title: Ion chromatography

text: Ion exchange chromatography can be used to separate proteins because they contain charged functional groups. The ions of interest (in this case charged proteins) are exchanged for another ions (usually H) on a charged solid support. The solutes are most commonly in a liquid phase, which tends to be water. Take for example proteins in water, which would be a liquid phase that is passed through a column. The column is commonly known as the solid phase since it is filled with porous synthetic particles that are of a particular charge. These porous particles are also referred to as beads, may be aminated (containing amino groups) or have metal ions in order to have a charge. The column can be prepared using porous polymers, for macromolecules over 100,000 the optimum size of the porous particle is about 1 μm. This is because slow diffusion of the solutes within the pores does not restrict the separation quality. The beads containing positively charged groups, which attract the negatively charged proteins, are commonly referred to as anion exchange resins. The amino acids that have negatively charged side chains at pH 7 (pH of water) are glutamate and aspartate. The beads that are negatively charged are called cation exchange resins, as positively charged proteins will be attracted. The amino acids that have positively charged side chains at pH 7 are lysine, histidine and arginine.


title: Ion chromatography

text: The isoelectric point is the pH at which a compound - in this case a protein - has no net charge. A protein’s isoelectric point or PI can be determined using the pKa of the side chains, if the amino (positive chain) is able to cancel out the carboxyl (negative) chain, the protein would be at its PI. Using buffers instead of water for proteins that do not have a charge at pH 7, is a good idea as it enables the manipulation of pH to alter ionic interactions between the proteins and the beads. Weakly acidic or basic side chains are able to have a charge if the pH is high or low enough respectively. Separation can be achieved based on the natural isoelectric point of the protein. Alternatively a peptide tag can be genetically added to the protein to give the protein an isoelectric point away from most natural proteins (e.g., 6 arginines for binding to a cation-exchange resin or 6 glutamates for binding to an anion-exchange resin such as DEAE-Sepharose).


title: Ion chromatography

text: Elution by increasing ionic strength of the mobile phase is more subtle. It works because ions from the mobile phase interact with the immobilized ions on the stationary phase, thus "shielding" the stationary phase from the protein, and letting the protein elute.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Elution from ion-exchange columns can be sensitive to changes of a single charge- chromatofocusing. Ion-exchange chromatography is also useful in the isolation of specific multimeric protein assemblies, allowing purification of specific complexes according to both the number and the position of charged peptide tags.


title: Ion chromatography

text: In ion exchange chromatography, the Gibbs–Donnan effect is observed when the pH of the applied buffer and the ion exchanger differ, even up to one pH unit. For example, in anion-exchange columns, the ion exchangers repeal protons so the pH of the buffer near the column differs is higher than the rest of the solvent. As a result, an experimenter has to be careful that the protein(s) of interest is stable and properly charged in the "actual" pH.


title: Ion chromatography

text: This effect comes as a result of two similarly charged particles, one from the resin and one from the solution, failing to distribute properly between the two sides; there is a selective uptake of one ion over another. For example, in a sulphonated polystyrene resin, a cation exchange resin, the chlorine ion of a hydrochloric acid buffer should equilibrate into the resin. However, since the concentration of the sulphonic acid in the resin is high, the hydrogen of HCl has no tendency to enter the column. This, combined with the need of electroneutrality, leads to a minimum amount of hydrogen and chlorine entering the resin.


title: Ion chromatography

text: A use of ion chromatography can be seen in argentation chromatography. Usually, silver and compounds containing acetylenic and ethylenic bonds have very weak interactions. This phenomenon has been widely tested on olefin compounds. The ion complexes the olefins make with silver ions are weak and made based on the overlapping of pi, sigma, and d orbitals and available electrons therefore cause no real changes in the double bond. This behavior was manipulated to separate lipids, mainly fatty acids from mixtures in to fractions with differing number of double bonds using silver ions. The ion resins were impregnated with silver ions, which were then exposed to various acids (silicic acid) to elute fatty acids of different characteristics.


title: Ion chromatography

text: It may be used for measurement of HbA1c, porphyrin and with water purification. Ion Exchange Resins(IER) have been widely used especially in medicines due to its high capacity and the uncomplicated system of the separation process. One of the synthetic uses is to use Ion Exchange Resins for kidney dialysis. This method is used to separate the blood elements by using the cellulose membraned artificial kidney.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Another clinical application of ion chromatography is in the rapid anion exchange chromatography technique used to separate creatine kinase (CK) isoenzymes from human serum and tissue sourced in autopsy material (mostly CK rich tissues were used such as cardiac muscle and brain). These isoenzymes include MM, MB, and BB, which all carry out the same function given different amino acid sequences. The functions of these isoenzymes are to convert creatine, using ATP, into phosphocreatine expelling ADP. Mini columns were filled with DEAE-Sephadex A-50 and further eluted with tris- buffer sodium chloride at various concentrations (each concentration was chosen advantageously to manipulate elution). Human tissue extract was inserted in columns for separation. All fractions were analyzed to see total CK activity and it was found that each source of CK isoenzymes had characteristic isoenzymes found within. Firstly, CK- MM was eluted, then CK-MB, followed by CK-BB. Therefore, the isoenzymes found in each sample could be used to identify the source, as they were tissue specific.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Using the information from results, correlation could be made about the diagnosis of patients and the kind of CK isoenzymes found in most abundant activity. From the finding, about 35 out of 71 patients studied suffered from heart attack (myocardial infarction) also contained an abundant amount of the CK-MM and CK-MB isoenzymes. Findings further show that many other diagnosis including renal failure, cerebrovascular disease, and pulmonary disease were only found to have the CK-MM isoenzyme and no other isoenzyme. The results from this study indicate correlations between various diseases and the CK isoenzymes found which confirms previous test results using various techniques. Studies about CK-MB found in heart attack victims have expanded since this study and application of ion chromatography.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Since 1975 ion chromatography has been widely used in many branches of industry. The main beneficial advantages are reliability, very good accuracy and precision, high selectivity, high speed, high separation efficiency, and low cost of consumables. The most significant development related to ion chromatography are new sample preparation methods; improving the speed and selectivity of analytes separation; lowering of limits of detection and limits of quantification; extending the scope of applications; development of new standard methods; miniaturization and extending the scope of the analysis of a new group of substances. Allows for quantitative testing of electrolyte and proprietary additives of electroplating baths. It is an advancement of qualitative hull cell testing or less accurate UV testing. Ions, catalysts, brighteners and accelerators can be measured. Ion exchange chromatography has gradually become a widely known, universal technique for the detection of both anionic and cationic species. Applications for such purposes have been developed, or are under development, for a variety of fields of interest, and in particular, the pharmaceutical industry. The usage of ion exchange chromatography in pharmaceuticals has increased in recent years, and in 2006, a chapter on ion exchange chromatography was officially added to the United States Pharmacopia-National Formulary (USP-NF). Furthermore, in 2009 release of the USP-NF, the United States Pharmacopia made several analyses of ion chromatography available using two techniques: conductivity detection, as well as pulse amperometric detection. Majority of these applications are primarily used for measuring and analyzing residual limits in pharmaceuticals, including detecting the limits of oxalate, iodide, sulfate, sulfamate, phosphate, as well as various electrolytes including potassium, and sodium. In total, the 2009 edition of the USP-NF officially released twenty eight methods of detection for the analysis of active compounds, or components of active compounds, using either conductivity detection or pulse amperometric detection.


title: Ion chromatography

text: There has been a growing interest in the application of IC in the analysis of pharmaceutical drugs. IC is used in different aspects of product development and quality control testing. For example, IC is used to improve stabilities and solubility properties of pharmaceutical active drugs molecules as well as used to detect systems that have higher tolerance for organic solvents. IC has been used for the determination of analytes as a part of a dissolution test. For instance, calcium dissolution tests have shown that other ions present in the medium can be well resolved among themselves and also from the calcium ion. Therefore, IC has been employed in drugs in the form of tablets and capsules in order to determine the amount of drug dissolve with time. IC is also widely used for detection and quantification of excipients or inactive ingredients used in pharmaceutical formulations. Detection of sugar and sugar alcohol in such formulations through IC has been done due to these polar groups getting resolved in ion column. IC methodology also established in analysis of impurities in drug substances and products. Impurities or any components that are not part of the drug chemical entity are evaluated and they give insights about the maximum and minimum amounts of drug that should be administered in a patient per day.


title: Falx

text: The falx was a weapon with a curved blade that was sharp on the inside edge used by the Thracians and Dacians. The name was later applied to a siege hook used by the Romans.


title: Falx

text: "Falx" is a Latin word originally meaning 'sickle' but was later used to mean any of a number of tools that had a curved blade that was sharp on the inside edge like a sickle. "Falx" was thus also used to mean the weapon of the Thracians and Dacians, and the Roman siege hook.


title: Falx

text: In Latin texts, the weapon was described as an ' (whence "falcata") by Ovid in "Metamorphose" and as a ' by Juvenal in "Satiriae".


title: Falx

text: The Dacian "falx" came in two sizes: one-handed and two-handed. The shorter variant was called "sica" (sickle) in the Dacian language (Valerius Maximus, III, 2.12) with a blade length that varied but was usually around long with a handle 1/3 longer than the blade. The two-handed "falx" was a polearm. It consisted of a long wooden shaft with a long curved iron blade of nearly-equal length attached to the end. Archaeological evidence indicates that the one-handed "falx" was also used two-handed.


title: Falx

text: The blade was sharpened only on the inside and was reputed to be devastatingly effective. However, it left its user vulnerable because, being a two-handed weapon, the warrior could not also make use of a shield. It may be imagined that the length of the two-handed "falx" allowed it to be wielded with great force, the point piercing helmets and the blade splitting shields – it was said to be capable of splitting a shield in two at a single blow. Alternatively, it might have been used as a hook, pulling away shields and cutting at vulnerable limbs, or striking the edge of a strong shield. The inward curving point was still able to pierce the armour or flesh of the target behind the shield, rendering even the most reinforced shields much less effective against a "falx" wielder.


title: Falx

text: Trajan's column is a monument to the emperor’s conquest of Dacia. The massive base is covered with reliefs of trophies of Dacian weapons and includes several illustrations of the two-handed "falx". The column itself has a helical frieze that tells the story of the Dacian wars. On the frieze, almost all the Dacians that are armed have shields and therefore cannot be using two-handed "falx". The exact weapon of those few shown without shields cannot be determined with certainty. The frieze of Trajan's column also shows Dacians using smaller, sword-sized "falx". However, this column is also largely stylized, with the sculptor believed to have worked from Trajan's now lost commentary and unlikely to have witnessed the events himself. A further problem is that most of the weapons on the monument were made of metal, which have since disappeared.


title: Falx

text: The Adamclisi monument, built by Trajan to commemorate the Romans who lost their lives in the Dacian counterattack in Moesia, is thought to have been constructed by the soldiers who fought there, so it may be more accurate. This column shows four distinct types of "falx", whereas Trajan's shows only one type that does not resemble any on the Adamclisi monument. Because of this, historians disagree on which depiction is correct, but it has been pointed out that if the Trajan's column "falx" are correct, then there would have been no need to modify Roman armour. Both columns show the Dacians fighting with no armour apart from a shield, although some on the Adamclisi are wearing helmets. Some historians believe that armour was not depicted to differentiate Dacians from Romans, as both used the same style of shield. Other sources indicate that Dacians by this time had undergone Romanisation, used Roman military tactics, and sometimes wore Roman style scale armour. It is likely that the nobles at least wore armour and, combined with the "falx", the Dacians would have been a formidable threat.


title: Falx

text: Marcus Cornelius Fronto described the large gaping wounds that a "falx" inflicted, and experiments have shown that a blow from a "falx" easily penetrated the Romans' "lorica segmentata", incapacitating the majority of victims. These experiments also show that the "falx" was most efficient when targeting the head, shoulders, legs and especially the right (sword) arm, which was generally exposed. A legionary who had lost the use of his right arm became a serious liability to his unit in battle.


title: Falx

text: During conquest of Dacia by Trajan the Roman army adapted personal equipment while on campaign, and it seems likely that this was a response to this deadly weapon. Roman legionaries had transverse reinforcing iron straps applied to their helmets - it is clear that these are late modifications because they are roughly applied across existing embossed decoration. The legions also reintroduced the wearing of "lorica hamata" and "lorica squamata" for the Dacia campaign as both were more flexible than the newer "segmentata" armour which was able to distribute damage more widely. In addition, both these older armour styles had unique modifications, a row of "pteruges" was added to the sleeves, a double row of "pteruges" was added to the skirt and a heavily padded vestment was worn underneath them. Roman armour of the time left limbs unprotected; Trajan introduced the use of greaves and an arm protector ("manica") for the right arm, which had previously been used only by gladiators, and which was never used again by soldiers once the Dacia campaign concluded.


title: Falx

text: The Thracians also made use of the "falx". They also used the "rhomphaia", a weapon very similar to the two-handed "falx" but less curved.


title: Falx

text: The two-handed "falx" is clearly related to the Thracian "rhomphaia". It is a derivative of both the sword and the spear, having evolved from a spear to a polearm before becoming more dramatically curved to facilitate a superior cutting action. This drastic curve rendered the "falx" a purely offensive weapon to be used against a broken or routing force. Typically, an enemy would be broken by a sustained hail of missile fire from javelin, dart, bow, sling, and stone throwing troops before being chased down and cut to pieces by the "falx" wielders.


title: Falx

text: The ancestor of the two-handed "falx" may have been a farming implement used as an improvised weapon, in a manner analogous to the bill-guisarme. The single-handed "falx" might have been inspired by the sickle, although agricultural sickles of the time were typically quite small – no more than 30 cm or so in length.


title: Falx

text: At the time of the Dacian wars, producing a long, sharp blade was technically challenging. As such, it might be that the larger two-handed "falx" was a high-status weapon and used only by the best warriors.


title: Falx

text: Similarly, there are the "Sica" and the "rhomphaia". The "sica" is a much smaller variation, some with very dramatic curves or bends. The "rhomphaia" is often larger and used with two hands, though there were some one handed ones.


title: Lissencephaly

text: Lissencephaly (, meaning "smooth brain") is a set of rare brain disorders whereby the whole or parts of the surface of the brain appear smooth. It is caused by defective neuronal migration during the 12th to 24th weeks of gestation resulting in a lack of development of brain folds (gyri) and grooves (sulci). It is a form of cephalic disorder. Terms such as "agyria" (no gyri) and "pachygyria" (broad gyri) are used to describe the appearance of the surface of the brain.


title: Lissencephaly

text: Children with lissencephaly generally have significant developmental delays, but these vary greatly from child to child depending on the degree of brain malformation and seizure control. Life expectancy can be shortened, generally due to respiratory problems.


title: Lissencephaly

text: Affected children display severe psychomotor impairment, failure to thrive, seizures, and muscle spasticity or hypotonia. Other symptoms of the disorder may include unusual facial appearance, difficulty swallowing, and anomalies of the hands, fingers, or toes.


title: Lissencephaly

text: Symptoms of lissencephaly are detected via ultrasound at about twenty-three weeks and require confirmation from a prenatal MRI. It is characterised by absence or reduction of the sulci and gyri of the cerebral surface and a thickened cortex.


title: Lissencephaly

text: There are anatomical symptoms that differ across the two main types of lissencephaly, Classical (Type I) and Cobble Stone (Type 2). In Classical lissencephaly the cortex becomes thickened and can be identified by four layers of the cerebral cortex rather than six.


title: Lissencephaly

text: Cobblestone lissencephaly is named after the pebbled or cobblestone appearance of the cortical surface. This uneven cortical surface is due to incomplete organogenesis which leads to no distinguishable layers in the cerebral cortex. Cobblestone lissencephaly shows a reduction and abnormalities in the grey matter of the cerebral cortex.


title: Lissencephaly

text: Causes of lissencephaly can include viral infections of the uterus or the fetus during the first trimester, or insufficient blood supply to the fetal brain early in pregnancy. There are also a number of genetic causes of lissencephaly, including mutation of the reelin gene (on chromosome 7), as well as other genes on the X chromosome and on chromosome 17. Genetic counseling is usually offered if there is a risk of lissencephaly, coupled with genetic testing.


title: Lissencephaly

text: Folding of the cerebral cortex is important in the development of overall brain function and cognitive abilities. Neuronal migration is the process by which neurons migrate to the final position in the brain during the development of the nervous system. This development of the nervous system occurs between 12 and 16 weeks of gestation. The neurons are created at the ventricular zone. The neurons then extend along the radial glia to reach the cortical zone. It is the disruption of the radial and tangential migration that causes reduced or absence gyri that is known as lissencephaly.


title: Lissencephaly

text: The lack of gyri causing a smooth appearance of the cerebral cortex is due to abnormal neuronal migration in the developmental stages of the nervous system. The cause of lissencephaly has been linked to both genetic and non-genetic factors. Three main types of lissencephaly have been identified and although all types display the similar symptoms the pathogenesis of each type varies.


title: Lissencephaly

text: The genes associated with lissencephaly are still being discovered; however, due to advances in genetics individual genes are being identified as the cause of lissencephaly. Mutations in "LIS1", "DCX" (doublecortin), "ARX"(aristaless related homeobox), "RELN" have all been identified to cause lissencephaly. Viral infections can also cause lissencephaly.


title: Lissencephaly

text: "LIS1" (also known as "PAFAH1B1") is the most widely studied. "LIS1" is located on chromosome 17p13.3. "LIS1" is integral in regulating the motor protein dynein which plays an important role in the movement of neuronal nuclei along microtubules. The mutation or deletion involving "LIS1" is associated with both Isolated Lissencephaly Syndrome and Miller–Dieker syndrome. Miller-Dieker syndrome however, has additional deletions of adjacent genes on chromosome 17 causing facial and other congenital abnormalities and defects. This mutation full or deletion of chromosome 17p13.3 leads to inadequate neuronal migration due to "LIS1" encoding for an enzyme that interacts with the microtubule protein dynein. "LIS1" mutation or deletion is not inherited from a parent and thus recurrence is unlikely.


title: Lissencephaly

text: A Chinese family with an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern and a mutation in this gene has been reported.


title: Lissencephaly

text: "DCX" or doublecortin encodes for the doublecortin protein which is similar to LIS1 as it encodes a microtubule associated protein that is related to microtubule function and transport in developing neuronal processes. "DCX" mutation causes the disorganisation of neocortical layering in the cerebral cortex leading to a reduced folding. "DCX" is localised to the X chromosome and thus this mutation may be inherited however it still can appear randomly. As it is an X chromosome linked abnormality males who inherit the gene are more likely to be severely affected. Females who inherit the DCX mutation have a more mild version of the syndrome.


title: Lissencephaly

text: The "ARX" gene encodes for the aristaless related homeobox genes which are active in the early embryonic development to control formation of many tissues and structure. ARX is involved in the development of the embryonic forebrain, migration and communication of neurons as well as migration and proliferation of interneurons. As ARX is expressed in the ganglionic eminences and the neocortical ventricular zone it can affect both radial and tangential migration. Similar to "DCX", "ARX" is an X chromosome linked gene and is linked with other symptoms such as absence of portions of the brain, abnormal genitalia and severe epilepsy.


title: Lissencephaly

text: Reelin (RELN) is an extracellular matrix glycoproteins that is secreted to help with the regulation of neuronal migration. Lack of RELN in mice has shown deficiencies in migrating neurons. In reported cases, lissencephaly caused by RELN deficiency has been more severe in anterior brain regions with a very small cerebellum.


title: Lissencephaly

text: Lissencephaly has been recorded to have been caused by viruses and insufficient blood supply to the developing fetal brain. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a herpes related virus that can cause congenital defects. CMV has a high affinity for the developing germinal matrix of the brain. The severity of the infection is proportional to the time in gestation that the fetus was infected. It is early infection that leads to lissencephaly. This is because early infection disrupts the migration and development of neurons.


title: Lissencephaly

text: The diagnosis of lissencephaly is usually made at birth or soon after by ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). However, these results should be interpreted cautiously since even experienced radiologists can misdiagnose polymicrogyria, a different developmental malformation of the brain, as lissencephaly.


title: Lissencephaly

text: Before birth, complex ultrasounds performed routinely during pregnancy may indicate the presence of a cerebral abnormality, but this method of diagnosis should be complemented by other methods, such as genetic studies and NMR, and the examination is not recommended as part of routine ultrasound examinations, unless family medical history or other reasons for suspecting brain malformation are present. The earliest point during gestation when it is possible to observe abnormal development of the brain surface is approximately in week 20, although ultrasound examinations in week 25–30 are more common. Up to this time, the fetal brain normally has a smooth appearance. If lissencephaly is suspected, chorionic villus sampling can test for some lissencephaly variants, but only those with a known genetic mutation.


title: Lissencephaly

text: The spectrum of lissencephaly is only now becoming more defined as neuroimaging and genetics have provided more insights into migration disorders. There are around 20 types of lissencephaly that make up the spectrum. Other causes which have not yet been identified are likely as well.


title: Lissencephaly

text: Different systems for classifying lissencephaly exist. One major distinction is "classic" (type I) vs. "cobblestone" (type II), but some systems add additional forms that fit into neither of these categories.


title: Lissencephaly

text: Treatment for those with lissencephaly is symptomatic and depends on the severity and locations of the brain malformations. Treatment is tailored towards the symptoms of the individual. Therapies for lissencephaly are to deal with the symptoms as the syndrome is congenital. Supportive care may be needed to help with comfort and nursing needs. Seizures may be controlled with medication and hydrocephalus may require shunting. If feeding becomes difficult, a gastrostomy tube may be considered.


title: Lissencephaly

text: There are a number of organisations that raise awareness and funding for rare disabilities such as lissencephaly. They also seek to increase the quality of life for individuals living with related disabilities. In the United States, these organizations include Arc of the United States, National Organization for Rare Disorders, and March of Dimes.


title: Lissencephaly

text: The prognosis for children with lissencephaly varies depending on the malformation and severity of the syndrome. Many individuals remain at a 3–5 month developmental level. Life expectancy is short and many children with lissencephaly will die before the age of 10. Some children with lissencephaly will be able to roll over, sit, reach for objects, and smile socially. Aspiration and respiratory disease are the most common causes of illness or death. In the past, life expectancy was said to be around two years of age. However, with advances in seizure control, and treatments for respiratory illness, most children live well beyond that age. With other advances in therapy and the broader availability of services and equipment, some children with lissencephaly are able to walk with varying degrees of assistance and to perform other functions once thought too advanced.


title: The Hot Zone (American TV series)

text: The Hot Zone is an American anthology drama television series, based on the 1994 non-fiction book of the same name by Richard Preston and airing on National Geographic.


title: The Hot Zone (American TV series)

text: The first season, consisting of six episodes, aired from May 27 to May 29, 2019, and was intended as a miniseries. Largely set in 1989, it follows U.S. Army scientist Nancy Jaax who is confronted the possibility of a potentially deadly outbreak of Ebola. Jaax, a veterinary pathologist, first identifies the ebolavirus after it appears in monkeys in a Primate Quarantine Facility in the suburbs of Washington, D.C. The season was positively reviewed, and renewed for a second season.


title: The Hot Zone (American TV series)

text: The second season, titled "The Hot Zone: Anthrax", focuses on the 2001 anthrax attacks, just weeks after September 11. The season, also consisting of six episodes, aired from November 28 to November 30, 2021.


title: The Hot Zone (American TV series)

text: On April 18, 2018, it was announced that National Geographic had given a series order to the production. Executive producers were set to include Lynda Obst, Kelly Souders, Brian Peterson, Jeff Vintar, and Ridley Scott. Production companies involved with the series were slated to consist of Fox 21 Television Studios, Scott Free Productions, and Lynda Obst Productions. On August 9, 2018, it was announced that Kelly Souders and Brian Wayne Peterson were joining the series as showrunners, executive producers, and writers. On February 8, 2019, it was announced that the series would premiere on May 27, 2019. In November 2020, National Geographic renewed the series for a second season.


title: The Hot Zone (American TV series)

text: On July 25, 2018, it was announced during the Television Critics Association's annual summer press tour that Julianna Margulies had been cast in the first season's lead role. On September 13, 2018, it was reported that Noah Emmerich, Liam Cunningham, Topher Grace, Paul James, Nick Searcy, Robert Wisdom, and Robert Sean Leonard had joined the cast in starring roles and that James D'Arcy would make a guest starring appearance. On December 6, 2018, it was announced that Grace Gummer would appear in a recurring capacity.


title: The Hot Zone (American TV series)

text: In early 2021, following the announcement of a second season with a different story, Tony Goldwyn, Daniel Dae Kim, Harry Hamlin, Dylan Baker, Ian Colletti Dawn Olivieri, and Denyce Lawton were announced as cast members.


title: The Hot Zone (American TV series)

text: Principal photography for the first season took place from September 13, 2018, to November 16, 2018, in Toronto and was also expected to film in South Africa. Exterior photography of the rear loading docks of the "monkey lab" took place at the now-closed Life Savers Factory located at 100 Cumberland Ave, Hamilton, Ontario. Loading docks can be viewed from Burris Street as well as homes in reverse shots. Exterior and interior shots of "Commuter Station" took place at the historic Hamilton Canadian National Railway Station, located at 360 James St N, in Hamilton, Ontario.


title: The Hot Zone (American TV series)

text: On December 20, 2018, a "first look" still image from the series was released featuring Julianna Margulies in character as Dr. Nancy Jaax. On February 8, 2019, a trailer for the series was released.


title: The Hot Zone (American TV series)

text: The series is available to stream internationally with Disney+ through its Star hub, with the second season released in selected territories.


title: The Hot Zone (American TV series)

text: On February 8, 2019, it was announced that National Geographic had greenlit a companion documentary film to premiere alongside the series in May 2019. The film was set to be executive produced by Betsy Forhan and feature interviews with subjects including Richard Preston, Dr. Nahid Bhadelia, Dr. Anthony S. Fauci, Dr. Pardis Sabeti, and Dr. Ian Crozier. The production company involved with the film was slated to be National Geographic Studios.


title: The Hot Zone (American TV series)

text: Rotten Tomatoes gave an approval rating of 85%, based on 20 reviews. Its critical consensus reads: "An anxiety-producing dramatization of real-world events, "The Hot Zone" acts as a sobering reminder of exactly how deadly a disease can be." On Metacritic, the season had a score of 69 out of 100, based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Richard Alan Rodriguez (; born May 24, 1963), also known as Rich Rod, is an American football coach and former player. He is currently the head coach at Jacksonville State University. Rodriguez previously was the head football coach at Salem University (1988), Glenville State College (1990–1996), West Virginia University (2001–2007), the University of Michigan (2008–2010), and the University of Arizona (2012–2017). His career college football coaching record stands at 172–121–2. In 2011, Rodriguez worked as an analyst for CBS Sports.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: A native of Grant Town, West Virginia, Rodriguez graduated from North Marion High School in 1981 where he played four sports and was an all-state football and basketball player. After high school, Rodriguez attended West Virginia University. Playing as a defensive back, he recorded 54 career tackles over three seasons.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: During the 1985 season, Rodriguez was a student assistant under head coach Don Nehlen and graduated with a Physical Education degree. In 1986, he was hired by Salem College (now Salem International University) where he was special teams coordinator and secondary coach. In 1987, he became Salem’s defensive coordinator and in 1988 took over as head coach. At 25 years old, he was the youngest college head coach in the country. He was 2–8 in his first season as head coach, after which the college announced it was dropping its football program.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: After Rodriguez's return to WVU as a volunteer coach with the outside linebackers for the 1989 football season, he left again to take over as head coach at Glenville State College. During his stay from 1990 to 1996, the team earned three consecutive West Virginia Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (WVIAC) championships and competed in the 1993 NAIA national championship. His first season, 1990, he led the team to a 1–7 record. In 1991, Glenville improved to 4–5–1, then 6–4 season; in 1993, Rodriguez led Glenville to a 10–3 record and the WVIAC Championship and NAIA runner-up. The next two years, 1994 and 1995, Glenville finished as WVIAC Co-Champions. In Rodriguez's final season at Glenville, 1996, he led them to a Co-Championship once again. While at Glenville, Rodriguez compiled a record of 43–28–2 and was named WVIAC Coach of the Year in 1993 and 1994, NAIA National Coach of the Year in 1993, and West Virginia State College Coach of the Year in 1993 by the West Virginia Sports Writers Association. Glenville State's four championships under Rodriguez were their first since 1959 while his players' set five national career records for Division II.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez left Glenville State at the end of the 1996 season to be assistant coach, offensive coordinator, and quarterback coach for Tulane University from 1997 to 1998, under head coach Tommy Bowden. Rodriguez knew Bowden's father, Bobby Bowden, because he had worked at his camps during summers. In Rodriguez's first year as offensive coordinator his innovative offense succeeded as Tulane went 7–4 and had their best season since 1980. Rodriguez was part of Tulane's success, including their 12–0 season in Rodriguez's last season at Tulane, mainly for his spread offense with quarterback Shaun King. When Bowden was hired as the head coach at Clemson University, he kept Rodriguez on his staff. Rodriguez was the offensive coordinator and associate head coach until the end of the 2000 season. Rodriguez was considered to be the frontrunner for the Tulane coaching job following Bowden's departure and was led to believe that he was going to be the next coach for Tulane. However, Chris Scelfo was hired instead.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: On November 26, 2000, WVU's athletic department announced that Rodriguez would again return to West Virginia, this time as head coach to replace the retiring Don Nehlen. Rodriguez's first season at West Virginia, 2001, was a disappointing 3–8. However, they improved greatly the next year, as they went 9–4 while finishing as a runner-up in the Big East Conference; this also included back-to-back road wins against ranked Virginia Tech and Pittsburgh, and a Continental Tire Bowl berth, where they lost to ACC runner-up in Virginia. The Mountaineers finished second in the nation rushing with 283 yards per game and fourth in turnover margin. In 2003, the Mountaineers started the season 1–4, and after losing to #2 Miami 22–20, the Mountaineers posted a 6–1 Big East record and tied for the Big East championship with Miami, earning a Gator Bowl berth. That season, the Mountaineers replaced 22 seniors, eleven of which were starters. In 2004, the Mountaineers posted an 8–4 record with a talented team of seniors and juniors, but were ranked as high as sixth during the regular season.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Following the 2002 season, Rodriguez was awarded the Big East Coach of the Year by Sporting News and state college coach of the year for all sports by the West Virginia Sports Writers Association. He also received the 2003 Frank Loria Award from the West Virginia chapter of the National Football Foundation, and also earned Big East Coach of the Year that season. In 2005, he was offered to join the AFCA Board of Directors, and that same season was again given Big East Coach of the Year honors. In 2005, Rodriguez and the Mountaineers won the Big East title with freshman tandem Steve Slaton and Patrick White, thus claiming the conference's automatic berth in the Bowl Championship Series (BCS), where they defeated the Georgia Bulldogs in the Nokia Sugar Bowl and a final Associated Press ranking of fifth, tying the highest in school history (other in 1988).


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Repeating their 2005 success, West Virginia posted another 11-win season, the first consecutive 10-win seasons in school history. The Mountaineers defeated Georgia Tech, 38–35, in the Gator Bowl and finished 10th in the final polls.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: On December 7, 2006, Rodriguez received an offer to be the next Alabama Crimson Tide head coach. Despite reports that he had agreed in principle to coach at Alabama, which Rodriguez described as totally incorrect, on December 8, 2006, Rodriguez announced he would remain as head coach at West Virginia.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: The Mountaineers started the 2007 season ranked #3 in the AP Poll and #6 in the Coaches' Poll. They were #5 in the nation, before losing to #18 South Florida for the second consecutive time. South Florida eventually moved to #2, before dropping out of the Top 25 after losses (though USF would end the regular season ranked at #21). West Virginia dropped to #12 and #13 in the AP and Coaches' poll, respectively, before rebounding with wins against Syracuse, Mississippi State, #25 Rutgers, Louisville, and #21 Cincinnati. The Mountaineers eventually defeated #20 Connecticut to clinch the Big East Championship and move to #2 in the BCS standings and #1 in the Coaches' poll, both the highest position ever for a Mountaineer football team. WVU's regular season ended at home with a loss in the Backyard Brawl against Pittsburgh, 13-9. After the departure of Rodriguez, the Mountaineers went on to defeat University of Oklahoma in the Fiesta Bowl under interim head coach Bill Stewart.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: On December 16, 2007, Rodriguez informed players at West Virginia that he was leaving to succeed Lloyd Carr as the University of Michigan head football coach. Rodriguez's loss earlier that night to the unranked Pittsburgh Panthers eliminated WVU from national championship contention. Rodriguez's original resignation letter listed January 3, 2008 as his resignation date, but he subsequently made it clear that he would not be coaching WVU in its January 2 appearance in the 2008 Fiesta Bowl versus Oklahoma. On December 18, 2007, Rodriguez informed the university that his resignation would instead be effective at midnight that night and was replaced by his former assistant coach Bill Stewart, who was selected as head coach after the Mountaineers won the Fiesta Bowl.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: The announcement of his departure came just four months after Rodriguez last renegotiated his contract with West Virginia and was made despite his stated long-term commitment to the Mountaineers. The contract included a $4 million buyout if he left WVU within one year of the August 2007 signing date. It has since been speculated that Rodriguez's departure was triggered by conflicts with the new president of WVU, Michael Garrison. Some insight into the discontent between Rodriguez and WVU is evidenced in a compendium of emails that were released to the Associated Press on January 23, 2008. An Associated Press story indicated that Rodriguez's agent Mike Brown was threatening to take his client elsewhere early in the 2007 season.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: On December 27, 2007, West Virginia University filed a motion for declaratory judgment in Monongalia County Circuit Court, asking the court to find that Rodriguez's contract with the University was valid, that WVU had not breached that contract, and that Rodriguez had breached it. Subsequently, on January 18, 2008, WVU added a count of breach of contract after Rodriguez allegedly failed to pay the first installment of the $4 million liquidated damages clause (often referred to as a "buyout clause" by the media) when due.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: On July 9, 2008 Rodriguez and WVU agreed to settle the lawsuit. The terms of the settlement stated that the University of Michigan would pay $2.5 million of the settlement. Rodriguez was required to pay WVU the remaining $1.5 million in three installments of $500,000 each, spread over three years starting in January 2010.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: An opinion poll in September 2013 by Public Policy Polling found that 47% of West Virginia voters still had an unfavorable opinion of him, with only 11% seeing him favorably.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez was introduced by Michigan as its new coach at a news conference held on December 17, 2007 at the Junge Family Champions Center on the University of Michigan campus. After arriving at Michigan, Rodriguez installed a new staff. He brought several members of his West Virginia staff with him, including Tony Gibson and offensive coordinator Calvin Magee. Fred Jackson, the running backs coach, was the only coaching holdover from Lloyd Carr's staff. Rodriguez also changed the strength and conditioning facilities, completed a top ten incoming recruiting class in 2008 (which was recruited mainly by Carr and his staff), and installed his own recruiting to serve his spread offense. Equipment manager Jon Falk also stayed with the Michigan football program; he had been with Michigan since the days of Bo Schembechler.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez began his Michigan coaching career on August 30, 2008 with a 25–23 loss to Utah. His 2008 team finished with a record of 3–9, the worst season in school history. Michigan's losing record meant that the team did not play in a post-season bowl game for the first time in 33 years, the longest such streak in college football up to that point. One of the few high points of the season came on September 27 when Michigan made the second-largest comeback in program history to defeat #9 Wisconsin 27–25 after trailing 19–0 late in the third quarter. That contest was also the 500th game played in Michigan Stadium.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Several Michigan players transferred and subsequently criticized Rodriguez. Justin Boren transferred from the program to rival Ohio State citing offensive behavior and a "lack of family values" from the coaching staff. Boren became first team all Big Ten at Ohio State University in the 2009 season. Others have supported the assertion about a lack of family values, including "Detroit Free Press" writer Michael Rosenberg, who stated "Rodriguez's staff uses some of the foulest, most degrading language imaginable. I know coaches curse, and I'm no prude, but this goes way beyond a few dirty words. This is a big part of why offensive lineman Justin Boren left the team. He felt his dignity was at stake." Former Michigan player Kurt Wermers claimed to not get along with coaches after transferring following the 2008 season to Ball State University, but he was, in fact, academically ineligible at the time of his transfer, calling into question the credibility of his claim.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Prior to the 2009 season several anonymous players told journalists (including Rosenberg) at the "Detroit Free Press" that Rodriguez and his coaching staff had habitually violated NCAA rules. The alleged offenses included attending unofficial scrimmages and requiring players to work out more hours than NCAA rules permit for the off-season. Rodriguez denied the allegations. On October 27, 2009, the NCAA sent a Notice of Inquiry to the University of Michigan stating the NCAA found reasonably reliable information indicating NCAA rule violations. Following the Notice, the investigation into potential major violations continued. On November 16, 2009, the University of Michigan Auditors looking into the NCAA violations discovered that University of Michigan Athletic Department staff failed to file monthly logs that track how much players work out and practice.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Then on February 22, 2010, the NCAA formally accused Michigan of five "major rules violations" after finding that the team and its coaching staff failed to comply with practice time rules under coach Rich Rodriguez, and used several graduate assistants in coaching position in contravention of NCAA regulations on the limits of the number of coaches. This marked the first time that major violations have been alleged against the Michigan football program. All of the violations dated from January 2008 forward, which coincided with Rodriguez's arrival at Michigan. The University of Michigan has acknowledged that it committed four major violations in its football program. This resulted in U-M self-imposing sanctions which including cutting practice time and either disciplining or terminating staff, as well as two years probation. The final NCAA report downgraded the list of violations originally investigated, agreed with Michigan's self-imposed sanctions, but added an extra year of probation.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Despite the setbacks of his inaugural season, Rodriguez compiled a recruiting class for the 2009 season which was ranked eighth nationally by Rivals.com. Tom Dienhart, writing for "Sports Illustrated", named Rodriguez the second best football coach in the Big Ten Conference behind only Iowa's Kirk Ferentz and ahead of more tenured coaches such as Penn State's Joe Paterno and Ohio State's Jim Tressel.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Under Rodriguez, the Wolverines opened the 2009 season with a 31–7 win against Western Michigan followed by wins over rival Notre Dame and Eastern Michigan. Following these three victories, two over weak mid-major opponents, Michigan opened its Big Ten schedule with a 36–33 win against Indiana. However, Michigan finished the season with a 5–7 (1–7 in the Big Ten) record after road losses to Michigan State, and the Iowa Hawkeyes and a 25-point home loss to Penn State followed by a 25-point loss to the University of Illinois and a 38–36 loss at home to Purdue. Rodriguez ended the 2009 season with a 21–10 loss to rival Ohio State. This loss eliminated the Wolverines from bowl competition for the second year in a row.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: The 2010 season got off to a similar start to the 2009 campaign, with the Wolverines winning their first five games of the season. Michigan started the season off by notching a win over Connecticut, who eventually won a share of the Big East title and went on to represent the conference in a BCS bowl. By week three, the team earned a spot in the AP Top 25 at #20 and USA Today Poll at #22. Their highest AP ranking, #18, came before recording their first loss of the season against 17-ranked in-state foe and eventual Big Ten co-champion Michigan State (part of a three-way tie). The team finished Big Ten play with a 3–5 record, including a 37–7 loss against arch-rival Ohio State. This caused further criticism of Rodriguez, for failing to restore competitiveness to one of college football's greatest rivalries. Still, Michigan had earned a 7–5 record and, for the first time under Rodriguez, were bowl eligible.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: The season included such highlights as a spectacular 67–65 comeback win over Illinois in triple overtime on Nov 6 and a special talent in sophomore quarterback Denard Robinson who in 12 games passed for 2,316 yards and rushed for 1,643 yards while accounting for 30 rushing and passing touchdowns. Rodriguez led Michigan to its first New Year's Day bowl since the 2007 season when Michigan accepted a bid to play in the Gator Bowl. However, Michigan's 38-point loss to Mississippi State in the Gator Bowl was the worst bowl loss in school history.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Due to the team's disappointing season after such a promising start, and another loss to Ohio State, Rodriguez finished the regular season campaign amidst speculation that he would not return for the 2011 season. Rumors about Rodriguez's ousting heated up after the season, when Stanford Cardinal head coach and former Michigan quarterback, Jim Harbaugh, did not attend an anniversary dinner recognizing the 1985 Michigan team. Harbaugh had been rumored to replace Rodriguez in seasons past.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: At Michigan, Rodriguez suffered a 20-point home loss to a Big Ten opponent in all three seasons he coached (most recently against Wisconsin, a 48–28 loss). In his first two years, Rodriguez had no wins in October against Football Bowl Subdivision teams and did not record a win against such an opponent until the 2010 season, recording a road victory over Indiana. At Michigan, Rodriguez had a 2–7 record against the Wolverines' three regular season rivals: Ohio State, Notre Dame, and Michigan State, recording victories against Notre Dame in the 2009 and 2010 campaigns.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez was rumored to be let go as Michigan coach on January 4, 2011. School officials initially denied this, but the following day, athletic director Dave Brandon announced that Rodriguez had been dismissed. Rodriguez has the lowest winning percentage (.405) of any coach in Michigan football's history. He also went 0–3 against Ohio State (outscored 100-24) and 0–3 against Michigan State. He oversaw the end of the longest active bowl streak in the NCAA. Recruiting also took a significant downturn during the Rodriguez era which would have an impact for the years following his tenure at Michigan.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez worked as an analyst for CBS Sports for most of the 2011 season before being hired to coach at Arizona. He had previously participated in CBS's 2011 Signing Day Coverage. When asked if he regretted moving to Michigan, he said: "I think it's easy to go back now and say, 'Gee, [I] made a mistake.' And you can say that now because of hindsight. But at the time, some of the things I was looking to do and the opportunity that was there, you kind of make the move...but you know hindsight is always easier to look back and say, 'it was a mistake.' Because we did have a good thing going at West Virginia, and we really enjoyed it. As you look back at it, [it] wasn't the best move. Easy to say now." When asked if he would ever return to coaching, Rodriguez said, "I'm open to another opportunity, but we'll see. Here, that window looks like it's closed, but if something comes open after this season, and it seems like it may be a good opportunity for me and someone is interested, I'm sure I'll look into it."


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: In June 2011, Rodriguez put the family home in York Township, Michigan up for sale for an asking price of $1.9 million.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: The tumultuous three years with Michigan was chronicled in great detail in "Three and Out", written by John U. Bacon. Bacon was given full insider access from the start of the 2008 season all the way through the search for Rodriguez's successor. The book also covers Rich Rodriguez's career before coming to Michigan, including the buyout from West Virginia.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Following Rodriguez's tenure at CBS, he was hired as the 30th head coach of the Arizona Wildcats football program on November 21, 2011. His hiring was first announced by University of Arizona athletic director Greg Byrne on Twitter while a press conference officially announcing him as the head coach was held a day later at McKale Center in Tucson. Rodriguez's hiring ended a 41-day search for a head coach which started after Mike Stoops was dismissed after eight seasons as Wildcat head coach.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: In Rodriguez's first season at Arizona, the Wildcats finished the season 8–5 with a win over Nevada in the New Mexico Bowl. The season, which included Arizona running back Ka'Deem Carey breaking the school single-season records for rushing yards and rushing touchdowns, was Rodriguez' first winning debut season and first bowl appearance in a debut season. It also tied Jim Young for the most wins in an Arizona coach's debut season.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: The Wildcats posted an 8–5 record in Rodriguez' second season as head coach. The season saw the emergence of star running back Carey and was capped with a victory over Boston College in the AdvoCare V100 Bowl.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: In his third year, Rodriguez led the Wildcats to their first 5–0 start and top 10 ranking since 1998 after beating No. 2 Oregon 31–24. He then lost his first game to Southern California and subsequently lost to UCLA. After compiling an 0–2 mark against in-state arch-rival Arizona State his first two years, Rodriguez's Wildcats defeated the Sun Devils, 42–35 in 2014 to win the Pac-12 South Division, the first divisional championship in program history.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: The Wildcats advanced to the Pac-12 Football Championship Game at Levi's Stadium in Santa Clara, California, where they were defeated by their conference rivals, the Oregon Ducks, 51–13 (despite winning the regular season match-up). The Wildcats then played in the 2014 Fiesta Bowl, the school's third major-bowl appearance, where they faced the Boise State Broncos. Arizona lost the game to Boise State, 38–30. Under Coach Rodriguez, the Wildcats finished the 2014 season with a record of 10–4 (7–2 Pac-12), achieving only the second 10-win regular season in program history; the Wildcats also finished the season ranked #17 in the "USA Today" Coaches Poll and #19 in the AP Poll.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: In what turned out to be his final game at Arizona, he coached the Wildcats to a 38-35 loss against Purdue in the 2017 Foster Farms Bowl on December 27, 2017.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez's former administrative assistant filed a multimillion-dollar claim accusing him of sexually harassing her and creating a hostile work environment for years. Rodriguez was fired on January 2, 2018 after a three-month internal investigation by the Arizona Wildcats. He admitted to having an extramarital affair, but denied all allegations of other sexual misconduct. The lawsuit filed by his former administrative assistant was dismissed in September 2019.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: On December 31, 2018, it was announced that Rodriguez accepted the offensive coordinator position at the University of Mississippi (Ole Miss), joining newly hired defensive coordinator Mike MacIntyre (recently fired head coach at Colorado) on the staff of head coach Matt Luke. He received a three-year contract. After Matt Luke was fired in December 2019, new head coach Lane Kiffin did not offer a contract to Rodriguez.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: On January 12, 2021, it was announced that Rodriguez had accepted the position of Offensive Coordinator at University of Louisiana at Monroe.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: On November 30, 2021, Rodriguez was introduced as the new head coach of the Jacksonville State Gamecocks.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez is considered a pioneer of a no huddle, run-oriented version of the spread offense, although a pass-first version was already being implemented by others. He first developed this offensive approach at Glenville State and refined it during his stops at Tulane with Shaun King, at Clemson with Woodrow Dantzler, and at West Virginia most notably with dual-threat quarterback Pat White. This strategy features frequent use of the shotgun formation. Rodriguez is also credited for popularizing the zone read play run out of the shotgun formation. Per his recollection, in practice, he noted the quarterback seeing a defender honing in on the running back on a planned handoff, and took the ball himself. When Rodriguez asked why the quarterback changed the play, he responded that he read the defender and choose to run a different play than scripted.


title: Rich Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez and his wife, Rita, have two children, Raquel and Rhett. His grandfather is originally from Spain.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: Marvin Arthur Wolfman (born May 13, 1946) is an American comic book and novelization writer. He worked on Marvel Comics's "The Tomb of Dracula", for which he and artist Gene Colan created the vampire-slayer Blade, and DC Comics's "The New Teen Titans" and the "Crisis on Infinite Earths" limited series with George Pérez. Among the many characters Wolfman created or co-created are Cyborg, Raven, Starfire, Deathstroke, Tim Drake, Rose Wilson, Nova, Black Cat, Bullseye, Vigilante (Adrian Chase) and the Omega Men.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: Marv Wolfman was born in Brooklyn, New York City, the son of police officer Abe and housewife Fay. He has a sister, Harriet, 12 years older. When Wolfman was 13, his family moved to Flushing, Queens, in New York City, where he attended junior high school. He went on to New York's High School of Art and Design, in Manhattan, hoping to become a cartoonist. Wolfman is Jewish.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: Marvin Wolfman was active in fandom before he began his professional comics career at DC Comics in 1968. Wolfman was one of the first to publish Stephen King, with "In A Half-World of Terror" in Wolfman's horror fanzine "Stories of Suspense" No. 2 (1965). This was a revised version of King's first published story, "I Was a Teenage Grave Robber", which had been serialized over four issues (three published and one unpublished) of the fanzine "Comics Review" that same year.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: Wolfman's first published work for DC Comics appeared in "Blackhawk" No. 242 (Aug.–Sept. 1968). He and longtime friend Len Wein created the character Jonny Double in "Showcase" No. 78 (November 1968) scripted by Wolfman. The two co-wrote "Eye of the Beholder" in "Teen Titans" No. 18 (Dec. 1968), which would be Wein's first professional comics credit. Neal Adams was called upon to rewrite and redraw a "Teen Titans" story which had been written by Wein and Wolfman. The story, titled "Titans Fit the Battle of Jericho!", would have introduced DC's first African American superhero, but was rejected by publisher Carmine Infantino. The revised story appeared in "Teen Titans" No. 20 (March–April 1969). Wolfman and Gil Kane created an origin for Wonder Girl in "Teen Titans" No. 22 (July–Aug. 1969) which introduced the character's new costume.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: He and artist Bernie Wrightson co-created Destiny in "Weird Mystery Tales" No. 1 (July–Aug. 1972), a character which would later be used in the work of Neil Gaiman.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: In 1972, Wolfman moved to Marvel Comics as a protégé of then-editor Roy Thomas. When Thomas stepped down, Wolfman eventually took over as editor, initially in charge of the publisher's black-and-white magazines, then finally the color line of comics. Wolfman said in 1981 that, "Marvel never gave [its] full commitment to" the black-and-white line. "No one wanted to commit themselves to the staff." He added, "We used to farm the books out to Harry Chester Studios [sic] and whatever they pasted up, they pasted up. I formed the first production staff, hired the first layout people, paste-up people." Wolfman stepped down as editor-in-chief to spend more time writing.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: He and artist Gene Colan crafted "The Tomb of Dracula", a horror comic that became "one of the most acclaimed horror-themed comic books ever". During their run on this series, they created Blade, a character who would later be portrayed by actor Wesley Snipes in a film trilogy. In addition, the editorship of Marvel could not resist the opportunity to assign a writer with such a surname to contribute a few stories to their concurrent monster title, "Werewolf by Night", with a playful editor's comment: "At last -- WEREWOLF -- written by a WOLFMAN."


title: Marv Wolfman

text: Wolfman co-created Bullseye in "Daredevil" No. 131 (March 1976). He and artist John Buscema created Nova in that character's eponymous first issue.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: Wolfman and Gil Kane adapted Edgar Rice Burroughs' "Barsoom" concepts into comics in Marvel's "John Carter, Warlord of Mars" series. Wolfman wrote 14 issues of "Marvel Two-in-One" starting with issue No. 25 (March 1977). The "Spider-Woman" series was launched in April 1978 by Wolfman and artist Carmine Infantino. As the first regular writer on "Spider-Woman", he redesigned the character, giving her a human identity as Jessica Drew. Wolfman succeeded Len Wein as writer of "The Amazing Spider-Man" and in his first issue, No. 182 (July 1978), had Peter Parker propose marriage to Mary Jane Watson who refused, in the following issue. Wolfman and Keith Pollard introduced the likable rogue the Black Cat (Felicia Hardy) in "The Amazing Spider-Man" No. 194 (July 1979).


title: Marv Wolfman

text: In 1978, Wolfman and artist Alan Kupperberg took over the Howard the Duck syndicated newspaper comic strip. While writing the "Fantastic Four" (which Wolfman stated to be his favorite comic), Wolfman and John Byrne introduced a new herald for Galactus named Terrax in No. 211 (Oct. 1979). A Godzilla story by Wolfman and Steve Ditko was changed into a Dragon Lord story published in "Marvel Spotlight" vol. 2 No. 5 (March 1980). The creature that the Dragon Lord battled was intended to be Godzilla but since Marvel no longer had the rights to the character (which lapsed the previous year) the creature was modified to a dragon called The Wani.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: In 1980, Wolfman returned to DC after a dispute with Marvel. Teaming with penciller George Pérez, Wolfman relaunched DC's Teen Titans in a special preview in "DC Comics Presents" No. 26 (October 1980). "The New Teen Titans" added the Wolfman-Pérez creations Raven, Starfire and Cyborg to the old team's Robin, Wonder Girl, Kid Flash, and Beast Boy (renamed Changeling). The series became DC's first new hit in years; Christopher J. Priest called Deathstroke, another new character, "the first modern supervillain". Wolfman wrote a series of "New Teen Titans" drug awareness comic books which were published in cooperation with The President's Drug Awareness Campaign in 1983–1984. The first was pencilled by Pérez and sponsored by the Keebler Company, the second was illustrated by Ross Andru and underwritten by the American Soft Drink Industry, and the third was drawn by Adrian Gonzales and financed by IBM. In August 1984, a second series of "The New Teen Titans" was launched by Wolfman and Pérez.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: Other projects by Wolfman for DC during the early 1980s included collaborating with artist Gil Kane on a run on the Superman feature in "Action Comics"; a revival of "Dial H for Hero" with Carmine Infantino; launching "Night Force", a supernatural series drawn by Gene Colan; and a nearly two-year run on "Green Lantern" with Joe Staton. During their collaboration on that series, Wolfman and Staton created the Omega Men in "Green Lantern" No. 141 (June 1981). Wolfman briefly wrote "Batman" and co-created the Electrocutioner in issue No. 331 (Jan. 1981). Wolfman was one of the contributors to the "DC Challenge" limited series in 1986.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: After Pérez left "The New Teen Titans" in 1985, Wolfman continued for many years with other collaborators – including pencillers José Luis García-López, Eduardo Barreto and Tom Grummett. In December 1986, Wolfman was informed by Marvel writer Chris Claremont that a DC executive had approached Claremont at a holiday party and offered him the position of writer on "The New Teen Titans". Claremont immediately declined the offer and told Wolfman that apparently the publisher was looking to replace him on the title. When Wolfman confronted DC executives about this, he was told it was "just a joke", although Claremont reiterated that he took it to be a credible and official offer.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: In 1985, Wolfman and Pérez launched "Crisis on Infinite Earths", a 12-issue limited series celebrating DC's 50th anniversary. Featuring a cast of thousands and a timeline that ranged from the beginning of the universe to the end of time, it killed scores of characters, integrated a number of heroes from other companies to DC continuity, and re-wrote 50 years of DC universe history to streamline it. After finishing "Crisis", Wolfman and Pérez produced the "History of the DC Universe" limited series to summarize the company's new history.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: Wolfman was involved in the relaunch of the Superman line as well, reinventing nemesis Lex Luthor and initially scripting the "Adventures of Superman" title with Jerry Ordway as the artist. During this period they introduced Bibbo Bibbowski and Professor Emil Hamilton.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: Wolfman got into a public dispute with DC over a proposed ratings system, which led to his being relieved of his editorial duties by the company. DC offered to reinstate Wolfman as an editor provided he apologize for making his criticism of the ratings system public, rather than keeping them internal to the company, but he declined to do so.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: Wolfman returned to the Dark Knight for another brief run on "Batman" and "Detective Comics", writing "Batman: Year Three", creating Robin III Tim Drake as well as Abattoir and a new version of the Electrocutioner, and writing an anniversary adaptation of the first ever Batman story, which was printed along with two other adaptations and the original. He continued as "The New Titans" writer and revitalized the series with artist Tom Grummett. Wolfman wrote the series until the title's last issue. Wolfman's writing for comics decreased as he turned to animation and television, though he wrote the mid-1990s DC series "The Man Called A-X".


title: Marv Wolfman

text: In the early-1990s, Wolfman worked at Disney Comics. He wrote scripts for a seven part "DuckTales" story ("Scrooge's Quest"), as well as several others – with the characters from the Mickey Mouse universe – that appeared in "Mickey Mouse Adventures". He was editor of the comics section on the "Disney Adventures" magazine for the early years of the publication.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: In 1997, on the eve of the impending release of the "Blade" motion picture, Wolfman sued Marvel Characters Inc. over ownership of all characters he had created for Marvel Comics. A ruling in Marvel's favor was handed down on November 6, 2000. Wolfman's stance was that he had not signed work-for-hire contracts when he created characters including Blade and Nova. In a nonjury trial, the judge ruled that Marvel's later use of the characters was sufficiently different to protect it from Wolfman's claim of copyright ownership.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: In the late 1990s, Wolfman developed the Transformers TV series "Beast Machines", which aired on Fox Kids for two seasons from 1999 to 2000. The program was a direct continuation of the "" series, which itself was a continuation of the original Transformers show. "Beast Machines" was met with mixed reviews, as the show was praised for its story, but was criticized for its focus on spirituality. Previously, in the 1980s, Wolfman wrote the story for Optimus Prime's return in "The Return of Optimus Prime" of the third season of "Transformers".


title: Marv Wolfman

text: A decade later, Wolfman began writing in comics again, scripting "Defex", the flagship title of Devil's Due Productions' Aftermath line. He wrote an "Infinite Crisis" issue of DC's "Secret Files", and consulted with writer Geoff Johns on several issues of "The Teen Titans". Wolfman wrote a novel based on "Crisis on Infinite Earths", but rather than following the original plot, he created a new story starring the Barry Allen Flash that takes place during the original Crisis story. Wolfman wrote the novelization of the film "Superman Returns", and worked on a direct-to-video animated film, "The Condor", for Stan Lee's Pow Entertainment.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: In 2006, Wolfman was editorial director of Impact Comics (no relation to the DC Comics imprint), publisher of educational manga-style comics for high school students. That same year, starting with issue No. 125, Wolfman began writing DC's "Nightwing" series. Initially scheduled for a four-issue run, Wolfman's run was expanded to 13 issues, and finished with No. 137. During the course of his run, Wolfman introduced a new Vigilante character. Following Wolfman's departure from the pages of "Nightwing", the Vigilante was spun off into his own short-lived title, which Wolfman wrote. He wrote a miniseries starring the Teen Titan Raven, a character he and George Pérez co-created during their run on "The New Teen Titans", helping to revamp and update the character. He worked with Pérez on a direct-to-DVD movie adaptation of the popular "Judas Contract" storyline from their tenure on "Teen Titans".


title: Marv Wolfman

text: In 2011, he and Pérez completed the "" graphic novel, which they had begun working on in the late 1980s. Wolfman revived his "Night Force" series with artist Tom Mandrake in 2012. He served as writing consultant on the video game "", which he was nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for Outstanding Achievement in Videogame Writing. In 2015, Wolfman wrote a novelization of the videogame "".


title: Marv Wolfman

text: And in 2016 he published the novelization of the Suicide Squad film through Titan Books. He received the Hero Initiative Lifetime Achievement Award in 2017. That year also marked Wolfman's first work for Marvel since 1998: a backup story for "Bullseye" #1, starring the titular character that he had co-created in 1976. In 2019, DC published the oversized, 100-page comic book "Man and Superman", Marv Wolfman's retelling of Superman's origin story, to high acclaim.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: Wolfman, on the panel "Marvel Comics: The Method and the Madness" at the 1974 New York City Comic Art Convention, told the audience that when he first began working for DC Comics, he received DC's first writing credit on its mystery magazines. Gerry Conway, who wrote the horror-host interstitial pages between stories, wrote in one issue, "House of Secrets" Vol. 1 Issue 83, that the following story, "The Stuff that Dreams are Made of" was told to him by a "wandering Wolfman." The Comics Code Authority, which did not permit the mention of werewolves or wolfmen at that time, demanded it be removed. DC informed the Authority that "Wolfman" was the writer's last name, so the Authority insisted he be given a credit to show the "Wolfman" was a real person. Once Wolfman was given a credit, other writers demanded them as well. Shortly, credits were given to all writers and artists.


title: Marv Wolfman

text: Wolfman is married to Noel Watkins. Wolfman was previously married to Michele Wolfman, for many years a colorist in the comics industry. They have a daughter, Jessica Morgan.


title: Jeanne Dielman, 23 quai du Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles

text: Jeanne Dielman, 23, quai du Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles (, "Jeanne Dielman, 23 Commerce Quay, 1080 Brussels") is a 1975 drama film written and directed by Belgian filmmaker Chantal Akerman. It was filmed over five weeks on location in Brussels, and financed through a $120,000 grant awarded by the Belgian government. Distinguished by its restrained pace, long takes, and static camerawork, the film is a slice of life depiction of a widowed housewife (portrayed by Delphine Seyrig) over the course of three days.


text: The film was met with mixed critical reception upon its release, but gained exposure in Europe and later became a cult classic. It has been labeled an exemplar of the slow cinema genre, as well as of feminist film. In a critics' poll conducted by "The Village Voice" in 2000, it was named the 19th greatest film of the twentieth century. In 2022, it was ranked the greatest film of all time on "Sight & Sound" magazine's "Top 100 Greatest Films" critics' poll.


text: The film examines a widowed mother's regimented schedule of cooking, cleaning, mothering, and running errands over three days. The woman (whose name, Jeanne Dielman, is only discerned from the title and a letter she reads to her son), earns money by having sex with a different client each afternoon before her son arrives home from school. Like her other activities, Jeanne's sex work is part of the mundane routine she performs daily by rote.


text: After a visit by a client on the second day, Jeanne's orderly behavior begins to subtly unravel. She overcooks potatoes while preparing dinner, then wanders around the house carrying the potato pot; she forgets to cover the porcelain in which she keeps her money, misses a button on her house coat, and drops a newly washed fork. The alterations to Jeanne's routine continue until her client arrives on the third day. They have orgasmic sex, she dresses herself, and then impulsively stabs him to death with a pair of scissors. She then sits quietly at her dining room table.


text: After establishing herself as a major film director in 1974 with "Je, tu, il, elle", Akerman said that she "felt ready to make a feature with more money" and applied for a grant from the Belgian government for financial support, submitting a script that Jane Clarke described as portraying "a rigorous regimen [constructed] around food ... and routine bought sex in the afternoon". This script would only be the rough basis for "Jeanne Dielman, 23 quai du Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles" because after Akerman received the government grant of $120,000 and began production, she threw the script out and began a new film instead. Akerman also explained that she was able to make a female-centric film because "at that point everybody was talking about women" and that it was "the right time".


text: Shooting "Jeanne Dielman, 23 quai du Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles" took five weeks and Akerman called it "a love film for my mother. It gives recognition to that kind of woman". Akerman used an all female crew for the film, which she later said "didn't work that well - not because they were women but because I didn't choose them. It was enough just to be a woman to work on my film ... so the shooting was awful". Akerman further stated that "a hierarchy of images" that places a car accident or a kiss "higher in the hierarchy than washing up ... And it's not by accident, but relates to the place of woman in the social hierarchy ... Woman's work comes out of oppression and whatever comes out of oppression is more interesting. You have to be definite. You have to "be"".


text: The film depicts the life of Jeanne Dielman in real time, which Akerman said "was the only way to shoot the film - to avoid cutting the action in a hundred places, to look carefully and to be respectful. The framing was meant to respect her space, her, and her gestures within it". The long static shots ensure that the viewer "always knows where I am."


text: "Jeanne Dielman, 23 quai du Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles" premiered in the Directors' Fortnight of the 1975 Cannes Film Festival. It initially met with mixed critical reception; many criticized it as a boring or meaningless exercise in minimalism, while others praised its visuals and use of time. The film's exposure and financial success in Europe helped Akerman to obtain funding for her film "Les Rendez-vous d'Anna". It was not released in the United States until 1983.


text: Upon its release, critic Louis Marcorelles called it the "first masterpiece of the feminine in the history of the cinema". Jonathan Rosenbaum defended the film's length and pace, saying that it "needs its running time, for its subject is an epic one, and the overall sweep ... trains one to recognize and respond to fluctuations and nuances. If a radical cinema is something that goes to the roots of experience, this is at the very least a film that shows where and how some of these roots are buried". Critic Gary Indiana said that "Akerman's brilliance is her ability to keep the viewer fascinated by everything normally left out of movies". B. Ruby Rich said that "never before was the materiality of woman's time in the home rendered so viscerally ... She invents a new language capable of transmitting truths previously unspoken". Marsha Kinder called it "the best feature that I have ever seen made by a woman". Akerman was reluctant to be seen as a feminist filmmaker, stating that "I don't think woman's cinema exists".


text: The film has been characterized as an exemplar of the slow cinema genre, in which time is foregrounded and narrative action is downplayed. Critic Richard Brody called it a "tour de force of cinematic modernism [that] puts time onscreen as it was never seen before". Critic Jessica Winter wrote that "the film's strength derives in significant part from its austerity, patience, and extreme discipline", calling attention to its use of fixed shots, long takes, and absence of closeups or reaction shots. Winter asserted that "as the minutes and hours pass, Akerman rewards the viewer's attention by recalibrating it". In a 2009 essay, Ivone Marguilies observed that the film was "fully in tune" with the European women's movement of the time, and that feminist critics welcomed its "rigorous alignment of sexual/gender politics with a formal economy—showing cooking and hiding sex—... as an impressive alternative to well-intentioned but conventional political documentaries and features".


text: "Jeanne Dielman, 23 quai du Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles" has garnered a cult following and praise from the film community. Filmmakers Todd Haynes, Gus Van Sant, and Céline Sciamma have drawn explicit influence from the film; Van Sant named it an inspiration for his own similar films "Gerry" (2002) and "Elephant" (2003). The film has also been subject to spoofs and parodic versions. With the release of the DVD edition by The Criterion Collection in 2009, the company held a contest that invited fans to create cooking videos inspired by the film, and to post them on YouTube.


text: The film was named the 19th greatest film of the 20th century in a critics' poll conducted by "The Village Voice" in 2000. Rated 35th in the 2012 "Sight & Sound" "Greatest Films of All Time" critics' poll, and not rated in the top 100 of the 2012 directors' list, in 2022, the film was given the distinction of being voted as "Sight & Sound"s "greatest film of all time". The film ranked number 1 on the critics' poll, and tied for 4th place in the directors' poll. It is the fourth film to top the critics' poll after "Bicycle Thieves", "Citizen Kane", and "Vertigo", and the first directed by a woman to do so.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: The Nissan Laurel is a front-engine, rear-drive two- and four-door sedan manufactured and marketed by Nissan from 1969 to 2002. Introduced in 1968 as a new model positioned above the 1968 Datsun Bluebird 510, the Laurel offered the luxury of the Nissan Cedric 130 in a smaller size. In Japan, the Laurel was marketed soley as a Nissan model, rather than a Datsun model.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: The first Laurel was developed by the Nissan Tsurumi R&D Division and assembled at the Musashimurayama Plant of the former Prince Motor Company in 2-door and 4-door variants. Released as a Nissan after Prince merged with Nissan, Laurels shared many components and architectures with the Skyline range. The Laurel was not marketed new in Japan at "Nissan Prince Shop" locations that sold the Skyline and Gloria, former Prince products. Instead the Laurel was sold at "Nissan Motor Shop" as the junior model to the larger V8-powered Nissan President.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: Since 1968, eight generations of Laurel have been manufactured in Japan. Nissan intermittently listed the Laurel for sale in various Asian and European markets (it was also sold in Chile, Panama and other South American markets as the Datsun Laurel or Datsun 200l included Argentina, starting in the late seventies), and then mostly discontinued the export of this model from 1989.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In April 1968 Nissan presented its new Laurel in four-door deLuxe and Super deLuxe versions, both equipped with a 1.8 L inline-four engine and independent rear suspension. In June 1970 a two-door hardtop coupé joined the lineup, as a junior version of the all-new Nissan Cedric/Gloria coupe, and one year later a 2000 cc engine became available in the four-door sedan as well. Its competitors at introduction were the Toyota Corona Mark II sedan, the Isuzu Bellel, and the Mazda Luce which was introduced in 1966. The Laurel did not sell as well as expected, largely because the design was too similar to that of the smaller, cheaper Bluebird (510) which was developed as a competitor before Nissan bought Prince.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: This car was developed by the Nissan Tsurumi vehicle development team, but the C30 Laurel was fitted with the Prince four-cylinder SOHC engine, the G18 of 1,815 cc capacity. Conversely, the GC10 Skyline 2000GT was developed by the former Prince Ogikubo vehicle development team but was fitted with Nissan's L20 six-cylinder SOHC engine. The suspension is the same four-wheel independent system that was fitted on the C10 Skyline.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: The Laurel Hardtop model was equipped with the SOHC 1,990 cc G20-series four-cylinders. The four-door sedan was originally only available with the lesser G18. The SU twin-carburetted 2000GX received sporty equipment.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: August 1970 saw the release of a modified version of the four-door sedan version, now with the same roof angle as that of the hard top. The instrument panel received redesigned panel meters, and the more luxurious GL grade was added.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In April 1972 the second Laurel generation appeared, again in four-door saloon and two-door hardtop coupé form affectionately known as the "Butaketsu" Laurel ("pig butt") because of its ample rear quarter panels and tail section, with the taillights incorporated into the rear bumper. The saloon now was endowed with a rear beam axle and leaf springs, while the coupé clung to independent rear suspension. In addition to the 1.8 and 2.0 L four-cylinder engines, a 2.0 L inline-six was now available, joined, from October, 1973, by a 2.6 L six; the latter was replaced by a 2.8 L six in late 1975. The G-20 4-cylinder and L20 six-cylinder engines were equipped with SU twin carburetors but were eliminated February 1976 due to emission regulations.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: The styling of the coupe appears to be influenced by the 1970 and the 1971 Mercury Cougar, reflecting a popular styling trend during the 1960s and 1970s called "coke bottle". Sales in Japan (very few were exported) ran to about 96,000 per year, with three-quarters sedans. The Toyota competitor was the Mark II coupé and sedan.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: Engines available at the time were the four-cylinder 1815 cc G18 and 1990 cc G20, and the six-cylinder 1998 cc L20. Both the G20 and L20 were available with twin SU carburettors as an option. However, only the G20 equipped cars outwardly announced this with a "Twin Carburettor 2000GX" badge.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In October 1973 the first Laurel with the 2565 cc L26 six-cylinder engine was added and badged as "2600SGL". Since the engine was over two litres, it was not restrained by the size limits imposed by Japanese regulations, and therefore it was fitted with bigger bumpers than regular Laurels. The installation of the 2.6-litre engine in Japanese models helped identify this generation as a luxury car, as the larger engine obligated Japanese drivers to pay higher amounts of annual road tax.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In September 1975, in order to meet the new emissions regulations for that year, the L26 was replaced by the larger yet 2753 cc L28 six-cylinder. By October the carburettors in the L20 were replaced with electronic fuel injection and the engine was now dubbed L20E. Because of the difficulty in meeting the emissions regulations, the twin-carburetted engines were all discontinued. The 1,770 cc L18 replaced the G18 in the lineup.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In February 1976 carburetted 1.8-litre and 2.0-litre engines which met the 1976 emissions regulations were introduced, and were identified with the Nissan NAPS badge.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In 1974 Nissan developed an electric passenger sedan based on the Nissan Laurel. The Nissan Laurel C130-EV - referred to as the Datsun 200L-EV in export markets - developed to be used by the VIPs at the 1975 International Oceanographic Exposition in Okinawa. It was originally engineered by the Prince Motor Company, but produced by Nissan when the company assumed Prince operations in 1966.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: The C130-EV uses one electric motor, rear-mounted and driving the rear axle through a two-speed automatic transmission. The Nissan Laurel C130-EV has a claimed top speed of and a range of . Nissan's next electric car venture would be the 1998 Altra.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: The third generation appeared in January 1977. For the first time, the C230 was available in either saloon and hardtop coupé form, but also as a hardtop saloon without B-posts. The hardtop was only available with six-cylinder engines. Buyers could choose between a 1.8-litre four, a 2.0-litre inline-six (carburetted or fuel-injected, a first for the Laurel), a 2.8-litre six, or a 2.0-litre diesel four, sourced from Nissan Diesel as an alternative to the diesel-powered Toyota Mark II and the Isuzu Florian. Transmissions were mainly four- or five-speed manuals or a three-speed automatic, although a three-speed manual with a column shift was also available in the lower spec and commercial versions. In the autumn of 1978 the C230 received a mild facelift (type C231), marked visually by squared instead of round double headlights. The Toyota competitor was the Mark II coupé and sedan. Again, comfort was prioritized over handling and agility.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: One year later (January 1978) Nissan released a tenth anniversary edition, which adopted a special deep red body color known as "Laurel's Crimson", as well as trim-specific emblems, aluminum wheels and front grille. In 1979 the 2.4-litre L24 engine was added to the lineup. European outputs were DIN for the 2.0 and the 2.4 inline-sixes. European buyers were attracted to the Laurel for its overall reliability, low price, and ample equipment. Datsun-Nissan South Africa also developed a two-litre four-cylinder option not offered elsewhere to suit local needs with a lower-cost, torquier engine than the two-litre six sold elsewhere. The L20B engine offered and was paired with somewhat lower equipment than the 280L sold alongside it.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: November 1978 brought minor changes to the Laurel, including squaring off of the front headlights. The highest trim level, "Medalist", received air conditioning in addition to its OHC four-cylinder two-litre diesel engine. The 1800 cc cars switched to the newer Z18 crossflow engine and all Laurels now met the Showa 53 (1979) gasoline vehicle emission regulations.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: Later, in October 1979, a two-litre four-cylinder gasoline option (Z20-series) was added in several markets. Also new were the options of automatic transmission and the SGL equipment grade on diesel vehicles.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In February 1980 an electric sunroof was added to the hardtop version of the Medalist. This was the first year in which a sunroof was a model option.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: The C31 model, introduced in November 1980, was the first model that was only available in a four-door form, either as a sedan or hardtop. Engines for the C31 were 1.8-liter, 2.0-liter L20, 2.4-liter L24 gasoline, and 2.8-liter diesel. The coupé was replaced by the new . The Toyota competitor was the Cresta hardtop and the Chaser sedan. November 1982 saw the introduction of the Limited "Givenchy Version" with Hubert de Givenchy doing the TV commercials in Japan, borrowing a marketing concept for an American luxury coupe, the Lincoln Continental Mark IV. In 1981, the Nissan Laurel Spirit was offered as a smaller alternative to the Laurel, while still offering the luxury content of the larger car.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: Development Supervisor, Itirou Makoto Sakurai, was in charge of developing the Laurel together with the Skyline. The Laurel's redesign was carried out in a European style and tone. The coefficient of drag (Cd value) of the four-door hardtop is 0.38. The lowest-priced Z18 is a four-cylinder engine, as is the 2-litre Z20. The L20-series are inline-six cylinder models, also available in fuel injected L20E type, and as the turbocharged L20ET - the first turbocharged Laurel. On top of the lineup was the 2.8-litre L28E, and for some export markets the 2.4-litre L24 engine (usually carburetted) was also offered. Mostly for commercial use there was the four-cylinder LD20 diesel engine, while private users usually preferred the larger six-cylinder LD28 type which was also available with much better equipment.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In February 1981 the GX trim level was added. L20E sedan with independent rear suspension in the vehicle suspension formula (a six-link independent rear suspension was equipped as standard on the turbocharged cars). In November 1981 the car received some improvement and the Turbo Medalist model was new to the lineup.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In September 1982 there was a minor change. Up a sense of luxury and large-scale extrusion in the chrome bumpers and rear license plate holder. The tail lamp design was changed as well. Instead of the Z18 series engine, the new OHC four-cylinder 1809 cc CA18S engine was fitted to the Laurel 1.8. The engine range was overhauled at the time and now included the CA18S, L20E, turbocharged L20ET, the four-cylinder SOHC Z20S, and the diesel LD20 and LD28-6 models. The carburetted L20, the L28E, and the column-shifted LD20 (six-seater) were discontinued. The six-cylinder gasoline-powered car with automatic transmission and Super Touring equipment received an overdrive gear at the same time.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In November 1982 the Givenchy limited version was released. In February 1983 the "50 Special" released. In March the Givenchy II version went on sale. In May another 50 Special II vehicles were launched. In July electrically retractable fender and door mirrors were introduced, a first. In October, taxi and driver instruction vehicles with an OHC LPG four-cylinder engine (Z18P, Standard or GL equipment) were added. SGL Grand Touring car (with a hubcap for Medalist colored bumper and large) and 50 Special Release III.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: January 1984 saw the abolition of the 1.8-litre GL models, while the Givenchy III limited edition also went on sale.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: European export models received the carburetted 2.0 (DX or SGL trim) and 2.4 inline-sixes (SGL), with and respectively, or with the large 2.8 diesel with . A fuel injected 2.4 with later appeared for some markets. The 2.4-liter six only developed in Swedish-market petrol cars as a result of that country's stringent emissions standards. As large Japanese cars are not very popular with private buyers in Europe, the diesel saw the lion's share of sales, mainly for taxi usage. Fitted with a detuned version of the L24 engine, the Laurel was introduced to the Middle Eastern (mainly Saudi) market in 1982.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In October 1984 the C32 Laurel was released. Osamu Ito, Development Supervisor of the R31/32 Skyline, was assigned to redesign the Laurel. He saw the car needed significant changes, and set about doing so. Some of the Laurel's new features included a 4-door sedan body, variations in the hardtop, an angular design (including a strong push), and the world's first electric retractable door mirrors. The C32 was the last model to be sold in Europe, where the Laurel was replaced by the Nissan Maxima which was not available as a diesel and had a sportier, more luxurious air. The Laurel was often used as a taxi in Germany.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: The C32 were fitted with a variety of gasoline engines, inline-fours and V6 engines ranging from 1.8 to 3.0 liters. Some engines, like the L24 and the electronically carburetted VG30S were reserved for export. The C32 Laurel also came with the LD28 diesel. In 1987 there were a minor facelift which basically were bigger bumpers, new grilles, and new lights in the front and back. The LD28 diesel engine were swapped out in favor of the similarly dimensioned RD28. This generation was the first Laurel to be equipped with a V6 engine.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: The styling of the Nissan Laurel began to resemble the larger Nissan Cedric and Nissan Gloria but on a slightly smaller platform, with reduced tax liability based on the vehicles dimensions. The Toyota competitor was the Cresta hardtop and the Chaser sedan, and in 1986 the Honda Vigor.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: The RB20E engine was equipped with six-cylinder series SOHC2.0L, VG20ET-SOHC2.0L V6 turbo, CA18S-series four-cylinder (LPG and specifications), LD28-series 6-cylinder diesel SOHC2.8L. The car's system also integrated a C32 steering rack and adopted a rack-and-pinion type.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In May 1985, the Grand Extra Limited edition was released. Detail improvements were made in October 1985 and January 1986.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In October 1986 there were mechanical changes along with significant modifications to the exterior. There was a new turbocharged DOHC engine, the 2.0-liter RB20DET 24-valve six-cylinder, while the LD28 diesel engine was replaced by the new RD28-series six-cylinder diesel engine.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In May 1987 the "Grande Extra White Special" edition was release. In August of the same year, the Grande Touring Limited was added to lineup.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In February 1988 there was an improved and some 20 releases Super medalist anniversary special edition. In May 1988, the "White Limited" model was released. In September of the same year, the Super Series Selection was added to the lineup. In December private car and driving school versions were discontinued, leaving only taxis and other commercial models. In January 1989 Laurels with an automatic gearbox received a shift lock.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: The taxi/commercial versions of the fifth generation were finally discontinued in July 1993, when they were replaced by the Nissan Crew.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: In December 1988, the C33 Laurel was announced. A month later, in January 1989, the C33 went on sale, originally only available as a hardtop four-door. The base engine offering again was a 1.8-litre four, the available options consisted of a 2-litre six (SOHC, DOHC or DOHC Turbo) and a 2.8-litre diesel inline-six. Early in 1991 a DOHC 2.5-litre inline-six coupled to a five-speed automatic became available.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: The Nissan Laurel used a rear-wheel drive layout, making it a popular car to modify for drifting use. The C33 in particular is very popular as a drift car, because it has the same floor plan as the Nissan A31 Cefiro and the four-door Nissan Skyline R32. They also have many interchangeable parts which makes them ideal for modification. Suspension parts are identical to the Nissan Silvia S13 model.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: The Toyota competitor was the Cresta, and there was also the new Honda Inspire in the same segment. The Laurel was repositioned slightly higher as a larger luxury sedan, as its exterior dimensions matched with the more senior Nissan Cedric and Nissan Gloria which were exclusive to separate Japanese Nissan dealerships ("Nissan Bluebird" for the Cedric, "Nissan Prince" for the Gloria). The Laurel was exclusive to Japanese dealership "Nissan Motor Store" locations.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: Trim levels included the Medalist, Medalist Club S and Gran Limited. The Club S was the only C33 Laurel with the RB25DE option and a front lip spoiler, with other models offering only the RB20, CA18, and RD28 engines.


title: Nissan Laurel

text: V6 engines were no longer available; instead, the RB20E type (SOHC), RB20DE type (DOHC), RB20DET type (single turbo DOHC) series 6-cylinder 2.0L, CA18i series four-cylinder SOHC1.8L and RD28-series six-cylinder diesel engines were offered. In addition to this, the improved HICAS-II suspension configuration was used. Four-cylinder model (CA18i) series and six-cylinder diesel engine (RD28) in the presence and instruction car specifications.