title: Domestication of the horse

text: Later, images of horses, identified by their short ears, flowing manes, and tails that bushed out at the dock, began to appear in artistic media in Mesopotamia during the Akkadian period, 2300–2100 BCE. The word for "horse", literally translated as "ass of the mountains," first appeared in Sumerian documents during the Third dynasty of Ur, about 2100–2000 BCE. The kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur apparently fed horses to lions for royal entertainment, perhaps indicating that horses were still regarded as more exotic than useful, but King Shulgi, about 2050 BCE, compared himself to "a horse of the highway that swishes its tail", and one image from his reign showed a man apparently riding a horse at full gallop. Horses were imported into Mesopotamia and the lowland Near East in larger numbers after 2000 BCE in connection with the beginning of chariot warfare.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: A further expansion, into the lowland Near East and northwestern China, also happened around 2000 BCE. Although "Equus" bones of uncertain species are found in some Late Neolithic sites in China dated before 2000 BCE, "Equus caballus" or "Equus ferus" bones first appeared in multiple sites and in significant numbers in sites of the Qijia and Siba cultures, 2000–1600 BCE, in Gansu and the northwestern provinces of China. Skeletal evidence from sites in Shirenzigou and Xigou in eastern Xinjiang indicate that by the fourth century BCE both horseback riding and mounted archery were practiced along China’s northwest frontier.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: In 2008, archaeologists announced the discovery of rock art in Somalia's northern Dhambalin region, which the researchers suggest is one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is in the Ethiopian-Arabian style, dated to 1000 to 3000 BCE.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: About 4200-4000 BCE, more than 500 years before the geographic expansion evidenced by the presence of horse bones, new kinds of graves, named after a grave at Suvorovo, appeared north of the Danube delta in the coastal steppes of Ukraine near Izmail. Suvorovo graves were similar to and probably derived from earlier funeral traditions in the steppes around the Dnieper River. Some Suvorovo graves contained polished stone mace-heads shaped like horse heads and horse tooth beads. Earlier steppe graves also had contained polished stone mace-heads, some of them carved in the shape of animal heads. Settlements in the steppes contemporary with Suvorovo, such as Sredni Stog II and Dereivka on the Dnieper River, contained 12–52% horse bones.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: When Suvorovo graves appeared in the Danube delta grasslands, horse-head maces also appeared in some of the indigenous farming towns of the Trypillia and Gumelnitsa cultures in present-day Romania and Moldova, near the Suvorovo graves. These agricultural cultures had not previously used polished-stone maces, and horse bones were rare or absent in their settlement sites. Probably their horse-head maces came from the Suvorovo immigrants. The Suvorovo people in turn acquired many copper ornaments from the Trypillia and Gumelnitsa towns. After this episode of contact and trade, but still during the period 4200–4000 BCE, about 600 agricultural towns in the Balkans and the lower Danube valley, some of which had been occupied for 2000 years, were abandoned. Copper mining ceased in the Balkan copper mines, and the cultural traditions associated with the agricultural towns were terminated in the Balkans and the lower Danube valley. This collapse of "Old Europe" has been attributed to the immigration of mounted Indo-European warriors. The collapse could have been caused by intensified warfare, for which there is some evidence; and warfare could have been worsened by mounted raiding; and the horse-head maces have been interpreted as indicating the introduction of domesticated horses and riding just before the collapse.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: However, mounted raiding is just one possible explanation for this complex event. Environmental deterioration, ecological degradation from millennia of farming, and the exhaustion of easily mined oxide copper ores also are cited as causal factors.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Perforated antler objects discovered at Derievka (mistakenly, Dereivka) and other sites contemporary with Suvorovo have been identified as cheekpieces or "psalia" for horse bits. This identification is no longer widely accepted, as the objects in question have not been found associated with horse bones, and could have had a variety of other functions. However, through studies of microscopic wear, it has been established that many of the bone tools at Botai were used to smooth rawhide thongs, and rawhide thongs might have been used to manufacture of rawhide cords and ropes, useful for horse tack. Similar bone thong-smoothers are known from many other steppe settlements, but it cannot be known how the thongs were used. The oldest artifacts clearly identified as horse tack—bits, bridles, cheekpieces, or any other kind of horse gear—are the antler disk-shaped cheekpieces associated with the invention of the chariot, at the Sintashta-Petrovka sites.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: The oldest possible archaeological indicator of a changed relationship between horses and humans is the appearance about 4800–4400 BCE of horse bones and carved images of horses in Chalcolithic graves of the early Khvalynsk culture and the Samara culture in the middle Volga region of Russia. At the Khvalynsk cemetery near the town of Khvalynsk, 158 graves of this period were excavated. Of these, 26 graves contained parts of sacrificed domestic animals, and additional sacrifices occurred in ritual deposits on the original ground surface above the graves. Ten graves contained parts of lower horse legs; two of these also contained the bones of domesticated cattle and sheep. At least 52 domesticated sheep or goats, 23 domesticated cattle, and 11 horses were sacrificed at Khvalynsk. The inclusion of horses with cattle and sheep and the exclusion of obviously wild animals together suggest that horses were categorized symbolically with domesticated animals.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: At S'yezzhe, a contemporary cemetery of the Samara culture, parts of two horses were placed above a group of human graves. The pair of horses here was represented by the head and hooves, probably originally attached to hides. The same ritual—using the hide with the head and lower leg bones as a symbol for the whole animal—was used for many domesticated cattle and sheep sacrifices at Khvalynsk. Horse images carved from bone were placed in the above-ground ochre deposit at S’yezzhe and occurred at several other sites of the same period in the middle and lower Volga region. Together these archaeological clues suggest that horses had a symbolic importance in the Khvalynsk and Samara cultures that they had lacked earlier, and that they were associated with humans, domesticated cattle, and domesticated sheep. Thus, the earliest phase in the domestication of the horse might have begun during the period 4800-4400 BCE.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Equidae died out in the Western Hemisphere at the end of the last glacial period. A question raised is why and how horses avoided this fate on the Eurasian continent. It has been theorized that domestication saved the species. While the environmental conditions for equine survival were somewhat more favorable in Eurasia than in the Americas, the same stressors that led to extinction for the Mammoth had an effect upon horse populations. Thus, some time after 8000 BCE, the approximate date of extinction in the Americas, humans in Eurasia may have begun to keep horses as a livestock food source, and by keeping them in captivity, may have helped to preserve the species. Horses also fit the six core criteria for livestock domestication, and thus, it could be argued, "chose" to live in close proximity to humans.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: One model of horse domestication starts with individual foals being kept as pets while the adult horses were slaughtered for meat. Foals are relatively small and easy to handle. Horses behave as herd animals and need companionship to thrive. Both historic and modern data shows that foals can and will bond to humans and other domestic animals to meet their social needs. Thus domestication may have started with young horses being repeatedly made into pets over time, preceding the great discovery that these pets could be ridden or otherwise put to work.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: However, there is disagreement over the definition of the term "domestication". One interpretation of "domestication" is that it must include physiological changes associated with being selectively bred in captivity, and not merely "tamed." It has been noted that traditional peoples worldwide (both hunter-gatherers and horticulturists) routinely tame individuals from wild species, typically by hand-rearing infants whose parents have been killed, and these animals are not necessarily "domesticated."


title: Domestication of the horse

text: On the other hand, some researchers look to examples from historical times to hypothesize how domestication occurred. For example, while Native American cultures captured and rode horses from the 16th century onwards, most tribes did not exert significant control over their breeding, thus their horses developed a genotype and phenotype adapted to the uses and climatological conditions in which they were kept, making them more of a landrace than a planned breed as defined by modern standards, but nonetheless "domesticated".


title: Domestication of the horse

text: A difficult question is if domesticated horses were first ridden or driven. While the most unequivocal evidence shows horses first being used to pull chariots in warfare, there is strong, though indirect, evidence for riding occurring first, particularly by the Botai. Bit wear may correlate to riding, though, as the modern hackamore demonstrates, horses can be ridden without a bit by using rope and other evanescent materials to make equipment that fastens around the nose. So the absence of unequivocal evidence of early riding in the record does not settle the question.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Thus, on one hand, logic suggests that horses would have been ridden long before they were driven. But it is also far more difficult to gather evidence of this, as the materials required for riding—simple hackamores or blankets—would not survive as artifacts, and other than tooth wear from a bit, the skeletal changes in an animal that was ridden would not necessarily be particularly noticeable. Direct evidence of horses being driven is much stronger.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: While riding may have been practiced during the 4th and 3rd millennia BCE, and the disappearance of "Old European" settlements may be related to attacks by horseback-mounted warriors, the clearest influence by horses on ancient warfare was by pulling chariots, introduced around 2000 BCE.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Horses in the Bronze Age were relatively small by modern standards, which led some theorists to believe the ancient horses were too small to be ridden and so must have been used for driving. Herodotus' description of the Sigynnae, a steppe people who bred horses too small to ride but extremely efficient at drawing chariots, illustrates this stage. However, as horses remained generally smaller than modern equines well into the Middle Ages, this theory is highly questionable.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: The Iron Age in Mesopotamia saw the rise of mounted cavalry as a tool of war, as evidenced by the notable successes of mounted archer tactics used by various invading eurasian nomads such as the Parthians. Over time, the chariot gradually became obsolete.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: The horse of the Iron Age was still relatively small, perhaps high (measured at the withers.) This was shorter overall than the average height of modern riding horses, which range from about . However, small horses were used successfully as light cavalry for many centuries. For example, Fell ponies, believed to be descended from Roman cavalry horses, are comfortably able to carry fully grown adults (although with rather limited ground clearance) at an average height of Likewise, the Arabian horse is noted for a short back and dense bone, and the successes of the Muslims against the heavy mounted knights of Europe demonstrated that a horse standing can easily carry a full-grown human adult into battle.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Mounted warriors such as the Scythians, Huns and Vandals of late Roman antiquity, the Mongols who invaded eastern Europe in the 7th century through 14th centuries CE, the Arab warriors of the 7th through 14th centuries CE, and the Native Americans in the 16th through 19th centuries each demonstrated effective forms of light cavalry.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: David Reuben (born 1941) and Simon Reuben (born 1944) are Indian-born British businessmen. In May 2020, they were named as the second richest family in the UK by the "Sunday Times Rich List" with a net worth of £16 billion.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: The brothers were born in Bombay, British India, the sons of David Sassoon Reuben and Nancy Reuben, a Baghdadi Jewish family. The brothers arrived in London in the 1950s with their mother, Nancy, and lived in Islington; having run various businesses across the Indian Subcontinent from their bases in Bombay and Baghdad. The brothers attended state schools, with Simon never completing his formal education.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: David joined a scrap metals business while Simon started out in carpets. Simon went on to buy out England's oldest carpet company from the receivers and made enough money from it to start investing in property, with early investments on Walton Street and the King's Road in Chelsea. The brothers increased their wealth during the 1970s and 1980s in metals- and property trading.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: In the early 1990s, the brothers invested in the Russian metals market. When Russian aluminum smelters were incapacitated by debt, Reuben company Trans World entered into tolling arrangements with factories in which they paid for and delivered raw materials in return for finished aluminum, which it then sold for profit. The company's investment in Russia was 1.5 billion (870 million), with global sales in 1995 above 8 billion. The brothers were involved with several members of the country's new oligarchy, including Roman Abramovich. They settled a multimillion-pound legal dispute with Oleg Deripaska with a settlement being awarded to Reuben Brothers.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: In 1997, Russia's Interior Minister Anatoly Kulikov linked both the Cherney brothers and Reuben brothers to the Izmaylovskaya mafia led by in Israel. In March 1998, Boris Yeltsin replaced Kulikov as minister.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: In 2008, the Reuben brothers returned to the commodity business, expanding their mining interests with a portfolio of mines in Morocco, Indonesia, and South Africa.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: By 2000, the brothers sold all their Russian assets as they focused their business activities mainly in the UK property market. They have been involved in financing a number of acquisitions and have investments in technology companies. , their business activities mainly involved real estate, both in the UK and abroad, venture capital, and private equity.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: UK properties owned by the Reuben Brothers include: Millbank Tower; the John Lewis Partnership headquarters in Victoria; the American Express offices also in Victoria; Carlton House SW1; Academy House on Sackville Street; Connaught House on Berkeley Square; Market Towers; the London Primark store on Oxford Street; Sloane Street shops; and Cambridge House, the former premises of the Naval and Military Club, which comprises six freehold buildings which have a planning consent for a six-star hotel and private members' club.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: Other investments and developments include Merchant Square, a development scheme of offices and flats, in the Paddington area of London; Park Plaza Hotels & Resorts, a 50/50 joint venture in a new apart-hotel under the 'art'otel' brand in Hoxton, City of London; Hampton House, demolition and redevelopment of the 1960s office block opposite Tate Britain that was designed by Foster & Partners and features a mix of apartments and an apart-hotel on the River Thames next to the Park Plaza London Riverbank hotel; airports at London Oxford and London Heliport. In 2006, the Reuben Brothers formed a partnership that injected private equity into the FTSE-listed McCarthy & Stone, a retirement home construction company, exiting from that investment in 2013.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: The Reuben Brothers are investors in luxury leisure group Belmond Ltd. Other holdings include Travelodge Hotels; D2 Jeans and Blue Inc clothing retailers, with retailer Sir Stuart Rose; Luup and Metro Bank; The Wellington Pub Company, the largest free-of-tie pub estate in the UK with approximately 850 tenanted pubs; Global Switch, the carrier data centre provider in Europe and the Asia-Pacific region; and a joint venture with British Marine, that in 2014 had eight vessels with plans to double the fleet size.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: On 14 April 2020, it emerged that a deal to transfer ownership of Newcastle United Football Club had been agreed between incumbent owner Mike Ashley and a prospective buying consortium consisting of Reuben Brothers, Amanda Staveley's PCP Capital Partners, and the Public Investment Fund of Saudi Arabia. The Premier League initially refused to ratify the deal, and Mike Ashley engaged in legal proceedings against the Premier League in order to complete the takeover. On 7 October 2021, the Premier League approved the buy-out, stating that it has "received legally binding guarantees that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia will not control the Newcastle United club". The buy-out deal involved the Saudi Public Investment Fund taking up 80% of Newcastle United shares, while the Reuben Brothers and PCP Capital Partners each took 10% of the remaining shares.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: Arena Racing Company, also called ARC Racing and Leisure Group is a UK private company, created in 2012 by the merger of Arena Leisure and Northern Racing. It owns and operates 16 racecourses in Great Britain, accounting for 39% of British racing fixtures. It operates hotels at Doncaster Racecourse, Wolverhampton Racecourse and Lingfield Park Racecourse, and golf courses at Lingfield, Southwell and Newcastle.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: In 2006 Ken Livingstone, the Mayor of London at the time, used a press conference to accuse Simon and David Reuben of jeopardising the £4 billion Olympic City development, in which the Reuben brothers held a 50% stake. Livingstone controversially told the media conference, referring to the Reuben brothers, that "If they're not happy here, they can go back to Iran and try their luck with the ayatollahs, if they don't like the planning regime or my approach." Conservative members of the London Assembly stated the brothers were not Iranian, but had been born in India of Iraqi-Jewish parents. After a public complaint and a subsequent official investigation into Livingstone's comments that were alleged to be anti-semitic, the investigating officer dismissed the complaint and concluded that Livingstone had reason to be strongly critical of the Reuben brothers' conduct, and that his criticism, whilst "robust," was "reasonable" in the circumstances.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: The family's philanthropic vehicle, the Reuben Foundation, is focused on the advancement of healthcare and education.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: The family founded the Nancy Reuben Primary School, an independent Jewish day school in Hendon in honour of their mother.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: The foundation has donated £80million to support the creation of Reuben College, Oxford, originally named Parks College. It will be a post-graduate college focused on climate change, artificial intelligence and cellular life.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: According to the "Sunday Times Rich List" 2020, David and Simon Reuben and their combined family had an estimated net worth of £16 billion, a decrease of £2.664 billion on the previous year. This made them Britain's second wealthiest family.


title: David and Simon Reuben

text: "The Times" has reported that the brothers' businesses make extensive use of offshore tax havens. A spokesperson said that their businesses "fully comply with UK tax laws".


title: Steam reforming

text: Steam reforming or steam methane reforming (SMR) is a method for producing syngas (hydrogen and carbon monoxide) by reaction of hydrocarbons with water. Commonly natural gas is the feedstock. The main purpose of this technology is hydrogen production. The reaction is represented by this equilibrium:


title: Steam reforming

text: Hydrogen produced by steam reforming is termed 'grey hydrogen' when the waste carbon monoxide is released to the atmosphere and 'blue hydrogen' when the carbon monoxide is (mostly) captured and stored geologically - see carbon capture and storage. Zero carbon 'green' hydrogen is produced by thermochemical water splitting, using solar thermal, low- or zero-carbon electricity or waste heat, or electrolysis, using low- or zero-carbon electricity. Zero carbon emissions 'turquoise' hydrogen is produced by one-step methane pyrolysis of natural gas.)


title: Steam reforming

text: Steam reforming of natural gas produces most of the world's hydrogen. Hydrogen is used in the industrial synthesis of ammonia and other chemicals.


title: Steam reforming

text: Steam reforming reaction kinetics, in particular using nickel-alumina catalysts, have been studied in detail since the 1950s.


title: Steam reforming

text: The purpose of pre-reforming is to break down higher hydrocarbons such as propane, butane or naphta into methane (CH), which allows for more efficient reforming downstream.


title: Steam reforming

text: Via the water-gas shift reaction (WGSR), additional hydrogen is released by reaction of water with the carbon monoxide generated according to equation [1]:


title: Steam reforming

text: Some additional reactions occurring within steam reforming processes have been studied. Commonly the direct steam reforming (DSR) reaction is also included:


title: Steam reforming

text: As these reactions by themselves are highly endothermic (apart from WGSR, which is mildly exothermic), a large amount of heat needs to be added to the reactor to keep a constant temperature. Optimal SMR reactor operating conditions lie within a temperature range of 800 °C to 900 °C at medium pressures of 20-30 bar. High excess of steam is required, expressed by the (molar) steam-to-carbon (S/C) ratio. Typical S/C ratio values lie within the range 2.5:1 - 3:1.


title: Steam reforming

text: The reaction is conducted in multitubular packed bed reactors, a subtype of the plug flow reactor category. These reactors consist of an array of long and narrow tubes which are situated within the combustion chamber of a large industrial furnace, providing the necessary energy to keep the reactor at a constant temperature during operation. Furnace designs vary, depending on the burner configuration they are typically categorized into: top-fired, bottom-fired, and side-fired. A notable design is the Foster-Wheeler terrace wall reformer.


title: Steam reforming

text: Inside the tubes, a mixture of steam and methane are put into contact with a nickel catalyst. Catalysts with high surface-area-to-volume ratio are preferred because of diffusion limitations due to high operating temperature. Examples of catalyst shapes used are spoked wheels, gear wheels, and rings with holes ("see:" "Raschig rings"). Additionally, these shapes have a low pressure drop which is advantageous for this application.


title: Steam reforming

text: The United States produces 9–10 million tons of hydrogen per year, mostly with steam reforming of natural gas. The worldwide ammonia production, using hydrogen derived from steam reforming, was 144 million tonnes in 2018. The energy consumption has been reduced from 100 GJ/tonne of ammonia in 1920 to 27 GJ by 2019.


title: Steam reforming

text: Globally, almost 50% of hydrogen is produced via steam reforming. It is currently the least expensive method for hydrogen production available in terms of its capital cost.


title: Steam reforming

text: In an effort to decarbonise hydrogen production, carbon capture and storage (CCS) methods are being implemented within the industry, which have the potential to remove up to 90% of CO produced from the process. Despite this, implementation of this technology remains problematic, costly, and increases the price of the produced hydrogen significantly.


title: Steam reforming

text: Autothermal reforming (ATR) uses oxygen and carbon dioxide or steam in a reaction with methane to form syngas. The reaction takes place in a single chamber where the methane is partially oxidized. The reaction is exothermic. When the ATR uses carbon dioxide, the H:CO ratio produced is 1:1; when the ATR uses steam, the H:CO ratio produced is 2.5:1. The outlet temperature of the syngas is between 950–1100 °C and outlet pressure can be as high as 100 bar.


title: Steam reforming

text: The main difference between SMR and ATR is that SMR only uses air for combustion as a heat source to create steam, while ATR uses purified oxygen. The advantage of ATR is that the H:CO ratio can be varied, which can be useful for producing specialty products. Due to the exothermic nature of some of the additional reactions occurring within ATR, the process can essentially be performed at a net enthalpy of zero (Δ"H" = 0).


title: Steam reforming

text: Partial oxidation (POX) occurs when a sub-stoichiometric fuel-air mixture is partially combusted in a reformer creating hydrogen-rich syngas. POX is typically much faster than steam reforming and requires a smaller reactor vessel. POX produces less hydrogen per unit of the input fuel than steam reforming of the same fuel.


title: Steam reforming

text: The capital cost of steam reforming plants is considered prohibitive for small to medium size applications. The costs for these elaborate facilities do not scale down well. Conventional steam reforming plants operate at pressures between 200 and 600 psi (14–40 bar) with outlet temperatures in the range of 815 to 925 °C.


title: Steam reforming

text: Flared gas and vented volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are known problems in the offshore industry and in the on-shore oil and gas industry, since both release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Reforming for combustion engines utilizes steam reforming technology for converting waste gases into a source of energy.


title: Steam reforming

text: Reforming for combustion engines is based on steam reforming, where non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) of low quality gases are converted to synthesis gas (H + CO) and finally to methane (CH), carbon dioxide (CO) and hydrogen (H) - thereby improving the fuel gas quality (methane number).


title: Steam reforming

text: There is also interest in the development of much smaller units based on similar technology to produce hydrogen as a feedstock for fuel cells. Small-scale steam reforming units to supply fuel cells are currently the subject of research and development, typically involving the reforming of methanol, but other fuels are also being considered such as propane, gasoline, autogas, diesel fuel, and ethanol.


title: Steam reforming

text: The reformer– the fuel-cell system is still being researched but in the near term, systems would continue to run on existing fuels, such as natural gas or gasoline or diesel. However, there is an active debate about whether using these fuels to make hydrogen is beneficial while global warming is an issue. Fossil fuel reforming does not eliminate carbon dioxide release into the atmosphere but reduces the carbon dioxide emissions and nearly eliminates carbon monoxide emissions as compared to the burning of conventional fuels due to increased efficiency and fuel cell characteristics. However, by turning the release of carbon dioxide into a point source rather than distributed release, carbon capture and storage becomes a possibility, which would prevent the carbon dioxide's release to the atmosphere, while adding to the cost of the process.


title: Steam reforming

text: The cost of hydrogen production by reforming fossil fuels depends on the scale at which it is done, the capital cost of the reformer, and the efficiency of the unit, so that whilst it may cost only a few dollars per kilogram of hydrogen at an industrial scale, it could be more expensive at the smaller scale needed for fuel cells.


title: Opus Eponymous

text: Opus Eponymous is the debut studio album by the Swedish rock band Ghost. It was released on 18 October 2010, on the independent record label Rise Above. It was released in North America on 18 January 2011, and in Japan on 6 April 2011. The album was recorded in the band's hometown and produced by Gene Walker. "Opus Eponymous" was nominated for a Grammis Award. The Japanese release contains an additional bonus track: a cover of the Beatles' "Here Comes the Sun".


title: Opus Eponymous

text: A band member, all of whom are referred to only as Nameless Ghouls, explained that the songs on "Opus Eponymous" were written in 2007 and 2008, around two years before the album was released. Tobias Forge said that it was the song "Stand by Him" that heralded the start of the band: "while being together in another band, Ghost started when I played a riff to everybody else. I said that this is probably the most heavy metal riff that has ever existed. Then I showed them the opening riff to 'Stand by Him'. When the chorus came to me, it haunted my dreams. Every time I picked up the guitar, I ended up playing that progression, and when I fit the words in, it seemed to cry out for a Satanically-oriented lyric. This was in 2006. When we came up with the name Ghost, it seemed only natural to build on the foundation of this heavy imagery. Within that concept we were able to combine our love of horror films, and of course, the traditions of Scandinavian metal." The lyrics to "Stand by Him" were originally in Swedish.


title: Opus Eponymous

text: Forge contacted his former Repugnant bandmate Gustaf Lindström and recorded demos of "Stand by Him", "Prime Mover" and "Death Knell" in early 2008. It was the songs that caused Ghost to become a theatrical band with their Satanic theme: "Very early on, when the material came together in the project phase before it was actually a band, when it was a logo and a couple of songs, it came together by itself because the material and the lyrics sort of screamed a over-the-top commitment to the dark side. It is hard to make that credible and really eerie. What we thought of when we heard the songs is basically a band that looks the way we do now", explained a Ghoul. Although he sang on the demos, Forge did not want to be the singer, preferring to be the guitarist. He approached several vocalists for the role, including Messiah Marcolin, Mats Levén, Christer Göransson of Mindless Sinner, and JB Christoffersson. All of these singers turned down the offer, leading Forge to take the position himself. Forge uploaded the demos to Myspace on 12 March 2010. The musician later stated "that night, my whole life changed;" within two days of posting the demos, he was contacted by record labels from around the world. Forge's older brother Sebastian died the same day the demos were released.


title: Opus Eponymous

text: "Opus Eponymous" was recorded over the course of a few weeks in a basement studio in the band's hometown of Linköping. It was mixed and mastered by Jaime Gomez Arellano (Ulver, Angel Witch) at Orgone Mastering in London. One Nameless Ghoul said "We did the whole thing with a standard Gibson SG", and explained they were limited as opposed to their second album, "which is why a lot of the guitars sound more traditionally metal." Another stated "We played everything through an Orange Thunderverb 50. To get a real Seventies vibe, we backed up the gain as much as possible without losing the tone or the sustain. We found that the midrange was really important as well. That's why we used Orange amps." Tobias Forge stated that the album was recorded with a session drummer and nothing else.


title: Opus Eponymous

text: The song "Elizabeth" is about Elizabeth Báthory. The tracks "Con Clavi Con Dio" and "Genesis" are sped up waltzes.


title: Opus Eponymous

text: Describing why they covered "Here Comes the Sun", a Ghoul said "I've been a fan of Beatles even longer than I've been listening to hard rock, so it made a lot of sense." He explained that the band selects songs to cover based on if they can adapt it into their own: "We sort of found the angle of taking that so and inverting it. And that's something that's sort of the Ghost recipe for doing covers, it has to be a song that has some sort of tongue-in-cheek inversion quality to it. And that song just screamed 'cover'."


title: Opus Eponymous

text: The theme of "Opus Eponymous" ties in with the band's second album, "Infestissumam": "Everything on the first record was about a coming darkness, an impending doom. Whereas the new record is about something present, and literally, the new record deals with the presence of the Anti-Christ, the Devil." The first album ended with "Genesis", the birth of the Antichrist, and "Infestissumam" continues from the Antichrist's birth onward.


title: Opus Eponymous

text: "Opus Eponymous" entered the Sverigetopplistan Albums Top 60 chart at No. 59, staying on the charts for 5 weeks and peaking at No. 50. The album was nominated for the 2011 Grammis Award (the Swedish equivalent to the Grammy Awards) in the "Best Hard Rock" category. In the June 2011 edition of "Sweden Rock Magazine" it was named the third best album in the past decade, with the first two being "The Final Frontier" and "A Matter of Life and Death" by Iron Maiden. The album's cover was declared the fourth best of 2010 by "Revolver" magazine. Noisecreep listed Ghost's version of "Here Comes the Sun" at number six on their list of the 10 Best Metal Cover Songs. In their roundup of the 25 Best Metal Albums of 2010–2019, the music blog MetalSucks declared "Opus Eponymous" to be the 5th best metal album of the '10s.


title: Opus Eponymous

text: In 2015, Benjamin Hedge Olson of "PopMatters" called "Opus Eponymous" a 21st-century classic: "The production oozed spot-on early-'80s atmosphere, the lyrics were blatantly Satanic without being silly, and whomever Nameless Ghoul wrote those tracks was a master of hooks and melody."


title: Opus Eponymous

text: All original songs credited to "A Ghoul Writer" in the booklet; actual writing credits adapted from ASCAP.


title: John Dye

text: John Carroll Dye (January 31, 1963 – January 10, 2011) was an American film and television actor known for his role as Andrew in the spiritual television drama series "Touched by an Angel".


title: John Dye

text: Dye was born in Amory, Mississippi, one of four sons of Jim and Lynn Dye, a furniture manufacturer and homemaker, respectively, who raised their sons in the Methodist denomination. The family moved to Cleveland, Tennessee, where he attended Cleveland High School, and later to Tupelo, Mississippi. He was introduced to acting by playing the role of Friedrich, the eldest male von Trapp child in a school production of "The Sound of Music" at Cleveland High School. He graduated from Tupelo High School, where he again played Friedrich von Trapp. Dye found himself bitten by the acting bug. After graduating, he enrolled at Mississippi State University in hopes of becoming a civil rights lawyer. After a year at Mississippi State University, he decided to become an actor, and was advised against it by his great-grandmother. He transferred to Memphis State and majored in theater.


title: John Dye

text: In Memphis, Dye discovered that a Judd Nelson film called "Making the Grade" (1984) was filming in the area. Dye landed his first film role as "Skip." In the 1985 music video for the ZZ Top song "Sleeping Bag", he appeared alongside fellow actors Tracey Walter and Heather Langenkamp. In 1986 he starred alongside actresses Virginia Madsen and Cynthia Gibb in the comedy film "Modern Girls". In 1987 Dye got his first leading role, in the film "Campus Man", as Todd Barrett. That same year, he re-teamed with Nelson in the television miniseries "Billionaire Boys Club". In 1989, he starred alongside actors James Earl Jones and Eric Roberts in the martial-arts drama "Best of the Best".


title: John Dye

text: Dye began appearing on television in 1987. He was cast in 1989 as Private Francis "Doc Hoc" Hockenbury for the last season of "Tour of Duty". When the series finished, he moved on to short-lived series such as "Jack's Place" (1992) and "Hotel Malibu" (1994). In 1996, he appeared as Andrew the "Angel of Death" on "Touched by an Angel" with Roma Downey & Della Reese. Originally cast as a recurring character, by the third season, he was made a regular cast member as his character quickly became popular. The show ran for nine seasons before ending in April 2003. In 2000, he starred in the television movie "Once Upon a Christmas" and the following year, he appeared in the sequel "Twice Upon a Christmas". Also in 2000, he starred in the documentary, "Journey to a Hate Free Millennium".


title: John Dye

text: Dye was found dead in his home in San Francisco on January 10, 2011, at the age of 47. His death was initially reported to have been from heart problems.


title: Wheelchair

text: A wheelchair is a chair with wheels, used when walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, problems related to old age, or disability. These can include spinal cord injuries (paraplegia, hemiplegia, and quadriplegia), cerebral palsy, brain injury, osteogenesis imperfecta, motor neurone disease, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, spina bifida, and more.


title: Wheelchair

text: Wheelchairs come in a wide variety of formats to meet the specific needs of their users. They may include specialized seating adaptions, individualized controls, and may be specific to particular activities, as seen with sports wheelchairs and beach wheelchairs. The most widely recognized distinction is between motorized wheelchairs, where propulsion is provided by batteries and electric motors, and manual wheelchairs, where the propulsive force is provided either by the wheelchair user or occupant pushing the wheelchair by hand ("self-propelled"), by an attendant pushing from the rear using the handle(s), or by an attendant pushing from the side use a handle attachment.


title: Wheelchair

text: The earliest records of wheeled furniture are an inscription found on a stone slate in China and a child's bed depicted in a frieze on a Greek vase, both dating between the 6th and 5th century BCE. The first records of wheeled seats being used for transporting disabled persons date to three centuries later in China; the Chinese used early wheelbarrows to move people as well as heavy objects. A distinction between the two functions was not made for another several hundred years, until around 525 CE, when images of wheeled chairs made specifically to carry people begin to occur in Chinese art.


title: Wheelchair

text: Although Europeans eventually developed a similar design, this method of transportation did not exist until 1595 when an unknown inventor from Spain built one for King Phillip II. Although it was an elaborate chair having both armrests and leg rests, the design still had shortcomings since it did not feature an efficient propulsion mechanism and thus required assistance to propel it. This makes the design more comparable to a modern-day highchair or portable throne for the wealthy than to a modern-day wheelchair for disabled people.


title: Wheelchair

text: In 1655, Stephan Farffler, a 22-year-old paraplegic watchmaker, built the world's first self-propelling chair on a three-wheel chassis using a system of cranks and cogwheels. However, the device resembled a hand bike more than a wheelchair since the design included hand cranks mounted at the front wheel.


title: Wheelchair

text: In 1887, wheelchairs ("rolling chairs") were introduced to Atlantic City so invalid tourists could rent them to enjoy the Boardwalk. Soon, many healthy tourists also rented the decorated "rolling chairs" and servants to push them as a show of decadence and treatment they could never experience at home.


title: Wheelchair

text: In 1933 Harry C. Jennings Sr. and his disabled friend Herbert Everest, both mechanical engineers, invented the first lightweight, steel, folding, portable wheelchair. Everest had previously broken his back in a mining accident. Everest and Jennings saw the business potential of the invention and went on to become the first mass-market manufacturers of wheelchairs. Their "X-brace" design is still in common use, albeit with updated materials and other improvements. The X-brace idea came to Jennings from the men's folding "camp chairs / stools", rotated 90 degrees, used in the outdoors and at the mines.


title: Wheelchair

text: There are a wide variety of types of wheelchairs, differing by propulsion method, mechanisms of control, and technology used. Some wheelchairs are designed for general everyday use, others for single activities, or to address specific access needs. Innovation within the wheelchair industry is relatively common, but many innovations ultimately fall by the wayside, either from over-specialization, or from failing to come to market at an accessible price-point. The iBOT is perhaps the best known example of this in recent years.


title: Wheelchair

text: A self-propelled manual wheelchair incorporates a frame, seat, one or two footplates (footrests) and four wheels: usually two caster wheels at the front and two large wheels at the back. There will generally also be a separate seat cushion. The larger rear wheels usually have push-rims of slightly smaller diameter projecting just beyond the tyre; these allow the user to manoeuvre the chair by pushing on them without requiring them to grasp the tyres. Manual wheelchairs generally have brakes that bear on the tyres of the rear wheels, however these are solely a parking brakes and in-motion braking is provided by the user's palms bearing directly on the push-rims. As this causes friction and heat build-up, particularly on long downslopes, many wheelchair users will choose to wear padded wheelchair gloves. Manual wheelchairs often have two push handles at the upper rear of the frame to allow for manual propulsion by a second person, however many active wheelchair users will remove these to prevent unwanted pushing from people who believe they are being helpful.


title: Wheelchair

text: Everyday manual wheelchairs come in two major varieties, folding or rigid. Folding chairs are generally low-end designs, whose predominant advantage is being able to fold, generally by bringing the two sides together. This is an advantage for people who need to store the wheelchair frequently or to put it in a small vehicle. Rigid wheelchairs have permanently welded joints and many fewer moving parts. This reduces the energy required to push the chair by eliminating many points where the chair would flex and absorb energy as it moves. Welded rather than folding joints also reduce the overall weight of the chair. Rigid chairs typically feature instant-release rear wheels and backrests that fold down flat, allowing the user to dismantle the chair quickly for storage in a car. A few wheelchairs attempt to combine the features of both designs by providing a fold-to-rigid mechanism in which the joints are mechanically locked when the wheelchair is in use.


title: Wheelchair

text: Many rigid models are made with ultralight materials such as aircraft-grade aluminium and titanium, and wheelchairs of composite materials such as carbon-fibre have started to appear. Ultra lightweight rigid wheelchairs are commonly known as 'active user chairs' as they are ideally suited to independent use. Another innovation in rigid chair design is the installation of shock absorbers, such as "Frog Legs", which cushion the bumps over which the chair rolls. These shock absorbers may be added to the front wheels, to the rear wheels, or both. Rigid chairs also have the option for their rear wheels to have a camber, or tilt, which angles the tops of the wheels in toward the chair. This allows for more mechanically efficient propulsion by the user and also makes it easier to hold a straight line while moving across a slope. Sport wheelchairs often have large camber angles to improve stability.


title: Wheelchair

text: Rigid-framed chairs are generally made to measure, to suit both the specific size of the user and their needs and preferences around areas such as the "tippyness" of the chair - determined by the distance between the center of gravity and the rear axle. Experienced users with sufficient upper-body strength can generally balance the chair on its rear wheels, a "wheelie", and the "tippyness" of the chair controls the ease with which this can be initiated. The wheelie allows an independent wheelchair user to climb and descend curbs and move more easily over small obstacles and irregular ground such as cobbles.


title: Wheelchair

text: The rear wheels of self-propelled wheelchairs typically range from in diameter, and commonly resemble bicycle wheels. Wheels are rubber-tired and may be solid, pneumatic or gel-filled. The wheels of folding chairs may be permanently attached, but those for rigid chairs are commonly fitted with quick-release axles activated by depressing a button at the centre of the wheel.


title: Wheelchair

text: All major varieties of wheelchairs can be highly customized for the user's needs. Such customization may encompass the seat dimensions, height, seat angle, footplates, leg rests, front caster outriggers, adjustable backrests and controls. Various optional accessories are available, such as anti-tip bars or wheels, safety belts, adjustable backrests, tilt and/or recline features, extra support for limbs or head and neck, holders for crutches, walkers or oxygen tanks, drink holders, and mud and wheel-guards as clothing protectors.


title: Wheelchair

text: Light weight and high costs are related to the manual wheelchair market. At the low-cost end, heavy, folding steel chairs with sling seats and little adaptability dominate. Users may be temporarily disabled, or using such a chair as a loaner, or simply unable to afford better. These chairs are common as "loaners" at large facilities such as airports, amusement parks and shopping centers. A slightly higher price band sees the same folding design produced in aluminium. Price typically then jumps from low to mid hundreds of pounds/dollars/euros to a four figure price range, with individually custom manufactured lightweight chairs with more options. The high end of the market contains ultra-light models, extensive seating options and accessories, all-terrain features, and so forth. The most expensive manual chairs may rival the cost of a small car.


title: Wheelchair

text: An attendant-propelled wheelchair is generally similar to a self-propelled manual wheelchair, but with small diameter wheels at both front and rear. The chair is maneuvered and controlled by a person standing at the rear and pushing on handles incorporated into the frame. Braking is supplied directly by the attendant who will usually also be provided with a foot- or hand-operated parking brake.


title: Wheelchair

text: These chairs are common in institutional settings and as loaner-chairs in large public venues. They are usually constructed from steel as light weight is less of a concern when the user is not required to self-propel.


title: Wheelchair

text: Specially designed transfer chairs are now required features at airports in much of the developed world in order to allow access down narrow airliner aisles and facilitate the transfer of wheelchair-using passengers to and from their seats on the aircraft.


title: Wheelchair

text: An electric-powered wheelchair, commonly called a "powerchair" is a wheelchair that additionally incorporates batteries and electric motors into the frame and that is controlled by either the user or an attendant, most commonly via a small joystick mounted on the armrest, or on the upper rear of the frame. Alternatives exist for the traditional manual joystick, including head switches, chin-operated joysticks, sip-and-puff controllers or other specialist controls, which may allow independent operation of the wheelchair for a wider population of users with varying motor impairments. Ranges of over 10 miles/15 km are commonly available from standard batteries.


title: Wheelchair

text: Powerchairs are commonly divided by their access capabilities. An indoor-chair may only reliably be able to cross completely flat surfaces, limiting them to household use. An indoor-outdoor chair is less limited, but may have restricted range or ability to deal with slopes or uneven surfaces. An outdoor chair is more capable, but will still have a very restricted ability to deal with rough terrain. A very few specialist designs offer a true cross-country capability.


title: Wheelchair

text: Powerchairs have access to the full range of wheelchair options, including ones that are difficult to provide in an unpowered manual chair, but have the disadvantage of significant extra weight. Where an ultra-lightweight manual chair may weigh under 10 kg, the largest outdoor power-chairs may weigh 200 kg or more.


title: Wheelchair

text: Smaller power chairs often have four wheels, with front or rear wheel drive, but large outdoor designs commonly have six wheels, with small wheels at front and rear and somewhat larger powered wheels in the centre.


title: Wheelchair

text: A power-assisted wheelchair is a recent development that uses the frame and seating of a typical rigid manual chair while replacing the standard rear wheels with wheels of similar size which incorporate batteries and battery-powered motors in the hubs. A floating rim design senses the pressure applied by the user's push and activates the motors proportionately to provide a power assist. This results in the convenience, and small size of a manual chair while providing motorised assistance for rough/uneven terrain and steep slopes that would otherwise be difficult or impossible to navigate, especially by those with limited upper-body function. As the wheels necessarily come at a weight penalty it is often possible to exchange them with standard wheels to match the capabilities of the wheelchair to the current activity.


title: Wheelchair

text: Mobility scooters share some features with powerchairs, but primarily address a different market segment, people with a limited ability to walk, but who might not otherwise consider themselves disabled. Smaller mobility scooters are typically three wheeled, with a base on which is mounted a basic seat at the rear, with a control tiller at the front. Larger scooters are frequently four-wheeled, with a much more substantial seat.


title: Wheelchair

text: Opinions are often polarized as to whether mobility scooters should be considered wheelchairs or not, and negative stereotyping of scooter users is worse than for manual or power-chair users. Some commercial organisations draw a distinction between power-chairs and scooters when making access provisions due to a lack of clarity in the law as to whether scooters fall under the same equality legislation as wheelchairs.


title: Wheelchair

text: One-arm or single arm drive enables a user to self-propel a manual wheelchair using only a single arm. The large wheel on the same side as the arm to be used is fitted with two concentric handrims, one of smaller diameter than the other. On most models the outer, smaller rim, is connected to the wheel on the opposite side by an inner concentric axle. When both handrims are grasped together, the chair may be propelled forward or backward in a straight line. When either handrim is moved independently, only a single wheel is used and the chair will turn left or right in response to the handrim used. Some wheelchairs, designed for use by hemiplegics, provide a similar function by linking both wheels rigidly together and using one of the footplates to control steering via a linkage to the front caster.


title: Wheelchair

text: Reclining or tilt-in-space wheelchairs have seating surfaces that can be tilted to various angles. The original concept was developed by an orthotist, Hugh Barclay, who worked with disabled children and observed that postural deformities such as scoliosis could be supported or partially corrected by allowing the wheelchair user to relax in a tilted position. The feature is also of value to users who are unable to sit upright for extended periods for pain or other reasons.


title: Wheelchair

text: In the case of reclining wheelchairs, the seat-back tilts back, and the leg rests can be raised, while the seat base remains in the same position, somewhat similar to a common recliner chair. Some reclining wheelchairs lean back far enough that the user can lie down completely flat. Reclining wheelchairs are preferred in some cases for some medical purposes, such as reducing the risk of pressure sores, providing passive movement of hip and knee joints, and making it easier to perform some nursing procedures, such as intermittent catheterization to empty the bladder and transfers to beds, and also for personal reasons, such as people who like using an attached tray. The use of reclining wheelchairs is particularly common among people with spinal cord injuries such as quadriplegia.


title: Wheelchair

text: In the case of tilting wheelchairs, the seat-back, seat base, and leg rests tilt back as one unit, somewhat similar to the way a person might tip a four-legged chair backward to balance it on the back legs. While fully reclining spreads the person's weight over the entire back side of the body, tilting wheelchairs transfer it from only the buttocks and thighs (in the seated position) to partially on the back and head (in the tilted position). Tilting wheelchairs are preferred for people who use molded or contoured seats, who need to maintain a particular posture, who adversely affected by sheer forces (reclining causes the body to slide slightly every time), or who need to keep a communication device, powered wheelchair controls, or other attached device in the same relative position throughout the day. Tilting wheelchairs are commonly used by people with cerebral palsy, people with some muscle diseases, and people with limited range of motion in the hip or knee joints. Tilting options are more common than reclining options in wheelchairs designed for use by children.


title: Wheelchair

text: A standing wheelchair is one that supports the user in a nearly standing position. They can be used as both a wheelchair and a standing frame, allowing the user to sit or stand in the wheelchair as they wish. Some versions are entirely manual, others have a powered stand on an otherwise manual chair, while others have full power, tilt, recline and variations of powered stand functions available. The benefits of such a device include, but are not limited to: aiding independence and productivity, raising self-esteem and psychological well-being, heightening social status, extending access, relief of pressure, reduction of pressure sores, improved functional reach, improved respiration, reduced occurrence of UTI, improved flexibility, help in maintaining bone mineral density, improved passive range motion, reduction in abnormal muscle tone and spasticity, and skeletal deformities. Other wheelchairs provide some of the same benefits by raising the entire seat to lift the user to standing height.


title: Wheelchair

text: A range of disabled sports have been developed for disabled athletes, including basketball, rugby, tennis, racing and dancing. The wheelchairs used for each sport have evolved to suit the specific needs of that sport and often no longer resemble their everyday cousins. They are usually non-folding (in order to increase rigidity), with a pronounced negative camber for the wheels (which provides stability and is helpful for making sharp turns), and often are made of composite, lightweight materials. Even seating positions may be radically different, with racing wheelchairs generally used in a kneeling position. Sport wheelchairs are rarely suited for everyday use, and are often a 'second' chair specifically for sports use, although some users prefer the sports options for everyday use. Some disabled people, specifically lower-limb amputees, may use a wheelchair for sports, but not for everyday activities.


title: Wheelchair

text: While most wheelchair sports use manual chairs, some power chair sports, such as powerchair football, exist.


title: Wheelchair

text: Wheelchair stretchers are a variant of wheeled stretchers/gurneys that can accommodate a sitting patient, or be adjusted to lie flat to help in the lateral (or supine) transfer of a patient from a bed to the chair or back. Once transferred, the stretcher can be adjusted to allow the patient to assume a sitting position.


title: Wheelchair

text: All-terrain wheelchairs can allow users to access terrain otherwise completely inaccessible to a wheelchair user. Two different formats have been developed. One hybridises wheelchair and mountain bike technology, generally taking the form of a frame within which the user sits and with four mountain bike wheels at the corners. In general, there are no push-rims and propulsion/braking is by pushing directly on the tyres.


title: Wheelchair

text: A more common variant is the beach wheelchair (beach-going wheelchair) which can allow better mobility on beach sand, including in the water, on uneven terrain, and even on snow. The common adaptation among the different designs is that they have extra-wide balloon wheels or tires, to increase stability and decrease ground pressure on uneven or unsteady terrain. Different models are available, both manual and battery-driven. In some countries in Europe, where accessible tourism is well established, many beaches have wheelchairs of this type available for loan/hire.


title: Wheelchair

text: A smart wheelchair is any powerchair using a control system to augment or replace user control. Its purpose is to reduce or eliminate the user's task of driving a powerchair. Usually, a smart wheelchair is controlled via a computer, has a suite of sensors and applies techniques in mobile robotics, but this is not necessary. The type of sensors most frequently used by smart wheelchairs are the ultrasonic acoustic range finder (i.e. sonar) and infrared red (IR) range finder. The interface may consist of a conventional wheelchair joystick, a "sip-and-puff" device or a touch-sensitive display. This differs from a conventional powerchair, in which the user exerts manual control over speed and direction without intervention by the wheelchair's control system.


title: Wheelchair

text: Smart wheelchairs are designed for a variety of user types. Some are designed for users with cognitive impairments, such as dementia, these typically apply collision-avoidance techniques to ensure that users do not accidentally select a drive command that results in a collision. Others focus on users living with severe motor disabilities, such as cerebral palsy, or with quadriplegia, and the role of the smart wheelchair is to interpret small muscular activations as high-level commands and execute them. Such wheelchairs typically employ techniques from artificial intelligence, such as path-planning.


title: Wheelchair

text: A variation on the manually-propelled wheelchair is the Leveraged Freedom Chair (LFC), designed by the MIT Mobility Lab. This wheelchair is designed to be low-cost, constructed with local materials, for users in developing countries. Engineering modifications have added hand-controlled levers to the LFC, to enable users to move the chair over uneven ground and minor obstacles, such as bumpy dirt roads, that are common in developing countries. It is under development, and has been tested in Kenya and India so far.


title: Wheelchair

text: The addition of geared, all-mechanical wheels for manual wheelchairs is a new development incorporating a hypocycloidal reduction gear into the wheel design. The 2-gear wheels can be added to a manual wheelchair. The geared wheels provide a user with additional assistance by providing leverage through gearing (like a bicycle, not a motor). The two-gear wheels offer two speed ratios- 1:1 (no help, no extra torque) and 2:1, providing 100% more hill climbing force. The low gear incorporates an automatic "hill hold" function which holds the wheelchair in place on a hill between pushes, but will allow the user to override the hill hold to roll the wheels backward if needed. The low gear also provides downhill control when descending.


title: Wheelchair

text: A recent development related to wheelchairs is the handcycle. They come in a variety of forms, from the road and track racing models to off-road types modelled after mountain bikes. While dedicated handcycle designs are manufactured, clip-on versions are available that can convert a manual wheelchair to a handcycle in seconds. The general concept is a clip-on front-fork with hand-pedals, usually attaching to a mounting on the footplate. A somewhat related concept is the Freewheel, a large dolley wheel attaching to the front of a manual wheelchair, again generally to the footplate mounting, which improves wheelchair performance over rough terrain. Unlike a handcycle, a wheelchair with a Freewheel continues to be propelled via the rear wheels. There are several types of hybrid-powered handcycles where hand-pedals and used along with the electrical motor that helps on hills and large distances.


title: Wheelchair

text: The most recent generation of clip-on handcycles is fully electrical wheelchair power add-ons that use lithium-ion battery, brushless DC electric motor and light-weight aluminium frames with easy to attach clamps to convert almost any manual wheelchair into electrical trike in seconds. That makes long-distance journeys and everyday tasks much easier and keeps wheelchair users hands clean.


title: Wheelchair

text: There have been significant efforts over the past 20 years to develop stationary wheelchair trainer platforms that could enable wheelchair users to exercise as one would on a treadmill or bicycle trainer.


title: Wheelchair

text: Some devices have been created that could be used in conjunction with virtual travel and interactive gaming similar to an omnidirectional treadmill. This convergence of virtual reality and a treadmill have been used for pediatric and adult rehabilitation to regain walking skills.


title: Wheelchair

text: In 2011, British inventor Andrew Slorance developed "Carbon Black" the first wheelchair to be made almost entirely out of carbon fibre


title: Wheelchair

text: Recently, EPFL's CNBI project has succeeded in making wheelchairs that can be controlled by brain impulses.


title: Wheelchair

text: Interest in electric-powered wheelchairs that are able to climb stairs has increased over the past twenty years. Therefore, many electric wheelchairs with the ability to climb stairs have been developed. Electric-powered wheelchairs with climbing ability need to be stronger and have greater movement in comparison to an electric-powered wheelchair that cannot climb stairs. They must also be stable in order to prevent injury to the wheelchair user. There are currently a number of electric powered wheelchairs that are able to climb stairs available to purchase. Technical developments are continuing in this area.


title: Wheelchair

text: Experiments have also been made with unusual variant wheels, like the omniwheel or the mecanum wheel. These allow for a broader spectrum of movement, but have made no mass-market penetration.


title: Wheelchair

text: The electric wheelchair shown on the right is fitted with mecanum wheels (sometimes known as Ilon wheels) which give it complete freedom of movement. It can be driven forwards, backward, sideways, and diagonally, and also turned around on the spot or turned around while moving, all operated from a simple joystick.


title: Wheelchair

text: Foot propulsion of a manual wheelchair by the occupant is possible for users who have limited hand movement capabilities or simply do not wish to use their hands for propulsion. Foot propulsion also allows patients to exercise their legs to increase blood flow and limit further disability. Users who do this commonly may elect to have a lower seat height and no footplate to better suit the wheelchair to their needs.


title: Wheelchair

text: Wheelbase chairs are powered or manual wheelchairs with especially molded seating systems interfaced with them for users with a more complicated posture. A molded seating system involves taking a cast of a person's best achievable seated position and then either carving the shape from memory foam or forming a plastic mesh around it. This seat is then covered, framed, and attached to a wheelbase.


title: Wheelchair

text: A bariatric wheelchair is one designed to support larger weights; most standard chairs are designed to support no more than 250 lb (113 kg) on average.


title: Wheelchair

text: Pediatric wheelchairs are another available subset of wheelchairs. These can address needs such as being able to play on the floor with other children, or cater for children in large hip-spica casts due to problems such as hip dysplasia.


title: Wheelchair

text: "Hemi wheelchairs" have lower seats which are designed for easy foot propulsion. The decreased seat height also allows them to be used by children and shorter individuals.


title: Wheelchair

text: A knee scooter is a related device with some features of a wheelchair and some walking aids. Unlike wheelchairs they are only suitable for below knee injuries to a single leg. The user rests the injured leg on the scooter, grasps the handlebars, and pushes with the uninjured leg.


title: Wheelchair

text: Some walkers can be used as a wheelchair. These walkers have seat and foot plates, so an attendant can push while the patient is sitting on the walker. This is useful for a person who gets tired while walking with a walker, or has a limited walking range meaning the person can walk, but after a while, the person will collapse and fall to the ground.


title: Wheelchair

text: A commode wheelchair is a wheelchair made for the bathroom. A commode wheelchair has a hole on the seat so the user does not have to transfer into the toilet. Sometimes the hole can be covered. Sometimes there is a pan attached to the hole, so the user can urinate/defecate without having to wheel over the toilet.


title: Wheelchair

text: Adapting the built environment to make it more accessible to wheelchair users is one of the key campaigns of disability rights movements and local equality legislation such the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA). The social model of disability defines 'disability' as the discrimination experienced by people with impairments as a result of the failure of society to provide the adaptions needed for them to participate in society as equals. This includes both physical adaptions of the built environment and adaption of organizational and social structures and attitudes. A core principle of access is universal design - that all people regardless of disability are entitled to equal access to all parts of society like public transportation and buildings. A wheelchair user is less disabled in an environment without stairs.


title: Wheelchair

text: Access starts outside of the building, with the provision of reduced height kerb-cuts where wheelchair users may need to cross roads, and the provision of adequate wheelchair parking, which must provide extra space in order to allow wheelchair users to transfer directly from seat to chair. Some tension exists between access provisions for visually impaired pedestrians and wheelchair users and other mobility impaired pedestrians as textured paving, vital for visually impaired people to recognise the edge of features such as light-controlled crossings, is uncomfortable at best, and dangerous at worst, to those with mobility impairments.


title: Wheelchair

text: For access to public buildings, it is frequently necessary to adapt older buildings with features such as ramps or elevators in order to allow access by wheelchair users and other people with mobility impairments. Other important adaptations can include powered doors, lowered fixtures such as sinks and water fountains, and accessible toilets with adequate space and grab bars to allow the disabled person to transfer out of their wheelchair onto the fixture. Access needs for people with other disabilities, for instance visual impairments, may also be required, such as by provision of high visibility markings on the edges of steps and braille labelling. Increasingly new construction for public use is required by local equality laws to have these features incorporated at the design stage.


title: Wheelchair

text: The same principles of access that apply to public buildings also apply to private homes and may be required as part of local building regulations. Important adaptations include external access, providing sufficient space for a wheelchair user to move around the home, doorways that are wide enough for convenient use, access to upper floors, where they exist, which can be provided either by dedicated wheelchair lifts, or in some cases by using a stairlift to transfer between wheelchairs on different floors, and by providing accessible bathrooms with showers and/or bathtubs that are designed for accessibility. Accessible bathrooms can permit the use of mobile shower chairs or transfer benches to facilitate bathing for people with disabilities. Wet rooms are bathrooms where the shower floor and bathroom floor are one continuous waterproof surface. Such floor designs allow a wheelchair user using a dedicated shower chair, or transferring onto a shower seat, to enter the shower without needing to overcome a barrier or lip.


title: Wheelchair

text: The construction of low floor trams and buses are increasingly required by law, whereas the use of inaccessible features such as paternoster lifts in public buildings without any alternative methods of wheelchair access is increasingly deprecated. Modern architecture is increasingly required by law and recognised good practise to incorporate better accessibility at the design stage.


title: Wheelchair

text: In many countries, such as the UK, the owners of inaccessible buildings who have not provided permanent access measures are still required by local equality legislation to provide 'reasonable adjustments' to ensure that disabled people are able to access their services and are not excluded. These may range from keeping a portable ramp on hand to allow a wheelchair user to cross an inaccessible threshold, to providing personal service to access goods they are not otherwise able to reach.


title: Wheelchair

text: In the UK, all single deck buses are required to be accessible to wheelchair users by 2017, all double-deck coaches by 2020. Similar requirements exist for trains, with most trains already incorporating a number of wheelchair-spaces.


title: Wheelchair

text: The EU has required airline and airport operators to support the use of airports and airliners by wheelchair users and other 'Persons with Reduced Mobility' since the introduction of EU Directive EC1107/2006.


title: Wheelchair

text: In Los Angeles there is a program to remove a small amount of seating on some trains to make more room for bicycles and wheelchairs.


title: Wheelchair

text: New York City's entire bus system is wheelchair-accessible, and a multimillion-dollar renovation program is underway to provide elevator access to many of the city's 485 subway stations.


title: Wheelchair

text: In Adelaide, Australia, all public transport has provision for at least two wheelchairs per bus, tram or train. In addition, all trains have space available for bicycles.


title: Wheelchair

text: In Paris, France, the entire bus network, i.e. 60 lines, has been accessible to wheelchair users since 2010.


title: Wheelchair

text: In the United States, a wheelchair that has been designed and tested for use as a seat in motor vehicles is often referred to as a "WC19 Wheelchair" or a "transit wheelchair". ANSI-RESNA WC19 (officially, SECTION 19 ANSI/RESNA WC/VOL. 1 Wheelchairs for use in Motor Vehicles) is a voluntary standard for wheelchairs designed for use when traveling facing forward in a motor vehicle. ISO 7176/19 is an international transit wheelchair standard that specifies similar design and performance requirements as ANSI/RESNA WC19.


title: Wheelchair

text: There are special vans equipped for wheelchairs. These vans are large and have a ramp on a side door or the back door, so a wheelchair can get inside the vehicle while the user is still in it. Some of the back seats will be removed and replaced with wheelchair security harnesses. Sometimes wheelchair vans are equipped so the wheelchair user can drive the van without getting out of the wheelchair.


title: Wheelchair

text: A vehicle can be equipped with hand controls. Hand controls are used when a person can't move their legs to push the pedals. The hand controls do the pushing of the pedals. Some racecar drivers are paralyzed and use hand controls.


title: Wheelchair

text: Some elements of the outdoor public realm present barriers to wheelchair use, such as grade-separated areas where no ramps are provided. UK guidance recommends a minimum width of 1.5m for a wheelchair user and an ambulant pedestrian to move side by side; with maximum ramp gradients of 8% for manual wheelchair use (5% is preferred).


title: Wheelchair

text: Several organizations exist that help to give and receive wheelchair equipment. Organizations that accept wheelchair equipment donations typically attempt to identify recipients and match them with the donated equipment they have received. Organizations that accept donations in the form of money for wheelchairs typically have the wheelchairs manufactured and distributed in large numbers, often in developing countries. Organizations focusing on wheelchairs include Direct Relief, the Free Wheelchair Mission, Hope Haven, Personal Energy Transportation, the Wheelchair Foundation and WheelPower.


title: Wheelchair

text: In the United Kingdom wheelchairs are supplied and maintained free of charge for disabled people whose need for such a chair is permanent.


title: Wheelchair

text: Wheelchair seating systems are designed both to support the user in the sitting position and to redistribute pressure from areas of the body that are at risk of pressure ulcers. For someone in the sitting position, the parts of the body that are the most at risk for tissue breakdown include the ischial tuberosities, coccyx, sacrum and greater trochanters. Wheelchair cushions are the prime method of delivering this protection and are nearly universally used. Wheelchair cushions are also used to provide stability, comfort, aid posture and absorb shock. Wheelchair cushions range from simple blocks of foam costing a few pounds or dollars, to specifically engineered multilayer designs with costs running into the hundreds of pounds/dollars/euros.


title: Wheelchair

text: Prior to 1970, little was known about the effectiveness of wheelchair cushions and there was not a clinical method of evaluating wheelchair seat cushions. Most recently, pressure imaging (or pressure mapping) is used to help determine each individual's pressure distribution to properly determine and fit a seating system.


title: Wheelchair

text: While almost all wheelchair users will use a wheelchair cushion, some users need more extensive postural support. This can be provided by adaptions to the back of the wheelchair, which can provide increased rigidity, head/neck rests and lateral support and in some cases by adaptions to the seat such as pommels and knee-blocks. Harnesses may also be required.


title: Wheelchair

text: There is a wide range of accessories for wheelchairs. There are cushions, cup holders, seatbelts, storage bags, lights, and more.


title: Wheelchair

text: A wheelchair user uses seatbelts for security or posture. Some wheelchair users want to use a seatbelt to make sure they never fall out of the wheelchair. Other wheelchair users use a seatbelt because they can't sit up straight on their own.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: Football Club Metalist Kharkiv ( ) is a Ukrainian football club based in Kharkiv that plays in the Ukrainian First League during the 2021–22 season. It was revived 5 years after the original FC Metalist Kharkiv ceased operations.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: Founded in 1925, FC Metalist Kharkiv had worked its way up the rungs of the Soviet football system, eventually being promoted to the Soviet Top League in 1960. After a difficult period which included relegation, Metalist was promoted to the Top League again in 1982, where it remained until the league's dissolution.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: The club won the Soviet Cup once, and were also runners-up once. They have also won silver medals of the 2012–13 Ukrainian Premier League and six bronze medals of the Ukrainian Premier League, starting from the 2006–07 season. Their home was the Metalist Stadium, a multi-use facility with a capacity of 40,003. The stadium was originally built in 1926 and was expanded to host Euro 2012 football matches.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: Metalist ceased operations in 2016 due to insolvency. Metalist owed in salary to its players 32 million Euros with 5 million to Cleiton Xavier in particular. It was removed from the Ukrainian Premier League after owner Serhiy Kurchenko absconded in February 2014, following the 2014 Ukrainian revolution.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: Following the demise of Metalist Kharkiv in 2016, two new clubs were created in Kharkiv with variations of the Metalist club name. Since July 2016, a team named "SK Metalist Kharkiv" has been playing in the Kharkiv Oblast Championship, whose owner is former Metalist owner Serhiy Kurchenko.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: In August 2016, another club named "FC Metalist 1925 Kharkiv" began to operate in the Ukrainian Amateur Football League with the stated intention of competing in the (professional) Ukrainian Second League as soon as possible. "FC Metalist 1925 Kharkiv" is owned by a company not linked with the original FC Metalist Kharkiv.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: In October 2017, a Ukrainian court confiscated (the original) Metalist Kharkiv from Kurchenko and placed it under state property. At the time the club did not participate in any official sanctioned competitions.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: Also, in July 2020 former FC Metalist sports director Yevhen Krasnikov created FC Metal Kharkiv which since has participated in the Ukrainian Second League. Earlier on 5 May 2020, Oleksandr Yaroslavskyi announced that he wishes to take care of the debts of the liquidated Metalist. The return of Yaroslavskyi to football arose some criticism connected with politics of the city of Kharkiv. After winning the Second League in June 2021, it was confirmed that Metal will be renamed to Metalist and the old FC Metalist Kharkiv logo will be returned to the club, along with its brand and history.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: FC Metalist Kharkiv was initially founded on 11 December 1925 as KhPZ, when a local locomotive construction facility (Kharkiv Steam-locomotive Factory, today the Malyshev Factory) provided funding and allowed use of its land to start a football club. Ten years later, the club won the city of Kharkiv championship, which allowed the club to enter the USSR Cup in the following season. Following World War II, the club under the name Dzerzhinets resumed playing in local competitions, promoting itself to the Second Group (Soviet Second Division) in 1947 only to be demoted three seasons later. In the first post-war decade the club was completely overshadowed by its city rival FC Lokomotyv Kharkiv which was member of the Soviet Lokomotiv sports society.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: In 1956, Metalist as Avanhard returned to the Soviet Second League B replacing its city rivals Lokomotyv Kharkiv. Soon thereafter it was promoted first to Soviet First League in 1958, and later to the Soviet Top League in 1960. The club stayed in Top League for 4 seasons, but was demoted to First League in 1963, continuing its decline with demotion to Second League. In 1978, the club was promoted to the Soviet First League and two years later, the club finished third in the competition narrowly missing promotion to the top flight. The following season, the club improved on their previous performance and won the Soviet First League outright to earn a spot in Soviet Top League. The club sustained 10 seasons of the Soviet Top League with several successes on the domestic front. In 1983, Metalist was the runner-up in the USSR Cup (losing 1–0 to Shakhtar Donetsk) and a few years later in 1988 would win the cup, beating Torpedo Moscow 2–0. As a result, Metalist Kharkiv earned a trip to the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup. Metalist only advanced to the last sixteen of the competition, beating Yugoslavian side Borac Banja Luka and losing to the Dutch club Roda JC.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of an independent Ukraine, Metalist joined the inaugural season of the Ukrainian Premier League in 1992. The club finished in fifth place, an achievement it would never top until the 2006–07 season, finishing in fifth place three more times since, the most notable coming during the 2001–02 season. The club finished with 40 points, on a par with Metalurh Zaporizhzhya and Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk for a three-way tie. Metalist was expected to take fourth place (and subsequently compete in the UEFA Cup) by virtue of having the best three-way, head-to-head record among the three teams (which is the official tie-breaker to be used in domestic competitions), but following a protest by Metalurh Zaporizhzhya and an arbitrary decision by PFL (the administrative body of the UPL), Metalurh Zaporizhzhya was awarded fourth place on the grounds that it had better head-to-head records independently against either side.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: Following unsuccessful protests from Metalist, a disheartened management, team and fan base would see the club finish bottom in the following season and earning a demotion to the Ukrainian First League. However, the club would return to the UPL after one season and following a financial crisis and a takeover of the club by UkrSibbank owner Oleksandr Yaroslavsky, steady investment would see Metalist show improvement and balanced performance. Yaroslavsky sold the club to new owner Serhiy Kurchenko late in December 2012. Kurchenko left Ukraine in February 2014 following the 2014 Ukrainian revolution and his current whereabouts are unknown.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: In the 2006–07 season, Metalist finished third place in the league, qualifying for the 2007–08 UEFA Cup, their second appearance in a UEFA competition. They were drawn against English club Everton. The first leg, away at Goodison Park, ended in a 1–1 draw while Everton won the second leg 3–2, eliminating Metalist.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: Metalist's next European competition was the 2008–09 UEFA Cup. The club beat Beşiktaş 4–2 on aggregate in the first round to qualify for the group stage, where they were grouped with Galatasaray, Olympiacos, Hertha BSC and Benfica. Metalist finished top of the group, beating Galatasaray, Olympiacos and Benfica, whilst drawing 0–0 with Hertha. In the round of 32, Metalist defeated Italian club Sampdoria 3–0 on aggregate, setting up for an all-Ukrainian round of 16 tie against Dynamo Kyiv. After losing in Kyiv 1–0, Metalist won the return leg 3–2, but were eliminated on the away goals rule.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: When the competition was re-branded as the Europa League for the 2009–10 season, Metalist beat Croatian side HNK Rijeka 4–1 on aggregate in the third qualifying round before losing 2–1 on aggregate to Austrian side Sturm Graz, despite holding them 1–1 in Graz. The following season, they finished second in Group I behind Dutch giants PSV Eindhoven, thus qualifying for the round of 32 where they were thrashed 6–0 on aggregate by Bayer Leverkusen. They reached the quarter-finals the following season, beating Olympiacos on away goals in the round of 16, but falling to Sporting CP. The following season, they then faced Bayer Leverkusen again—after beating Leverkusen 2–0 on 22 November 2012, Metalist finished above the side on head-to-head points (13), as they both finished on 13 points and had played out a goalless draw at the BayArena. In the round of 32, Metalist then faced English club Newcastle United. After holding them to a goalless draw at St James' Park in the first leg on 14 February, Shola Ameobi scored a penalty sent Newcastle through 1–0 on aggregate.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: It is believed that Serhiy Kurchenko bought the club from Yaroslavskyi at the end of 2012 for $100 million, supposedly. According to Kurchenko, he invested into the club around $270 million, but ran out of Ukraine in 2014. Since then, financing of the club was stopped.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: On 22 April 2016, the FFU Committee announced that Metalist would not be allowed to participate in professional competitions because of its debts to its players. On 16 May 2016, the FFU Appeal Committee left in force the decision of the FFU Football Clubs Attestation Committee of 22 April 2016 and refused in issuing attestation for the next season for the club by declining its appeals. Metalist owed in salary to its players 32 million Euros with 5 million to Cleiton Xavier in particular. In June of 2016 Nashi Groshi were informing that National Police of Ukraine opened criminal proceedings and asked the court on access to the Metalist salaries data. According to the Kominternivskyi District Court of Kharkiv, Metalist debt to its players and personnel exceeds over ₴30 million.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: In July 2016, a team named SK Metalist Kharkiv started playing in the Kharkiv Oblast Championship. "SK Metalist Kharkiv" is owned by the same man under whose watch Metalist Kharkiv was expelled from the professional leagues: Serhiy Kurchenko. In 2016 Kharkiv Oblast Championship, the club competed under the name UPhC Olimpik – SC Metalist and placed the last place. UPhC Olimpik is a team of the Kharkiv State College of Physical Culture 1.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: In August 2016, a new club called FC Metalist 1925 Kharkiv applied for the 2016–17 Ukrainian Football Amateur League, where it was headed by Oleksandr Pryzetko. The owner of FC Metalist 1925 Kharkiv is the company TOV Avanhard Kharkiv, later renamed to FC Metalist 1925 Kharkiv. TOV Avanhard Kharkiv is controlled by businessman and Kharkiv City Council deputy for Petro Poroshenko Bloc "Solidarity" Oleksandr Davtyan and his family. The club has planned to play in the professional Ukrainian Second League as soon as possible.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: Since March 2017, FC Metalist 1925 Kharkiv plays its home matches at the Metalist Stadium; where Metalist Kharkiv used to play its home games.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: On 28 April 2017 the FFU Control and Disciplinary Committee (CDC) implemented sanctions against 14 players of the FC Metalist Kharkiv on petition of the FFU Committee on ethics and fair play. Most players were restricted from conducting any activity related to football between six months to a year. Sanctions of three out of those 14 players exceeded that period up to three years and included such players as Yevhen Malyk (2yrs), Dmytro Skarzhynskyi (3yrs), and Oleksandr Medvedev (3yrs).


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: (The original) Metalist Kharkiv was in October 2017 confiscated by a Ukrainian court from Kurchenko and placed under state property. At the time the club did not participate in any official sanctioned competitions. In August of 2017, all assets of the late Metalist including its non-material assets and corporate rights of PAT "FC Metalist", TOV "Metalist Holding", and TOV "Metalist-Arena" were transferred to the state property when to the assets of Viktor Yanukovych associates on petition of the Prosecutor General was implemented the procedure of special confiscation. The approximate value of the assets accounted for about $220 million, $65 million of which is the actual property of FC Metalist. Decision about the confiscation was adopted by the Sosnivskyi District Court of Cherkasy, while its public promotion was carried out by Prosecutor General Yuriy Lutsenko.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: On 22 December 2017 it became known that among creditors who filed claims against the club are Kharkivoblenerho, Kharkivgaszbut, town of Vysochansk, Metalist Stadium, Cyprus off-shore company Hensley Capital Limited (a founding company of the club), State Fiscal Service in Kharkiv Oblast. In addition, the club indebted about ₴846 million to its former playing and non-playing staff.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: For undetermined reason the Metalist property was never transferred to the Assets Recovery and Management Agency (ARMA) which is a state agency in management of recovered property. Instead, on 11 April 2018 the Cabinet of Ukraine ordered the property to be transferred under administration of the Kharkiv Oblast State Administration (see Governor of Kharkiv Oblast).


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: A new team based in Kharkiv and named Metal was founded in 2019 by former vice-president of Dynamo Kyiv and former sportive director of Metalist Yevhen Krasnikov. Metal debuted in the Ukrainian Second League in the 2020–21 season. Along with Oleksandr Kucher as the head coach, Metal was joined by former head coach of Metalist 1925 Kharkiv Oleksandr Pryzetko. After winning the Second League in June 2021, it was confirmed that Metal will be renamed to Metalist and the old logo will be returned to the club, along with its brand and history. The new president became Oleksandr Yaroslavsky, who was in charge of the club from 2005 to 2012. In interview on 23 February 2021 Yaroslavsky noted that the Metalist debts should be paid by those who created them and he has no intentions to get involved with them.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: As Metalist Stadium was one of the venues for UEFA Euro 2012, the management decided to reconstruct and expand the arena and turn it into a modern recreational and leisure facility. In May 2008, Metalist Arena was the venue for 2008 Ukrainian Cup Final.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: Metalist Kharkiv supporters biggest rivalry centred on Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk. Despite this fans of both clubs marched in support of a "united Ukraine" in Kharkiv during the April 2014 pro-Russian conflict in Ukraine.


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: A group of Metalist Kharkiv Ultras named "Sect 82" had a violent rivalry with Dynamo Kyiv. "Sect 82" was (at least until September 2013) allied with FC Spartak Moscow Ultras. (In 2014 "Sect 82" morphed into the Azov Battalion of the National Guard of Ukraine.)


title: FC Metalist Kharkiv

text: Metalist Kharkiv participates in European competitions since 1988 after playing its first against Borac Banja Luka. From 2007 to 2014, however, the club continuously participated on annual basis with variable successes. This ended when Metalist failed to qualify.


title: Prajadhipok

text: Prajadhipok (, RTGS: "Prachathipok", 8 November 1893 – 30 May 1941), also Rama VII, was the seventh monarch of Siam of the Chakri dynasty. His reign was a turbulent time for Siam due to political and social changes during the Revolution of 1932. He is to date the only Siamese monarch of the Chakri Dynasty to abdicate.


title: Prajadhipok

text: Somdet Chaofa Prajadhipok Sakdidej () was born on 8 November 1893 in Bangkok, Siam (now Thailand) to King Chulalongkorn and Queen Saovabha Phongsri. Prince Prajadhipok was the youngest of nine children born to the couple. Overall he was the king's second-youngest child (of a total of 77), and the 33rd and youngest of Chulalongkorn's sons.


title: Prajadhipok

text: Unlikely to succeed to the throne, Prince Prajadhipok chose to pursue a military career. Like many of the king's children, he was sent abroad to study, going to Eton College in 1906, then to the Woolwich Military Academy from which he graduated in 1913. He received a commission in the Royal Horse Artillery in the British Army based in Aldershot. In 1910 Chulalongkorn died and was succeeded by Prajadhipok's older brother (also a son of Queen Saovabha), Crown Prince Vajiravudh, who became King Rama VI. Prince Prajadhipok was by then commissioned in both the British Army and the Royal Siamese Army. With the outbreak of the First World War and the declaration of Siamese neutrality, King Vajiravudh ordered his younger brother to resign his British commission and return to Siam immediately, a great embarrassment to the prince, who wanted to serve with his men on the Western front. Once home, Prajadhipok became a high-ranking military official in Siam. In 1917 he was ordained temporarily as a monk, as was customary for most Buddhist Siamese men.


title: Prajadhipok

text: In August 1918 Prince Prajadhipok married his childhood friend and cousin Rambhai Barni, a descendant of King Mongkut (Prajadhipok's grandfather) and his Royal Consort Piam. They were married at Sukhothai Palace which was a wedding gift to the couple from Queen Saovabha.


title: Prajadhipok

text: After the war in Europe ended, he attended the École Superieure de Guerre in France, returning to Siam to the Siamese military. During this time, he was granted the additional title "Krom Luang Sukhothai" (Prince of Sukhothai). Prajadhipok lived a generally quiet life with his wife at their residence, Sukhothai Palace, next to the Chao Phraya River. The couple had no children. Prajadhipok soon found himself rising rapidly in succession to the throne, as his brothers all died within a relatively short period. In 1925, King Vajiravudh himself died at the age of 44. Prajadhipok became absolute monarch at only thirty-two. He was crowned King of Siam on 25 February 1926.


title: Prajadhipok

text: Relatively unprepared for his new responsibilities, Prajadhipok was nevertheless intelligent, diplomatic in his dealings with others, modest, and eager to learn. However, he had inherited serious political and economic problems from his predecessor. The budget was heavily in deficit, and the royal financial accounts were in serious disorder. The entire world was in the throes of the Great Depression.


title: Prajadhipok

text: In an institutional innovation intended to restore confidence in the monarchy and government, Prajadhipok, in what was virtually his first act as king, announced the creation of the Supreme Council of the State of Siam. This council was made up of five experienced members of the royal family, although to emphasise the break with the previous reign the selected five had all fallen out of favour with the previous monarch. The council thus comprised three of the king's uncles, Prince Bhanurangsi, Prince Naris and Prince Damrong Rajanubhab and two of his half-brothers, Prince Kitiyakon (Prince Chantaburi) and Prince Boriphat.


title: Prajadhipok

text: Many of the Princes of the Supreme Council felt that it was their duty to make amends for the mistakes of the previous reign, but their acts were not generally appreciated, for the government failed to communicate to the public the purpose of the policies they pursued to rectify Vajiravudh's extreme financial extravagances. Gradually these princes arrogated power to themselves, monopolising all the main ministerial positions and appointing their sons and brothers to both administrative and military posts. By April 1926 almost the entire cabinet of ministry heads had been replaced with newly appointed Princes or nobles, with only three former members being re-appointed. While the family appointments brought back men of talent and experience, they also signalled a return to royal oligarchy.


title: Prajadhipok

text: The king clearly wished to demonstrate a clear break with the discredited sixth reign, and his choice of men to fill the top positions appeared to be guided largely by a wish to restore a Chulalongkorn-type government. Unlike his predecessor, the king read virtually all state papers that came his way, from ministerial submissions to petitions by citizens. The king was painstaking and conscientious; he would elicit comments and suggestions from a range of experts and study them, noting the good points in each submission, but when various options were available he would seldom be able to select the best one and abandon others. He would often rely upon the Supreme Council to prod him in a particular direction.


title: Prajadhipok

text: From the beginning of his reign King Prajadhipok was acutely aware that political change was necessary if the monarchy was to be preserved. He viewed his newly established Supreme Council as an institutional check upon the powers of an absolute monarch. During 1926, Prajadhipok experimented with using the Privy Council, which had over 200 members at that time, as a quasi-legislative body. This large of an assembly proved too cumbersome, and in 1927 Prajadhipok created the Committee of the Privy Council consisting of 40 members selected from the royal family or nobility. The committee was received positively by the press and was envisaged as a forerunner of a parliament or National Assembly. In practice however the committee remained relatively unimportant and sadly did not develop into a more powerful or representative body.