title: Mahjong tiles

text: Three-player Malaysian sets have two pairs of animals accompanied with a quartet of identical animal tiles decorated with a face, usually that of a clown. These are known as heads (人头), faces (人臉), clowns (小丑) or snowmen (雪人). Sometimes, these four heads will be replaced with two pairs of male heads (male clowns, male faces) and female heads (female clowns, female faces).


title: Mahjong tiles

text: "Joker tiles" (百搭牌, pinyin "bǎidāpái") can be used to replace any suited or honor tile in putting together a hand subject to local restrictions. Four jokers are sometimes used in certain variants of Southeast Asian and Chinese mahjong, including Shanghainese mahjong. American mahjong uses eight jokers.


title: Mahjong tiles

text: All-purpose jokers may have these inscriptions: 百搭 ("bǎidā", 'hundred uses'), 聽用 ("tīngyòng", 'many uses'), 飛 ("fēi", 'flying'), or simply "Joker" in American sets.


title: Mahjong tiles

text: Vietnamese and Thai mahjong are related to extinct Chinese variants which used specialized jokers such as "King Mahjong" (王麻雀). Vietnamese mahjong sets commonly contain eight unique jokers:


title: Mahjong tiles

text: The first four jokers have a long lineage. They are found in the earliest sets and were inspired by the suit-restricted jokers in older Chinese card games. After 1975, modern Vietnamese sets triplicated or quadruplicated all eight jokers but each copy will have a different frame (rectangle, circle, lozenge, and hexagon) which allows them to be melded with each other. This means a total of 32 jokers, 36 if the alternate honor jokers are also included.


title: Mahjong tiles

text: In Hong Kong, Vietnamese style sets may also contain rank-restricted jokers, either as alternatives to the flower joker, or in addition to the usual eight:


title: Mahjong tiles

text: The Chinese characters from the latter three comes from Xiangqi pieces. These sets may have suit, dragon, wind, and rank-restricted jokers adorned with multiple characters representing the tiles they can replace, instead of a single Chinese character.


title: Mahjong tiles

text: Traditionally, Mahjong tiles were made of bone, often backed with bamboo. Bone tiles are still available but most modern sets are constructed from various plastics such as bakelite, celluloid, nylon and PET (often, recycled PET). There are a small number of sets that have been made with ivory or jade, but these are exceedingly rare: most sets sold as ivory are in fact made from bone. Regardless of the material used to construct the tiles, the symbols on them are almost always engraved or pressed into the material. Some expert players can determine the face value of their tiles without actually looking at them by feeling these engravings with their fingers.


title: Mahjong tiles

text: There are generally two size categories available, the larger mainland-China size and the smaller Taiwanese/Japanese/American size. However, within the former category (Mainland Chinese), 4 sizes have been roughly standardized:


title: Mahjong tiles

text: The length to thickness ratio in all of these must be above 1:1.5, so that the tiles can steadily stand upright, since Chinese players use no racks to support their tiles in hand during play.


title: Mahjong tiles

text: The sizes within the second category (Taiwanese/Japanese/American tiles) have lengths that vary roughly between . However, the Japanese tiles set themselves apart within this class by virtue of their thickness, which allows them to stand upright—despite their diminutive overall size. This enables Japanese mahjong players also to dispense with the use of racks (these are pervasive in the American game, in combination with slimmer tiles).


title: Mahjong tiles

text: In the 1977 film "Annie Hall", the character Alvy Singer (Woody Allen) jokes during a stand-up comedy routine that his Jewish mother once locked herself in the bathroom and attempted to overdose on Mahjong tiles.


title: Narva

text: Narva is a municipality and city in Estonia. It is located in Ida-Viru county, at the eastern extreme point of Estonia, on the west bank of the Narva river which forms the Estonia–Russia international border. With 54,409 inhabitants (as of 2020) Narva is Estonia's third largest city after capital Tallinn and Tartu.


title: Narva

text: In 1944, Narva was nearly completely destroyed during the battles of World War II. During the period of Soviet occupation (1944–1991), the city’s original native inhabitants were not permitted to return after the war, and immigrant workers from Russia and other parts of the former USSR were brought in to populate the city. The city whose population had been, as of 1934 census, 65% ethnic Estonian, became overwhelmingly non-Estonian in the second half of the 20th century. According to more recent data, 46.7% of the city's inhabitants are citizens of Estonia, 36.3% are citizens of the Russian Federation, while 15.3% of the population has undefined citizenship.


title: Narva

text: People settled in the area from the 5th to 4th millennium BC, as witnessed by the archeological traces of the Narva culture, named after the Narva river. The fortified settlement at Narva Joaoru is the oldest known in Estonia, dated to around 1000 BC. The earliest written reference of Narva is in the First Novgorod Chronicle, which in the year 1172 describes a district in Novgorod called "Nerevsky" or "Narovsky konets" (yard). According to historians, this name derives from the name of Narva or Narva river and indicates that a frequently used trade route went through Narva, although there is no evidence of the existence of a trading settlement at the time.


title: Narva

text: Narva's favourable location at the intersection of both trade routes and the Narva river was behind the founding of Narva castle and the subsequent development of the castle's surrounding urban settlement. The castle was founded during the Danish rule of northern Estonia in the second half of the 13th century; the earliest written record of the castle is from 1277. "Narvia" village is mentioned in the Danish Census Book already in 1241. A town developed around the stronghold and in 1345 obtained Lübeck City Rights from Danish king Valdemar IV. The castle and surrounding town of Narva ("Narwa", in German) became a possession of the Livonian Order in 1346, after the Danish king sold its lands in Northern Estonia. In 1492 Ivangorod fortress across the Narva river was established by Ivan III of Moscow.


title: Narva

text: Trade, particularly Hanseatic long-distance trade remained Narva's "raison d'être" throughout the Middle Ages. However, due to opposition from Tallinn, Narva itself never became part of the Hanseatic League and also remained a small town – its population in 1530 is estimated at 600–750 people.


title: Narva

text: Captured by the Russians during the Livonian War in 1558, for a short period Narva became an important port and trading city for Russia as a transshipment centre of goods from Pskov and Novgorod. Russian rule ended in 1581 when the Swedes under the command of Pontus De la Gardie conquered the city and it became part of Sweden. During the Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595), when Arvid Stålarm was governor, Russian forces attempted to regain the city without success (Treaty of Teusina, May 1595).


title: Narva

text: During the Swedish rule, the Old Town of Narva was built. Following a big fire in 1659 that almost completely destroyed the town, only stone buildings were allowed to be built in the central part of the town. Incomes from flourishing trade allowed rebuilding of the town center in two decades. Until World War II, the baroque Old Town underwent practically no changes, and thus became renowned all over Europe. Towards the end of Swedish rule, the defence structures of Narva were greatly improved. Beginning in 1680s, an outstanding system of bastions, planned by the renowned Swedish military engineer Erik Dahlbergh, was built around the town. The new defences were among the most powerful in Northern Europe.


title: Narva

text: During the Great Northern War of 1700–1721, Narva became the setting for the first great battle between the forces of King Charles XII of Sweden and Tsar Peter I of Russia (November 1700). Although outnumbered four to one, the Swedish forces routed their 40,000-strong opponent. Russia subsequently conquered the city in 1704.


title: Narva

text: After the war, the bastions were renovated. Narva remained on the list of Russian fortifications until 1863, though there was no real military need for it. During Russian rule Narva formed part of the Saint Petersburg Governorate.


title: Narva

text: In the middle of the 19th century, Narva started to develop into a major industrial town. Ludwig Knoop established the Krenholm Manufacturing Company in 1857. The factory could use the cheap energy of the powerful Narva waterfalls, and at the end of the century became, with about 10,000 workers, one of the largest cotton mills in Europe and the world. In 1872, Krenholm Manufacturing became the site of the first strike in Estonia. At the end of the 19th century, Narva was the leading industrial town in Estonia – 41% of industrial workers in Estonia worked in Narva, compared to 33% in Tallinn. The first railway in Estonia, completed in 1870, connected Narva to Saint Petersburg and to Tallinn.


title: Narva

text: In August 1890, Narva was the site of a key meeting between German Kaiser Wilhelm II and Russian Tsar Alexander III.


title: Narva

text: The status of Narva was resolved in a July 1917 referendum, when the district population, at that time roughly equally divided between ethnic Russians and Estonians, voted to attach itself to the newly autonomous and soon to be independent republic of Estonia. Narva became part of an independent Estonia in 1918, at the end of World War I. The town saw fighting during the Estonian War of Independence. The war started when Russian Bolshevik troops attacked Narva on 28 November 1918, capturing the city on the next day. The Russian Red Army retained control of the city until 19 January 1919.


title: Narva

text: Heavy battles occurred both in and around Narva during World War II. The city was damaged in the German invasion of 1941 and by smaller air raids throughout the war, but remained relatively intact until February 1944. However, as the focus of the Battle of Narva, the city was destroyed by Soviet bombardment and fires and explosions set by retreating German troops. The most devastating action was the bombing raids of 6 and 7 March 1944 by the Soviet Air Force, which destroyed the Baroque old town.


title: Narva

text: By the end of July 1944, 98% of Narva had been destroyed. After the war, most of the buildings could have been restored as the walls of the houses still existed, but in early 1950s, the Soviet authorities decided to demolish the ruins to make room for apartment buildings. Only three buildings remain of the old town, including the Baroque-style Town Hall. The civilian casualties of the bombing were low as the German forces had evacuated the city in January 1944.


title: Narva

text: Narva was effectively ethnically cleansed, as the original native inhabitants were not allowed to return after the war, and immigrant Russian-speaking workers from other parts of the USSR were brought in to populate the city. The city which population had been 65% Estonian according to the last census in 1934, became overwhelmingly non-Estonian. The main reason behind this was a plan to build a secret uranium processing plant in the city, which would turn Narva into a closed town. In 1947 nearby Sillamäe was selected as the location of the factory instead of Narva, but the existence of such a plan was decisive for the development of Narva in the postwar years, and thus also shaped its later evolution. The planned uranium factory and other large-scale industrial developments, like the restoring of Kreenholm Manufacture, were the driving force behind the influx of internal migrants from other parts of the Soviet Union, mainly Russia.


title: Narva

text: In January 1945, Ivangorod, the suburb on the eastern bank of the river was separated from Estonia (and from Narva) by the Soviet authorities, and the settlement around Ivangorod fortress was made administratively part of the neighboring Leningrad Oblast of the Russian SFSR. Ivangorod became officially a town by itself in 1954.


title: Narva

text: After Estonia regained its independence in 1991, the city's leaders, holdovers from the Soviet era, wanted autonomy, and contended that the notion of a breakaway "Transnarovan Soviet republic" in northeastern Estonia was becoming increasingly popular, but this was contradicted by polls showing 87% of the region's population opposed secession from Estonia.


title: Narva

text: In 1993, dissatisfaction with newly enacted citizenship and election laws (non-citizens were not allowed to hold office) culminated in the Narva referendum of 16–17 July 1993, which proposed autonomy for both Narva and Sillamäe, a nearby town. Although 97% voted in favor of the referendum, turnout in Narva was a mere 55%, and there were credible charges of vote rigging.


title: Narva

text: After 1991, disputes regarding the Estonian-Russian border in the Narva sector remained, as the new constitution of Estonia (adopted in 1992) recognizes the 1920 Treaty of Tartu border to be currently legal.


title: Narva

text: The Russian Federation, however, considers Estonia to be a successor of the Estonian SSR and recognizes the 1945 border between the two former national republics. Officially, Estonia has no territorial claims in the area, and which was also reflected in the new Estonian-Russian border treaty signed in Moscow on 18 May 2005. Russia failed to ratify it because, together with the ratification the Estonian parliament, approved a communiqué, which mentioned the Soviet Occupation.


title: Narva

text: On 18 February 2014 a new border treaty was signed by both countries. However the treaty was not ratified by the parliaments of either Russia or Estonia.


title: Narva

text: Overall, by 2014, Russian residents were happy with their status as both Estonian and European Union citizens and lived peacefully alongside their compatriots.


title: Narva

text: Before the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, residents mixed relatively freely with the residents across the river in Ivangorod.


title: Narva

text: Those on the Estonian side mainly crossed to buy cheaper petrol, groats, cleaning products, pasta and sugar. Those crossing from the Russian side wanted to make use of the availability of non-sanctioned goods, entertainment facilities and overall better infrastructure.


title: Narva

text: The invasion and subsequent conflict seriously reduced cooperation between the two neighbours, especially as visas became difficult to obtain and the residents of Narva increased the take up in Estonian citizenship. Narva took many Ukrainian refugees fleeing the war and previously popular among older russophone residents Russian TV stations were banned by the Estonian government.


title: Narva

text: On June 10, 2022, the Estonian foreign ministry summoned the Russian ambassador to protest about remarks by President Vladimir Putin praising Peter the Great for having captured Narva in the early 18th century.


title: Narva

text: In August 2022, a Soviet T-34 tank memorial was removed from a stretch of road between the city centre and Narva-Jõesuu, to mixed responses. It was moved to the Estonian War Museum in Viimsi near Tallinn. In response to the tank's removal, the following month Russian authorities erected a similar T-34 tank monument in Ivangorod near the border crossing point with Narva.


title: Narva

text: On 1 January 2013 Narva's population was 59,888, down from 60,454 inhabitants a year earlier. The population was 83,000 in 1992. 95.7% of the population of Narva are native Russian speakers, and 87.7% are ethnic Russians. Most non-Estonians are ethnically Russian, Belarusian, or Ukrainian immigrants or the children of immigrants, though 69% of Narva residents in the early 1990s had been born in Narva or had lived there for more than 30 years. Ethnic Estonians account for 5.2% of total population. Much of the city was destroyed during World War II and for several years during the following reconstruction the Soviet authorities largely prohibited return of Narva's pre-war residents (among whom ethnic Estonians had been the majority, forming 64.8% of the town's population of 23,512 according to the 1934 census), thus radically altering the city's ethnic composition. Nevertheless, ethnic Russians had already formed a significant minority: 29.7% of the city's population were Russian in the census of 1934.


title: Narva

text: 46.7% of the city's inhabitants are Estonian citizens, 36.3% are citizens of the Russian Federation, while 15.3% of the population has undefined citizenship. Since the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine there has been increased the take up in Estonian citizenship in the city.


title: Narva

text: A concern in Narva is the spread of HIV, which infected 1.2% of Estonia's population in 2012. Between 2001 and 2008, more than 1,600 cases of HIV were registered in Narva, making it one of the worst areas in Estonia, alongside Tallinn and the rest of Ida-Viru County. The HIV infection rate in Estonia declined in 2014, with 59 new cases in Narva.


title: Narva

text: Narva is situated in the eastern extreme point of Estonia, to the east from the Estonian capital Tallinn and southwest from Saint Petersburg. The capital of Ida-Viru County, Jõhvi, lies to the west. The eastern border of the city along the Narva river (which drains Lake Peipus) coincides with the Estonian-Russian border. The Estonian part of the Narva Reservoir lies mostly within the territory of Narva, to the southwest of city center. The mouth of the Narva river to the Gulf of Finland is about downstream from the city.


title: Narva

text: The municipality of Narva covers , of which the city proper occupies (excluding the reservoir), while two separate districts surrounded by Vaivara Parish, Kudruküla and Olgina, cover and , respectively. Kudruküla is the largest of Narva's dacha regions, located to northwest from the main city, near Narva-Jõesuu.


title: Narva

text: Narva has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification "Dfb") with mild to warm, rainy summers with cool nights and cold, cloudy and snowy winters. Narva is one of the coldest settlements in Estonia, being located at the very northeast of the country and bordering Russia.


title: Narva

text: Narva is officially divided into 15 neighbourhoods: Elektrijaama, Joaoru, Kalevi, Kerese, Kreenholmi, Kudruküla, Kulgu, Olgina, Paemurru, Pähklimäe, Siivertsi, Soldina, Sutthoffi, Vanalinn and Veekulgu.


title: Narva

text: Narva's skyline is dominated by the 15th-century castle, with the Pikk Hermann tower as its most prominent landmark. The sprawling complex of the Kreenholm Manufacture, located in the proximity of scenic waterfalls, is one of the largest textile mills of 19th-century Northern Europe. Other notable buildings include Swedish mansions of the 17th century, a Baroque town hall (1668–71), and remains of Erik Dahlberg's fortifications.


title: Narva

text: Across the Narva river lies the Russian Ivangorod fortress, established during the rule of Grand Prince Ivan III of Muscovy in 1492 and also referred to in some contemporary sources as the "Counter-Narva". From the 17th century until 1945, both the fortress and the adjacent suburb of Ivangorod () were an administrative part of Narva.


title: Narva

text: The Narva railway station is located on an international railway line between Estonia and Russia (Tallinn–Narva railway). A daily international passenger train used to link (as of 2019) the two countries: the overnight train between Moscow via St. Petersburg to Tallinn, which stops at Narva.


title: Narva

text: Four daily domestic trains run between Narva and Tallinn - modern trains were introduced in 2016 and now take less than 3 hours between the two cities.


title: Narva

text: Adjacent to the central rail station is a central bus station, which has multiple domestic and international connections (including to Russia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belarus etc.). There is a general aviation grass airfield near Narva (ICAO: EENA).


title: Narva

text: Narva PSK play at the Narva Ice Hall, which also was the host arena of the 2005 World Junior Ice Hockey Division I Championship Group B.


title: Narva

text: JK Narva Trans play at the Narva Kreenholm Stadium. They are founding members of the Meistriliiga, and are one of two clubs which have never been relegated from the Estonian top division. They have won 2 Estonian Cups and 2 Estonian Supercups.


title: Narva

text: In the first-person shooter video game "Squad", the map Narva is loosely based on the real city, containing Narva Castle, Ivangorod Fortress and a southern industrial area.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: The back-to-Africa movement was based on the widespread belief among some European Americans in the 18th and 19th century United States that African Americans would want to return to the continent of Africa. In general, the political movement was an overwhelming failure; very few former slaves wanted to move to Africa. The small number of freed slaves who did settle in Africa—some under duress—initially faced brutal conditions, due to diseases to which they no longer had biological resistance. As the failure became known in the United States in the 1820s, it spawned and energized the abolitionist movement. In the 20th century, the Jamaican political activist and black nationalist Marcus Garvey, members of the Rastafari movement, and other African Americans supported the concept, but few actually left the United States.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: In the late 18th century, thousands of Black Loyalists joined British military forces during the American Revolutionary War. In 1787, the British Crown founded a settlement in Sierra Leone in what was called the "Province of Freedom", beginning a long process of settlement of formerly enslaved African Americans in Sierra Leone. During these same years, some African Americans launched their own initiatives to return to Africa, and by 1811, Paul Cuffee, a wealthy New England African-American/Native-American shipper, had transported some members of the group known as the "Free African Society" to Liberia. During these years, also, some free African Americans relocated to Haiti, where a slave revolution had effected a free black state by 1800. On 18 November 1803, Haiti became the first nation ever to successfully gain independence through a slave revolt. In the following years, Liberia was founded by free people of color from the United States. The emigration of African Americans both free and recently emancipated was funded and organized by the American Colonization Society (ACS), which hoped that slavery could be ended as an institution, without releasing millions of former slaves into American society. The mortality rate of these settlers was the highest in accurately-recorded human history. Of the 4,571 emigrants who arrived in Liberia between 1820 and 1843, only 1,819 survived.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: The question of where free black people of American birth should reside was not much discussed by white writers, and by some black thinkers, in the 18th century: "At the time of the American Revolution, there had been few free blacks anywhere in the country." In 1776, slavery was legal everywhere in the Thirteen Colonies that became the United States through the American Revolutionary War. There were a small number of free black people. Pressures for ending slavery began small but steadily increased. Various philosophical and religious condemnations of slavery, especially by Quakers, were published. Slavery became illegal in England in 1772 by court decision (see Somerset v Stewart), and in the British Empire by statute in 1833. In France, slavery was illegal at least since the 16th century. As part of the French Revolution, it was abolished in French colonies in 1794, although it was restored from 1802 to 1848. Starting in 1791, the enslaved of Saint-Domingue revolted, gaining their freedom, and establishing the free black country of Haiti. Starting with Pennsylvania and Massachusetts in 1780, slavery was gradually abolished in all the Northern states, although this did not mean that existing slaves were always freed. Vermont, which at the time was not part of the United States, abolished adult slavery in its foundational document, of 1777. In the 1840 census, there were still hundreds of slaves in the North and millions more in the South. By the 1850 census, there weren't any slaves in the free states. In the South, sometimes influenced by appeals from preachers—abolitionism in the United States had a strong religious component—some individuals freed their slaves or left instructions in their will, to free them upon the owner's death.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: The number of free black people in the new United States skyrocketed and the question of "what to do with them" steadily grew in importance. Even when free, nowhere in the United States did they have the same rights as white people. They were not citizens, as the Dred Scott decision made clear. Usually seen as racially inferior, few whites believed them a desirable or even possible part of American society. They were prohibited from living in some areas and there was much completely legal discrimination. Black passengers on river boats were not allowed in the cabin but had to stay on deck, whatever the weather. In Florida, each free black man had to have a white man who could be sued for the Negro's misdeeds, if any, since black people could neither sue nor be sued. The Quaker Zephaniah Kingsley, who believed that the amalgamation of the "races" was desirable, was forced to leave Florida for Haiti. In the South, until it was forbidden, free black people learned to read and write, and often came into contact with the widely circulated abolitionist writings. The slave owners who controlled the Southern states saw these free black people as a threat to the stability of the economy and society, and made no secret of their desire to be rid of them.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Much of the African-American population was freed people seeking opportunity. Many Southern freed blacks migrated to the industrial North to seek employment, while others moved to surrounding Southern states. No one anywhere wanted them; they were seen as foreigners who, by working for less, took jobs from citizens. Whites were not used to sharing space with blacks in a context outside of chattel slavery. Many did not believe that free blacks had a place in America.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: In the North, many whites believed that blacks could not achieve equality in the United States and therefore pushed for their emigration to Africa, even though most had been born in the U.S. and had never seen Africa.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Such sentiment was not exclusive to Northerners. One proponent of the colonization movement, Solomon Parker of Hampshire County, Virginia, was quoted as having said: "I am not willing that the Man or any of my Blacks shall ever be freed to remain in the United States... Am opposed to slavery and also opposed to freeing blacks to stay in our Country and do sincerely hope that the time is approaching when our Land shall be rid of them."


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Riots swept the free states in waves, usually in urban areas where there had been recent immigration of blacks from the South. The height of these riots was in 1819, with 25 riots recorded, resulting in many injuries and fatalities, although riots continued up through the 1830s (see anti-abolitionism in the North). The back-to-Africa movement was seen as the solution to these problems by both groups, with more support from the white population than the black population. Blacks often viewed the project with skepticism, particularly among the middle-class, who feared that the Colonization movement was a ploy to deport freed African Americans to restrict their efforts against slavery. Shortly after the foundation of the American Colonization Society, 3,000 free blacks gathered in a church in Philadelphia and issued forth a declaration stating that they "will never separate ourselves voluntarily from the slave population of the country." Similarly, black leaders, such as James Forten, who had previously supported the Colonization Movement, changed their minds as a result of widespread black resistance to the idea.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Following the Great Awakening, in which America was swept by a wave of religious fervor, many enslaved African Americans converted to Christianity. At the same time, many religious people in America struggled to reconcile slavery with their beliefs.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: In the 19th century, many religious Americans found it difficult to continue supporting the enslavement of their brothers in Christ, especially amongst the Quakers. Two examples of such Christians are Reverend Moses Tichnell and Reverend Samuel R. Houston, who freed slaves and sent them to Liberia in 1855 and 1856 respectively. These two men, believing that they were morally obligated to finance such voyages, played an important role in the colonization movement.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: The American Colonization Society (ACS) was an early advocate of the idea of resettling American-born blacks in Africa. Founded in 1816 by Charles Fenton Mercer, it was composed of two core groups: abolitionists and slave owners. Abolitionist members believed in freeing African slaves, along with their descendants, and providing them with the opportunity to return to Africa. Slave owning members believed free blacks endangered the system of slavery and sought to expel them from America by means of migration.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: The American Colonization Society came under attack from American abolitionists, who insisted that the removal of freed slaves from the United States reinforced the institution of slavery.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Since its inception, the American Colonization Society struggled to garner support from within free black communities. During the late 1840s and early 1850s, the creation of an independent Liberian state splintered the nearly uniform voice against colonization. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 provided the United States government ample power to recapture fugitive slaves. Following its passage, many black leaders promoted emigration and colonization to a nation that would provide and protect their rights.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: In spite of this, several black critics were outspoken against the back-to-Africa movement and the activities of the American Colonization Society. A report from a free black political conference in New York warned: "all kinds of chicanery and stratagem will be employed to allure the people [to the colony]...the independence of its inhabitants; the enjoyment and privileges of its citizens, will be pictured forth in glowing colors, to deceive you."


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: According to the "Encyclopedia of Georgia History and Culture", "as early as 1820, black Americans had begun to return to their ancestral homeland through the auspices of the American Colonization Society." By 1847, the American Colonization Society founded Liberia, a land to be settled by black people returning from the United States of America. Between 1822 and the American Civil War, the American Colonization Society had migrated approximately 15,000 free blacks back to Africa.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Notable members of the American Colonization Society included Thomas Buchanan, Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, Abraham Lincoln, James Madison, Daniel Webster, John Marshall, and Francis Scott Key. All were white and most were Southern. In addition, most were slaveowners.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: In 1811, Paul Cuffe, "a black man who was a wealthy man of property, a petitioner for equal rights for blacks", began to explore the idea of Black people returning to their native land; convinced that "opportunities for the advancement of black people were limited in America, and he became interested in African colonization." With the help of Quakers in Philadelphia, he was able to transport 38 blacks to Freetown, Sierra Leone in 1815.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Martin Delany, an African American, in 1854 led the National Emigration Convention in Cleveland, Ohio. He visited Liberia and made plans, largely unrealized, to assist Blacks in relocating there.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: The back-to-Africa movement eventually began to decline but would see a revival again in 1877 at the end of the Reconstruction era, as many blacks in the South faced violence from groups such as the Ku Klux Klan. Interest among the South's black population in African emigration peaked during the 1890s, a time when racism reached its peak and the greatest number of lynchings in American history took place. The continued experience of segregation, discrimination, and the belief that they would never achieve true equality attracted many blacks to a Pan-African emancipation in their motherland.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: The movement declined again following many hoaxes and fraudulent activities associated with the movement. According to Crumrin, however, the most important reason for the decline in the back-to-Africa movement was that the "vast majority of those who were meant to colonize did not wish to leave. Most free blacks simply did not want to go "home" to a place from which they were generations removed. America, not Africa, was their home, and they had little desire to migrate to a strange and forbidding land not their own." They often said that they were no more African than white Americans were British.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Florida Governor Napoleon Bonaparte Broward (1905–1909) called for blacks to be permanently moved to land the federal government would purchase, either foreign or domestic. After buying their respective properties, a territory would be established in which blacks could not leave, and whites could not enter.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Early 20th century attempts at resettlement were made, such as those by Chief Alfred Sam between 1913 and 1915. The eventual disillusionment of those who migrated to the North and the frustrations of struggling to cope with urban life set the scene for the back-to-Africa movement of the 1920s, established by Marcus Garvey. Garvey contemporaneously served as a major inspiration for a number of 1920s activists and preachers, such as James E. Lewis, whose Los Angeles congregation help to finance the construction of a passenger ship. Many of those who migrated to the Northern States from the South found that, although they were financially better off, they remained at the bottom both economically and socially. Garvey supported a proposal by Torrey George McCallum that passed the Mississippi State Senate in 1922, though it was widely rejected and ridiculed by the Black press.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: The movement picked up once again in the decade or so preceding the Second World War. Activists in the Peace Movement of Ethiopia organisation were committed to black emigration to West Africa in order to escape the torrid social conditions they were experiencing in the United States due to the Depression. They harboured an almost utopian vision of Liberia, created from a simultaneous vision of Pan-Africanism and a belief that the Americanisation they would provide would heal Liberia's social and economic troubles. As part of a mass letter-writing campaign she undertook in 1934, prominent PME member Mittie Maude Lena Gordon wrote to Earnest Sevier Cox, a white nationalist from Richmond, Virginia. She managed to convince him to support their cause, playing on their mutual goal of racial separatism. Cox provided influential connections that the movement had previously lacked, and he gave the issue of black emigration political exposure when he managed to convince members of the Virginia General Assembly to recommend the US Congress provide financial aid for this in 1936.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: His support soon began to diminish and so Gordon looked elsewhere, once again finding an unlikely ally on the opposite side of the moral compass in Senator Theodore G. Bilbo. An ardent white nationalist, Bilbo had been campaigning within government for racial separatism for a while. He proposed an amendment to the House Joint Resolution 679—a work relief bill—in 1938, that would have "repatriated" African-American volunteers to Liberia, providing them with financial assistance. This amendment was endorsed by Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association at the Eight International UNIA convention. This provided the precedent for the movement to progress; Bilbo had the political capital to get the issue of black repatriation into wide-scale political debate. This continued, and in early 1939 Bilbo began drafting what came to be known as the Greater Liberia Bill. The bill suggested that the United States purchase 400,000 square miles of African land from England and France, crediting them as war debts, and provide financial assistance for black Americans to relocate to Africa.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Outside of the black nationalist movement, the bill did not garner much support, with leading civil rights groups such as the NAACP refusing to endorse it and the national press lambasting it. The bill was also not met with any real support in the Senate, and thus the idea of black repatriation lost much of its traction. US participation in the Second World War led to a decline in public racism, which made any passing of the bill unlikely after that.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: The Back-to-Africa movement returned to national prominence in the 1960s, due to the racial unrest caused by the Civil Rights Movement. George Lincoln Rockwell, the founder of the American Nazi Party, viewed black people as a "primitive, lethargic race who desired only simple pleasures and a life of irresponsibility." Like Bilbo, Rockwell was a white nationalist who supported the resettlement of all African Americans in a new African state to be funded by the U.S. government. Rockwell attempted to draw attention to his cause by starting a small record label named Hatenanny Records. The name was based on the word "hootenanny", a term given to folk music performances. The label released a 45 RPM single by a band called Odis Cochran and the Three Bigots with the songs "Ship Those Niggers Back" and "We Is Non-Violent Niggers", and a second single by a group called the Coon Hunters: "We Don't Want No Niggers For Neighbors" backed with "Who Needs A Nigger?". They were sold mostly through mail order and at party rallies.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Rockwell got along well with many leaders of the black nationalist movement, such as Elijah Muhammad (Nation of Islam leader) and Malcolm X, who later changed his views and opposed the N.O.I's black separatism, since they shared his racial separatist views. In January 1962, Rockwell wrote to his followers that Elijah Muhammad "has gathered millions of the dirty, immoral, drunken, filthy-mouthed, lazy and repulsive people sneeringly called 'niggers' and inspired them to the point where they are clean, sober, honest, hard working, dignified, dedicated and admirable human beings in spite of their color...Muhammad knows that mixing is a Jewish fraud and leads only to aggravation of the problems that it is supposed to solve...I have talked to the Muslim leaders and am certain that a workable plan for separation of the races could be effected to the satisfaction of all concerned—except the communist-Jew agitators." He also said of the N.O.I, "I am fully in concert with their program, and I have the highest respect for Elijah Muhammad." He referred to Elijah Muhammad as "The Black People's Hitler" and donated $20 to the Nation of Islam at their "Freedom Rally" event on June 25, 1961, at Uline Arena in Washington, where he and 10–20 of his "stormtroopers" attended a speech given by Malcolm X. Rockwell was a guest speaker at a N.O.I event in the International Amphitheater in Chicago hosted by Elijah Mohammed and Malcolm X on February 25, 1962.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Ex-slave repatriation or the emigration of African-American, Caribbean, and Black British former slaves to Africa occurred mainly during the late 18th century to mid-19th century. In the cases of Sierra Leone and Liberia, both were established by former slaves who were repatriated to Africa within a 28-year period.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Many freed slaves were discontent with where they were resettled in Canada after the Revolutionary War and were eager to return to their homeland. Beginning in 1787, the British government made their first attempt to settle people in Sierra Leone. About 300 Black Britons, known as the "Black Poor" of London, were settled on the Sierra Leonean peninsula in West Africa. Within two years, most members of the settlement would die from disease or conflict with the local Temne people. In 1792, a second attempt at settlement was made when 1,100 freed slaves established Freetown with support from British abolitionist Thomas Clarkson. Their numbers were further bolstered when over 500 Jamaican Maroons were transported first to Nova Scotia, and then to Sierra Leone in 1800.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: In 1815, Paul Cuffe brought the first group of thirty-eight emigrant freed slaves from the United States to Sierra Leone. In 1820, minister Daniel Coker led a group of ninety free blacks in hopes of founding a new colony in Sierra Leone. He intended to proselytize Christianity among the Africans. Leaving New York on the ship "Elizabeth", his voyage ended on an island off the coast of Sierra Leone. Arriving just before the rains of spring, the group of immigrants were soon stricken with fever. The survivors ultimately fled to Freetown, and the settlement disintegrated.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: The repatriation of slaves to Africa from the United Kingdom and its dependencies was initiated by the Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor. This organization was later succeeded by the Sierra Leone Company. In time, African American Black Loyalists and West Indians would immigrate to the colony of Freetown, Sierra Leone, in smaller numbers in efforts led by black merchants or beneficiaries such as Paul Cuffe.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: The Sierra Leone Creole people are descendants of the Black Poor, freed African-American, Jamaican Maroon and Liberated African slaves who settled in the Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 and about 1885. The colony was established by the British, supported by abolitionists, under the Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. The settlers called their new settlement Freetown.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: The history of Liberia (after European arrival) is, with Sierra Leone, unique in Africa; starting neither as a native state, nor as a European colony. With the departure of the first ship to Africa in 1820, the American Colonization Society established settlements for free American blacks on the coast of West Africa. The first American ships were uncertain of where they were heading. Their plan was to follow the paths that the British had taken, or simply take a chance on where they would land. At first, they followed the previous routes of the British and reached the coast of Sierra Leone. After leaving Sierra Leone, the Americans slowly reached a more southern part of the African coastline.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: The Americans were eventually successful at finding a suitable spot to establish their colonies, arriving at what the British had named the Grain Coast. (The name of this region referred to the type of ginger spice used for medicine flavoring, "aframomum meleguete".) Along the Grain Coast, local African groups were variably forced or convinced to give the Americans tracts of land; most probably assumed they were providing short term land leases based on ancestral patterns of landlord-stranger relationships. Over the course of twenty years, a series of fragmented settlements sprung across Liberia's coast, which had been inhabited by indigenous people since at least the 16th century. Along with the difficulty of gaining enough land, life proved hard for these early settlers. Disease was widespread, along with the lack of food. Almost 50% of the new settlers died in the first twenty years after their arrival in Liberia.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Liberia declared independence on 26 July 1847. With an elected black government and the offer of free land to African-American settlers, Liberia became the most common destination of emigrating African Americans during the 19th century. Newly arriving African Americans to Liberia experienced many challenges, including broken family ties, very high mortality rates from disease, and a difficult adjustment period. A group of 43 African Americans from Christiansburg, Virginia left for Liberia in 1830, but suffered high mortality. "Eighty percent of the emigrants were dead within ten years of landing there, most of them victims of malaria; another ten percent quit the colony, with the majority fleeing to Sierra Leone." Many African Americans who survived this period of adjustment in Liberia became fond of the country.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: Black interest in Liberian emigration emerged when the Civil War promised the end of slavery and meaningful change to the status of Black Americans. Some 7,000 enslaved people were freed by their masters, so at that point those free African Americans left the U.S. to escape racism and have more opportunities (mainly because they had lost all hope of achievement). In the 1830s, the movement became increasingly dominated by Southern slave owners, who did not want free blacks and saw sending them to Liberia as a solution. Slaves freed from slave ships were sent there instead of their countries of origin. The emigration of free blacks to Liberia particularly increased after the Nat Turner rebellion of 1831. Middle-class blacks were more resolved to live as black Americans; many rural poor folks gave up on the United States and looked to Liberia to construct a better life. Liberia promised freedom and equality; it also represented a chance for a better life for the South's black farmers. The Liberian government offered 25 acres of free land for each immigrant family, and 10 acres for a single adult, who came to the Black republic. In the early 19th century, Liberia evoked mixed images in the minds of black Americans. They viewed Liberia as a destination for black families who left the United States in search of a better way of life, returning to their ancestral homeland of Africa.


title: Back-to-Africa movement

text: As noted by researcher Washington Hyde, "Black Americans—who in the time of slavery lost their original languages and much of their original culture, gained a distinctly American, English-speaking Christian identity, and had no clear idea of precisely where in the wide continent of Africa their ancestors had come from—were perceived by the natives of Liberia as foreign settlers. Having an African ancestry and a black skin color were definitely not enough. Indeed, their settlement in Liberia had much in common with the contemporary white settlement of the American Frontier and these settlers' struggle with Native American tribes... The Liberian experience can also be considered as anticipating that of Zionism and Israel—with Jews similarly seeking redemption through a return to an ancestral land and similarly being regarded as foreign interlopers by the local Arab tribes. It would take Americo-Liberians a century and more to become truly accepted as one of Liberia's ethnic groups... All of which certainly contributed to most Black Americans rejecting the Back-to-Africa option and opting instead for seeking equal rights in America."


title: Forward secrecy

text: In cryptography, forward secrecy (FS), also known as perfect forward secrecy (PFS), is a feature of specific key agreement protocols that gives assurances that session keys will not be compromised even if long-term secrets used in the session key exchange are compromised. For HTTPS, the long-term secret is typically the private key of the server. Forward secrecy protects past sessions against future compromises of keys or passwords. By generating a unique session key for every session a user initiates, the compromise of a single session key will not affect any data other than that exchanged in the specific session protected by that particular key. This by itself is not sufficient for forward secrecy which additionally requires that a long-term secret compromise does not affect the security of past session keys.


title: Forward secrecy

text: Forward secrecy protects data on the transport layer of a network that uses common Transport Layer Security protocols, including OpenSSL, when its long-term secret keys are compromised, as with the Heartbleed security bug. If forward secrecy is used, encrypted communications and sessions recorded in the past cannot be retrieved and decrypted should long-term secret keys or passwords be compromised in the future, even if the adversary actively interfered, for example via a man-in-the-middle attack.


title: Forward secrecy

text: The value of forward secrecy is that it protects past communication. This reduces the motivation for attackers to compromise keys. For instance, if an attacker learns a long-term key, but the compromise is detected and the long-term key is revoked and updated, relatively little information is leaked in a forward secure system.


title: Forward secrecy

text: The value of forward secrecy depends on the assumed capabilities of an adversary. Forward secrecy has value if an adversary is assumed to be able to obtain secret keys from a device (read access) but is either detected or unable to modify the way session keys are generated in the device (full compromise). In some cases an adversary who can read long-term keys from a device may also be able to modify the functioning of the session key generator, as in the backdoored Dual Elliptic Curve Deterministic Random Bit Generator. If an adversary can make the random number generator predictable, then past traffic will be protected but all future traffic will be compromised.


title: Forward secrecy

text: The value of forward secrecy is limited not only by the assumption that an adversary will attack a server by only stealing keys and not modifying the random number generator used by the server but it is also limited by the assumption that the adversary will only passively collect traffic on the communications link and not be active using a Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) attack. Forward secrecy typically uses an ephemeral Diffie-Hellman key exchange to prevent reading past traffic. The ephemeral Diffie-Hellman key exchange is often signed by the server using a static signing key. If an adversary can steal (or obtain through a court order) this static (long term) signing key, the adversary can masquerade as the server to the client and as the client to the server and implement a classic Man-in-the-Middle attack.


title: Forward secrecy

text: The term "perfect forward secrecy" was coined by C. G. Günther in 1990 and further discussed by Whitfield Diffie, Paul van Oorschot, and Michael James Wiener in 1992 where it was used to describe a property of the Station-to-Station protocol.


title: Forward secrecy

text: Forward secrecy has also been used to describe the analogous property of password-authenticated key agreement protocols where the long-term secret is a (shared) password.


title: Forward secrecy

text: In 2000 the IEEE first ratified IEEE 1363, which establishes the related one-party and two-party forward secrecy properties of various standard key agreement schemes.


title: Forward secrecy

text: An encryption system has the property of forward secrecy if plain-text (decrypted) inspection of the data exchange that occurs during key agreement phase of session initiation does not reveal the key that was used to encrypt the remainder of the session.


title: Forward secrecy

text: The following is a hypothetical example of a simple instant messaging protocol that employs forward secrecy:


title: Forward secrecy

text: Forward secrecy (achieved by generating new session keys for each message) ensures that past communications cannot be decrypted if one of the keys generated in an iteration of step 2 is compromised, since such a key is only used to encrypt a single message. Forward secrecy also ensures that past communications cannot be decrypted if the long-term private keys from step 1 are compromised. However, masquerading as Alice or Bob would be possible going forward if this occurred, possibly compromising all future messages.


title: Forward secrecy

text: Forward secrecy is designed to prevent the compromise of a long-term secret key from affecting the confidentiality of past conversations. However, forward secrecy cannot defend against a successful cryptanalysis of the underlying ciphers being used, since a cryptanalysis consists of finding a way to decrypt an encrypted message without the key, and forward secrecy only protects keys, not the ciphers themselves. A patient attacker can capture a conversation whose confidentiality is protected through the use of public-key cryptography and wait until the underlying cipher is broken (e.g. large quantum computers could be created which allow the discrete logarithm problem to be computed quickly). This would allow the recovery of old plaintexts even in a system employing forward secrecy.


title: Forward secrecy

text: Non-interactive forward-secure key exchange protocols face additional threats that are not relevant to interactive protocols. In a "message suppression" attack, an attacker in control of the network may itself store messages while preventing them from reaching the intended recipient; as the messages are never received, the corresponding private keys may not be destroyed or punctured, so a compromise of the private key can lead to successful decryption. Proactively retiring private keys on a schedule mitigates, but does not eliminate, this attack. In a "malicious key exhaustion" attack, the attacker sends many messages to the recipient and exhausts the private key material, forcing a protocol to choose between failing closed (and enabling denial of service attacks) or failing open (and giving up some amount of forward secrecy).


title: Forward secrecy

text: Most key exchange protocols are "interactive", requiring bidirectional communication between the parties. A protocol that permits the sender to transmit data without first needing to receive any replies from the recipient may be called "non-interactive", or "asynchronous", or "zero round trip" (0-RTT).


title: Forward secrecy

text: Interactivity is onerous for some applications—for example, in a secure messaging system, it may be desirable to have a store-and-forward implementation, rather than requiring sender and recipient to be online at the same time; loosening the bidirectionality requirement can also improve performance even where it is not a strict requirement, for example at connection establishment or resumption. These use cases have stimulated interest in non-interactive key exchange, and, as forward security is a desirable property in a key exchange protocol, in non-interactive forward secrecy. This combination has been identified as desirable since at least 1996. However, combining forward secrecy and non-interactivity has proven challenging; it had been suspected that forward secrecy with protection against replay attacks was impossible non-interactively, but it has been shown to be possible to achieve all three desiderata.


title: Forward secrecy

text: Broadly, two approaches to non-interactive forward secrecy have been explored, "pre-computed keys" and "puncturable encryption".


title: Forward secrecy

text: With pre-computed keys, many key pairs are created and the public keys shared, with the private keys destroyed after a message has been received using the corresponding public key. This approach has been deployed as part of the Signal protocol.


title: Forward secrecy

text: In puncturable encryption, the recipient modifies their private key after receiving a message in such a way that the new private key cannot read the message but the public key is unchanged. Ross J. Anderson informally described a puncturable encryption scheme for forward secure key exchange in 1997, and formally described such a system, building on the related scheme of , which modifies the private key according to a schedule so that messages sent in previous periods cannot be read with the private key from a later period. make use of hierarchical identity-based encryption and attribute-based encryption, while use a different construction that can be based on any hierarchical identity-based scheme. experimentally found that modifying QUIC to use a 0-RTT forward secure and replay-resistant key exchange implemented with puncturable encryption incurred significantly increased resource usage, but not so much as to make practical use infeasible.


title: Forward secrecy

text: Weak perfect forward secrecy (Wpfs) is the weaker property whereby when agents' long-term keys are compromised, the secrecy of previously established session-keys is guaranteed, but only for sessions in which the adversary did not actively interfere. This new notion, and the distinction between this and forward secrecy was introduced by Hugo Krawczyk in 2005.


title: Forward secrecy

text: This weaker definition implicitly requires that full (perfect) forward secrecy maintains the secrecy of previously established session keys even in sessions where the adversary "did" actively interfere, or attempted to act as a man in the middle.


title: Forward secrecy

text: Forward secrecy is present in several major protocol implementations, such as SSH and as an optional feature in IPsec (RFC 2412). Off-the-Record Messaging, a cryptography protocol and library for many instant messaging clients, as well as OMEMO which provides additional features such as multi-user functionality in such clients, both provide forward secrecy as well as deniable encryption.


title: Forward secrecy

text: In Transport Layer Security (TLS), cipher suites based on Diffie–Hellman key exchange (DHE-RSA, DHE-DSA) and elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman key exchange (ECDHE-RSA, ECDHE-ECDSA) are available. In theory, TLS can choose appropriate ciphers since SSLv3, but in everyday practice many implementations have refused to offer forward secrecy or only provide it with very low encryption grade. TLS 1.3 leaves ephemeral Diffie–Hellman (finite field and elliptic curve variants) as the only remaining key exchange mechanism, in order to ensure forward secrecy.


title: Forward secrecy

text: OpenSSL supports forward secrecy using elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman since version 1.0, with a computational overhead of approximately 15% for the initial handshake.


title: Forward secrecy

text: Forward secrecy is seen as an important security feature by several large Internet information providers. Since late 2011, Google provided forward secrecy with TLS by default to users of its Gmail service, Google Docs service, and encrypted search services. Since November 2013, Twitter provided forward secrecy with TLS to its users. Wikis hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation have all provided forward secrecy to users since July 2014 and are requiring the use of forward secrecy since August 2018.


title: Forward secrecy

text: Facebook reported as part of an investigation into email encryption that, as of May 2014, 74% of hosts that support STARTTLS also provide forward secrecy. TLS 1.3, published in August 2018, dropped support for ciphers without forward secrecy. , 96.6% of web servers surveyed support some form of forward secrecy, and 52.1% will use forward secrecy with most browsers.


title: Forward secrecy

text: At WWDC 2016, Apple announced that all iOS apps would need to use App Transport Security (ATS), a feature which enforces the use of HTTPS transmission. Specifically, ATS requires the use of an encryption cipher that provides forward secrecy. ATS became mandatory for apps on January 1, 2017.


title: Forward secrecy

text: The Signal messaging application employs forward secrecy in its protocol, notably differentiating it from messaging protocols based on PGP.


title: The Tuxedo

text: The Tuxedo is a 2002 American science fiction action comedy film directed by Kevin Donovan and starring Jackie Chan and Jennifer Love Hewitt. It is a spy parody that involves a special tuxedo that grants its wearer special abilities. It also involves a corporate terrorist, threatening to poison the United States' fresh water supply with bacteria that spills electrolytes into the blood and totally dehydrates the host.


title: The Tuxedo

text: The film received negative reviews from critics upon release and earned a total worldwide box office gross of $104.4 million.


title: The Tuxedo

text: James "Jimmy" Tong is a taxi driver notorious for his speed and ability to get his customers anywhere in the least amount of time. His reputation lands him a job as the personal chauffeur of the mysterious but wealthy Clark Devlin. Jimmy does not really know what his new boss' job is, but Devlin's friendly nature, imperturbable demeanor, and willingness to offer Jimmy advice wins Jimmy over and the two become friends. What Jimmy does not realize is that Devlin is a secret spy and undercover government agent, and when an attempt to kill Devlin with a car bombing sends him into a coma, Jimmy ends up with Devlin's recent case notes and a special watch that controls Devlin's rather unusual tuxedo.


title: The Tuxedo

text: The tuxedo is a gadget capable of granting its wearer special abilities (including martial arts, speed, the ability to dance, and various acrobatics) which Jimmy must use to stop the criminal organization responsible for Devlin's attempted murder. The group is a terrorist organization disguised as a corporation named Banning Corporation and is headed by the notorious and ruthless Dietrich Banning. Its goal is to take over the global drinking water supply, starting with the poisoning of major US reservoirs by means of genetically modified water strider insects. These water striders have bacteria that can spread from person to person, causing severe dehydration. By pure chance, Jimmy is joined by a genius scientist with aspirations of field work, Delilah "Del" Blaine. Blaine is completely new to field work and is delighted to be on assignment with Devlin, only to be very confused by Jimmy as he impersonates Devlin, relying on the tuxedo's special abilities to compensate for his lack of skill and training.


title: The Tuxedo

text: At first, Blaine thinks Jimmy is weird and annoying, and then a fraud when Jimmy's impersonation is finally exposed. She confiscates his borrowed tuxedo and attempts to stop the evil Dietrich Banning on her own by feigning a desire to become a turncoat for Banning Corporation. Meanwhile, Jimmy is ready to give up and go back to his life as a taxi driver, but while packing his belongings he discovers that Devlin had ordered a second suit for Jimmy himself, believing that Jimmy could also be a great agent. Using his new suit, Jimmy defeats the villain, Banning, by putting a cigarette in Blaine's mouth. Banning's tuxedo automatically forces him to pull out a lighter and light her cigarette. While Blaine is (comically) puffing on the lit cigarette, Jimmy begins to punch Banning. During the fight, Jimmy throws a glass containing the queen of the water striders into Banning's mouth. He is then infected with bacteria from the water strider. The other remaining water striders attack Banning and he then dies instantaneously.


title: The Tuxedo

text: As compensation for his role in bringing down Banning, the organization uses its resources to orchestrate an operation so that Jimmy can finally meet his dream girl. However, confused by Blaine's and the now-recovered Devlin's conflicting instructions on how to act Jimmy succeeds only in alarming the girl into threatening to mace him, resulting in the operation being aborted. Consoling Jimmy afterwards, Blaine admits feeling sad that no one had ever tried to do for her what Jimmy had just done, and Jimmy tells Blaine that she has to change and be more accommodating if she ever wants to have a boyfriend. Feeling a tentative attraction for each other, they walk away to buy coffee together.


title: The Tuxedo

text: Jackie Chan was unsure about the project adding special effects together with stunts, but was interested to work with DreamWorks for the chance to meet Steven Spielberg. Chan found the American approach to stunts and safety restrictive and wanted to repeat a jump but was not allowed. "American films are different -- it drives me crazy," said Chan. On her first day of stunts, Jennifer Love Hewitt suffered a broken finger after being struck by one of the stunt men.


title: The Tuxedo

text: During filming in Toronto, Chan and Love Hewitt appeared on an on-set webcam and interacted with fans.


title: The Tuxedo

text: Chan worked on "The Tuxedo" in between shooting "The Medallion", which started before, and completed shooting later.


title: The Tuxedo

text: After an initial score by Christophe Beck, John Debney was brought in to rescore the film (incorporating Beck's thematic material). Both composers ultimately had cues included in the final version.


title: The Tuxedo

text: Varèse Sarabande released a soundtrack album on October 1, 2002, including different cues written by the composers for the same scenes. Cues by Debney are in italics, cues by Beck in bold.


title: The Tuxedo

text: On a reported budget of $60 million, the film grossed $50.5 million in the United States. In its opening weekend the film grossed $15 million from 3,022 theaters. The film's total worldwide gross is $104.4 million.


title: The Tuxedo

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 21% based on 140 reviews and an average rating of 4.33/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Chan is as charming as ever, but his talents are squandered by special effects and bad writing." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 30 out of 100 based on 27 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: The Tuxedo

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" commented that "The movie is silly beyond comprehension, and even if it weren't silly, it would still be beyond comprehension" but does comment that the film has its good moments. He gave the film one and a half stars out of four. Robert Koehler of "Variety magazine" says that the film's central problem is the mix of Chan's actual stunts and effects, which plays against Chan's whole career and hard-core commitment to doing all of his own body-defying stunts. He notes that Hewitt "has displayed a Chan-like sweetness herself in past roles" and is disappointed that her character is "a haggling, high-strung shrew who’s instantly repellent" rather than an amusing sidekick as Chan has had in other Hollywood films. Koehler also criticizes the "pallid direction", and "virtually incomprehensible plot line". American film critic Wheeler Winston Dixon described the trademark action comedy as having an "unlikely pairing" of Jennifer Love Hewitt with Chan, and noted that Chan's doing his own stunts, even in his middle age, added a "welcome touch of verisimilitude to the endless succession of doubles who normally populate such films."


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: The Mercedes-Benz R-Class is a large luxury MPV introduced by Mercedes-Benz in 2005 for the 2006 model year. Following the success of the smaller A- and B-Class MPVs, Mercedes presented a concept vehicle, Vision GST ("Grand Sports Tourer"), at the 2002 Detroit Auto Show and a second one presented at the 2004 Detroit Auto Show, subsequently introducing the production version at 2005 New York International Auto Show. The R-Class was manufactured in Vance, Alabama until 2015 when its production was shifted to Mishawaka, Indiana for a smaller volume production until 2017.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: The R-Class (W251) shared its platform with the M-Class (W164) and GL-Class (X164) and was available in two wheelbase lengths: standard and long . The R-Class was sold in the United States and Canada in long wheelbase only. The R-Class in both standard and long wheelbases were sold internationally until the end of 2013 with exception of China where R 320 and R 400 with long wheelbase continued to be sold until 2017.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: Mercedes-Benz announced in May 2007 that the R-Class model range would be expanded with more engine options and availability of rear-wheel-drive system for selected models in addition to 4MATIC all-wheel-drive system. A new smaller 3-litre V6 was available in both petrol and diesel versions. The seating options became more flexible, offering five, six, or seven seats. AMG styling option was added to the extensive list of standard and extra-cost options.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: The R-Class received a major update with facelift to the front and rear fascias, grille, side mirrors, and taillights for the model year 2011. The revised model was unveiled at the 2010 New York International Auto Show.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: At the same time, the new 5.5-litre V8 motor was introduced to R-Class for the first time since the last R-Class with V8 motors, R 500 and R 63 AMG, were withdrawn from the market in 2007. The reintroduced R 500 was not offered in the North American market. The North American market continued with R 350 4MATIC and R 350 BlueTEC 4MATIC, both in long wheelbase form and with V6 engines only, for 2011 and 2012.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: The AMG version of the W251, R 63 AMG 4MATIC, was introduced at the 2006 North American International Auto Show as a 2007 model. It featured a handbuilt 6.2-litre M156 E 63 V8 engine producing and of torque. The R 63 AMG was equipped with same engine, seven-speed AMG Speedshift 7G-TRONIC, and 4MATIC all-wheel-drive system from ML 63 AMG and GL63 AMG. The driver can manually select the gears by pressing the upshift and downshift buttons placed behind the steering wheel spokes if desired. No rear-wheel-drive option was offered in R 63 AMG 4MATIC. The top speed is electronically restricted to or with optional extra-charge AMG Driver's Package. Despite its heavy weight, the acceleration was brisk with time of 4.6 seconds.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: A high performance version of R-Class wasn't well-received due to its poor handling dynamics, especially with the heavy V8 engine. With 200 units built for the worldwide sale, this model was the rarest of R-Class and amongst the rarest AMG models. Due to extremely low sales and the lack of advertisement, R 63 AMG was withdrawn from the market in 2007, making it a single model year.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: From 2014 to 2017, the long wheelbase R-Class was sold in China only with one engine option in two different power outputs: R 320 4MATIC and R 400 4MATIC. The R-Class enjoyed a steady popularity in China with annual sales between 12,000 and 14,000 units per year. Due to its small sales volume, the production was shifted from Alabama to Indiana where the R-Class for Chinese market was assembled by contract manufacturer AM General from 2015 to 2017.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: The entry with (Long) in parenthesis denotes availability in both standard and long wheelbases. Otherwise, the entry shows the standard wheelbase only. The Long without parenthesis denotes long-wheelbase version only. The asterisk next to the figures denotes the long-wheelbase R-Class. The double asterisk denotes the optional extra-cost AMG Driver's Package.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: All models except for R 350 4MATIC BlueEFFICIENCY, R 400 4MATIC, R 300 CDI BlueEfficiency, and R 350 BlueTEC 4MATIC use seven-speed "7G-TRONIC" automatic transmissions. The latter four models use seven-speed "7G-TRONIC plus" automatic transmission.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: The R-Class scored "Good" in the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) front crash test but "Acceptable" in the side impact crash test due to the excessive load against the dummy's torso. After modifying the seatbelts and interior door trim for the 2009 model year, the IIHS rated the R-class "Good" overall in side impacts allowing the R-Class to receive the "Top Safety Pick" award.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: In the United Kingdom, Thatcham Research's New Car Whiplash Ratings (NCWR) tested the R-Class and awarded it the top "Good" rating overall for its ability to protect occupants against whiplash injuries. Thatcham Research's New Vehicle Security Ratings (NVSR) awarded R-Class with five out of five stars for vehicular theft deterrent and four out of five stars for breaking-in deterrent.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: Mercedes targeted 50,000 sales per year, half of those for the North American market. While the initial strong sales of first two model years, 2006 and 2007, the sales fell in 2008 following the recession, reaching less than ten percent of ML-Class sales. Sales continued downward, and R-Class was discontinued in 2012 for the North American market and in 2013 for Europe and other markets — with exception of China where R-Class enjoyed popularity. Mercedes-Benz Metris introduced in 2014 is considered a successor to the R-Class for the North American market.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: In Germany, the limited engine choices and lack of available rear-wheel-drive option at the launch led to slow sales with almost 4,500 units sold in 2006. The sales decline followed for a few years despite adding more engine choices and rear-wheel-drive option. The 2011 mid-cycle refresh increased the sales to almost 2,500 before dropping to less than 500 units for the final model year, 2013.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: The cause of poor sales performance is hard to attribute, considering multitude of possible reasons. One is the confusing marketing of what R-Class is: Mercedes-Benz tried to persuade the customers that R-Class represented a new category of luxury passenger vehicle with the attribution of station wagon/estate, crossover, SUV, and van rolled into one. Additionally, Mercedes-Benz initially marketed R-Class as R-Class as a "Sports Cruiser" and later as a "Family Tourer". It also suffered the "image problem" caused by ill-fated Chrysler Pacifica that looked too similar to R-Class and was similarly sized despite R-Class having more luxury features and better managed launch. Chrysler Division of parent company, DaimlerChrysler, had introduced Pacifica a few years prior to the R-Class introduction, and Pacifica was plagued with production and quality issues as well as poor marketing and severe lack of engine choices. Secondly, the customer preference had shifted away from MPV minivans and vans to CUV and SUV during the late 2000s and most of the 2010s. Thirdly, the Great Recession of 2008-2009 greatly impacted the automotive sales and consumer's confidence along with strong increase in fuel price, making R-Class less desirable due to its higher fuel consumption.


title: Mercedes-Benz R-Class

text: The mid-cycle refresh didn't help with sales at all despite improved fascia appearance more in line with ML-Class and GL-Class and better interior.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme is a mid-size car produced by Oldsmobile between 1966 and 1997. It was positioned as a premium offering at the top of the Cutlass range. It began as a trim package, developed its own roofline, and rose during the mid-1970s to become not only the most popular Oldsmobile but the highest selling model in its class.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: It was produced as a rear-wheel drive two-door hardtop, sedan, and station wagon into the 1980s, and a convertible through 1972. In 1988 Oldsmobile sought to capitalize on the brand equity of the Cutlass Supreme marque by replacing it with a downsized front-wheel drive model based on the GM10 platform W-platform.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: When production ended there was no direct replacement for the Cutlass Supreme, although the Intrigue introduced for 1998 was designed in size and price to replace all the Cutlass models.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The Cutlass Supreme name first appeared for the 1966 model year, the first year of GM's new intermediate four-door hardtop sedan—also known as the Holiday Sedan. In addition to the new body style (also available on the midline F-85 Deluxe series), the Supreme featured a plusher interior that included a bench seat with armrest, full wheel covers and deluxe door panels among other items including "CS" emblems on the rear C-pillars and trunk lid. Although smaller than the traditional domestic cars, "its deluxe interior makes it comparable with LTD, VIP, DPL, and Caprice."


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: For the 1967 model year, the Cutlass Supreme line was expanded into a full series that also included a two-door hardtop coupe (Holiday Coupe), two-door pillared coupe (Sport Coupe), four-door pillared sedan (Town Sedan) and a convertible. Generally, interior appointments in Supreme models were more luxurious than lesser F-85 and Cutlass series cars and included a cloth or "Morocceen" vinyl bench seat with armrest in sedan models and all-vinyl Strato bucket seats in coupes and convertibles.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: For both years, the standard Supreme engine was Oldsmobile's "Ultra High Compression" Jetfire Rocket V8 rated at with a four-barrel carburetor. Transmission offerings included a standard three-speed manual with column shift, floor-mounted four-speed manual with Hurst shifter or a two-speed Jetaway automatic.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: In 1967, the high-performance 442 package with the V8 was available on three Cutlass Supreme models including the sport coupe, Holiday coupe and convertible. Also available on each of those three Supreme two-door models was "Turnpike Cruiser" option that included a 400 cubic-inch V8 with two-barrel carburetor and rating along with a numerically lower rear axle and Turbo Hydramatic transmission.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The Cutlass and other GM intermediates were completely restyled for 1968 with wheelbases shortened to for 2-door coupe models and lengthened one inch to for four-door sedans and station wagons (with the exception of the glass-roof Vista Cruiser station wagon, which rode on an even longer wheelbase). The Cutlass Supreme, now the top-line Olds intermediate series, was pared down to two- and four-door hardtop models with the pillared sedans and coupes dropped and the convertible moved to the lower-priced Cutlass "S" line, upon which the 4-4-2 muscle car was now based. Also the standard Rocket V8 was enlarged from 330 to 350 cubic inches with .


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The 1969 models received only a minor facelift such as a new split grille and vertical taillights with the same model and engine offerings. A new three-speed Turbo Hydra-matic 350 was added to the option list to replace the two-speed Jetaway automatic. Headrests were made standard equipment due to federal safety mandate and the ignition switch moved from the instrument panel to the steering column, which also was designed to lock the steering wheel. This ignition/steering wheel interlock, found on all 1969-model General Motors passenger cars, except for the Corvair, debuted one year before the federal government mandated it on all 1970 models.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: For 1970, the Cutlass Supreme nameplate was switched to Oldsmobile's equivalent of the downsized Pontiac Grand Prix on the A-body, to give the division an entry in the burgeoning market for smaller personal luxury cars. As such, the two-door hardtop had a new notchback roofline, while lower trim-line Cutlass coupes had a fastback style roof. The model remained in this role for virtually all of its production life. Unlike the Grand Prix and the also-related Chevrolet Monte Carlo, which had wholly separate bodies, longer wheelbases and different names from their less expensive siblings, the Supreme shared front and rear body parts with the standard Cutlass line and was always marketed as part of it. In addition to the two-door hardtop (Holiday Coupe), the Cutlass Supreme series for 1970 also included a four-door hardtop (Holiday Sedan) and regained the convertible bodystyle.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: Supreme interiors were more luxurious that those of other Cutlass models, with a choice of a Custom Sport notchback bench seat with armrest in Osborne cloth or Morocceen vinyl or, at no extra cost (on coupes and convertibles only), Strato bucket seats in Morocceen vinyl. Available at extra cost with the bucket seats was a center console with floor-mounted shifter for which the Turbo Hydra-Matic transmission could also be had with the Hurst Dual-Gate shifter commonly found in the division's musclecar, the Oldsmobile 442.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: For 1970 and 1971, both the Cutlass Supreme coupe and convertible were available with the Code Y-79 high performance SX option package. The "SX" option included several versions of the larger 455 cubic-inch Rocket V8 borrowed from the Olds 442 along with the cutout rear bumper and exhaust trumpets, 442's rallye suspension (optional), distinctive SX badges and other features.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: A W31 option added distinctive stripes and badging, and a camshaft with increased lift and duration for the 350 engine. The W31 option was offered on Supreme coupes only in 1968, but continued on lower-line F-85 and Cutlass S coupes through 1970.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: 1972 was the only year in which the Cutlass Supreme notchback hardtop could be equipped with the L75 455 and M20 four speed transmission, and only 77 of these cars were produced. All 1972 L75 455/M20 cars used the larger 2.07 valves and the W30 automatic camshaft. This gave the L75 455/M20 cars 270 net horsepower, as opposed to the TH400 automatic-equipped L75 cars, which produced 250 net horsepower.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The 1972 Hurst/Olds was based on the Supreme two-door hardtop and convertible, powered by both versions of the 455 Rocket offered on the 4-4-2, along with a Turbo 400 transmission with Hurst Dual/Gate shifter. The H/O convertible also served as the Indianapolis 500 Pace Car in 1972.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: 1972 was also the final year for Olds to offer the Cutlass Supreme convertible, until 1990. In its final year, it was the best-selling convertible in the U.S., with 11,571 sold, or 16% of the market, beating the Eldorado and Corvette. From 1973 to 1975, the only Oldsmobile convertible offered was the full-sized Delta 88 Royale.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: In 1973, the Cutlass Supreme, like other GM mid-size cars, was redesigned. Hardtop models were replaced by new "Colonnade" styling with fixed center pillars. Concerns over proposed rollover standards caused many automakers to phase out their pillarless hardtops and convertibles throughout the 1970s, and the Cutlass was no exception. Despite some initial controversy over the disappearance of hardtop models, the new 1973 GM mid-sized line proved highly successful. Cutlass Supreme coupes had a unique roofline with vertical opera windows not shared with other Cutlass coupes, as well as unique front end styling.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The Cutlass line soon became Oldsmobile's biggest seller, accounting for 43% of the division's total volume in 1974, with the Cutlass Supreme coupe being the single most popular model. With rectangular headlights newly legalized in 1975, the Cutlass received a facelift for the 1976 model year featuring quad headlights and a waterfall grille. This attractive redesign boosted sales even further. The Cutlass line as a whole was America's best-selling car in 1976, helping Oldsmobile to become the only marque outside of Ford and Chevrolet to break one-million units sold. By 1977, however, GM had downsized its full-size models, and the Cutlass Supreme was now nearly identical in size to the redesigned Delta 88. That situation would last only that one year, as GM planned to downsize the Olds Cutlass and other intermediates for 1978.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: In addition to the Colonnade hardtop coupe, the Cutlass Supreme was also offered in a four-door Colonnade sedan (with six-window styling and frameless door windows) as well as six-and-nine passenger station wagons - the wagons with the woodgrain exterior trim were marketed under the Vista Cruiser nameplate previously used on Oldsmobile's stretched-wheelbase station wagons with raised roof and skylights from 1964 to 1972 while the Cutlass Supreme Cruiser was offered with the same equipment and dimensions without the woodgrained appearance.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The Supreme Colonnade sedan was available in 1973 as the Cutlass Salon, which was an option package that included radial tires, upgraded suspension and reclining bucket seats upholstered in corduroy or vinyl trim along with color-keyed wheelcovers - designed as sort of a European-style luxury/touring sedan similar to the Pontiac Grand Am of the same period. For 1974, the Salon package was also made available on the Supreme Colonnade coupe and in 1975, the Salon was upgraded to a separate series available in both sedan and coupe. The 1975s received a new, more squared off grille, slightly larger and incorporating parking lights. The bumpers also continued to grow ever larger.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: For 1973-74, the 350 Rocket V8 with four-barrel carburetor and was the standard Cutlass Supreme engine with a 250-horsepower 455 Rocket offered as an option. Both three- and four-speed manual transmissions were offered in 1973, but the greatest majority of Cutlasses (including Supremes) were built with the three-speed Turbo Hydra-matic automatic transmission which became standard equipment in 1974, along with variable-ratio power steering.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The 1973-74 energy crisis resulting from the Arab Oil Embargo led Oldsmobile to introduce two new smaller engines to the Cutlass line in 1975. The Chevrolet built 250 cubic-inch inline six and three-speed manual transmission were reinstated as standard equipment on the Supreme coupe and sedan with a new Olds-built 260 cubic-inch Rocket V8 (standard on Cutlass Salon and optional on all other Cutlasses except wagons) offered as an option. However, the majority of Cutlass Supremes in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were sold with the now-optional 350 Rocket V8 and Turbo Hydra-matic automatic (still standard on wagons). The 455 Rocket V8 was optional through 1976, and replaced by a smaller 403 Rocket V8 in 1977, the same year in which a Buick-built 231 cubic-inch V6 replaced the Chevy inline six as base power in most Cutlass models.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: For 1976, the Cutlass Supreme Brougham coupe was added to the line, featuring a more luxurious interior trim than the regular Supreme model with pillowed crushed velour upholstery and 60/40 bench seats similar to the larger Ninety-Eight Regency. It also received quad square headlights. For 1977, the Brougham was also available as a four-door Colonnade sedan. The grille was also changed, with each half divided into five rather than two segments of bars divided by chrome strips.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: A five-speed manual transmission was available as an option with the 260 V8 in all models except Supreme Brougham and station wagons for 1976-77.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The Cutlass Supreme was downsized for 1978, along with the rest of the Cutlass line. An upscale Cutlass Calais model was added, differing from the Cutlass Supreme only in minor trim details. The new notchback Cutlass Supreme proved to be far more popular than the controversial fastback Cutlass Salon coupe and sedan introduced at the same time.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The Cutlass Calais, essentially replaced the previous Cutlass Salon series, as far as model position and content were concerned. The Calais featured reclining Strato bucket seats, center console, sport steering wheel, full instrumentation, tuned suspension with front and rear sway bars, color-keyed wheelcovers, front grilles mimicking an ice cube tray (as opposed to the waterfall style used with the Cutlass Supreme) and more.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: Both the Cutlass Supreme and Calais were available with T-tops or a factory sunroof, even on the base Cutlass Supreme coupe with the factory radio delete option.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: From 1978 through 1980, a high-performance 442 model was available, and for 1979 (Cutlass Calais), a special-edition performance model, the Hurst/Olds was offered. These used the Supreme's notchback body, rather than the standard fastback coupe's. Around 2,499 Hurst/Olds were produced - all were powered with an Oldsmobile 5.7L (350 cubic-inch) Rocket V8 (not the diesel engine) sourced from the full-sized Delta 88 and Ninety Eight Regency. Also included in the Hurst/Olds package was the Hurst Dual/Gate shifter for the three-speed Turbo Hydra-matic transmission.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: In 1978, the Cutlass line featured taillights which had a lighted Oldsmobile rocket logo in the center.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: In 1980, the two-door models went back to four headlights. A 4-door notchback sedan (known as Cutlass, Cutlass LS, and Cutlass Brougham) replaced the unpopular 4-door "aeroback" Salon, which continued in two-door form for one more year. The Supreme Brougham package was available on and off throughout 1978-1988 production. This was also the first year GM introduced the OBD-I computer controlled engine management and emission control system.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The 442 option moved from the aeroback Cutlass Salon coupe body to the notchback Cutlass Calais for 1980, with content upgraded from a mere "appearance and handling" package back to a legitimate performance option with content similar to the 1979 Hurst/Olds including its 350 Rocket V8. This would be the last 442 until that model was revived in 1985 again on the Cutlass notchback body as a successor to the 1983–84 Hurst/Olds.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: In 1981, the Cutlass Supreme coupe received an aerodynamic restyle (with a "shovel-nose" front header panel), which, along with a higher rear deck, decreased air resistance by 15%. It would continue with this basic design until the final rear-drive Cutlass was produced in 1988. A 4-door sedan was added to the Supreme lineup, with a new front end and a slight taillight lens restyle (resembling a touch-tone dial or Rubik's Cube - this lens style was used until 1984). It was this restyled body that (along with the Chevrolet Monte Carlo, Buick Regal, and Pontiac Grand Prix) ushered in the downsized cars into NASCAR cup competition. While the Cutlass looked almost identical to the Buick Regal (which scored 35+ victories in the 1981 thru 1985 seasons), the Cutlass (like the Dodge Mirada) didn't take one checkered flag, and many teams moved away from it in 1983 to the Regal, Grand Prix, and restyled Monte Carlo SS. This was a rude awakening to Oldsmobile, which was getting used to wins on the NASCAR circuit.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: In 1982 GM introduced the front-wheel drive A-body as the volume replacement for the 1978-vintage RWD A-bodies. Oldsmobile launched the FWD Cutlass Ciera, but lower gas prices and strong sales allowed them to continue sales of the older RWD Cutlass Supreme as a premium model until 1988. (The older body was renamed to be the G-Body.)


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The Hurst/Olds reappeared on the Cutlass Calais coupe for two years, first in 1983 as the black over silver 15th anniversary, and then as the silver over black 1984 model. Both featured chrome wheels, red striping and a high output Oldsmobile 307 V8 with 4 barrel carburetor, dual muffler exhausts and Hurst's then new three stick Lightning Rods shifter (the latter eventually becoming a magnet for thieves.) All Hurst/Olds were automatics.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The 1985 Cutlass Supreme was produced by Oldsmobile and designed after the Oldsmobile Calais, which became a separate model on the GM N platform in the same year. The rear-wheel drive Cutlass Calais was renamed the Cutlass Salon (taking its name from the upscale Supreme coupe and sedan that preceded the Calais).


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: “ 5.0-liter V8 engine, available. The added performance that adds to the pleasure of driving.” The Olds Cutlass Supreme coupe and sedan were stock with a 3.8-liter V6, 2 barrel engine, while a 5-liter V8 engine was available at extra cost.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: Brougham Coupe and Sedan - Although very similar to the original Cutlass Supreme, the Brougham is slightly better equipped. It has the same exact 3.8-liter stock engine and 3-speed transmission, but has a divided front bench seat with individual controls and the choice of velour trim in five colors. Also includes a convenience group with lamps, visor vanity mirror and chime tones. To finish off the specialization of the premium model, Oldsmobile created specific Brougham hood ornaments.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: 1987 was the final year for the rear-wheel drive sedan, and both coupe models received a restyled header panel with composite headlights. A Buick 231 was the base motor alongside the Oldsmobile 307. For its final year, the 442 package was moved to the Supreme model.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: 1988 was the final year for the rear-wheel drive Cutlass Supreme. It was badged Cutlass Supreme Classic, and 27,678 were built. The 2-door coupe (produced alongside the Chevrolet Monte Carlo at GM's Pontiac, Michigan plant) continued, until the new front-wheel drive version was released in December 1987. The Olds 307 was the only available engine.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: Two high-performance variants were created, both using a high-output version of Oldsmobile's 5.0 L (307 CID) V8 engine:


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: A front-wheel-drive Cutlass Supreme based on the GM10 platform (W-body) was introduced as a 2-door notchback coupe mid-year during the 1988 production run, while the final year of Cutlass Supreme RWD coupes were still being produced. This new FWD model shared its wheelbase with the Pontiac Grand Prix, Buick Regal, and later Chevrolet Lumina. The 1988 and 1989 models were 2-door coupes. This body style proved to be a winner for NASCAR competition and it visited the victory circle 13 times between 1989 and 1992, when Oldsmobile ended its racing program. A 4-door notchback sedan and a 2-door convertible were added for 1990. Models included base (later called S), SL, and the sporty International Series. Throughout its run, the convertible was especially popular and considered a separate trim level.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: International Series models could be equipped with unique features such as quad bucket seats with dual center consoles, a driver information system and a heads-up display. A very rare Muncie 5-speed manual transmission option was paired first with the 60° V6 in 1988 and 1989. In 1990, a revised Getrag 5-speed manual transmission option was available for the high-output Quad-4 I4 and the DOHC 60° V6 in 1991 and 1992. The entire line was restyled for 1992, with coupes and convertibles gaining distinctive "mini-quad" headlamps shared with the Pontiac Grand Prix coupe. A driver's side airbag became standard in 1994, and a new ergonomically curved dashboard with dual airbags debuted in 1995.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The trim levels and the lineup were gradually pared down over time. The Quad-4 was last produced during the 1991 model year; the manual transmission option during 1992; the International Series during 1993; the S model during 1994; the convertible during 1995; and the 3.4 L V6 engine option during 1996. The Cutlass Supreme ceased production at the end of the 1997 model year. That same year, an N-body Cutlass (actually a badge-engineered Malibu) was introduced to replace the Ciera, but this model lasted just three years. The Cutlass Supreme's place in the Oldsmobile line was taken by the 1998 Intrigue, built on the next version of the W platform. The Cutlass Supreme ended production on April 24, 1997.


title: Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme

text: The W-body Cutlass Supreme was built in Doraville, Georgia from 1988 to 1995, and at the Fairfax Plant in Kansas City, Kansas from 1996 to 1997. The first 1988 Cutlass Supreme rolled off the assembly line on January 13, 1988. The last Cutlass Supreme convertible was completed on February 15, 1995. The reason for this is that the last 34,743 cars built in Doraville were sedans, the coupe production was sent to Fairfax, Kansas around March 1, 1995, and Cars and Concepts did not have a facility near Fairfax.