title: Vera Atkins

text: Atkins' efforts in looking for her missing "girls" meant not only did each now have a place of death, but by detailing their bravery before and after capture, she also helped to ensure that each (except Sonia Olschanezky, unknown to Atkins until 1947) received official recognition by the British Government, including the award of a posthumous George Cross to both Violette Szabo in 1946 and, especially due to Atkins's efforts, Noor Inayat Khan in 1949. (Odette Sansom, who survived Ravensbrück, also received the GC in 1946.) However, when Atkins did confirm that Sonia Olschanezky had died at Natzweiler-Struthof, she failed to pass the information to Sonia's family.


title: Vera Atkins

text: Atkins was demobilised in 1947, and although nominated for an MBE, was not awarded a decoration in the postwar honours lists.


title: Vera Atkins

text: Atkins went to work for UNESCO's Central Bureau for Educational Visits and Exchanges, as office manager from 1948, and director from 1952. She took early retirement in 1961, and retired to Winchelsea in East Sussex.


title: Vera Atkins

text: In 1950, Atkins was an advisor on the film "Odette", about Odette Sansom (by the then wife of Peter Churchill), and in 1958 on the film of "Carve Her Name With Pride", based upon the biography of the same name of Violette Szabo by R. J. Minney. She also assisted Jean Overton Fuller on her 1952 life of Noor Inayat Khan, "Madelaine", but their friendship cooled after the author revealed the success of the German Funkspiel against F Section in her 1954 book, "The Starr Affair", and Overton Fuller later came to believe that Atkins had been a Soviet agent.


title: Vera Atkins

text: Atkins was also suspected by some former SOE officials of working for the Germans, but Sarah Helm dismisses these claims of her being a Soviet or Nazi spy and suggests that Atkins' less straightforward behaviour and secrecy can be explained by her determination not to reveal her 1940 mission to the continent. Her position as a woman, a Jew and a non-British national in SOE would also explain Atkins' defensiveness during and after the war. Nevertheless, especially given her pre-war contacts and activities, her position does not rule out the possibility either.


title: Vera Atkins

text: Atkins persuaded M.R.D. Foot, SOE's official historian, not to reveal her Romanian origins in his history. She remained to her death a strong defender of F Section's wartime record, and ensured that each of the 12 women who had died in the three Nazi concentration camps of Natzweiler-Struthof, Dachau and Ravensbrück are commemorated by memorial plaques close to where they were killed. Atkins also supported the memorial at Valençay in the Loire Valley, unveiled in 1991, which is dedicated to the agents of SOE in France killed in the line of duty.


title: Vera Atkins

text: In 1996, Atkins wrote to "The Daily Telegraph" to defend the decision to send Noor Inayat Khan to France, writing of Noor's initial success in evading capture, her two escape attempts, and her detention in Pforzheim prison manacled in chains as a dangerous prisoner: "This is the record of Noor Inayat Khan and her answer to those who doubted her."


title: Vera Atkins

text: Atkins was appointed CBE in the 1997 Birthday Honours. She was awarded the Croix de Guerre in 1948 and made a Knight of the Legion of Honour by the French government in 1987.


title: Vera Atkins

text: In 2022, a historical plaque was placed at Nell Gwynn House, near Sloane Square, London, where Vera lived during WW2, by the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation, U.K. Branch and the (British) Association of Jewish Ex-Servicemen and Women, Stamford Hill Branch.


title: Vera Atkins

text: Atkins died at a hospital in Hastings on 24 June 2000, aged 92. She had been in a nursing home recovering from a skin complaint when she fell and broke a hip. Atkins was admitted to the hospital where she contracted MRSA.


title: Vera Atkins

text: Her memorial plaque, which is shared with her brother Guy, is in the northern wall at St Senara's churchyard in Zennor, Cornwall where her ashes were scattered. The inscription reads "Vera May Atkins, CBE Légion d'honneur Croix de guerre". An attempt by AJEX Archivist (Association of Jewish Ex-Servicemen and Women of the UK) and author, Martin Sugarman, who interviewed Vera in Winchelsea for his chapters on Jews in SOE in his book 'Fighting Back', on 24 April 1998, to have a Star of David metal peg placed at her memorial at Zennor on a visit in 2012, was refused by the family via the vicar of the church when Sugarman visited the church and plaque. Vera also refused to allow Sugarman to tape her interview at the time and even though she understood fully why he was interviewing her as having known all the agents, and the two – Bloch and Byck, he was specifically writing about, she never revealed she was Jewish and he did not discover this till her obituary was published two years later. Leo Marks, the Jewish Chief of Codes at SOE, who Sugarman also interviewed the same year, 1998, also never let on that Vera was Jewish.


title: Tughlaq Durbar

text: Tughlaq Durbar is a 2021 Indian Tamil-language political satire film written and directed by Delhi Prasad Deenadayalan, on his directional debut, with screenplay and dialogues written by Balaji Tharaneetharan. The film stars Vijay Sethupathi, Raashii Khanna, R. Parthiban, Manjima Mohan, Karunakaran, Bagavathi Perumal and Rajkumar. The music of the film is composed by Govind Vasantha, with Manoj Paramahamsa and Mahendiran Jayaraju handling the cinematography and R. Govindaraj edited the film.


title: Tughlaq Durbar

text: The film had a direct-to-television premiere on Sun TV during Ganesh Chaturthi (10 September 2021) and released on Netflix, the following day to mixed reviews.


title: Tughlaq Durbar

text: In 1986, Rayappan, a Tamil Nadu MLA of the ruling party, is delivering a speech at J.K. Nagar, an impoverished suburb in Chennai, where one of the attendants, a pregnant woman, goes into labour. As a publicity stunt for creating sympathy, Rayappan orders his men to help the woman by lending their dhotis. The woman gives birth to a boy, whom Rayappan christens as Singaravelan, or "Singam" on the stage. Singam grows up as an orphan as his mother had died shortly after the birth of his younger sister, Manimegalai, followed by the death of his father due to overdrinking. Singam's relationship with Manimegalai is quite fraught and strained as the former blames her for their parents death and the latter disapproves of the former's obsession towards Rayappan, for whom he even sold her mother's only nosepiece for party promotions. This led them to not be on talking terms for 20 years.


title: Tughlaq Durbar

text: In 2021, Rayappan, now a powerful and influential politician, begins scouting for a suitable candidate to work as a councillor for J.K. Nagar. Vying for attention, Singam strives to seek Rayappan's consideration by performing a media stunt by drinking poison in front of press during Rayappan's arrest and gains his trust, much to the irritation and dismay of Mangalam, Rayappan's right-hand man, who is also vying for the position. Singam manages to emerge as Rayappan's favorite within a short span of time by employing hilarious techniques and his friend Vasu's ideas. Frustrated at being sidelined, an infuriated Mangalam brandishes a bottle at Singam's head; he is subsequently expelled from the ruling party for his ruthless behavior.


title: Tughlaq Durbar

text: Shortly after the incident, Singam develops an alter ego, presumably from his injuries who does quite the opposite of Singam's doings. The next day he gets nominated for the counsellor chair, but beforehand, Rayappan asks for 50 lakhs as a deposit for his post, which he got from duping Kamatchi, a wealthy daughter of a moneylending businessman who Singam initially kidnapped with Vasu as a pawn for extorting money from her father with the help of Vasu's hired goons, only to be saved by his alter ego who first resurfaces by thrashing the goons and saving her. During elections, both Singam and Mangalam try various corrupt tricks to lure the voters and increase their vote bank. Initially, Singam is lagging behind in public opinion and votes due to the lack of money power but manages to gamble on the sympathy by intentionally carrying a pregnant woman Shanti in front of the people to gain voters recognition and trust of the people, much to the horror and dismay of Vasu, but Singam ultimately beats Mangalam to become the new counsellor of J.K Nagar.


title: Tughlaq Durbar

text: Now enters Damayanthi and Mayor into the fray, who run an illegal construction and money laundering firm for corporate companies under the pretext of NGO named Aashirvaad Foundation. They initially sign a contract with Singam under Rayappan as a mediator for evacuation and demolition of J.K Nagar and offer 50 crores as advance as a bribe. But in the wake of the night, Singam's alter ego again resurfaces and leaks the document to media framing Rayappan, Singam and the ruling party under corruption case. An agitated Rayappan calls for an urgent party meeting to catch the culprit but is shocked to see the vigilante masked in CCTV. He then orders Singam to check the whereabouts of the money hideout, only to find the mask used by the vigilante in there. Now begins the cat and mouse game between Singam and vigilante Singam who flunks out what corrupt Singam's plans to do using various tactics and even causes a distrust with Vasu, who leaves him after seeing his evil intentions and Rayappan questioning his loyalty.


title: Tughlaq Durbar

text: Finally, after getting convinced by the evidence found against Singam, Rayappan deduces that Singam is the masked vigilante who has conked all his wrongdoings and orders his henchmen to abduct him, only to be caught red-handed by the income tax department while exchanging money due to the intelligence of the vigilante Singam. After investigations, it is found that Singam handed over only 1/5th of the money. After being bailed out by Kamatchi, who comes across the truth about him and breaks up with him angrily for playing with her emotions. Meanwhile, an angry and denounced Rayappan orders his henchmen to kill Singam in his own area as a statement for betrayal, only to be saved by Lakshmi (whose pregnancy Singam gambled with for vote) and his area people, but not before passing out due to fatal injuries sustained.


title: Tughlaq Durbar

text: In the hospital, Singam realizes his folly for betraying trust of his people against their love they showered over him over the years and inspired by Vasu and the final video recording of his alter ego in which he reveals the hideout of remaining money through Vasu, he reconciles with Manimegalai after thrashing her pervert boss who sexually abused many women thereby shaving is head in public and slowly regains his reputation to emerge as the people's favorite MLA candidate in upcoming state elections by performing his duties with the money he stoved away. Fearing his defeat certain and fumed with rage about loss, Rayappan kidnaps J.K Nagar's 40 children to extract the remaining 40 crores from Singam to avenge his loss only to be exposed to media about his atrocities to public and CM, who orders Rayappan to drop his plans not before sacking him from party and issuing orders to arrest Damayanti. In the meeting with CM Nagarajan Chozlan aka Ammavasa, Singam quickly cements his place as CM's right-hand man and becomes J.K Nagar's MLA by playing in the same manner he did with Rayappan, much to the shock and belief of Vasu, who again questions his personality, to which Singam replies there is always a need for a perfect mix of good and evil to sustain in politics.


title: Tughlaq Durbar

text: Producer S. S. Lalit Kumar, who distributed Vijay Sethupathi's "'96" had announced his foray into film production with Sethupathi being cast in the leading role. At the special event to commodate the success of "'96", Lalit announced their project being tentatively titled as "Thuglak" and will be helmed by debutant film maker Delhi Prasad Deenadayalan, an assistant of Balaji Tharaneetharan. Prasad in his interaction with "The Times of India", stated the film is an "out-and-out mass subject", but still a "sensible film". He further revealed that Vijay Sethupathi will play a role of a politician, whose character will have "interesting shades" and an "element of fantasy woven into it". Tharaneetharan was roped in to write the screenplay and dialogues, whereas Govind Vasantha who earlier collaborated with Sethupathi in "96" took charge of composing the music.


title: Tughlaq Durbar

text: The film was launched on 3 August 2019 with Parthiban, Aditi Rao Hydari, Gayathrie and Manjima Mohan were announced as the pivotal characters. Lalit Kumar announced through Twitter in May 2020 that 35 days of shooting was completed before the COVID-19 lockdown in India, with 40 more days of shoot pending. Hydari later opted out of the project citing schedule conflicts, and Raashi Khanna was selected to replace her in October 2020, marking Khanna's second collaboration with Sethupathi, after "Sangathamizhan". Samyuktha Karthik of "Bigg Boss" fame was announced as a new addition to the film's cast in December 2020. The shooting of the film was wrapped on 7 January 2021 and the team began post-production.


title: Tughlaq Durbar

text: The film's soundtrack and background score is composed by Govind Vasantha, and the album featured four songs with lyrics written by Karthik Netha and Madhan Karky. The first single from the film titled "Annathe Sethi" which had lyrics written by Karthik Netha and sung by Arivu, was released by Think Music on 28 September 2020. A reviewer from "The Times of India", called it as a "spirited political revolutionary song", and Karthik Srinivasan of "Milliblog" said that "The song wears its 'revolutionary sound' up-front, but Govind's music is pulsating and very catchy, particularly when the chorus joins Arivu's rousing singing."


title: Tughlaq Durbar

text: A year later, the entire soundtrack album was released on 2 September 2021. The album opened to positive reviews from critics, with Ramya Palisetty of "India Today" describing the soundtrack as "compelling", and Vipin Nair of "Music Aloud" said that "Govind had delivered eclectic tunes with fusing beats" and rated 3 out of 5 to the album.


title: Tughlaq Durbar

text: The film was initially scheduled for theatrical release in 2020, but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The film premiered directly through Sun TV on 10 September 2021, coinciding with the occasion of Ganesh Chaturthi, and was streamed on Netflix the following days.


title: Tughlaq Durbar

text: The film opened up with mixed reviews from both critics and audiences. To praise for the acting of Vijay Sethupathi, and Parthiban and the comically delivered dialogues. Baradwaj Rangan of "Film Companion South" wrote "The second half seems all over the place, like little scenes stitched together instead of one integral, organic screenplay. The ending is funny in a certain way but it also doesn't fit in with the rest of the film. It might work as a standalone scene, but like the rest of the film, it needed far better writing and conceptualization."


title: New Gods: Nezha Reborn

text: New Gods: Nezha Reborn () is a 2021 Chinese 3D animated fantasy action film directed by Zhao Ji and written by Mu Chuan, based on the character of Nezha from the Ming dynasty novel "Investiture of the Gods". In the film, a steampunk and cyberpunk take on the story, Nezha is reincarnated as Li Yunxiang in the fictional city of Donghai (loosely based on 1920s Shanghai) and must settle a 3,000-year-old grudge with the Dragon Clan.


title: New Gods: Nezha Reborn

text: The film was released in mainland China on 12 February 2021 (Chinese New Year). Netflix acquired global rights to the film except in China, and it was released on the platform on 12 April 2021.


title: New Gods: Nezha Reborn

text: "New Gods: Nezha Reborn" is not related to the 2019 film "Ne Zha"; they came from different production companies and have different distributors. "New Gods: Nezha Reborn" actually started production before "Ne Zha" did, but both films are loosely based on the same Ming Dynasty novel.


title: New Gods: Nezha Reborn

text: Three thousand years after Nezha fought the sea, Li Yunxiang, a young motorbike rider in Donghai City, discovers that he is Nezha reborn. Before he has mastered his powers, his old enemies appear, and he must settle a 3,000-year-old grudge with the Dragon Clan.


title: New Gods: Nezha Reborn

text: "New Gods: Nezha Reborn" expands on the original story of Nezha from the Ming Dynasty novel "Investiture of the Gods". It was directed by Zhao Ji and produced by Light Chaser Animation Studios, and it took four years to produce. Zhao Ji and Light Chaser previously collaborated on the 2019 film "White Snake", which features some of the same cast and crew.


title: New Gods: Nezha Reborn

text: The cyberpunk city of Donghai was designed based on a mixture of Manhattan in the 1920s and '30s and Republic of China–era Shanghai, according to Zhao.


title: New Gods: Nezha Reborn

text: The film was originally scheduled for a summer 2020 release, but was delayed. In 2020 it was presented as a "work in progress" at the Annecy International Animation Film Festival and released a promotional video. In August 2020, its first official trailer was released. On 10 October 2020, a promotional poster was released and the film's release was announced for 12 February 2021 (Chinese New Year). It was screened at IMAX theaters in China on 6 February 2021, with a second round of screenings on 9 February.


title: New Gods: Nezha Reborn

text: Netflix has acquired streaming rights for the film outside of mainland China, and it was released on the platform on 12 April 2021.


title: New Gods: Nezha Reborn

text: Critic Lim Yian Yu called the film "an interesting take" on the classic novel, and said it was "definitely a family-friendly movie that can be enjoyed by children and adults alike".


title: New Gods: Nezha Reborn

text: Sun Jiayin praised the decision to bring the character of Nezha into a setting 3,000 years after the original story, saying that this made the film distinct from the plethora of other "Investiture of the Gods" adaptations out there.


title: Ni Ni

text: Ni Ni (, born 8 August 1988) is a Chinese actress best known for portraying Yu Mo in the 2011 film "The Flowers of War", directed by Zhang Yimou; and Ling Xi in the 2019 television series "Love and Destiny". She is considered to be one of the “New Four Dan Actresses” by Southern Metropolis Daily.


title: Ni Ni

text: Ni was born on 8 March 1988 in Nanjing, Jiangsu, China. She graduated from the Communication University of China, Nanjing, majoring in television broadcasting and hosting.


title: Ni Ni

text: Ni made her debut in Zhang Yimou's war film "The Flowers of War", playing the lead female character "Yu Mo". She received acclaim for her performance in the film and rose to fame.


title: Ni Ni

text: In 2012 and 2013, Li starred in the mystery film "Redemption" alongside Liu Ye, romance film "Love Will Tear Us Apart" and road-trip drama film "Up in the Wind".


title: Ni Ni

text: In 2014, Ni starred in the coming-of-age film "Fleet of Time". In 2015, Ni starred alongside Angelababy in the Chinese remake of "Bride Wars".


title: Ni Ni

text: The same year, she starred in the romantic comedy film "Suddenly Seventeen", directed by Zhang Yimou's daughter.


title: Ni Ni

text: In 2017, Ni starred in fantasy action film "Wu Kong", as well as science fiction wuxia film "The Thousand Faces of Dunjia" directed by Tsui Hark.


title: Ni Ni

text: In 2018, Ni starred in her first television drama, "The Rise of Phoenixes" alongside Chen Kun. She released her first single, "Why to No Avail" as part of the soundtrack of the series. "Forbes China" listed Ni under their 30 Under 30 Asia 2017 list which consisted of 30 influential people under 30 years old who have had a substantial effect in their fields.


title: Ni Ni

text: In 2019, Ni returned to the big screen in the crime heist film "Savage". She then made her theater debut in the play "One One Zero Eight" directed by Stan Lai. The same year, Ni starred in the fantasy romance drama "Love and Destiny" alongside Chang Chen. The series received positive reviews, and Ni gained acclaim for her portrayal of a fairy maiden that went through numerous struggles to attain happiness.


title: Ni Ni

text: In 2021, Ni was cast in the drama "Night Wanderer", adapted from the popular time-travel themed novel "Ye Lv Ren" (夜旅人) by Zhao Xi Zhi alongside Deng Lun.


title: Ni Ni

text: Ni has been the Chinese ambassador for Jaeger-LeCoultre since 2011 and was named as the global ambassador for SK-II in 2013.


title: Ni Ni

text: In 2014, she was selected to be the brand ambassador for Uniqlo in China, and now a global spokesperson for Uniqlo.


title: Ni Ni

text: Ni has been the official brand ambassador of Gucci since 2017 and a global ambassador for Gucci's Eyewear since 2019. Since 2022, she has been announced as Global Brand Ambassador of Gucci.


title: Ni Ni

text: Ni has been the global ambassador of Bobbi Brown Cosmetics since 2019 and a global ambassador of Cindy Chao The Art Jewel since 2021.


title: Ni Ni

text: Since 2022, French luxury beauty house Lancôme announced Ni as their Global Skincare and Fragrance Ambassador.


title: Wasteland 3

text: Wasteland 3 is a role-playing video game developed by inXile Entertainment and published by Deep Silver. It is a sequel to "Wasteland 2" (2014) and was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on August 28, 2020. It was ported to Linux and macOS on December 17, 2020.


title: Wasteland 3

text: "Wasteland 3" is a squad-based role-playing video game featuring turn-based combat. Played from an isometric perspective, the game features synchronous and asynchronous multiplayer. In the game, players need to make various choices, which would have different impacts on the game's world and the story. The game introduces a vehicle that the players can use to traverse the world and store supplies. The main campaign can be played cooperatively with another player.


title: Wasteland 3

text: "Wasteland 3" is set in the frozen wastelands of a post-apocalyptic Colorado. The player takes control of two members from Arizona Ranger Team November, who survived after their unit was ambushed while on a mission in Colorado. The two survivors are subsequently forced to work with the local ruler, known as the "Patriarch", in order to earn his support for the Arizona Rangers - after the last game, and the choice between Highpool and Ag Center, the Rangers are struggling to keep order in the face of increasingly severe shortages of food and water.


title: Wasteland 3

text: Once arrived and settled, the rangers are informed by the Patriarch that they are to hunt down and rein in his three heirs, who have gone wild and begun fighting each other to succeed him, as well as fight to preserve his rule over the many settlements and scattered populations that make up Colorado. However, as the story unfolds, the rangers discover the extent of the Patriarch's brutality, and are contacted by Angela Deth (a returning NPC from previous "Wasteland" games) who asks for their help in sparking a rebellion against the Patriarch. Player must then decide whether to uphold the original bargain or work to free Colorado and potentially endanger the future of Arizona.


title: Wasteland 3

text: "Wasteland 3" was announced by inXile Entertainment in September 2016. "Wasteland 3" was developed using the Unity game engine. The development team is composed of people who worked on "" (2017). As with "Wasteland 2", inXile chose to crowdfund the development of the game. Unlike their previous Kickstarter projects, inXile chose to use equity crowdfunding service Fig. The crowdfunding campaign launched in October 2016, and concluded a month later with over $3 million raised.


title: Wasteland 3

text: The game was scheduled to launch on Linux, PlayStation 4, Windows and Xbox One in Q4 2019. After Xbox Game Studios acquired the company, inXile hired more staff for the game's development and delayed its release date to early 2020. The game's budget was three times more than "Wasteland 2". The additional budget was mostly spent on implementing conversational scenes and hiring voice actors. It was delayed again due to inXile's remote working conditions from the COVID-19 pandemic., while the Mac and Linux versions were postponed to an undisclosed date due to developer's "decision to focus Wasteland 3's initial release on Windows 10, Xbox One, and PlayStation 4". The game was eventually ported to Linux and macOS in December 2020.


title: Wasteland 3

text: Further expansion of the story is planned through downloadable content. Two expansions, titled "Battle of Steeltown" and "Cult of the Holy Detonation", were released on June 3, 2021, and October 5, 2021.


title: Wasteland 3

text: The soundtrack received special attention from inXile's Brian Fargo when he hired Mary Ramos, known for her work as Quentin Tarantino's music supervisor to create music for Wasteland 3. Inspired by the idea of future civilizations not having context for the meaning or intent of a piece of music or lyrics they might find, the soundtrack includes post-apocalyptic versions of the "Welcome Back (Kotter)" and "Green Acres" theme songs, Wang Chung's "Everybody Have Fun Tonight", as well as American anthems and bible hymns. Mark Morgan ("Wasteland 2, Fallout, Fallout 2") returned to add his unique take on an atmospheric score for the post-apocalypse.


title: Wasteland 3

text: The game received generally positive reviews upon release, getting a score of 85/100 from critics on review aggregator Metacritic. By December 2021, the game had attracted more than 2 million players.


title: Wasteland 3

text: It was nominated for the category of Best Role Playing at The Game Awards 2020, but lost to "Final Fantasy VII Remake".


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Cory Efram Doctorow (; born July 17, 1971) is a Canadian-British blogger, journalist, and science fiction author who served as co-editor of the blog "Boing Boing". He is an activist in favour of liberalising copyright laws and a proponent of the Creative Commons organization, using some of their licences for his books. Some common themes of his work include digital rights management, file sharing, and post-scarcity economics.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Cory Efram Doctorow was born in Toronto, Ontario, on 17 July 1971. He is of Eastern European Jewish descent. His paternal grandfather was born in what is now Poland and his paternal grandmother was from Leningrad. Both fled Nazi Germany's advance eastward during World War II, and as a result Doctorow's father was born in a displaced persons camp near Baku, Azerbaijan. His grandparents and father emigrated to Canada from the Soviet Union. Doctorow's mother's family were Ukrainian-Russian Romanians.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Doctorow was a friend of Columbia law professor Tim Wu, dating to their time together in elementary school. Doctorow went to summer camp as a young teenager at what he has described as a "hippy summer camp" at Grindstone Island, near Portland, Ontario, that was influential on his intellectual life and development. He quit high school, received his Ontario Academic Credit (high school diploma) from the SEED School in Toronto, and attended four universities without obtaining a degree.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Cory Doctorow has stated both that he is not related to the American novelist E. L. Doctorow and that he may be a third cousin once removed of the novelist.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: In June 1999, Doctorow co-founded the free software P2P company Opencola with John Henson and Grad Conn, which sold to the Open Text Corporation of Waterloo, Ontario in the summer of 2003. The company used a drink called "OpenCola" as part of its promotional campaign.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Doctorow later relocated to London and worked as European Affairs Coordinator for the Electronic Frontier Foundation for four years, helping to establish the Open Rights Group, before leaving the EFF to pursue writing full-time in January 2006; Doctorow remained a Fellow of the EFF for some time after his departure from the EFF Staff. He was named the 2006–2007 Canadian Fulbright Chair for Public Diplomacy at the USC Center on Public Diplomacy, sponsored jointly by the Royal Fulbright Commission, the Integrated Media Systems Center, and the USC Center on Public Diplomacy. The professorship included a one-year writing and teaching residency at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, United States. He then returned to London, but remained a frequent public speaker on copyright issues.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: In 2009, Doctorow became the first Independent Studies Scholar in Virtual Residence at the University of Waterloo in Ontario. He was a student in the program during 1993–94, but left without completing a thesis. Doctorow is also a Visiting Professor at the Open University in the United Kingdom. In 2012 he was awarded an honorary doctorate from The Open University.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Doctorow married Alice Taylor in October 2008; they have a daughter named Poesy Emmeline Fibonacci Nautilus Taylor Doctorow, who was born in 2008. Doctorow became a British citizen by naturalisation on 12 August 2011.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: In 2015, Doctorow decided to leave London and move to Los Angeles, expressing disappointment at London's "death" after Britain's choice of Conservative government; he stated at the time, "London is a city whose two priorities are being a playground for corrupt global elites who turn neighbourhoods into soulless collections of empty safe-deposit boxes in the sky, and encouraging the feckless criminality of the finance industry. These two facts are not unrelated." He rejoined the EFF in January 2015 to campaign for the eradication of digital rights management (DRM).


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Doctorow left "Boing Boing" in January 2020, and soon started a solo blogging project titled Pluralistic. The circumstances surrounding Doctorow's exit from the website were unclear at the time, although Doctorow acknowledged that he remained a co-owner of "Boing Boing". Given the end of the 19-year association between Doctorow and "Boing Boing", MetaFilter described this news as "the equivalent of the Beatles breaking up" for the blog world. Doctorow's exit was not acknowledged by Boing Boing, with his name being quietly removed from the list of editors on 29 January 2020.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Doctorow served as Canadian Regional Director of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America in 1999.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: In 2007, together with Austrian art group monochrom, he initiated the "Instant Blitz Copy Fight" project, which asks people from all over the world to take flash pictures of copyright warnings in movie theaters.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: On October 31, 2005, Doctorow was involved in a controversy concerning digital rights management with Sony-BMG, as told in "Wikinomics".


title: Cory Doctorow

text: As a user of the Tor anonymity network for more than a decade during his global travels, Doctorow publicly supports the network; furthermore, Boing Boing operates a "high speed, high-quality exit node."


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Doctorow began selling fiction when he was 17 years old, and sold several stories, followed by publication of the story "Craphound" in 1998.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: "Down and Out in the Magic Kingdom", Doctorow's first novel, was published in January 2003, and was the first novel released under one of the Creative Commons licences, allowing readers to circulate the electronic edition as long as they neither made money from it nor used it to create derived works. The electronic edition was released simultaneously with the print edition. In February 2004, it was re-released with a different Creative Commons license that allowed derivative works such as fan fiction, but still prohibited commercial usage.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: "Down and Out..." was nominated for a Nebula Award, and won the Locus Award for Best First Novel in 2004. A semi-sequel short story named "Truncat" was published on Salon.com in August 2003.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: His novel "Someone Comes to Town, Someone Leaves Town," published in June 2005, was chosen to launch the Sci-Fi Channel's book club, Sci-Fi Essentials (now defunct).


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Doctorow's other novels have been released with Creative Commons licences that allow derived works and prohibit commercial usage, and he has used the model of making digital versions available, without charge, at the same time that print versions are published.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: His Sunburst Award-winning short story collection "A Place So Foreign and Eight More" was also published in 2004: "0wnz0red" from this collection was nominated for the 2004 Nebula Award for Best Novelette.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Doctorow released the bestselling novel "Little Brother" in 2008 with a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-ShareAlike licence. It was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Novel in 2009. and won the 2009 Prometheus Award, Sunburst Award, and the 2009 John W. Campbell Memorial Award.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: His novel "Makers" was released in October 2009, and was serialised for free on the Tor Books website.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Doctorow released another young adult novel, "For the Win", in May 2010. The novel is available free on the author's website as a Creative Commons download, and is also published in traditional paper format by Tor Books. The book is about "greenfarming", and concerns massively multiplayer online role-playing games.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Doctorow's short story collection "With a Little Help" was released in printed format on May 3, 2011. It is a project to demonstrate the profitability of Doctorow's method of releasing his books in print and subsequently for free under Creative Commons.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: In September 2012, Doctorow released "The Rapture of the Nerds", a novel written in collaboration with Charles Stross.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Doctorow's young adult novel "Pirate Cinema" was released in October 2012. It won the 2013 Prometheus Award.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: In February 2013, Doctorow released "Homeland", the sequel to his novel "Little Brother". It won the 2014 Prometheus Award (Doctorow's third novel to win this award).


title: Cory Doctorow

text: In March 2019, Doctorow released "Radicalized", a collection of four self-contained science-fiction novellas dealing with how life in America could be in the near future. The book was selected for the 2020 edition of "Canada Reads", in which it was defended by Akil Augustine.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: "Attack Surface", a standalone adult novel set in the "Little Brother" universe, was released on October 13, 2020.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Doctorow's nonfiction works include his first book, "The Complete Idiot's Guide to Publishing Science Fiction" (co-written with Karl Schroeder and published in 2000), his contributions to Boing Boing, the blog he co-edits, as well as regular columns in the magazines "Popular Science" and "Make". He is a contributing writer to "Wired" magazine, and contributes occasionally to other magazines and newspapers such as the "New York Times Sunday Magazine", "The Globe and Mail", "Asimov's Science Fiction" magazine, and the "Boston Globe".


title: Cory Doctorow

text: In 2004, he wrote an essay on Wikipedia included in "The Anthology at the End of the Universe", comparing Internet attempts at Hitchhiker's Guide-type resources, including a discussion of the Wikipedia article about himself. Doctorow contributed the foreword to "Sound Unbound: Sampling Digital Music and Culture" (The MIT Press, 2008) edited by Paul D. Miller a.k.a. DJ Spooky. He also was a contributing writer to the book "Worldchanging: A User's Guide for the 21st Century".


title: Cory Doctorow

text: He popularised the term "metacrap" by a 2001 essay titled "Metacrap: Putting the torch to seven straw-men of the meta-utopia." Some of his non-fiction published between 2001 and 2007 has been collected by Tachyon Publications as "Content: Selected Essays on Technology, Creativity, Copyright, and the Future of the Future". In 2016 he wrote the article "Mr. Robot Killed the Hollywood-Hacker" (published on MIT Technology Review) as a review of the TV show Mr. Robot and argued for a better portrayal and understanding of technology, computers and their risks and consequences in our modern world.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: He is the originator of Doctorow's Law: "Anytime someone puts a lock on something you own, against your wishes, and doesn't give you the key, they're not doing it for your benefit."


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Writing in the Guardian in2022, Doctorow listed the many problems confronting Facebook and suggested that its future would be increasingly fraught.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Doctorow believes that copyright laws should be liberalised to allow for free sharing of all digital media. He has also advocated filesharing. He argues that copyright holders should have a monopoly on "selling" their own digital media and that copyright laws should not be operative unless someone attempts to sell a product that is under someone else's copyright.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: Doctorow is an opponent of digital rights management and claims that it limits the free sharing of digital media and frequently causes problems for legitimate users (including registration problems that lock users out of their own purchases and prevent them from being able to move their media to other devices).


title: Cory Doctorow

text: He was a keynote speaker at the 2014 international conference CopyCamp in Warsaw with the presentation "Information Doesn't Want to Be Free."


title: Cory Doctorow

text: The webcomic "xkcd" occasionally features a partially fictional version of Doctorow who lives in a hot air balloon up in the "blogosphere" ("above the tag clouds") and wears a red cape and goggles, such as in the comic "Blagofaire". When Doctorow won the 2007 EFF Pioneer Award, the presenters gave him a red cape, goggles and a balloon.


title: Cory Doctorow

text: The novel "Ready Player One" features a mention of Doctorow as being the newly re-elected President of the OASIS User Council (with Wil Wheaton as his vice-president) in the year 2044, saying that, "those two geezers had been doing a kick-ass job of protecting user rights for over a decade."


title: Cory Doctorow

text: The comedic role-playing game "Kingdom of Loathing" features a boss-fight against a monster named Doctor Oh, who is described as wearing a red cape and goggles. The commentary before the fight and assorted hit, miss and fumble messages during the battle make reference to Doctorow's advocacy for open-source sharing and freedom of media.


title: Aeon

text: The word aeon , also spelled eon (in American and Australian English), originally meant "life", "vital force" or "being", "generation" or "a period of time", though it tended to be translated as "age" in the sense of "ages", "forever", "timeless" or "for eternity". It is a Latin transliteration from the ancient Greek word ("ho aion"), from the archaic ("aiwon") meaning "century". In Greek, it literally refers to the timespan of one hundred years. Its latest meaning is more or less similar to the Sanskrit word "kalpa" and Hebrew word "olam". A cognate Latin word ' or ' (cf. ) for "age" is present in words such as "longevity" and "mediaeval".


title: Aeon

text: Although the term aeon may be used in reference to a period of a thousand million years (especially in geology, cosmology and astronomy), its more common usage is for any long, indefinite period. Aeon can also refer to the four aeons on the geologic time scale that make up the Earth's history, the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and the current aeon, Phanerozoic.


title: Aeon

text: Roger Penrose uses the word "aeon" to describe the period between successive and cyclic Big Bangs within the context of conformal cyclic cosmology.


title: Aeon

text: In Buddhism, an "aeon" or "mahakalpa" (Sanskrit: महाकल्प) is often said to be 1,334,240,000 years, the life cycle of the world.


title: Aeon

text: Plato used the word "aeon" to denote the eternal world of ideas, which he conceived was "behind" the perceived world, as demonstrated in his famous allegory of the cave.


title: Aeon

text: Christianity's idea of "eternal life" comes from the word for life, "zōḗ" (ζωή), and a form of "aión" (αἰών), which could mean life in the next aeon, the Kingdom of God, or Heaven, just as much as immortality, as in .


title: Aeon

text: According to Christian universalism, the Greek New Testament scriptures use the word "aión" (αἰών) to mean a long period and the word "" () to mean "during a long period"; Thus there was a time before the aeons, and the aeonian period is finite. After each person's mortal life ends, they are judged worthy of aeonian life or aeonian punishment. That is, after the period of the aeons, all punishment will cease and death is overcome and then God becomes the all in each one (). This contrasts with the conventional Christian belief in eternal life and eternal punishment.


title: Aeon

text: Occultists of the Thelema and O.T.O. (English: "Order of the Temple of the East") traditions sometimes speak of a "magical Aeon" that may last for perhaps as little as 2,000 years.


title: Aeon

text: In many Gnostic systems, the various emanations of God, who is also known by such names as the "One", the "Monad", "Aion teleos" ("The Broadest Aeon", Greek ), "Bythos" ("depth or profundity", Greek ), "Proarkhe" ("before the beginning", Greek ), ' ("the beginning", Greek ), ' ("wisdom"), and "" ("the Anointed One"), are called "Aeons". In the different systems these emanations are differently named, classified, and described, but the emanation theory itself is common to all forms of Gnosticism.


title: Aeon

text: In the Basilidian Gnosis they are called sonships ( '; singular: '); according to Marcus, they are numbers and sounds; in Valentinianism they form male/female pairs called "" (Greek , from "").


title: Aeon

text: In the last period, several projects with different purposes started to employ the term ""AEON"" to define themselves. The rationale behind this may be found the deep meaning hidden behind this word.


title: Murder of Cherish Perrywinkle

text: Cherish Lily Perrywinkle (December 24, 2004 – June 22, 2013) was an 8-year-old girl from Jacksonville, Florida who was abducted from a Walmart on June 21, 2013. She was seen on CCTV cameras leaving the store with a man named Donald James Smith (born September 4, 1956) who was later convicted of her murder and sentenced to death.


title: Murder of Cherish Perrywinkle

text: Cherish Lily Perrywinkle was born in Jacksonville, Florida on Christmas Eve of 2004 to Rayne Perrywinkle and Billy Jarreau, who were never married and had custody battles.


title: Murder of Cherish Perrywinkle

text: On June 21, 2013, around 8 pm, Rayne, Cherish, and her two younger sisters went shopping when they first met Donald Smith at a Dollar General, where he offered to buy them clothes they could not afford with a $150 Walmart gift card. The Perrywinkles then got into his white van and went with him to Walmart, where they shopped for the next 2 hours. At 10:30 pm, Smith offered to get them cheeseburgers at the store's McDonald's and Cherish followed him. However, surveillance footage shows that they walked out of the store instead, which was the last time Cherish was seen alive. About half an hour later, Rayne called the police to report that her daughter had been abducted and an Amber alert was issued five hours later. The next morning Cherish's body was found in a creek behind Highlands Baptist Church. It is believed that Smith had bound her in the back of his van, where she was sexually assaulted and strangled to death.


title: Murder of Cherish Perrywinkle

text: Police immediately identified Smith as the abductor, with his van being one of the main focuses. Around 9 am the next day, officers saw his van on the interstate and cornered him before he surrendered and was promptly arrested. Smith was known to police as a local sex offender with a long criminal history including numerous offenses against minors. He had been released from jail only three weeks before Cherish's murder.


title: Murder of Cherish Perrywinkle

text: Smith's trial began in February 2018. He was found guilty of first-degree murder and sexual battery and was sentenced to death in May 2018. The jurors were in tears after witnessing crime scene photos of the murder as the defense tried to suppress the images. Julie Schlax, the defense attorney, urged the jurors to focus on the law and not their raw emotions.


title: Enfilade and defilade

text: Enfilade and defilade are concepts in military tactics used to describe a military formation's exposure to enemy fire. A formation or position is "in enfilade" if weapon fire can be directed along its longest axis. A unit or position is "in defilade" if it uses natural or artificial obstacles to shield or conceal itself from enfilade and hostile fire. The strategies, named by the English during the Hundred Years' War, use the French "enfiler" ("to put on a string or sling") and "défiler" ("to slip away or off") spoken by English nobility of the time.


title: Enfilade and defilade

text: Enfilade fire—gunfire directed against an enfiladed formation or position—is also commonly known as "flanking fire". Raking fire is the equivalent term in naval warfare. Strafing, firing on targets from a flying platform, is often done with enfilade fire. It is a very advantageous, and much sought for, position for the attacking force.


title: Enfilade and defilade

text: A formation or position is "in enfilade" if weapon fire can be directed along its longest axis. For instance, a trench is enfiladed if the opponent can fire down the length of the trench. A column of marching troops is enfiladed if fired on from the front or rear such that the projectiles travel the length of the column. A rank or line of advancing troops is enfiladed if fired on from the side (from the flank).


title: Enfilade and defilade

text: The advantages of enfilading missiles have been appreciated since antiquity, whether in pitched battles such as the Battle of Taginae or in fortifications designed to provide the defenders with opportunities to enfilade attacking forces. Although sophisticated archery tactics grew rare in Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages, enfilade fire was reemphasized by the late medieval English using ranked archers combined with dismounted knights, first employed at the Battle of Dupplin Moor in 1332 and used to devastating effect against the French in the Hundred Years War. The benefit of enfilading an enemy formation is that, by firing along the long axis, it becomes easier to hit targets within that formation. Enfilade fire takes advantage of the fact that it is usually easier to aim laterally (traversing the weapon) than to correctly estimate the range to avoid shooting too long or short. Additionally, both indirect and direct fire projectiles that might miss an intended target are more likely to hit another valuable target within the formation if firing along the long axis.


title: Enfilade and defilade

text: When planning field and other fortifications, it became common for mutually supporting positions to be arranged so that it became impossible to attack any one position without exposing oneself to enfilading fire from the others, this being found for example in the mutually supporting bastions of star forts, and the caponiers of later fortifications.


title: Enfilade and defilade

text: Fire is delivered so that the long axis of the target coincides or nearly coincides with the long axis of the beaten zone.


title: Enfilade and defilade

text: A unit or position is "in defilade" if it uses natural or artificial obstacles to shield or conceal. For an armored fighting vehicle (AFV), defilade is synonymous with a hull-down or turret-down position.


title: Enfilade and defilade

text: Defilade is also used to refer to a position on the reverse slope of a hill or within a depression in level or rolling terrain. Defiladed positions on hilltops are advantageous because "dead space" – a space that cannot be engaged with direct fire – will be created in front of the position. Ideally, this dead space should be covered by the interlocking fields of fire of other nearby positions, and/or by pre-planned indirect fire such as mortars or other forms of artillery.


title: Enfilade and defilade

text: In the case of antitank weapons, and especially short-range man-portable antitank rockets, defiladed positions behind a hill have several important advantages. This is because the dead space created by the intervening crest of the hill prevents an approaching tank from using the range of its direct-fire weapons, and neither the attacker nor defender will have a clear shot until the tank is within range of the defending antitank weapon. In such engagements the tank is usually at a further disadvantage because the defender will often be camouflaged while the attacking tank will be silhouetted against the sky, giving the defender an easier shot.


title: Enfilade and defilade

text: In addition, if the tank fails to detect the defending antitank weapon while the tank is still defiladed, but advances beyond that position to the crest of the hill, it may expose the relatively thinner armor of its lower hull or belly to the defender. Early detection and elimination of antitank threats is an important reason that tanks attack with infantry support.


title: Enfilade and defilade

text: Artificial entrenchments can provide defilade by allowing troops to seek shelter behind a raised berm that increases the effective height of the ground, within an excavation that allows the troops to shelter below the surface of the ground or a combination of the two. The same principles apply to fighting positions for artillery and armored fighting vehicles.


title: Enfilade and defilade

text: A unit sited in defilade threatens an enemy that decides to pass it and move forward, because the enemy would be put in an enfiladed position when moving in a rank. The friendly unit would be in a position that is shielded by terrain from direct enemy fire, while still being able to fire on the enemy in an effective manner.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: Manuel Rubén Abimael Guzmán Reynoso (; 3 December 1934 − 11 September 2021), also known by his "nom de guerre" Chairman Gonzalo (), was a Peruvian Maoist revolutionary and guerrilla leader, considered a terrorist by various governments during his lifetime. He founded the organization Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path (PCP-SL) in 1969 and led a rebellion against the Peruvian government until his capture by authorities in September 1992. He was subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment for terrorism and treason.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: In the 1960s and 1970s, Guzmán was a professor of philosophy active in left-wing revolutionary politics and strongly influenced by Marxism, Leninism, and Maoism. He developed an ideology of armed struggle stressing the empowerment of the Indigenous people. He went underground in the mid-1970s to become the leader of the Shining Path, which began "The People's War" or the "Armed Struggle" on 17 May 1980.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: Manuel Rubén Abimael Guzmán Reynoso was born on 3 December 1934 in Mollendo, a port town in the province of Islay, in the region of Arequipa, about south of Lima. He was the illegitimate son of a well-off merchant, who had eight children by five different women. Guzmán's mother, Berenice Reynoso, died when he was five.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: At Arequipa, Guzmán completed bachelor's degrees in philosophy and law. His dissertations were entitled "The Kantian Theory of Space" and "The Bourgeois Democratic State". In 1962, Guzmán was recruited as a professor of philosophy by the rector of San Cristóbal of Huamanga University in Ayacucho, a city in the central Peruvian Andes. The rector was Dr. Efraín Morote Best, an anthropologist who some believe later became the true intellectual leader of the "Shining Path movement." Encouraged by Morote, Guzmán studied Quechua, the language spoken by Peru's Indigenous population, and became increasingly active in left-wing political circles. He attracted several like-minded young academics committed to bringing about revolution in Peru. Guzmán was arrested twice during the 1970s because of his participation in violent riots in the city of Arequipa against the government of presidents Velasco Alvarado and Belaunde Terry. He visited the People's Republic of China with his then-wife Augusta La Torre for the first time in 1965. After serving as the head of personnel for San Cristóbal of Huamanga University, Guzmán left the institution in the mid-1970s and went underground.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: In the 1960s, the Peruvian Communist Party had splintered over ideological and personal disputes. Guzmán, who had taken a pro-Chinese rather than pro-Soviet line, emerged as the leader of the faction which came to be known as the "Shining Path" (Mariátegui wrote once: "Marxism–Leninism is the shining path of the future"). Guzmán adopted the "nom de guerre" Presidente or Comrade Gonzalo and began advocating a peasant-led revolution on the Maoist model. His followers declared Guzmán, who cultivated anonymity, to be the "Fourth Sword of Communism" (after Marx, Lenin, and Mao). In his political declarations, Guzmán praised Mao's development of Lenin's thesis regarding "the role of imperialism" in propping up the "bourgeois capitalist system". He claimed that imperialism ultimately "creates disruption and is unsuccessful, and it will end up in ruins in the next 50 to 100 years". Guzmán applied this criticism not only to U.S. imperialism, but also Soviet imperialism, to what he termed as "social-imperialism".


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: In February 1964, he married Augusta la Torre, who was instrumental in founding Shining Path. She died under unclear circumstances in 1988. Guzmán and Elena Iparraguirre, a long-time lieutenant of Guzmán's and his lover, have both refused to talk about La Torre's fate since their imprisonments. In the fall of 2006, while in prison, Guzmán proposed to Iparraguirre, who is also serving a life sentence in a separate prison. After fighting for the permission to marry with a hunger strike, the couple wed in late August 2010.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: Guzmán had always identified with atheism. He agreed with Karl Marx about religion as the "opium of the people", and viewed it as a "social phenomena product of the exploitation and that will extinguish while exploitation finishes to be swept and a new society arise". However, he pleaded respect for religious diversity and claimed religion would not be an obstacle for the armed struggle.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: The Shining Path movement was at first largely confined to academic circles in Peruvian universities. In the late 1970s, however, the movement developed into a guerrilla group centered around Ayacucho. In May 1980, the group launched its war against the government of Peru by burning the ballot boxes in Chuschi, a village near Ayacucho, in an effort to disrupt the first democratic elections in the country since 1964. Shining Path eventually grew to control vast rural territories in central and southern Peru and achieved a presence even in the outskirts of Lima, where it staged numerous attacks. The purpose of Shining Path's campaign was to demoralize and undermine the government of Peru in order to create a situation conducive to a violent coup which would put its leaders in power. The Shining Path targeted not only the army and police, but also government employees at all levels, other leftist militants such as members of the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA), workers who did not participate in the strikes organized by the group, peasants who cooperated with the government in any way (including by voting in democratic elections), and middle-class inhabitants of Peru's main cities. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission later estimated that the resulting conflict led to the deaths of some seventy thousand people, approximately half of them at the hands of the Shining Path and a third at the hands of the state.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: Initially Guzmán attempted to win over the support of citizens by punishing people they viewed as corrupt government officials and other unpopular leaders. However, Shining Path's increasingly brutal methods together with strictly imposed curfews, the prohibition of alcohol and an overall sense of insecurity and fear led to an increased popular reaction against the communist party. Eventually Guzmán's plan backfired as rural militia or "rondas" rallied support for the military against Shining Path. The very peasants Guzmán claimed to defend had turned against the Shining Path. This resulted in a cyclical state of violence in which Maoist guerillas embarked in ruthless punitive raids against Peruvian civilians living in the Andean region. In 1983, 69 people from the highland town of Lucanamarca were tortured and murdered by the Shining Path in what became known as the Lucanamarca massacre.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: Guzmán's image as a dispassionate murderer became widespread after he moved against the city of Lima. After a series of bombings and selective assassinations the whole nation was shocked in 1992 when a car bomb exploded in one of Lima's busiest commercial districts on Tarata street, thus causing many casualties and enormous material losses. To his death, Guzmán denied responsibility for the Tarata bombing by claiming that it was carried out without his knowledge.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: The movement promoted the writings of Guzmán, called "Gonzalo Thought", a new "theoretical understanding" that built upon Marxism, Leninism, and Maoism whereby he declared Maoism to be a "third and higher stage of Marxism," having defined Maoism as "people's war." In 1989, Guzmán declared that the Shining Path (which he referred to as the "Communist Party of Peru") had progressed from waging a people's war to waging a "war of movements." He further argued that this was a step towards achieving "strategic equilibrium" in the near future, based on Maoist theories of waging people's war. Guzmán claimed that such an equilibrium would manifest itself by ungovernability under the "old order." When that moment arrived, Guzmán believed that Shining Path would be ready to move on to its "strategic offensive".


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: Theodore Dalrymple, a conservative English journalist, has written that"the worst brutality I ever saw was that committed by Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) in Peru, in the days when it seemed possible that it might come to power. If it had, I think its massacres would have dwarfed those of the Khmer Rouge. As a doctor, I am accustomed to unpleasant sights, but nothing prepared me for what I saw in Ayacucho, where Sendero first developed under the sway of a professor of philosophy, Abimael Guzmán."


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: In 1992, during the first administration of President Alberto Fujimori, the National Directorate Against Terrorism (DIRCOTE) began surveillance on several residences in Lima because agents suspected that terrorists were using them as safehouses. One of those residences, in the upper-class neighborhood of Surco, had been operating as a ballet studio. The DIRCOTE operatives routinely searched the garbage taken out from the house. The house was supposedly inhabited by only one person, the dance teacher Maritza Garrido Lecca, but it was soon noticed that the household produced more garbage than one person could account for. Furthermore, agents found discarded tubes of cream for the treatment of psoriasis, an ailment that Guzmán was known to have. On 12 September 1992, an elite unit of the DIRCOTE carried out Operation Victoria, raiding the Surco residence. On the second floor of the house, they found and arrested Guzmán and eight others, including Laura Zambrano and Elena Iparraguirre, Guzmán's female companion.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: Guzmán was tried by a court of hooded military judges under provisions of articles 15 and 16 of Law 25475 adopted by Fujimori's government in May 1992 after April's constitutional crisis. After a three-day trial, Guzmán was sentenced to life imprisonment and incarcerated at the naval base on the island of San Lorenzo off the coast of Lima.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: Subsequently, he was said to have negotiated with a presidential advisor at the time, Vladimiro Montesinos, in order to receive some benefits in exchange for helping the Peruvian government put an end to the Shining Path's militant activities. Guzmán appeared several times on Peruvian television and on 1 October 1993, he publicly declared "peace" with the Peruvian government. This declaration split the Shining Path and raised questions about the organization's future. About 6,000 guerrillas within the party accepted it as a sign of defeat and surrendered.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: Guzmán's re-trial began on 5 November 2004. The international press was held in a sound-proof chamber and all media was banned from observing the trial after the Shining Path cadre turned their backs on the judges and delivered a revolutionary salute to the media gallery. The only words Guzmán spoke in the presence of the international press were "Long live the Communist Party of Peru! Glory to Marxism–Leninism–Maoism! Glory to the Peruvian people! Long live the heroes of the people’s war!" After he made this statement, the courtroom microphones were silenced and the press was unable to hear any of the proceedings that followed. When the trial resumed on 12 November, no reporters were allowed to observe the proceedings. Eventually two of the judges recused themselves and the trial ended in chaos. Guzmán's third trial began in September 2005 and was opened and closed amid a media blackout. No reporters were allowed to attend.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: On 13 October 2006, Guzmán was sentenced to life in prison on charges of aggravated terrorism and murder. At his sentencing, three judges read the charges in a verdict that lasted more than six hours.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: In 2014, Guzmán and his wife Iparraguirre were tried again, for the 1992 Tarata bombing in Lima in which 25 people died. On 11 September 2018, he was sentenced to a second life term in prison.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: Guzmán was incarcerated in the maximum security prison of the naval base of Callao, the port of Lima, until his death in 2021. Fellow prisoners there include Víctor Polay, leader of the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement, and Vladimiro Montesinos, the former head of the National Intelligence Service who supervised the construction of the prison and served under the (now also imprisoned) President Alberto Fujimori.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: On 13 July 2021, he was attended by medical personnel of the Ministry of Health after he refused to eat. He was given blood tests and an ultrasound. A few days later, on 17 July, he was transferred to a hospital for further monitoring. He died on 11 September 2021 at the Maximum Safety Center of the Callao Naval Base, at the age of 86.


title: Abimael Guzmán

text: Guzmán's body was cremated on the dawn of 24 September 2021 and his ashes were dispersed in a secret location in order to prevent a shrine honoring him from being created.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: The hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) is a critically endangered sea turtle belonging to the family Cheloniidae. It is the only extant species in the genus Eretmochelys. The species has a global distribution, that is largely limited to tropical and subtropical marine and estuary ecosystems.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: The hawksbill's appearance is similar to that of other marine turtles. In general, it has a flattened body shape, a protective carapace, and flipper-like limbs, adapted for swimming in the open ocean. "E. imbricata" is easily distinguished from other sea turtles by its sharp, curving beak with prominent tomium, and the saw-like appearance of its shell margins. Hawksbill shells slightly change colors, depending on water temperature. While this turtle lives part of its life in the open ocean, it spends more time in shallow lagoons and coral reefs. The World Conservation Union, primarily as a result of human fishing practices, classifies "E. imbricata" as critically endangered. Hawksbill shells were the primary source of tortoiseshell material used for decorative purposes. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) regulates the international trade of hawksbill sea turtles and products derived from them.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Linnaeus described the hawksbill sea turtle as "Testudo imbricata" in 1766, in the 12th edition of his "Systema Naturae". In 1843, Austrian zoologist Leopold Fitzinger moved it into the genus "Eretmochelys". In 1857, the species was temporarily misdescribed as "Eretmochelys imbricata squamata".


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Neither the IUCN nor the United States Endangered Species Act assessment processes recognize any formal subspecies, but instead recognize one globally distributed species with populations, subpopulations, or regional management units.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Fitzinger derived the genus name "Eretmochelys" from the Ancient Greek roots "eretmo" and "chelys", corresponding to "oar" and "turtle", respectively, in reference to the turtles' oar-like front flippers. The species name "imbricata" is Latin, corresponding to the English term imbricate, in reference to the turtles' shingle-like, overlapping carapace scutes.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Adult hawksbill sea turtles typically grow to in length, weighing around on average. The heaviest hawksbill ever captured weighed . The turtle's shell, or carapace, has an amber background patterned with an irregular combination of light and dark streaks, with predominantly black and mottled-brown colors radiating to the sides.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Several characteristics of the hawksbill sea turtle distinguish it from other sea turtle species. Its elongated, tapered head ends in a beak-like mouth (from which its common name is derived), and its beak is more sharply pronounced and hooked than others. The hawksbill's forelimbs have two visible claws on each flipper.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: One of the hawksbill's more easily distinguished characteristics is the pattern of thick scutes that make up its carapace. While its carapace has five central scutes and four pairs of lateral scutes like several members of its family, "E. imbricata" posterior scutes overlap in such a way as to give the rear margin of its carapace a serrated look, similar to the edge of a saw or a steak knife. The turtle's carapace can reach almost in length. The hawksbill appears to frequently employ its sturdy shell to insert its body into tight spaces in reefs.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Crawling with an alternating gait, hawksbill tracks left in the sand are asymmetrical. In contrast, the green sea turtle and the leatherback turtle have a more symmetrical gait.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: The hawksbill is biofluorescent and is the first reptile recorded with this characteristic. It is unknown if the effect is due to the turtle's diet, which includes biofluorescent organisms like the hard coral "Physogyra lichtensteini". Males have more intense pigmentation than females, and a behavioural role of these differences is speculated.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Hawksbill sea turtles have a wide range, found predominantly in tropical reefs of the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans. Of all the sea turtle species, "E. imbricata" is the one most associated with warm tropical waters. Two significant subpopulations are known, in the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: In the Atlantic, hawksbill populations range as far west as the Gulf of Mexico and as far southeast as the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. They live off the Brazilian coast (specifically Bahia, Fernando de Noronha) through southern Florida and Virginia waters.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: In the Caribbean, the main nesting beaches are in the Lesser Antilles, Barbados, Guadeloupe, Tortuguero in Costa Rica, and the Yucatan. They feed in the waters off Cuba and around Mona Island near Puerto Rico, among other places.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: In the Indian Ocean, hawksbills are a common sight along the east coast of Africa, including the seas surrounding Madagascar and nearby island groups. Hawksbills are also common along the southern Asian coast, including the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia coasts. They are present across the Malay Archipelago and northern Australia. Their Pacific range is limited to the ocean's tropical and subtropical regions. In the west, it extends from the southwestern tips of the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese Archipelago south to northern New Zealand.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: The Philippines hosts several nesting sites, including the island of Boracay and Punta Dumalag in Davao City. Dahican Beach in Mati City, Davao Oriental, hosts one of the essential hatcheries of its kind, along with olive ridley sea turtles in the archipelagic country of the Philippines. A small group of islands in the southwest of the archipelago is named the "Turtle Islands" because two species of sea turtles nest there: the hawksbill and the green sea turtle. In January 2016, a juvenile was seen in Gulf of Thailand. A 2018 article by The Straits Times reported that around 120 hawksbill juvenile turtles recently hatched at Pulau Satumu, Singapore. Commonly found in Singapore waters, hawksbill turtles have returned to areas such East Coast Park and Palau Satumu to nest. In Hawaii, hawksbills mostly nest on the "main" islands of Oahu, Maui, Molokai, and Hawaii. In Australia, hawksbills are known to nest on Milman Island in the Great Barrier Reef. Hawksbill sea turtles nest as far west as Cousine Island in the Seychelles, where the species since 1994 is legally protected, and the population is showing some recovery. The Seychelles' inner islands and islets, such as Aldabra, are popular feeding grounds for immature hawksbills.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: In the eastern Pacific, hawksbills are known to occur from the Baja Peninsula in Mexico south along the coast to southern Peru. Nonetheless, as recently as 2007, the species had been considered extirpated mainly in the region. Important remnant nesting and foraging sites have since been discovered in Mexico, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Ecuador, providing new research and conservation opportunities. In contrast to their traditional roles in other parts of the world, where hawksbills primarily inhabit coral reefs and rocky substrate areas, in the eastern Pacific, hawksbills tend to forage and nest principally in mangrove estuaries, such as those present in the Bahia de Jiquilisco (El Salvador), Gulf of Fonseca (Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Honduras), Estero Padre Ramos (Nicaragua), and the Gulf of Guayaquil (Ecuador). Multi-national initiatives, such as the Eastern Pacific Hawksbill Initiative, are currently pushing efforts to research and conserve the population, which remains poorly understood.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Adult hawksbill sea turtles are primarily found in tropical coral reefs. They are usually seen resting in caves and ledges in and around these reefs throughout the day. As a highly migratory species, they inhabit a wide range of habitats, from the open ocean to lagoons and even mangrove swamps in estuaries. Little is known about the habitat preferences of early life-stage "E. imbricata"; like other young sea turtles, they are assumed to be completely pelagic, remaining at sea until they mature.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: While they are omnivorous, sea sponges are their principal food; they constitute 70–95% of the turtles' diets. However, like many spongivores, they feed only on select species, ignoring many others. Caribbean populations feed primarily on the orders Astrophorida, Spirophorida, and Hadromerida in the class Demospongiae.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Aside from sponges, hawksbills feed on algae, marine plants, cnidarians, comb jellies and other jellyfish, sea anemones, mollusks, fish and crustaceans. They also feed on the dangerous jellyfish-like hydrozoan, the Portuguese man o' war ("Physalia physalis"). Hawksbills close their unprotected eyes when they feed on these cnidarians. The man o' war's stinging cells cannot penetrate the turtles' armored heads.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Hawksbills are highly resilient and resistant to their prey. Some of the sponges they eat, such as "Aaptos aaptos", "Chondrilla nucula", "Tethya actinia", "Spheciospongia vesparium", and "Suberites domuncula", are highly (often lethally) toxic to other organisms. In addition, hawksbills choose sponge species with significant numbers of siliceous spicules, such as "Ancorina", "Geodia" ("G. gibberosa"), "Ecionemia", and "Placospongia".


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Less is known about the life history of hawksbills by comparison to several other sea turtle species. Their life history may be divided into three phases, the: (i) early life history phase from approximately 4–30 cm straight carapace length, (ii) benthic phase when the immature turtles recruit to foraging areas, and (iii) reproductive phase, when individuals reach sexual maturity and begin periodically migrating to breeding grounds. The early life history phase is not as geographically resolved as other sea turtle species. This phase appears to vary across ocean regions and may occur in both pelagic and nearshore waters, possibly lasting from 0–4 years of age. One study from the central Pacific Ocean population used bomb radiocarbon (C) dating and von Bertalanffy growth models to estimate hawksbills reach sexual maturity at ~ 72 cm and 29 years of age (range 23–36 years). Hawksbills show a degree of fidelity after recruiting to the benthic phase however, the movement to other similar habitats is possible.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Hawksbills mate biannually in secluded lagoons off their nesting beaches in remote islands throughout their range. The most significant nesting beaches are in Mexico, the Seychelles, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Australia. The mating season for Atlantic hawksbills usually spans April to November. Indian Ocean populations, such as the Seychelles hawksbill population, mate from September to February. After mating, females drag their heavy bodies high onto the beach during the night. They clear an area of debris and dig a nesting hole using their rear flippers, then lay clutches of eggs and cover them with sand. Caribbean and Florida nests of "E. imbricata" typically contain around 140 eggs. After the hours-long process, the female returns to the sea. Their nests can be found throughout beaches in about 60 countries.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Hatchlings, usually weighing less than , hatch at night after around two months. These newly emergent hatchlings are dark-colored, with heart-shaped carapaces measuring approximately long. They instinctively crawl into the sea, attracted by the moon's reflection on the water (disrupted by light sources such as street lamps and lights). While they emerge under the cover of darkness, hatchlings that do not reach the water by daybreak are preyed upon by shorebirds, shore crabs, and other predators.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Hawksbills evidently reach maturity after 20 years. Their lifespan is unknown. Like other sea turtles, hawksbills are solitary for most of their lives; they meet only to mate. They are highly migratory. Because of their tough carapaces, adults' only predators are sharks, estuarine crocodiles, octopuses, and some pelagic fish species.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: A series of biotic and abiotic cues, such as individual genetics, foraging quantity and quality, or population density, may trigger the maturation of the reproductive organs and the production of gametes and thus determine sexual maturity. Like many reptiles, all marine turtles of the same aggregation are highly unlikely to reach sexual maturity at the same size and thus age.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Age at maturity has been estimated to occur between 10 and 25 years of age for Caribbean hawksbills. Turtles nesting in the Indo-Pacific region may reach maturity at a minimum of 30 to 35 years.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Within the sea turtles, "E. imbricata" has several unique anatomical and ecological traits. It is the only primarily spongivorous reptile. Because of this, its evolutionary position is somewhat unclear. Molecular analyses support "Eretmochelys" placement within the taxonomic tribe Carettini, including the carnivorous loggerhead and ridley sea turtles, rather than in the tribe Chelonini, which includes the herbivorous green turtle. The hawksbill probably evolved from carnivorous ancestors.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Throughout the world, hawksbill turtles have been hunted by humans, though it is illegal to capture, kill, and trade hawksbills in many countries today. In some parts of the world, hawksbill turtles and their eggs continue to be exploited as food. As far back as the fifth century BCE, sea turtles, including the hawksbill, were eaten as delicacies in China.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Beyond direct consumption for food, many cultures have also exploited hawksbill populations for their ornate carapace shells, known variously as tortoiseshell, turtle shell, and "bekko".


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: In China, where it was known as "tai mei", the hawksbill is called the "tortoise-shell turtle", named primarily for its shell, which was used to make and decorate a variety of small items, as it was in the West. Along the south coast of Java, stuffed hawksbill turtles are sold in souvenir shops, though numbers have decreased in the last two decades. In Japan, the turtles are harvested for their shell scutes, called "bekko" in Japanese. "Bekko" is used in various personal implements, such as eyeglass frames and the "shamisen" (Japanese traditional three-stringed instrument) picks. In 1994, Japan stopped importing hawksbill shells from other nations. Prior to this, the Japanese hawksbill shell trade was around of raw shells per year. In Europe, hawksbill sea turtle shells were harvested by the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans for jewellery, such as combs, brushes, and rings. Recently, processed shells were regularly available in large amounts in countries including the Dominican Republic and Colombia.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Global estimates of the historical exploitation of hawksbills have received recent attention. From 1950-1992, one pioneering study estimated that as many as 1.37 million adult hawksbills were killed in the international tortoiseshell trade alone. With the aid of substantial additional trade data, including official trade records from the imperial Japanese archives, the international trade of tortoiseshell was recently updated to have killed approximately 8.98 million hawksbills (range 4.64 to 9.83 million) from 1844-1992. Most of the trade occurred in the Pacific Ocean basin, and the countries of origin and trade routes bore similarity to what is known of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU fishing).


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: Consensus has determined sea turtles, including "E. imbricata" to be at least threatened, because of their slow growth and maturity and low reproductive rates. Humans have killed many adult turtles, both accidentally and deliberately. Their existence is threatened due to pollution and loss of nesting areas because of coastal development. Biologists estimate that the hawksbill population has declined 80 percent in the past 100–135 years. Human and animal encroachment threatens nesting sites, and small mammals dig up the eggs to eat. In the US Virgin Islands, mongooses raid hawksbill nests (along with other sea turtles, such as "Dermochelys coriacea") right after they are laid.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: In 1982, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species first listed "E. imbricata" as endangered. This endangered status continued through several reassessments in 1986, 1988, 1990, and 1994 until it was upgraded in status to "critically endangered" in 1996. Two petitions challenged its status as an endangered species prior to this, claiming the turtle (along with three other species) had several significant stable populations worldwide. These petitions were rejected based on their data analysis submitted by the Marine Turtle Specialist Group (MTSG). The MTSG data showed the worldwide hawksbill sea turtle population had declined by 80% in the three most recent generations, and no significant population increase had occurred as of 1996. CR A2 status was denied, however, because the IUCN did not find sufficient data to show the population likely to decrease by a further 80%.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: The species (along with the entire Cheloniidae family) has been listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. This means commercial international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is prohibited and non-commercial international trade is regulated.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: The United States Fish and Wildlife Service and National Marine Fisheries Service have classified hawksbills as endangered under the Endangered Species Act since 1970. The US government established several recovery plans for protecting "E. imbricata".


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: The Zoological Society of London has inscribed the reptile as an EDGE species, meaning that it is both endangered and highly genetically distinct, and therefore of particular concern for conservation efforts.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: The World Wildlife Fund Australia (WWF-Australia) has several ongoing projects aiming at protecting the reptile.


title: Hawksbill sea turtle

text: On Rosemary Island, an island in the Dampier Archipelago off the Pilbara coast of Western Australia, volunteers have been monitoring hawksbill turtles since 1986. In November 2020, a 60-year old turtle first tagged in November 1990 and again in 2011 returned to the same location.


title: Okhrana

text: The Department for Protecting the Public Security and Order (), usually called Guard Department () and commonly abbreviated in modern English sources as Okhrana () was a secret-police force of the Russian Empire and part of the police department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) in the late 19th century and early 20th century, aided by the Special Corps of Gendarmes.


title: Okhrana

text: Formed to combat political terrorism and left-wing revolutionary activity, the Okhrana operated offices throughout the Russian Empire, as well as satellite agencies in a number of foreign countries. It concentrated on monitoring the activities of Russian revolutionaries abroad, including in Paris, where the Okhrana agent Pyotr Rachkovsky (1853–1910) was based (1884–1902) before returning to service in Saint Petersburg (1905–1906).


title: Okhrana

text: The Okhrana deployed multiple methods, including covert operations, undercover agents, and —the reading of private correspondence. The Okhrana's Foreign Agency also served to monitor revolutionary activity.


title: Okhrana

text: The Okhrana became notorious for its agents provocateurs, including Jacob Zhitomirsky (born 1880, a leading Bolshevik and close associate of Vladimir Lenin), Yevno Azef (1869–1918), Roman Malinovsky (1876–1918) and Dmitry Bogrov (1887–1911).


title: Okhrana

text: The Okhrana tried to compromise the labour movement by setting up police-run trade unions, a practice known as "zubatovshchina". The Communists blamed the Okhrana in part for the Bloody Sunday event of January 1905, when Tsarist troops killed hundreds of unarmed protesters who were marching during a demonstration organized by Father Gapon (actually a double agent) and with the participation of Pyotr Rutenberg.


title: Okhrana

text: Many historians, such as the German historian Konrad Heiden and the Russian historian Mikhail Lepekhine maintain that Matvei Golovinski, a writer and Okhrana agent, fabricated the first edition of "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion" (1903). The organization also fabricated documentation connected with the antisemitic Beilis trial of 1913.


title: Okhrana

text: The Okhrana never received more than 10% of the police budget; its allocation peaked at five million rubles in 1914.


title: Okhrana

text: in the early 19th century, the practice of torture was never truly abolished. Possibly, the formation of the Okhrana led to increasing use of torture, due to the Okhrana using methods such as arbitrary arrest, detention and torture to gain information. Claims persisted the Okhrana had operated torture chambers in places like Warsaw, Riga, Odessa and in a majority of the urban centres.


title: Okhrana

text: Forerunners of the Okhrana as a Russian security service included the Secret Prikaz () (1654–1676), the (1686–1726), the (1731–1762), the (1762–1801), and the Third Section of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery (1826–1880).


title: Okhrana

text: The first special security department was the Department on Protecting the Order and Public Peace under the Head of St. Petersburg, set up in 1866 after a failed assassination attempt on Emperor Alexander II, with a staff of 12 investigators. Its street address, Fontanka, 16, was publicly known in the Russian Empire. After another failed assassination attempt, on August 6, 1880, the Emperor, acting on proposals made by Count Loris-Melikov, established the Department of State Police under Ministry of the Interior (MVD) and transferred part of the Special Corps of Gendarmes and the Third Section of the Imperial Chancellery to the new body. The position of Chief of Gendarmes was merged with that of the Minister, and Commander of the Corps was assigned as a Deputy of the Minister. Still, these measures did not prevent the assassination of Alexander II in March 1881.


title: Okhrana

text: In an attempt to implement preventive security measures, Emperor Alexander III () immediately set up two more Security and Investigation (охранно-розыскные) secret-police stations, supervised by Gendarme officers, in Moscow and Warsaw; they became the basis of the later Okhrana. The Imperial Gendarmerie still operated as security police in the rest of the country through their Gubernial and Uyezd Directorates. The Emperor also established the Special Conference under the MVD (1881), which had the right to declare a State of Emergency Security in various parts of the Empire (which was actively used in the time of 1905 Revolution), and subordinated all of the imperial police forces to the Commander of the Gendarmes (1882).


title: Okhrana

text: The rise of the socialist movements led to the integration of security forces. From 1898 the Special Section (Особый отдел) of the Department of Police succeeded the Gendarmes in the role of gaining information from domestic and foreign agents and "". Following the Socialist-Revolutionary Party's assassination of MVD Minister Dmitry Sipyagin on April 2, 1902, the new Minister Vyacheslav von Plehve gradually relieved the Directorates of Gendarmes of their investigation power in favor of Security and Investigation Stations (Охранно-розыскное отделение) under respective Mayors and Governors (who as a matter of fact were subordinate to the MVD Minister).


title: Okhrana

text: The Okhrana used many seemingly unorthodox methods in the pursuit of its mission to defend the Tsarist monarchy; indeed, some of the Okhrana's activities even contributed to the wave of domestic unrest and revolutionary terror that they were intended to quell. Perhaps most paradoxical of all was the Okhrana’s collaboration with revolutionary organizations. Early Okhrana agents to work alongside revolutionaries included Lieutenant-Colonel Georgy Sudeykin of the St. Petersburg Special Section, who, in 1882, set up an illegal printing operation to publish the revolutionary People's Will literature with Okhrana funds. Sudeykin and his colleague, a revolutionary-turned-police-informant named Sergey Degayev, passed drafts of the publication through Okhrana censors before printing. This episode marked the beginning of the Okhrana's efforts to surreptitiously observe, but also influence and undermine, revolutionary movements. This focus on infiltrating and influencing revolutionary groups, rather than merely identifying and arresting their members, intensified with the innovations of one Okhrana bureau chief, Sergey Zubatov. While P.I. Rachkovsky, as head of the Okhrana's Foreign Agency, had long ordered Okhrana agents to infiltrate and influence revolutionary movements abroad, Zubatov brought these tactics to a new level by setting up Okhrana-controlled trade unions, the foundation of police socialism. Perhaps recognizing the same discontent among factory workers that the Bolsheviks sought to exploit to start a revolution, Zubatov hoped the unions would mollify factory workers with improvements in working conditions and thus prevent workers from joining revolutionary movements that threatened the monarchy. To this end, Zubatov set up the Moscow Mechanical Production Workers' Mutual Aid Society in May 1901. After Zubatov became head of the Special Section in 1902, he expanded his trade unions from Moscow to St. Petersburg and to Southern Russia.


title: Okhrana

text: Zubatovite trade unions achieved moderate success at channeling workers' political agitations away from revolutionary movements and toward labor improvements, especially in the cities of Minsk and Odessa, with one high-ranking official noting that many revolutionaries and workers were joining the unions. However, Zubatov, if not police socialism, became discredited in the summer of 1903 after the Okhrana officer in charge of the Odessa union allowed a strike to get out of hand, causing a mass movement which paralyzed the region. Although the police-run unions continued to operate after Zubatov's ousting, without Okhrana funding, they proved more a liability than an asset. The Assembly of Working Men, a police-run union with about 6,000–8,000 members, formed by the alleged Okhrana agent Father Georgy Gapon, sparked the Bloody Sunday massacre of January 1905, a milestone in the Revolution of 1905 when union members marched peacefully on the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg and were fired upon by Imperial soldiers. The Okhrana complemented police socialism and other projects to prevent the conditions in which revolutionary movements could take hold by pursuing initiatives to curtail the activities of existing organizations. Yevno Azef, the notorious Okhrana provocateur who became the head of the Socialist Revolutionary Fighting Organization (SRFO), epitomized the Okhrana's inscrutable practice of revolutionary-group infiltration. While the Okhrana managed to imbed many of its agents in revolutionary organizations, the police preferred to slowly gather intelligence and to attempt to interfere with revolutionary work surreptitiously rather than to arrest known revolutionaries immediately. This policy led to numerous dubious acts on the part of police spies, who needed to participate in revolutionary activities to avoid suspicion, as when Yevno Azef, as head of the SRFO, ordered the assassination of V. K. Plehve on July 15, 1904.


title: Okhrana

text: For over twenty years, the Okhrana had focused on interfering with the activities of relatively small, and distinct, revolutionary groups. The Revolution of 1905, characterized by seemingly spontaneous marches and strikes, exposed the Okhrana's inefficacy at controlling mass popular movements. Not only did the Okhrana lack the capacity to prevent the mass movements of 1905, or even to contain them once they began, the Okhrana's misguided attempts may even have worsened the unrest. D. F. Trepov, the Assistant Minister of the Interior in charge of police affairs, and P. I. Rachkovsky, now in charge of all domestic political-police operations, attempted to mount an aggressive offensive against those they believed to be responsible for the unrest, namely "zemstvo" employees, in May 1905, but backed down three months later. In October of that year, Trepov again attempted a violent repression of the revolution, only to call off the effort for lack of manpower. Since these attempts at repression never reached fruition, they only served to aggravate the already enraged Russian populace and to deepen their distrust of the Imperial government. Trepov's replacement by P.N. Durnovo in late-October ushered in a period of even more vicious repression of the revolutionaries. Indicative of this new period is the head of the St. Petersburg Special Section, A.V. Gerasimov's, strike on the St. Petersburg Soviet. To Emperor Nicholas II's delight, Gerasimov arrested delegates of the Soviet "en masse" on December 3, 1905. Along with this repression and the end of the Revolution of 1905 came a shift in the political police’s mentality; gone were the days of Nicholas I's white-gloved moral police: post-1905 the political police feared that the Russian people were as eager to destroy them as to depose the Emperor.


title: Okhrana

text: Following the outbreak of the 1905 Revolution and assassination of Plehve, Pyotr Stolypin, as the new MVD Minister and Chairman of the Council of Ministers, set up a nationwide net of Security Stations. By 1908 there were 31 Stations, and more than 60 by 1911. Two more Special Sections of the Department of Police were organized in 1906. The centralized Security Section of the Department of Police was created on February 9, 1907; it was located at 16, Fontanka, St. Petersburg.


title: Okhrana

text: The exposure of Yevno Azef (who had organized many assassinations, including that of Plehve) and Dmitri Bogrov (who assassinated Stolypin in 1911) as Okhrana double agents put the agency's methods under great suspicion; the organisation was further compromised by the discovery of many similar double agents-provocateur. In Autumn 1913, all of the Security Stations except the original Moscow, St Petersburg and Warsaw ones were dismissed. The start of World War I in 1914 marked a shift from anti-revolutionary activities of the Department of Police to counter-intelligence; however, the efforts of the Department were poorly synchronised with counter-intelligence units of the General Staff and of the Army.


title: Okhrana

text: Just as the Okhrana had once sponsored trade unions to divert activist energy from political causes, so too did the secret police attempt to promote the Bolshevik party, as the Bolsheviks seemed a relatively harmless alternative to more violent revolutionary groups. Indeed, to the Okhrana, Lenin seemed to actively hinder the revolutionary movement by denouncing other revolutionary groups and refusing to cooperate with them. To aid the Bolsheviks at the expense of other revolutionaries, the Okhrana helped Roman Malinovsky (a police spy who had managed to rise within the Bolshevik hierarchy and gain Lenin's trust) in his bid to become a Bolshevik delegate to the Duma in 1912. To this end, the Okhrana sequestered Malinovsky’s criminal record and arrested other candidates for the seat. Malinovsky won the seat and led the Bolshevik delegation in the Fourth Duma until 1914, but even with the information Malinovsky and other informants provided to the Okhrana, the police were unprepared for the rise of Bolshevism in 1917. Although the secret police had agents within the Bolshevik organization, other factors contributed to the Okhrana's inefficacy at averting the events of 1917. Among these factors was the ban on police spies within the military promulgated by the Deputy Minister of the Interior Vladimir Dzhunkovsky, who found the practice dishonorable and damaging to morale. While the beginning of World War I in 1914 moved the Okhrana's attentions initially from countering revolutionaries to countering German espionage, the focus quickly shifted back as it was revealed that the Germans were heavily funding Russian revolutionary groups in order to destabilize the Russian Empire. Despite the renewed attention, the Russian Revolution of 1917 took the secret police, and the country, by surprise. Indeed, the Okhrana’s persistent focus on revolutionary groups may have resulted in the secret police not fully appreciating the deep-seated popular unrest brewing in Russia.


title: Okhrana

text: The revolutionaries identified the Okhrana as one of the main symbols of Tsarist repression, and its headquarters were sacked and burned on 27 February 1917. The newly formed Provisional Government then disbanded the whole organization and released most of the political prisoners held by the Tsarist regime. Revelations of the Okhrana’s earlier abuses heightened public hostility towards the secret police after the 1917 February Revolution and made it very dangerous to be a political policeman. That fact, along with the St. Petersburg Soviet's insistence on the dissolution of the regular Tsarist police force, as well as of the political police, meant that the Okhrana quickly and quietly disappeared.


title: Okhrana

text: Some Okhrana functionaries continued their activities in the civil-war period (1917-1923) within the White Armies, notably in the ().


title: Okhrana

text: After the 1917 October Revolution the government of the RSFSR under Vladimir Lenin replaced the Okhrana with a Soviet security organisation - the much larger and more efficient Cheka in December 1917, supplemented by the GRU (military intelligence) from October-November 1918. The Cheka and its successor organizations (notably the GPU and the OGPU) eventually became the KGB (1954–1991) after the death of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in March 1953. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 the KGB split into the FSK (later reorganized into the FSB in 1995) and the SVR.