notre Dame, and was drafted in the seventh round of the 2017 NFL Draft by the Los Angeles Chargers. Rochell also played with the Indianapolis Colts in 2021.


title: Isaac Rochell

text: A three-year starter at the University of Notre Dame, Rochell's performance was strong his junior year but faded near the end of his senior year. He recorded slightly fewer tackles but had a sack and ten quarterback hurries. Rochell was noted for his consistency and work ethic even when the Fighting Irish were not finding success on the field.


title: Isaac Rochell

text: Rochell was drafted by the Los Angeles Chargers in the seventh round (225th overall) in the 2017 NFL Draft. He was waived on September 13, 2017, and was re-signed to the practice squad. He was promoted to the active roster on December 12, 2017.


title: Isaac Rochell

text: On April 20, 2022, Rochell signed with the Cleveland Browns. The Browns terminated Rochell's contract on August 31, 2022. He was signed to the Browns' practice squad on September 1, 2022. He was promoted to the active roster on September 21. He was waived on November 12, 2022. He was re-signed to the practice squad three days later.


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: Roxanne Carrion (born Roxanne Kaboli-Nejad, later Roxanne Pallett; 26 December 1982) is an English actress, television personality, and broadcaster. She played Jo Stiles in the ITV soap opera "Emmerdale" (2005–2008), and has appeared in the horror films "Lake Placid 3" (2010), "" (2014) and "Devil's Tower" (2014).


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: Pallett has appeared in various reality television shows, including "Celebrity Stars in Their Eyes" (2005), "Soapstar Superstar" (2006), "Dancing on Ice" (2009), "Celebrity Big Brother" (2018), "Celebrity Island with Bear Grylls" (2018) and "Celebrity Coach Trip" (2019).


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: Roxanne Kaboli-Nejad was born on 26 December 1982 in Carlisle, Cumbria to an Iranian father, Johandar Kaboli-Nejad and an English mother, Monica Pallett. After her father walked out on the family, Roxanne took her mother's surname and was brought up in Currock by her mother and grandmother. Her maternal grandfather was Italian.


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: In her last year at university, Pallett co-formed girl band Urban Angel, writing songs for them with producer, ex-East 17 member and Ivor Novello award winner Tony Mortimer. After landing a deal with a record label, Pallett spent a year developing her music in London and co-creating a TV show. She later auditioned for several roles in "Emmerdale" and was offered the role of Jo Stiles. During her three years on "Emmerdale", she was nominated for several awards, including Sexiest Female, Best Storyline, and Best Actress at The British Soap Awards, the "Inside Soap" Awards, and the TV Quick Awards.


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: In November 2005, Pallett won a celebrity edition of "Stars In Their Eyes" as Gloria Estefan, although the programme was never transmitted. In January 2006, she appeared in the ITV entertainment singing show "Soapstar Superstar", finishing in fourth place and raising over £70,000 for the Eden Valley Hospice Jigsaw Appeal. While competing on "Soapstar Superstar", she met her then partner, actor Richard Fleeshman. She was also named in the 2006 "100 Most Sexiest Women in the World" list by FHM in 2006. Pallett went on to do photoshoots for rival magazines "Loaded" and "Maxim".


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: After leaving "Emmerdale", Pallett took part in the fourth series of ITV's "Dancing on Ice" in 2009 with professional partner Daniel Whiston. She was voted off unanimously by the judges following a skate-off with former Blue Peter presenter Zoe Salmon, but went onto take part in the show's spin-off Bolero Anniversary UK Tour. Scheduled to play the lead role in 2009 Christmas pantomime "Cinderella" at the Theatre Royal, Newcastle upon Tyne, she left three weeks into the run following the death of her best friend.


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: In 2010, Pallett filmed a guest role for the BBC's "Casualty". She also made her professional stage debut in "Rock Around The Clock", which toured the country until September. In the same year, she also made her film debut in "Lake Placid 3". In September 2010, Pallett toured with Eve Ensler's "Vagina Monologues", opposite Nikki Sanderson and Sue Jenkins. In 2012, Pallett played a troubled 17-year old school girl, Shelby Dixon, in BBC's "Waterloo Road", a role that was twelve years younger than the actress herself in real life, followed by a second guest role in "Casualty" as psychotic character Keeley Hyatt. She was also cast as Sarah McColl in British horror film "Devil's Tower", followed by the urban comedy "It's A Lot", in November 2013. Pallett also played Janet Weiss in the 40th anniversary UK tour of "The Rocky Horror Show".


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: In 2016, Pallett began a run in the UK touring production of the eighties musical "The Wedding Singer" based on the Adam Sandler and Drew Barrymore film of the same name. She starred alongside Ray Quinn and Ruth Madoc in the stage musical. In April 2017, Pallett unexpectedly left the production mid-way through its run despite positive reviews. In February 2018, Pallett joined local radio station Minster FM as co-host for its weekday breakfast show, after admitting that she had felt unfulfilled and undervalued as an actress for many years. Pallett left the station after seven months, following her appearance on "Celebrity Big Brother".


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: In September 2018, Pallett appeared on the third series of "Celebrity Island with Bear Grylls", which was filmed in May. She left in the first episode after the camp fire smoke reminded her of a childhood house fire and she suffered a panic attack as a result. After waking in the night in a panic, Roxanne told her camp mates: "Smoke that nearly killed my family in a house fire when I was 16, the smoke, the smell is taking me back to that time." Another misfortune on the Island which Pallett endured was getting her leg caught in a fishing net and having to be cut free by other camp mates.


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: In 2019, Pallett appeared on the fourth series of "Celebrity Coach Trip", which was filmed in July 2018.


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: In August 2018, whilst participating in the twenty-second series of "Celebrity Big Brother", Pallett falsely accused fellow housemate Ryan Thomas of punching her. She later slept in the spare bedroom, after she claimed that she felt uncomfortable sleeping in the same room as him. Following the incident, Thomas was given a formal warning, and maintained that he did it with "no malice". However, Pallett branded him a "liar", and a "woman beater". She subsequently decided to leave the house in the early hours of Day 17 (1 September 2018). Two days after leaving the house, on 3 September 2018, she returned for an interview with show host Emma Willis, which was shown during that night's eviction programme, where she apologised, stating she had made a "horrible mistake" and said that she wanted to be forgiven for her actions. The incident, which generated more than 25,000 viewer complaints to Ofcom, was dubbed "punchgate" by some sections of the press.


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: Following this incident, actor Sam Attwater claimed he had a similar experience with Pallett during the Rocky Horror tour in which they both took part.


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: In 2017, Pallett began an online relationship with steelworker Lee Walton, after Walton contacted her on Instagram through a mutual love for Elvis Presley. They met for the first time in December 2017, and a week later, Walton asked her to move in with him, proposing to her a day after she did so.


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: In July 2018, during a feature assignment for Minster FM with breakfast co-presenter Ben Fry, Pallett was involved in an accident whilst driving an F2 Outlaw Stock Car at Hunmanby Raceway, North Yorkshire. Pallett had driven head on into a concrete wall on the first bend, and had to be cut free from the car by firefighters which took them two hours. She was then airlifted to a hospital by an air ambulance with a sprained wrist and some bruising.


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: On 26 January 2020, Pallett married firefighter and former "Married at First Sight" star Jason Carrion at the Lutheran Evangelical Church in New York, two months after their engagement. In June 2021, Pallett announced she was pregnant with her first child.


title: Roxanne Pallett

text: In 2007, "Rosa Roxanne Pallett", a deep red hybrid rose, was named after Pallett and launched at the 2007 Southport Flower Show by Cheshire-based grower C&K Jones.


title: Orange County Choppers

text: Orange County Choppers (OCC) is an American motorcycle manufacturer and lifestyle brand company based in the town of Newburgh, located in Orange County, New York, that was founded in 1999 by Paul Teutul Sr. The company was featured on "American Chopper", a reality TV show that debuted in September 2002 on the Discovery Channel. The series moved to Discovery Channel's sister channel TLC in 2007. Following cancellation of the Discovery series, the company was also featured on "Orange County Choppers" on the CMT network in 2013. "Orange County Choppers" returned to Discovery Channel in March 2018.


title: Orange County Choppers

text: In the late 1990s, Paul Teutul Sr. began manufacturing custom motorcycles as an extension of his steel business (OC Iron Works), and in 1999 he founded Orange County Choppers. The company's first bike, "True Blue", was debuted at the 1999 Daytona Biketoberfest.


title: Orange County Choppers

text: In late 2020, the decision was made to close the Newburgh location and build a new facility in Pinellas Park, Florida, adjoining Bert's Barracuda Harley-Davidson. The new location, named OCC Road House & Museum, will include a bike-building shop and retail section, museum, restaurant, billiard hall, and concert pavilion. The building opened in late June, 2021.


title: Orange County Choppers

text: OCC is known for building custom theme bikes featured on "American Chopper". Additionally, OCC launched a limited edition production line of motorcycles in July 2007, priced beginning at $31,000.


title: Orange County Choppers

text: One of OCC's most popular bikes is The Fire Bike, to commemorate the New York firefighters who lost their lives on 9/11. The bike itself has been modeled after a fire truck, and a steel rivet that came from the collapsed World Trade Center is mounted atop the bike's gas tank. Paul Jr. stated that the bike was named "343", the number of New York firefighters who died on 9/11.


title: Orange County Choppers

text: The popularity of "American Chopper" led the United States Air Force to commission a $150,000 "Air Force Bike", first put on public display in March 2005. The motorcycle is ten feet long and is modeled after the F-22 Raptor, complete with Air Force symbol rims, riveted gas tank, Raptor exhausts and rear view mirrors in the shape of jets.


title: Orange County Choppers

text: Orange County Choppers held a series of free music performances within the retail store. P.O.D., Candlebox, Saliva, Red, 10 Years, Fair to Midland, and Framing Hanley have performed. On April 25, 2009, Smile Empty Soul and Earshot performed to celebrate the decade of the company's work. Additionally, OCC in October in conjunction with RED/Sony released a classic rock compilation CD featuring some of Paul Sr.'s favorite songs titled "OCC Rocks". The CD also includes original music from The OCC Band, which features four of the shop's employees. Black Label Society performed a concert in the retail store to promote their album "Order of the Black".


title: Orange County Choppers

text: The MotoCoaster is a Zamperla built motorbike themed roller coaster installed at Darien Lake theme park in Darien Lake, NY. It was the first motorbike roller coaster to be installed in the United States, though the Pony Express, a similar model of coaster with horse themed trains, was erected Knott's Berry Farm. The MotoCoaster is the same model as the prototype located outside Zamperla's factory in Italy.


title: Orange County Choppers

text: The MotoCoaster opened in May 2008 with Orange County Choppers securing the naming rights. The MotoCoaster is located near the Darien Square area of the park, between Boomerang and Twister. Orange County Choppers built a custom motorcycle inspired by the ride and the park. The coaster was originally named the Orange County Choppers Motocoaster when it first opened in 2008. However, the name was changed to the MotoCoaster in 2010 after the naming rights with OCC expired.


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: Chlorine trifluoride is an interhalogen compound with the formula ClF. This colorless, poisonous, corrosive, and extremely reactive gas condenses to a pale-greenish yellow liquid, the form in which it is most often sold (pressurized at room temperature). The compound is primarily of interest in plasmaless cleaning and etching operations in the semiconductor industry, in nuclear reactor fuel processing, as a component in rocket fuels, and other industrial operations.


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: It was first reported in 1930 by Ruff and Krug who prepared it by fluorination of chlorine; this also produced ClF (chlorine monofluoride) and the mixture was separated by distillation.


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: The molecular geometry of ClF is approximately T-shaped, with one short bond (1.598 Å) and two long bonds (1.698 Å). This structure agrees with the prediction of VSEPR theory, which predicts lone pairs of electrons as occupying two equatorial positions of a hypothetic trigonal bipyramid. The elongated Cl-F axial bonds are consistent with hypervalent bonding.


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: Pure ClF is stable to in quartz vessels; above this temperature, it decomposes by a free radical mechanism to its constituent elements.


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: Reactions with many metals give chlorides and fluorides. With phosphorus, it yields phosphorus trichloride (PCl) and phosphorus pentafluoride (PF), while sulfur yields sulfur dichloride (SCl) and sulfur tetrafluoride (SF). ClF also reacts with water to give hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride, along with oxygen and oxygen difluoride (OF):


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: One of the main uses of ClF is to produce uranium hexafluoride, UF, as part of nuclear fuel processing and reprocessing, by the fluorination of uranium metal:


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: In the semiconductor industry, chlorine trifluoride is used to clean chemical vapour deposition chambers. It has the advantage that it can be used to remove semiconductor material from the chamber walls without the need to dismantle the chamber. Unlike most of the alternative chemicals used in this role, it does not need to be activated by the use of plasma since the heat of the chamber is sufficient to make it decompose and react with the semiconductor material.


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: Chlorine trifluoride has been investigated as a high-performance storable oxidizer in rocket propellant systems. Handling concerns, however, severely limit its use. John Drury Clark summarized the difficulties:


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: It is, of course, extremely toxic, but that's the least of the problem. It is hypergolic with every known fuel, and so rapidly hypergolic that no ignition delay has ever been measured. It is also hypergolic with such things as cloth, wood, and test engineers, not to mention asbestos, sand, and water—with which it reacts explosively. It can be kept in some of the ordinary structural metals—steel, copper, aluminum, etc.—because of the formation of a thin film of insoluble metal fluoride that protects the bulk of the metal, just as the invisible coat of oxide on aluminum keeps it from burning up in the atmosphere. If, however, this coat is melted or scrubbed off, and has no chance to reform, the operator is confronted with the problem of coping with a metal-fluorine fire. For dealing with this situation, I have always recommended a good pair of running shoes.


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: Chlorine pentafluoride (ClF) has also been investigated as a potential rocket oxidizer. It offered improved specific impulse over chlorine trifluoride, but with all of the same difficulties in handling. Neither compound has been used in any operational rocket propulsion system.


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: Under the code name N-Stoff ("substance N"), chlorine trifluoride was investigated for military applications by the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Nazi Germany not long before the start of World War II. Tests were made against mock-ups of the Maginot Line fortifications, and it was found to be an extremely effective incendiary weapon and poison gas. From 1938, construction commenced on a partly bunkered, partly subterranean munitions factory, the Falkenhagen industrial complex, which was intended to produce 90 tonnes of N-Stoff per month, plus sarin (a deadly nerve agent). However, by the time it was captured by the advancing Red Army in 1945, the factory had produced only about 30 to 50 tonnes, at a cost of over 100 German Reichsmark per kilogram. N-Stoff was never used in war.


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: ClF is a very strong oxidizer and fluorinating agent. It is extremely reactive with most inorganic and organic materials, and will combust many otherwise non-flammable materials without any ignition source. These reactions are often violent, and in some cases explosive, especially with flammable materials. Steel, copper, and nickel are not consumed because a passivation layer of insoluble metal fluoride will form which prevents further corrosion, but molybdenum, tungsten, and titanium are unsuitable as the fluorides that they form are volatile. Any equipment that comes into contact with ClF must be meticulously cleaned and then passivated, because any contamination left may burn through the unfluorinated material faster than it can re-form. ClF will quickly corrode even noble metals like iridium, platinum, or gold, oxidizing them to chlorides and fluorides.


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: This oxidizing power, surpassing that of oxygen, causes ClF to react vigorously with many other materials often thought of as incombustible and refractory. It is known to ignite sand, asbestos, glass, and even ashes of substances that have already burned in oxygen. In one particular industrial accident, a spill of 900 kg of ClF burned through 30 cm of concrete and 90 cm of gravel beneath. There is exactly one known fire control/suppression method capable of dealing with ClF – the use of nitrogen and noble gases: the surrounding area must be flooded with nitrogen or argon. Barring that, the area must simply be kept cool until the reaction ceases. The compound reacts with water-based suppressors and CO, rendering them ineffective.


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: Exposure to larger amounts of ClF, as a liquid or as a gas, ignites living tissue, resulting in severe chemical and thermal burns. ClF reacts violently with water and exposure to the reaction also results in burns. The products of hydrolysis are mainly hydrofluoric acid and hydrochloric acid, which are usually released as steam or vapor due to the highly exothermic nature of the reaction.


title: Chlorine trifluoride

text: Using data from Economic History Services and The Inflation Calculator, we can calculate that 100 Reichsmark in 1941 is approximately equivalent to $4,652.50 USD in 2021. Reichsmark exchange rate values from 1942 to 1944 are fragmentary.


title: South African farm attacks

text: South African farm attacks () are violent crimes, including murder, assault and robbery, that take place on farms in South Africa. The attacks target farmers, who are usually white, and farm workers, who are usually black. Black farmers have also been victims of violent attacks. The term has no formal legal definition, but such attacks have been the subject of discussion by media and public figures in South Africa and abroad. There is insufficient data to reliably estimate a murder rate for South African farmers. South African government data indicated between 58 and 74 murders on farms annually in the period 2015–2017; out of an annual murder count of 20,000 total murders in South Africa; these figures are broadly consistent with figures collected by the Transvaal Agricultural Union (TAU), a farmers' union. Due to the problems associated with counting the number of South African farmers and farm murders, it is unclear whether farmers are at greater risk of being murdered than other South Africans.


title: South African farm attacks

text: Data released by the South African government in 2018 showed that the number of farm attacks had increased between 2012 and 2018, but that the number of murders on farms had decreased year by year during the period. During the same year farming organisation AgriSA reported on police statistics which suggested that the murder rate on farms had declined to the lowest level in 20 years, to a third of the level recorded in 1998.


title: South African farm attacks

text: Unsubstantiated claims that such attacks on farmers disproportionately target whites are a key element of the white genocide conspiracy theory and have become a common talking point among white nationalists worldwide. However, there are no reliable figures that suggest that white farmers are being targeted in particular or that they are at a disproportionate risk of being killed. The Government of South Africa and other analysts maintain that farm attacks are part of a broader crime problem in South Africa and do not have a racial motivation.


title: South African farm attacks

text: South African statutory law does not define a "farm attack" as a specific crime. Rather, the term is used to refer to a number of different crimes committed against persons specifically on commercial farms or smallholdings.


title: South African farm attacks

text: Attacks on farms and smallholdings refer to acts aimed on the persons of residents, workers and visitors to farms and smallholdings, whether with the intent to murder, rape, rob or inflict bodily harm. In addition, all actions aimed at disrupting farming activities as a commercial concern, whether for motives related to ideology, labour disputes, land issues, revenge, grievances or intimidation, should be included.