title: Smenkhkare

text: Arguing against the co-regency theory, Allen suggests that Neferneferuaten followed Akhenaten and that upon her death, Smenkhkare ascended as pharaoh. Allen proposes that following Nefertiti's death in Year 13 or 14, her daughter Neferneferuaten-tasherit became Pharaoh Neferneferuaten. After Neferneferuaten's short rule of two or three years, according to Allen, Smenkhkare became pharaoh. Under this theory, both pharaohs succeeded Akhenaten: Neferneferuaten as the chosen successor and Smenkhkare as a rival with the same prenomen, perhaps to challenge Akhenaten's unacceptable choice. However, a hieratic inscription discovered at the limestone quarry at Dayr Abu Hinnis suggests that Nefertiti was alive in Akhenaten's Year 16, undermining this theory. There, Nefertiti is referred to as the pharaoh's Great Royal Wife.


title: Smenkhkare

text: Furthermore, work is believed to have halted on the Amarna tombs shortly after Year 13. Therefore, the depiction of Smenkhkare in Meryre's tomb must date to no later than Year 13. For him to have succeeded Neferneferuaten means that aside from a lone wine docket, he left not a single trace over the course of five to six years.


title: Smenkhkare

text: In comparison to the theories mentioned above, Marc Gabolde has advocated that Smenkhkare's Great Royal Wife, Meritaten, became Pharaoh Neferneferuaten after her husband's death. The main argument against this is a box (Carter 001k) from Tutankhamun's tomb that lists Akhenaten, Neferneferuaten, and Meritaten as three separate individuals. There, Meritaten is explicitly listed as Great Royal Wife. Further, various private stelae depict the female pharaoh with Akhenaten. However under this theory, Akhenaten would be dead by the time Meritaten became pharaoh as Neferneferuaten. Gabolde suggest that these depictions are retrospective. Yet since these are private cult stelae it would require a number of people to get the same idea to commission a retrospective, commemorative stela at the same time. Allen notes that the everyday interaction portrayed in them more likely indicates two living people.


title: Smenkhkare

text: There has been much confusion in identifying artifacts related to Smenkhkare because another pharaoh from the Amarna Period bears the same or similar royal titulary. In 1978, it was proposed that there were two individuals using the same name: a male king Smenkhkare and a female Neferneferuaten. Neferneferuaten has since been identified as a female pharaoh who ruled during the Amarna Period and is generally accepted as a separate person from Smenkhkare. Neferneferuaten is theorized to be either Nefertiti, Meritaten, or, more rarely, Neferneferuaten Tasherit.


title: Smenkhkare

text: After their initial rediscovery, Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten were assumed to be the same person because of their similar prenomen (throne name). Typically, throne names in Ancient Egypt were unique. Thus, the use of similar titulary led to a great deal of confusion among Egyptologists. For the better part of a century, the repetition of throne names was taken to mean that Smenkhare changed his name to Neferneferuaten at some point, probably upon the start of his sole reign. Indeed, Petrie makes exactly that distinction in his 1894 excavation notes. Later, a different set of names emerged using the same: ""Ankhkheperure mery Neferkheperure" [Akhenaten] "Neferneferuaten mery Wa en Re" [Akhenaten]".


title: Smenkhkare

text: Smenkhkare can be differentiated from Neferneferutaten by the lack of an epithet associated with his throne name. James Peter Allen pointed out the name 'Ankhkheperure' nearly always included the epithet 'desired of Wa en Re' (referring to Akhenaten) when coupled with the nomen 'Neferneferuaten'. There were no occasions where 'Ankhkheprure plus epithet' occurred alongside 'Smenkhkare;' nor was plain 'Ankhkheperure' ever found associated with the nomen Neferneferuaten. However, differentiating between the two individuals when 'Ankhkheperure' occurs alone is complicated by the Pawah graffito from TT139. Here, Ankhkheperure is used alone twice when referring to Neferneferutaten. In some instances, a female version 'Ankhetkheperure' occurs; in this case the individual is Neferneferuaten.


title: Smenkhkare

text: The issue of a female Neferneferuaten was finally settled for the remaining holdouts when Allen confirmed Marc Gabolde's findings that objects from Tutankhamun's tomb originally inscribed for Neferneferuaten which had been read using the epithet "...desired of Akhenaten" were originally inscribed as "Akhet-en-hyes" or "effective for her husband."


title: Smenkhkare

text: Theories arose when the two pharaohs Smenkhkare and Neferneferutaten were still considered the same, male person, that he and Akhenaten could have been homosexual lovers or even married. This is because of artwork clearly showing Akhenaten in familiar, intimate poses with another pharaoh. For example, stele in Berlin depicts a pair of royal figures, one in the double crown and the other, who appears to be a woman, in the khepresh crown. However, the set of three empty cartouches can only account for the names of a king and queen. This has been interpreted to mean that at one point Nefertiti may have been a coregent, as indicated by the crown, but not entitled to full pharaonic honors such as the double cartouche. Furthermore, it is now accepted that other artifacts similar to this one are depictions of Akhenaten and Neferneferuaten.


title: Smenkhkare

text: Alternatively, once the feminine traces were discovered in some versions of the throne names, it was proposed that Nefertiti was masquerading as Smenkhkare and later changed her name back to Neferneferuaten. There would be precedent for presenting a female pharaoh as a male, such as Hatshepsut had done generations prior.


title: Smenkhkare

text: As the evidence came to light in bits and pieces at a time when Smenkhkare was assumed to have also used the name Neferneferuaten, perhaps at the start of his sole reign, it sometimes defied logic. For instance, when the mortuary wine docket surfaced from the 'House of Smenkhkare (deceased)', it seemed to appear that he changed his name back before he died.


title: Smenkhkare

text: Since his reign was brief, and he may never have been more than co-regent, the evidence for Smenkhkare is not plentiful, but nor is it quite as insubstantial as it is sometimes made out to be. It certainly amounts to more than just 'a few rings and a wine docket' or that he 'appears only at the very end of Ahkenaton's reign in a few monuments' as is too often portrayed.


title: Smenkhkare

text: The location of Smenkhkare's burial is unconfirmed. He has been put forward as a candidate for the mummy discovered in KV55, which rested in a desecrated rishi coffin with the owner’s name removed. It is generally accepted that the coffin was originally intended for a female and later reworked to accommodate a male. Over the past century, the chief candidates for this individual have been either Akhenaten or Smenkhkare. The case for Smenkhkare comes mostly from the presumed age of the mummy (see below) which, between ages 18 and 26 would not fit Akhenaten who reigned for 17 years and had fathered a child near by his first regnal year. There is nothing in the tomb positively identified as belonging to Smenkhkare, nor is his name found there. The tomb is certainly not befitting any king, but even less so for Akhenaten.


title: Smenkhkare

text: In 1980, James Harris and Edward F. Wente conducted X-ray examinations of New Kingdom Pharaoh's crania and skeletal remains, which included the supposed mummified remains of Smenkhkare. The authors determined that the royal mummies of the 18th Dynasty bore strong similarities to contemporary Nubians with slight differences.


title: Smenkhkare

text: Initial studies conducted on the KV55 mummy indicated that the individual was a young man with no apparent abnormalities in his mid-twenties or younger. Another study used craniofacial analysis and examined past x-rays on several 18th Dynasty mummies. That study found close cranial similarities between the mummies of Tutankhamun, KV55 and Thutmose IV. In addition, seriological tests published in "Nature" in 1974 indicated that the KV55 mummy and Tutankhamun shared the same rare blood type. This information led Egyptologists to conclude that the KV55 mummy was either the father or brother of Tutankhamun. A brother seemed more likely since the age would only be old enough to plausibly father a child at the upper extremes.


title: Smenkhkare

text: However, the academic debate was believed concluded following a 2010 genetic study performed by Zahi Hawass that determined that the parents of Tutankhamun were likely the KV55 mummy and “The Younger Lady” mummy from KV35. Chief among the genetic results was, ""The statistical analysis revealed that the mummy KV55 is most probably the father of Tutankhamun (probability of 99.99999981%), and KV35 Younger Lady could be identified as his mother (99.99999997%)."" The study further identified the two mummies as children of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye. CT scans also performed on the KV55 mummy indicated that his age at the time of death was likely higher than previous estimates, based on the reveal of age-related degeneration in the spine and osteoarthritis in the knees and spine. These estimates placed the mummy's age at death closer to 40 years than 25. This led to further belief that the mummy was in fact Akhenaten.


title: Smenkhkare

text: However, evidence to support the much older claim was not provided beyond the single point of spinal degeneration. Other scholars still dispute Hawass's assessment of the mummy's age and the identification of KV55 as Akhenaten. Where Filer and Strouhal relied on multiple indicators to determine the younger age, the new study cited one point to indicate a much older age. One letter to the "JAMA" editors came from Arizona State University bioarchaeologist Brenda J. Baker. The content was retold on the Archaeology News Network website and is representative of a portion of the dissent:


title: Smenkhkare

text: An examination of the KV55 mummy was conducted in 1998 by Czech anthropologist Eugene Strouhal. He published his conclusions in 2010 where he 'utterly excluded the possibility of Akhenaten':


title: Accipitriformes

text: The Accipitriformes (; from Latin "accipiter"/"accipitri-" "hawk", and New Latin "-formes" "having the form of") are an order of birds that includes most of the diurnal birds of prey, including hawks, eagles, vultures, and kites, but not falcons.


title: Accipitriformes

text: For a long time, the majority view was to include them with the falcons in the Falconiformes, but many authorities now recognize a separate Accipitriformes. A DNA study published in 2008 indicated that falcons are not closely related to the Accipitriformes, being instead more closely related to parrots and passerines. Since then, the split and the placement of the falcons next to the parrots in taxonomic order has been adopted by the American Ornithological Society's South American Classification Committee (SACC), its North American Classification Committee (NACC), and the International Ornithological Congress (IOC). The British Ornithologists' Union already recognized the Accipitriformes, and has adopted the move of Falconiformes. The DNA-based proposal and the NACC and IOC classifications include the New World vultures in the Accipitriformes, while the SACC classifies the New World vultures as a separate order, the Cathartiformes.


title: Accipitriformes

text: The Accipitriformes are known from the Middle Eocene and typically have a sharply hooked beak with a soft cere housing the nostrils. Their wings are long and fairly broad, suitable for soaring flight, with the outer four to six primary feathers emarginated.


title: Accipitriformes

text: They have strong legs and feet with raptorial claws and opposable hind claws. Almost all Accipitriformes are carnivorous, hunting by sight during the day or at twilight. They are exceptionally long-lived, and most have low reproductive rates.


title: Accipitriformes

text: The young have a long, very fast-growing fledgling stage, followed by 3–8 weeks of nest care after first flight, and 1 to 3 years as sexually immature adults. The sexes have conspicuously different sizes and sometimes a female is more than twice as heavy as her mate. This sexual dimorphism is sometimes most extreme in specialized bird-eaters, such as the "Accipiter" hawks. Monogamy is the general rule, although an alternative mate is often selected if one dies.


title: Accipitriformes

text: Accipitriformes, currently with 262 species and 75 genera in 4 extant families and possibly 1 extinct family, is the largest diurnal raptor order. DNA sequence analyses suggest that divergences within Accipitriformes began around the Eocene/Oligocene boundary about 34 mya, with the split of the group including genera "Elanus" and "Gampsonyx" from the other Accipitriformes genera.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: John Anthony Walker Jr. (July 28, 1937 – August 28, 2014) was a United States Navy chief warrant officer and communications specialist convicted of spying for the Soviet Union from 1967 to 1985 and sentenced to life in prison.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: In late 1985, Walker made a plea bargain with federal prosecutors, which required him to provide full details of his espionage activities and testify against his co-conspirator, former senior chief petty officer Jerry Whitworth. In exchange, prosecutors agreed to a lesser sentence for Walker's son, former Seaman Michael Walker, who was also involved in the spy ring. During his time as a Soviet spy, Walker helped the Soviets decipher more than one million encrypted naval messages, organizing a spy operation that "The New York Times" reported in 1987 "is sometimes described as the most damaging Soviet spy ring in history."


title: John Anthony Walker

text: After Walker's arrest, Caspar Weinberger, President Ronald Reagan's Secretary of Defense, concluded that the Soviet Union made significant gains in naval warfare attributable to Walker's spying. Weinberger stated that the information Walker gave Moscow allowed the Soviets "access to weapons and sensor data and naval tactics, terrorist threats, and surface, submarine, and airborne training, readiness and tactics." John Lehman, Secretary of the Navy during the Reagan Administration, stated in an interview that Walker's activities enabled the Soviets to know where U.S. submarines were at all times. Lehman said the Walker espionage would have resulted in huge loss of American lives in the event of war.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: In the June 2010 issue of "Naval History Magazine", John Prados, a senior fellow with the National Security Archive in Washington, D.C., pointed out that after Walker introduced himself to Soviet officials, North Korean forces seized USS "Pueblo" in order to make better use of Walker's spying. Prados added that North Korea subsequently shared information gleaned from the spy ship with the Soviets, enabling them to build replicas and gain access to the U.S. naval communications system, which continued until the system was completely revamped in the late 1980s. It has emerged in recent years that North Korea acted alone and the incident actually harmed North Korea's relations with most of the Eastern Bloc.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: Walker was born in Washington, D.C., on July 28, 1937, and attended high school in Scranton, Pennsylvania. After dropping out of high school, Walker and a friend staged a series of burglaries on May 27, 1955. Their loot included two tires, four quarts of oil, six cans of cleaner, and $3 in cash. The pair evaded police during a high-speed chase, but were arrested two days later. He was offered the option of jail or the military. He enlisted in the Navy in 1955, and successfully advanced as a radioman to chief petty officer in eight years. While stationed in Boston, Walker met and married Barbara Crowley, and they had four children together, three daughters and a son. While stationed on the nuclear-powered Fleet Ballistic Missile (FBM) submarine in Charleston, South Carolina, Walker opened a bar, which failed to turn a profit and immediately plunged him into debt. In 1965 Walker transferred to the newly built FBM, , where he received a top secret crypto clearance to work in the submarine's communications spaces. He and other members of the submarine's communications team were members of the John Birch Society, distributing literature about the organization to crew members and to friends ashore, where Walker attempted the playboy lifestyle.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: John Walker was promoted to warrant officer in March 1967 and in April was assigned as a communications watch officer at the headquarters of COMSUBLANT in Norfolk, Virginia, where his responsibilities included "running the entire communications center for the submarine force..." Walker began spying for the Soviets in late 1967, when, distraught over his financial difficulties, he walked into the old Soviet embassy in Washington, D.C., sold a top-secret document (a radio cipher card) for several thousand dollars, and negotiated an ongoing salary of to a week. Soviet KGB general Boris Aleksandrovich Solomatin "played a key role in the handling of John Walker". Walker justified his treachery by claiming that the first classified Navy communications data he sold to the Soviets had already been completely compromised when the North Koreans had captured the U.S. Navy communications surveillance ship, . Yet the Koreans captured "Pueblo" in late January 1968 – many weeks "after" Walker had betrayed the information. Furthermore, a 2001 thesis presented at the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College using information obtained from Soviet archives and from Oleg Kalugin, indicated that the "Pueblo" incident may have taken place because the Soviets wanted to study equipment described in documents supplied to them by Walker. It has emerged in recent years that North Korea acted alone and the incident actually harmed North Korea's relations with most of the Eastern Bloc.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: In the spring of 1968 John Walker's wife discovered items in his desk at home causing her to suspect he was acting as a spy. Walker continued spying, receiving an income of several thousand dollars per month for supplying classified information. Walker used most of the money to pay off his delinquent debts and to move his family into better neighborhoods, but he also set aside some for future investment, such as turning around the fortunes of his money-losing bar by hiring a skilled bartender. While Walker occasionally used the services of his wife, Barbara Walker, he anticipated the possibility of losing access due to reassignment. Walker's chance to seek further assistance came in September 1969 when he became the deputy director of the radioman A and B schools at the Naval Training Center San Diego. There, Walker befriended student Jerry Whitworth.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: Walker was transferred from San Diego in December 1971 to become the communications officer aboard the supply ship . Whitworth, who would become a Navy senior chief petty officer/senior chief radioman, agreed to help Walker gain access to highly classified communications data in 1973; and served aboard "Niagara Falls" after Walker retired from the Navy. Transfer to the staff of commander of the Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet had stopped Walker's access to the data the Soviets wanted; but he recruited Whitworth to keep the data flowing – softening the idea of espionage by telling him the data would go to Israel, an ally of the United States. Later, when Whitworth realized the data was going to the Soviets instead of Israel, he nonetheless continued supplying Walker with information, until Whitworth's retirement from the Navy in 1983.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: In 1976, Walker retired from the Navy in order to give up his security clearance, as he believed certain superior officers of his were too keen on investigating lapses in his records. Walker and Barbara had also divorced. However, Walker did not end his espionage, and began looking more aggressively among his children and family members for assistance (Walker was a private investigator during this time). By 1984, he had recruited his older brother Arthur James Walker (August 5, 1934 – July 5, 2014), a retired lieutenant commander who served from 1953 until 1973 and then went to work at a military contractor, and his son Michael Lance Walker (born November 2, 1962), an active duty seaman since 1982. Walker had also attempted to recruit his youngest daughter, who had enlisted in the United States Army, but she cut her military career short when she became pregnant and refused her father's offer to pay for an abortion, instead deciding to devote herself to full-time motherhood. Walker then turned his attention to his son, who had drifted during much of his teenage years and dropped out of high school. Walker gained custody of his son, put him to work as an apprentice at his detective agency in order to prepare him for espionage and encouraged him to re-enroll in high school to earn a diploma, then to enlist in the Navy.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: When Walker began spying, he worked as a key supervisor in the communications center for the U.S. Atlantic Fleet's submarine force, and he would have had knowledge of top-secret technologies, such as the SOSUS underwater surveillance system, which tracks underwater acoustics via a network of submerged hydrophones. It was through Walker that the Soviets became aware that the U.S. Navy was able to track the location of Soviet submarines by the cavitation produced by their propellers. After this, the propellers on the Soviet submarines were improved to reduce cavitation. The Toshiba-Kongsberg scandal was disclosed in this activity in 1987. It is also alleged that Walker's actions precipitated the seizure of USS "Pueblo". CIA historian H. Keith Melton states on the show "Top Secrets of the CIA", which aired on the Military Channel, among other occasions, at 0400CST, February 5, 2013:


title: John Anthony Walker

text: In 1990, "The New York Times" journalist John J. O'Connor reported, "It's been estimated by some intelligence experts that Mr. Walker provided enough code-data information to alter significantly the balance of power between Russia and the United States". Asked later how he had managed to access so much classified information, Walker said, "KMart has better security than the Navy". According to a report presented to the Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive in 2002, Walker is one of a handful of spies believed to have earned more than a million dollars in espionage compensation, although "The New York Times" estimated his income at only $350,000.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: Theodore Shackley, the CIA station chief in Saigon, asserted that Walker's espionage may have contributed to diminished B-52 bombing strikes, that the forewarning gleaned from Walker's espionage directly affected the United States' effectiveness in Vietnam. Independent analysis of Walker's methods by an American Naval officer in Cold War London, Lieutenant Commander David Winters, led to operational introduction of technologies – such as over-the-air rekeying – that finally closed security gaps previously exploited by the Walker spy ring.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: John and Barbara Walker divorced in 1976. Their marriage was marked by physical abuse and alcohol. By 1980 Barbara had begun regularly abusing alcohol and was very fearful for her children. She wanted the children not to become involved in the spy ring; that led to constant disagreement with John. Barbara tried several times to contact the Boston office of the FBI, but she either hung up or was too drunk to speak. In November 1984 she again contacted the Boston office and in a drunken confession reported that her ex-husband spied for the Soviet Union. She did not then know that Michael had become an active participant; she later admitted she would not have reported the spy ring had she known her son was involved.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: The Boston office of the FBI interviewed Barbara Walker and initially considered her story to be the rantings of a drunken, bitter woman trying to "drop a dime" on an ex-husband. Since Barbara's report regarded a person who lived in Virginia, the Boston office sent the report to the Norfolk office. When the FBI in Norfolk reviewed the report, the counterintelligence squad concluded it might be a truthful report and initiated a discreet investigation. The FBI conducted an interview of Walker's daughter, Laura, who confirmed that her father was a KGB spy and said that he had tried to recruit her into his espionage ring while she was in the U.S. Army.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: When both Barbara Walker and Laura Walker passed polygraph examinations, electronic surveillance was authorized by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court against John Walker. In May 1985 the FBI learned through the electronic surveillance that it was likely that John Walker would travel out of town on the weekend of May 18 and 19, 1985. On May 19 Walker left his house in Norfolk and was followed covertly by the FBI to the Washington, D.C., area, where the surveillance was joined by personnel from the FBI's Washington field office. Later that evening about 8:30 p.m. he drove to a rural area in Montgomery County, Maryland, where he was seen placing a package in a wooded area near a "No Hunting" sign. The FBI retrieved the package that was found to have 124 pages of classified information stolen from the aircraft carrier , where Walker's son, Michael, was assigned. John Walker was arrested during the early morning hours of May 20, 1985, by a team of agents from the Norfolk and Washington FBI field offices. The FBI apprehended Walker himself at a motel in Montgomery County by telephoning his hotel room and telling him that his car had been hit in an accident. Barbara Walker was not prosecuted because of her role in disclosing the ring. Former KGB agent Victor Cherkashin, however, describes in his book "Spy Handler" that Walker was compromised by FBI spy Valery Martynov, who overheard officials in Moscow speaking about Walker.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: Michael Walker was arrested aboard "Nimitz", where investigators found a footlocker full of copies of classified matter. He had to be taken off his ship under guard to avoid getting beaten by sailors and Marines. Arthur Walker and Jerry Whitworth were arrested by the FBI in Norfolk, Virginia, and Sacramento, California, respectively. Arthur Walker was the first member of the espionage ring to go to trial. During the arrest of Arthur Walker, he was read his rights and repeatedly told he needed to stay silent until he could retain a lawyer, but kept admitting complicity in an effort to "show remorse". He was tried, convicted, and sentenced to three life sentences in a federal district court in Norfolk.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: Walker cooperated somewhat with authorities, enough to form a plea bargain that reduced the sentence for his son. He agreed to submit to an unchallenged conviction and life sentence, to provide a full disclosure of the details of his spying and to testify against Whitworth in exchange for a pledge from the prosecutors that the maximum sentence requested for Michael was 25 years imprisonment, which was later Michael's sentence. All the members of the spy ring besides Michael Walker received life sentences for their role in the espionage. Whitworth was sentenced to 365 years in prison and fined $410,000 for his involvement. Whitworth was incarcerated at the United States Penitentiary, Atwater, a high-security federal prison in California. Walker's older brother Arthur received three life sentences plus 40 years and died in the Butner Federal Correctional Complex in Butner, North Carolina on July 5, 2014, six weeks before the death of his younger brother.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: Walker's son, Michael, who had a relatively minor role in the ring and agreed to testify in exchange for a reduced sentence, was released from prison on parole in February 2000. Walker was incarcerated at FCC Butner, in the low security portion. He was said to suffer from diabetes mellitus and stage 4 throat cancer.


title: John Anthony Walker

text: Walker died while he was suffering from cancer and diabetes on August 28, 2014, while still in prison. He would have become eligible for parole in 2015.


title: Litmus

text: Litmus is a water-soluble mixture of different dyes extracted from lichens. It is often absorbed onto filter paper to produce one of the oldest forms of pH indicator, used to test materials for acidity. It is a purple dye that is extracted from a type of algal bloom called ‘lichens’. In an acidic medium, blue litmus paper turns red, and red litmus paper turns blue in a basic or alkaline medium.


title: Litmus

text: The word "litmus" comes from an Old Norse word for "pulp". About 1300 the Spanish physician Arnaldus de Villa Nova began using litmus to study acids and bases.


title: Litmus

text: From the 16th century onwards, the blue dye was extracted from some lichens, especially in the Netherlands.


title: Litmus

text: Litmus can be found in different species of lichens. The dyes are extracted from such species as "Roccella tinctoria" (South American), "Roccella fuciformis" (Angola and Madagascar), "Roccella pygmaea" (Algeria), "Roccella phycopsis", "Lecanora tartarea" (Norway, Sweden), "Variolaria dealbata", "Ochrolechia parella", "Parmotrema tinctorum", and "Parmelia". Currently, the main sources are "Roccella montagnei" (Mozambique) and "Dendrographa leucophoea" (California).


title: Litmus

text: The main use of litmus is to test whether a solution is acidic or basic, as blue litmus paper turns red under acidic conditions, and red litmus paper turns blue under basic or alkaline conditions, with the color change occurring over the pH range 4.5–8.3 at . Neutral litmus paper is purple. Wet litmus paper can also be used to test for water-soluble gases that affect acidity or basicity; the gas dissolves in the water and the resulting solution colors the litmus paper. For instance, ammonia gas, which is alkaline, turns red litmus paper blue. While all litmus paper acts as pH paper, the opposite is not true.


title: Litmus

text: Litmus can also be prepared as an aqueous solution that functions similarly. Under acidic conditions, the solution is red, and under alkaline conditions, the solution is blue.


title: Litmus

text: Chemical reactions other than acid–base can also cause a color change to litmus paper. For instance, chlorine gas turns blue litmus paper white; the litmus dye is bleached because hypochlorite ions are present. This reaction is irreversible, so the litmus is not acting as an indicator in this situation.


title: Litmus

text: The litmus mixture has the CAS number 1393-92-6 and contains 10 to around 15 different dyes. All of the chemical components of litmus are likely to be the same as those of the related mixture known as orcein, but in different proportions. In contrast with orcein, the principal constituent of litmus has an average molecular mass of 3300. Acid-base indicators on litmus owe their properties to a 7-hydroxyphenoxazone chromophore. Some fractions of litmus were given specific names including erythrolitmin (or erythrolein), azolitmin, spaniolitmin, leucoorcein, and leucazolitmin. Azolitmin shows nearly the same effect as litmus.


title: Litmus

text: This summary of a modern manufacturing procedure is from The vanishing lichens, D H S Richardson, London, 1975.


title: Litmus

text: The lichens (preferably Lecanora tartarea and Roccella tinctoria) are ground in a solution of sodium carbonate and ammonia.


title: Litmus

text: Stir the lichens from time to time and the color changes from red to purple and finally blue after about four weeks. The lichens are then dried and powdered. At this stage the lichens contain partly litmus and partly orcein pigments. The orcein is removed by extraction with alcohol, leaving the pure blue litmus. It is marketed as blue lumps, masses, or tablets, after mixing with colorless compounds such as chalk and gypsum. Litmus paper is paper impregnated with this substance.


title: Litmus

text: Red litmus contains a weak diprotic acid. When it is exposed to a basic compound, the hydrogen ions react with the added base. The conjugate base formed from the litmus acid has a blue color, so the wet red litmus paper turns blue in alkaline solution.


title: InterCity 125

text: The InterCity 125 (originally Inter-City 125) or High Speed Train (HST) is a diesel-powered high-speed passenger train built by British Rail Engineering Limited between 1975 and 1982. Each set is made up of two Class 43 power cars, one at each end, and a rake of Mark 3 carriages. The name is derived from its top operational speed of . Initially, the sets were classified as Classes 253 and 254.


title: InterCity 125

text: The HSTs were originally developed by British Rail (BR) in the early 1970s to be used as a stopgap, whilst it developed the tilting Advanced Passenger Train (APT). In the event, the APT project was a failure, and the HSTs became a big success. The HSTs, or InterCity 125s are now widely considered as among the most successful trains to have operated on the British railway network, both in terms of their initial impact, and their longevity: their introduction into service between 1976 and 1982 resulted in significantly reduced journey times, and large increases in patronage on the routes on which they were operated. The trains have proved to be a reliable workhorse, remaining in front-line service for decades. The first withdrawals began in 2017, 41 years after they were first introduced, to be replaced with more modern trains.


title: InterCity 125

text: As of August 2021, InterCity 125s remain in service with ScotRail, CrossCountry, Great Western Railway, and Network Rail.


title: InterCity 125

text: The design became the basis for an Australian variant, the XPT, which entered service in New South Wales in 1982.


title: InterCity 125

text: In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the British Transport Commission (BTC) was modernising its rail network. It wanted to increase intercity speeds so that railways could compete more effectively with motorways. The government was unwilling to fund new railways and the BTC focused on increasing line speeds by developing new trains and modifications to the infrastructure. A team of engineers was assembled at the Railway Technical Centre in Derby in the early 1960s, to design and develop an Advanced Passenger Train (APT) capable of at least incorporating many features not previously seen on British railways—such as tilting to allow higher speeds on curves.


title: InterCity 125

text: The APT project suffered repeated delays and in 1970, the British Railways Board (BRB) decided it was not sufficiently developed to modernise the railways in the short term and at the instigation of Terry Miller, Chief Engineer (Traction & Rolling Stock), the BRB authorised the development of a high-speed diesel train using conventional technology for short-term use until the APT was able to take over. An operational prototype was to be built by 1972.


title: InterCity 125

text: The high-speed diesel train, which became the HST or InterCity 125, was formed of a rake of Mark 3 passenger coaches between two streamlined power cars, one at each end. Each power car was fitted with a Paxman Valenta diesel engine which could produce 2,250 horsepower. This engine was chosen due to its light weight, and subsequent high power-to-weight ratio. The decision to use two power cars was taken early in the project as design engineers calculated that the train would need to sustain 125 miles per hour on the routes for which it was designed (the Great Western Main Line, East Coast Main Line, Midland Main Line, and the Cross Country Route), and it was established that no "off-the-shelf" diesel engine was capable of producing such power.


title: InterCity 125

text: British Rail had used a similar idea of a train with integral power cars at each end a decade earlier, with their Blue Pullman sets; although these trains were not ultimately commercially successful, they established the validity of the idea, and are often seen as forerunners of the HSTs. The concept had several advantages; firstly, a power car at each end allowed the train to be driven from either end in push–pull formation with the power cars linked by electronic control systems, and therefore reverse direction without the need for a locomotive to be run around at terminus stations, secondly, the train could run with only one power car operational, though at reduced speed, therefore allowing a journey to continue in the event of a breakdown, and thirdly, it avoided the underfloor diesel engines found in diesel multiple units, therefore avoiding noise and vibration for passengers. Another factor was that two locomotives operating in push–pull formation, would cause less wear on the rails than a single locomotive. One of the design requirements for the HST was that it should exert no more force on the track at 125 mph, than a Class 55 'Deltic' locomotive at 100 mph, and each power car of the HST weighed a modest 70 tons which allowed it to meet this requirement.


title: InterCity 125

text: One of the key design requirements for the HSTs was that they should be able to run at 125 mph on existing infrastructure. In order to achieve this, they had to be able to come to a stop from 125 mph within existing signal spacings, which required a high performance braking system to be developed. This was achieved by a high performance disc brake system, in place of the clasp brakes used on traditional stock.


title: InterCity 125

text: To prove the concept, British Rail produced a prototype. The framework of the new locomotive, classified British Rail Class 41, was built at Crewe Works and transferred to Derby Litchurch Lane Works for completion. The design incorporated a driving desk around the centrally seated driver, a sound-proofed door between the cab and the engine room, and, unusually, no side windows. The prototype was the first diesel locomotive in British railway history to use AC alternators in place of a DC generator, with the output converted to DC when used for traction.


title: InterCity 125

text: The prototype train of seven coaches and two locomotives was completed in August 1972 and in the autumn was running trials on the main line. The following year, high-speed testing was undertaken on the "racing stretch" of the East Coast Main Line between York and Darlington. The set was reduced to two power cars and five trailers, and there was a concerted attempt to see how fast the train would go. On 6 June 1973, 131 mph was reached, which was bettered as the days passed. On 12 June, a world diesel speed record of was achieved, and the drivers believed that 150 mph was possible, but the BRB issued instructions for the high speed tests to cease. It was believed at the time that this was because the BRB wanted to promote the APT as the future of high speed rail travel in the UK.


title: InterCity 125

text: The fixed-formation concept was proven in trial running between 1973 and 1976, and British Rail went on to build 95 sets of production HSTs to transform InterCity services.


title: InterCity 125

text: Manufacturing of the production power car sets began in 1974 at the Crewe Works, with the Mark 3 coaches being manufactured at the Derby Litchurch Lane Works. The first production power car, numbered 43002, was delivered in late 1975. The production versions were mechanically very similar to the prototype, but differed considerably in appearance: the streamlined wedge-shaped front end lacked conventional buffers, and the drawgear was hidden under a cowling. The single cab front window was much wider than the prototype's, and side windows were included. Unlike the prototype, no driving position was included at the inner end, as the power cars were originally intended to operate in fixed formation.


title: InterCity 125

text: The train's appearance is the work of British industrial designer Kenneth Grange who was approached by British Rail to design the livery, but under his own impetus, and without telling anyone, decided to redesign the body. He worked with an aerodynamic engineer, and they built and tested a model in a wind tunnel. "It really was rather quite brutal, rather clumsy. I thought, 'Oh I'd like to get my hands on that', although the brief was nothing to do with the shape, absolutely not at all." He presented the new design to British Rail and persuaded them to adopt it. After being withdrawn from GWR service, 43002 was acquired by the National Collection in November 2019 and was displayed at the National Railway Museum in York.


title: InterCity 125

text: The redesigned front end also had the advantage of easing union acceptance of the train: the railway union ASLEF had objected to the prototype's lack of space for a secondman to sit alongside the driver, and had refused to operate the prototype in public service. The cab on the production version was wide enough to accommodate two people, and so was able to overcome these objections.


title: InterCity 125

text: An InterCity 125 consists of two Class 43 diesel-electric power cars, each powered originally by 2,250 bhp (1,678 kW) Paxman Valenta engines (they have since been fitted with different engines), and a set of six to nine Mark 3 coaches.


title: InterCity 125

text: Key features of the design are the high power-to-weight ratio of the locomotives (1678 kW per ~70-tonne loco), which were built for high-speed passenger travel, improved crashworthiness over previous models, and bi-directional running avoiding the need for the locomotive to run around at terminating stations. Until the HST's introduction, the speed of British diesel-powered trains was limited to . The HST allowed a 25% increase in service speeds along many of the lines on which they operated.


title: InterCity 125

text: Lighter axle loading allowed the trains to travel faster than conventional services along lines not suited to full-speed running, such as Edinburgh to Aberdeen. Coupled with superior acceleration over older locomotives, this allowed substantial cuts in journey times. The increased speed and rapid acceleration and deceleration of the HST made it ideal for passenger use.


title: InterCity 125

text: Deliveries continued in 1976, and on 4 October a partial service of HSTs running at began on the Western Region, from , on the Great Western and South Wales Main Lines. The radical update of the standard BR livery on the power cars was complemented by the 'Inter-City 125' branding, which also appeared on timetables and promotional literature. By the start of the summer timetable in May 1977, the full complement of 27 Class 253 sets (253001–253027) was in service on the Western Region, replacing locomotive-hauled trains on the Bristol and South Wales routes. Passenger numbers rapidly increased due to the speed and frequency of the services. The displacement by HSTs of Class 50 locomotives to slower services effectively finished off the last Class 52 diesel-hydraulics by early 1977.


title: InterCity 125

text: The production of Class 254 continued through 1977 for East Coast Main Line (ECML) services. The HSTs allocated to the ECML had eight carriages instead of seven on the Western Region, and British Rail had originally planned to fit uprated Valenta engines to the longer HSTs, but this was not carried out, as it was found that the engine's coolant system would struggle to deal with the extra heat produced by a higher powered engine. The first 125 mph East Coast HST services were introduced for the summer timetable in May 1978, with HSTs taking over "Flying Scotsman" and other services. The previous generation of Class 55 'Deltic' locomotives were relegated to secondary duties, before being withdrawn entirely in late 1981. A full HST timetable for the ECML was due to be introduced in May 1979, but was delayed until late August due to the Penmanshiel Tunnel collapse. The HSTs reduced the London-Edinburgh journey time by up to an hour.


title: InterCity 125

text: In 1979, HST services began in South West England, to destinations such as Exeter, and , and in 1981 they were introduced to the Cross Country Route via . In 1982 HSTs were introduced to Midland Main Line services from : Although the HSTs were mostly limited to a top speed of on those routes, their increased acceleration still reduced journey times.


title: InterCity 125

text: Ninety-five HST sets, including 197 Class 43 powercars, were built between 1976 and 1982. More Mark 3 trailer cars were built in the 1980s for the Western Region Class 253s, making them eight-car rakes in common with East Coast and Midland Main Line services. During the 1990s only the Cross-Country sets remained as seven-car rakes, with just one first-class carriage.


title: InterCity 125

text: One of the main selling points of the new HST services were the increase in speed and comfort without any increase in fares. The HST brought considerable improvements in service, and British Rail began active marketing to support the train's introduction. The InterCity service was a great success for British Rail.


title: InterCity 125

text: One of the main selling points of the HSTs were the reductions they could achieve in journey times, with the trains being marketed in publicity material as 'The Journey Shrinker'. In 1973 British Rail produced a promotional booklet entitled "Speed for the Seventies" in which they laid out the expected journey times to be achieved with HSTs compared to the then extant timings.


title: InterCity 125

text: Most of these predictions of the journey times achievable by HSTs proved to be quite accurate, and in some cases they were underestimates. For example, the best timing achieved for London to Bath was 62 minutes, and 115 minutes was achieved for London to York.


title: InterCity 125

text: In the early 1980s, when electrification of the East Coast Main Line was in its early planning stages, serious consideration was given to producing an electric version of the HST, which would have been known as the HST-E. This would have kept the bodyshell and most of the mechanical components of the diesel version, but the power cars would have been electric locomotives fitted with pantographs. The thinking was, that as the diesel version had been proven, it would be a straightforward way to produce a 125mph trainset. The HST-E was proposed in response to the failure of the Advanced Passenger Train (APT) project. This proposal did not proceed, and BR instead developed a new electric trainset which would become the capable InterCity 225 to work the electrified services on the ECML, which came into service in the late-1980s.


title: InterCity 125

text: The prototype InterCity 125 (power cars 43000 and 43001) set the world speed record for diesel traction at on 12 June 1973.


title: InterCity 125

text: A HST also holds the world speed record for a diesel train carrying passengers. On 27 September 1985, a special press run for the launch of a new "Tees-Tyne Pullman" service from to , formed of a shortened 2+5 set, briefly touched north of . The world record for the fastest diesel-powered train, a speed of , was set by an HST on 1 November 1987, between Darlington and York with a test run for a new type of bogie for use on Mark 4 coaches on the same route. The record run was led by 43102 and trailed by 43159.


title: InterCity 125

text: On the Western Region, InterCity 125 trains (designated class 253) were introduced on services from London to Bristol and South Wales, and extended to most daytime services from London to Devon and Cornwall. Some South Wales services were extended to , and in West Wales. Maintenance was provided at Old Oak Common and St Philip's Marsh, and Laira also carried out maintenance after services to Devon and Cornwall were introduced in 1979.


title: InterCity 125

text: British Rail Class 47 locomotives still operated cross-country services from Cornwall and South Wales to the North-East via the Cross Country Route, and London to the Midlands/Welsh Marches. Class 43s replaced them when the third batch of power cars was delivered in 2+7 formation with two first class coaches, a buffet car, and four second class coaches between two power cars. They were later expanded to a 2+8 formation, with an extra second class carriage.


title: InterCity 125

text: Great Western Trains was formed out of the privatisation of British Rail and operated the InterCity routes from London Paddington to the west of England. In 1998 FirstGroup acquired Great Western Trains and rebranded it First Great Western. InterCity 125s continued to work the same diagrams they had under British Rail, albeit in a different livery.


title: InterCity 125

text: Great Western Railway used 43 HST sets to operate most intercity services from Paddington to Bristol, , , , Cardiff, , , , , Worcester, , , and , and some commuter services to , and . In 2012 all First Great Western's intercity services were worked by InterCity 125 sets with the exception of sleeper services and some Cotswold Line services.


title: InterCity 125

text: From 2005 the First Great Western HSTs were re-engined with MTU power units and the coaches were refurbished. Units for services in the M4 corridor/Thames Valley to Bristol, Hereford, Oxford, Exeter and Cardiff were converted to a high-density layout of mostly airline-style seats in standard class (only two tables per coach) to provide more seats for commuters. The remainder, for routes to Swansea and the West Country, included four tables per standard class coach.


title: InterCity 125

text: The refurbished coaches had new seating (leather in first class), at-seat power points and a redesigned buffet bar. From 2010, one standard class carriage in each set had a Volo TV system, but this was removed in 2014.


title: InterCity 125

text: Another change was made in 2014, when some first class coaches were converted to standard class or composite (half standard and half first class), leaving 1½ first class coaches per set. The first class coaches were refurbished in a more luxurious style, and many tables with one seat each side in first class were replaced by individual airline-style seats.


title: InterCity 125

text: By mid-2019, Great Western Railway no longer had any HSTs operating service to or from Paddington, having replaced all of them with Class 800 and Class 802.


title: InterCity 125

text: Great Western Railway are to retain 24 powercars and 48 carriages to form 11 four-carriage sets for use on local services between Cardiff and Penzance, replacing the British Rail Class 158.


title: InterCity 125

text: On the East Coast Main Line, the InterCity 125 designated Class 254 was the staple stock after the retirement of the Class 55 Deltic locomotives in 1980–1982, until the introduction of InterCity 225 following electrification in 1990. They were concentrated on services from London King's Cross to Newcastle and Edinburgh Waverley, and to Glasgow Queen Street, Inverness and Aberdeen. In the months following the Penmanshiel Tunnel collapse in 1979, London to Scotland services ran via the Tyne Valley line from Newcastle to Carlisle then to Scotland via the West Coast Main Line. HSTs were also used on some services from London to Leeds, Bradford Forster Square, Cleethorpes, Hull and Scarborough.


title: InterCity 125

text: The East Coast (ECML) formation was originally 2 + 8, increased to 2 + 9 in 2002 when extra stock became available. The ECML formation was two first-class coaches, one buffet (with 1st Class seating) and five (later six) standard-class coaches between the buffet and power cars. For a few years, formations included a TRUK (trailer restaurant kitchen) and buffet car, a TS (trailer second class) and TF (trailer first class) coaches, many formations were 4 × TS, TRUK, Buffet, 2 × TF. Nine trailer car units followed this formation, with the addition of a TS. 'Pullman' services replace a TS with an additional first-class coach.


title: InterCity 125

text: After privatisation, InterCity 125s were operated by Great North Eastern Railway (GNER), alongside electric InterCity 225 units from London to Newcastle and Edinburgh, and beyond the electrified sections (or where British Rail Class 91s cannot operate due to route availability restrictions) services to Hull, Skipton, Harrogate, Inverness and Aberdeen.


title: InterCity 125

text: In January 2007 the first of GNER's 13 refurbished HSTs was unveiled with coaches rebuilt to the same 'Mallard' standard as its InterCity 225 electric sets with similar seating, lighting, carpets and buffet cars. The power cars were upgraded with MTU engines. The first of the HST Mallards was in service by spring 2007.


title: InterCity 125

text: In 2007 the franchise was taken over by National Express East Coast (NXEC), which continued the re-engining programme begun by GNER, and completed the refurbishment of the fleet in March 2009. Two power cars were transferred to First Great Western early in 2009. The final Mallard-upgraded Mark 3 coaches entered service with NXEC in October 2009.


title: InterCity 125

text: Following an announcement by National Express that it would not provide further financial support to NXEC, the franchise ceased on 13 November 2009, and the operation of the route returned to public ownership. As a result, the 13 sets were operated by East Coast from late 2009. East Coast introduced an InterCity 125 service to Lincoln in 2011. The InterCity 125 was replaced by the electric InterCity 225 on the line to Skipton when the electrical infrastructure was upgraded. Eight East Coast services per day in each direction used the InterCity 125. In 2012, 43072 (now 43272), 43074 (now 43274) were transferred from East Midlands Trains and received MTU engines. In April 2015, Virgin Trains East Coast took over operation of the InterCity East Coast franchise. All trains passed with the InterCity East Coast franchise to London North Eastern Railway in June 2018.


title: InterCity 125

text: In 2006, Grand Central obtained six Class 43 power cars to operate its London-Sunderland passenger service via the East Coast Main Line. The service was due to begin in December 2006 although upgrade work to enable the coaching stock (which was formerly used for locomotive-hauled services and had a different electric heating/power supply system) to operate with Class 43 power cars was heavily delayed and therefore pushed the starting date back to 18 December 2007. HSTs 43084 and 43123 were the final operational Paxman Valenta power cars, being re-engined in 2010 with the same MTU engines as other units. While at the works being re-engined, Grand Central added the orange stripe that appears on their Class 180 units, re-painted the front ends (this making them look more like the non-buffered HSTs), and re-numbered the power cars into the four-hundreds. Grand Central's HSTs were cascaded to East Midlands Trains at the end of 2017.


title: InterCity 125

text: In February 2019 Hull Trains commenced using a First Great Western set between London King's Cross and Hull due to ongoing reliability issues with its Class 180s. A month later they introduced an additional set following further reliability issues. LNER withdrew its last InterCity 125s in December 2019.


title: InterCity 125

text: On the London Midland Region, InterCity 125 trains were introduced later than on the other regions. They initially appeared on the former Midland Railway route from London St Pancras to Sheffield and Nottingham. Although they were initially not permitted to exceed on any part of the route, they still delivered time savings compared with the loco-hauled trains they replaced.


title: InterCity 125

text: The Midland Main Line received a series of speed improvements over the next two decades, until it became possible for HSTs to run at up to on some sections. An upgrade to the full was proposed by British Rail in the early 1990s, but because of privatisation this did not happen. However line improvements were completed in time for the spring 2014 timetable change, which has permitted 125 mph running on some sections of the line and higher top speeds on others.


title: InterCity 125

text: Most long-distance services on this route have been transferred to new Class 222 "Meridian" diesel-electric multiple units, although many London services from still used the InterCity 125, as did all services from London St Pancras to . Midland Mainline inherited HSTs from BR after privatisation and operated them on its primary services at up to 110 mph.


title: InterCity 125

text: 43089 also was returned to work on the mainline after being used in an experimental programme conducted by Network Rail and Hitachi. 43072, 43074 was transferred to East Coast in 2012. Since December 2013, InterCity 125 sets have been permitted to operate at speeds of up to 125 mph on certain parts of the routes from London St Pancras to Leeds and Nottingham.


title: InterCity 125

text: On May 15, 2021, EMR retired their final two InterCity 125 trains, which were replaced by East Midlands Railway with , which had been displaced thanks to the introduction of and from Hull Trains and Greater Anglia. This made them the last HST operator to run InterCity 125 services to the capital.


title: InterCity 125

text: After privatisation, the Cross-Country Route was operated by Virgin CrossCountry, who replaced their InterCity 125 trains in the period 2002–2004 with Bombardier Voyager high-speed DMUs. Most of the former Virgin CrossCountry fleet were stored for several years but a few ran on the Midland Mainline.


title: InterCity 125

text: In 2007 the franchise passed to Arriva CrossCountry. Because of overcrowding, the company reintroduced five HSTs to supplement its Voyagers.


title: InterCity 125

text: In late September 2008, CrossCountry refurbished its first HST set: the coaches were refurbished to a similar "Mallard" standard as GNER trains, though their interior is in burgundy and there are fewer tables. They also differ from the East Coast sets in having electronic seat reservations, and the buffet car has been removed, with all catering provided at-seat from a catering base in coach B. Most of the carriages are rebuilt from loco-hauled Mark 3s. The refurbishment was carried out by Wabtec, Doncaster Works. Each set has had a TS removed, making them 2 power cars + 7 coaches.


title: InterCity 125

text: All carriages to be retained are to be fitted with automatic doors, toilets with controlled emission tanks and other accessibility modifications at Doncaster Works.


title: InterCity 125

text: Virgin Trains West Coast HSTs regularly worked out of London Euston and Birmingham International to Holyhead and Blackpool North. They also worked some Euston to Manchester Piccadilly services. Virgin's HST's were re-deployed in May 2004. Due to there being numerous curves on the West Coast Main Line, the trains were not permitted to exceed 110 mph on any part of the route.


title: InterCity 125

text: When the West Coast Main Line was upgraded by Network Rail in the 2000s, it became necessary to operate diversionary routes whilst work was going on. As a result, Midland Mainline was asked by the then Strategic Rail Authority (SRA) to operate services between from Manchester via the Hope Valley Line and Midland Main Line into while West Coast Main Line works took place. In a temporary operation dubbed "Project Rio", a large percentage of the stored Virgin CrossCountry power cars were overhauled and returned to service in an enlarged Midland Mainline fleet. Ending on 10 September 2004, the "Project Rio" fleet was gradually disbanded, with power cars moving to First Great Western and GNER.


title: InterCity 125

text: Twenty-six HST sets, 9 of which will have four carriages and 17 of which will have five carriages, moved from Great Western Railway to Abellio ScotRail after being refurbished by Wabtec at Doncaster Works with new interiors, controlled emission tanks and automatic sliding doors. They operate on services from Edinburgh and Glasgow to Aberdeen and Inverness, as well as between Aberdeen and Inverness. The first set entered service in October 2018. ScotRail's HST fleet operates under the brand name "Inter7City."


title: InterCity 125

text: One specially converted HST set is in service with Network Rail, painted in the yellow livery used for maintenance vehicles, and often referred to as the "flying banana" (a nickname that was originally applied to the whole class because when first introduced by BR they wore a predominantly yellow livery). The set is the New Measurement Train.


title: InterCity 125

text: Another single engine, 43089, was used in tests on hybrid battery powered vehicles in collaboration with Hitachi.


title: InterCity 125

text: British Rail considered the InterCity 125 sets to be diesel multiple units because they were fixed formation trains. They were allocated British Rail Class 253 (2+7 sets allocated to Western Region depots for use on Western Region and Cross-Country services) and Class 254 (2+8 sets allocated to the Eastern and Scottish Regions for use on the East Coast Main Line), the prototype train having been Class 252. Therefore, each set was allocated a set number (253 xxx or 254 xxx), which was carried on the front of the power cars. Individual vehicles were numbered in the 4xxxx series (see table below) and, because they were regarded as multiple unit vehicles, also had regional prefixes according to their allocated depot (E for Eastern Region, SC for Scottish and W for Western); this included the power cars as well as the trailers.


title: InterCity 125

text: With power cars often requiring maintenance more frequently than the trailer cars, power car swaps soon began to take place; there were a few spare power cars to allow for this. This often resulted in different set numbers being displayed at each end of the same train. As a result, during the early 1980s the power cars began to be regarded as "loose", and the use of set numbers for the whole train was abandoned. The trailer cars remained in fixed formations, however, and still allocated a set number of sorts, although that was not displayed anywhere.


title: InterCity 125

text: As sectorisation began to take hold during the mid-1980s, the use of regional prefixes on coaches and multiple unit vehicles was discontinued. At about the same time it was decided to reclassify the InterCity 125 trains (the hyphen having been dropped by the new InterCity sector) as locos and coaches. To avoid renumbering the power cars, they became British Rail Class 43 diesel locos, although a space was never inserted between the second and third digits (as was common practice on other locos at the time, e.g. 47 401).


title: InterCity 125

text: The 197 production series power cars were numbered 43002–43198. 43001 was applied to the second of the two prototype power cars, while the first of the pair (now preserved as part of the National Collection) became 43000 – unusual because BR TOPS classification numbered its locomotives from 001 upwards (this was because it was not, at the time, classified as a locomotive). Subsequently, on fitting of new engines, power cars operated by the InterCity East Coast and Cross Country franchisees have been renumbered in the 432xx or 433xx series (by adding 200 to their serial numbers), while Grand Central also changed the third digit of its power cars to 4 (by adding 300 or 400).


title: InterCity 125

text: The renumbering of the 400xx series catering vehicles in 1983 was to avoid their numbers clashing with the Class 40 diesel loco fleet (numbered 40 001 to 40 199) when BR's loco (TOPS) and coaching stock number series were merged.


title: InterCity 125

text: In 2002, Class 255 was allocated for the reformation of some HST power cars and trailers into semi-fixed formation trains, to be known as Virgin "Challenger" units, for use by Virgin CrossCountry. These formations would have had power cars sandwiching one Trailer First, a Trailer Buffet, two Trailer Seconds and a Trailer Guard Second. These plans came to naught as the Strategic Rail Authority planned to transfer most of the stock to Midland Mainline for its 'Rio' services between London and Manchester.


title: InterCity 125

text: The original "Inter-City 125" livery was blue and grey, with a yellow front to improve visibility which continued down the side of the power cars.


title: InterCity 125

text: The second livery had mostly grey power-cars with a white band along the middle, yellow underneath the white band, with the InterCity colours (cream, red, white, brown) for the parcel compartment of the power cars and the coaches.


title: InterCity 125

text: There was brownish-grey, dark grey (almost black) around the windows with a red and white stripe below the windows, and retaining the yellow bands on the power cars. The final variant of this livery saw the yellow side-bands replaced with white and did not feature the British Rail name or logo: it carried the new sector branding Intercity logo in serif type and an image of a flying swallow. This is commonly referred to as "InterCity Swallow" livery, and was applied to other locomotives in the sector.


title: InterCity 125

text: After the privatisation of British Rail, train operating companies painted the HSTs in their own colour schemes, with some lasting longer than others.


title: InterCity 125

text: Two of Great Western Railway's powercars have been repainted into heritage liveries; 43002 has repainted into original InterCity 125 Blue & Yellow livery whereas 43185 has been repainted into InterCity Swallow livery.


title: InterCity 125

text: Two powercars [43046 and 43055] owned by Locomotive Services Limited have been repainted into Blue Pullman colours. The units will be used for railtour services operated by LSL beginning on 14 November 2020.


title: InterCity 125

text: The Intercity service proved an instant hit with the British public. By the early 1980s the HST had caught the travelling public's imagination, thanks in part to a television advertising campaign fronted by the since-disgraced entertainment personality Jimmy Savile, together with the advertising strap-line "This is the age of the train". British Rail enjoyed a boom in patronage on the routes operated by the HSTs and InterCity's revenues increased, although the total was not enough to remove the need for subsidies to British Rail.


title: InterCity 125

text: The success of the HST has had significant international impact. Foreign press for decades observed and praised the speed and quality of the service.


title: InterCity 125

text: The InterCity 125 was used as a case study for evaluating the potential for a high-speed rail system in California. In Australia, the HST was used as the base for developing the XPT, in cooperation with British Rail.


title: InterCity 125

text: There have been many model and toy guises of the IC125. One of the first in the UK was by Hornby Railways, which launched its first model version in 1977. This model was supplied with an incorrect length BR Mk3 Open 2nd coach which was shortened to allow the model to reliably negotiate the smallest radius curves. This was done by removing one of the 8 side windows rather than scaling the whole length. In 1978 Hornby Railways issued an additional BR Mk 3 Open 2nd coach,


title: InterCity 125

text: followed by their first model of a BR Mk 3 Open 1st Coach in 1979 and a BR Mk 3 Restaurant Buffet Car (TRUB) in 1980. The incorrect seven side windows was corrected to eight windows in 1985 when Hornby made modifications to the tooling for the BR Mk 3 (TS) and (TF) coaches. It was later released in InterCity 'Swallow' livery, Great Western green-and-white, Midland Mainline and Virgin Trains. Lima released its version of the IC125 in 1982, of which the Mark 3 coaches were correct to the lengths of the real-life coaches and included the guard's coach. Hornby eventually followed suit in the late-1990s, when its short Mark 3 coaches were replaced by correct scale length ones but omitted the guard's coach. In 2006 Hornby released for the first time a modified tooling BR Mk 3 (TGS) Coach. In 2008 after acquiring tooling from ex-Lima rolling stock which then became the Hornby RailRoad range. Hornby released in a variety of different liveries both BR and post-privatisation a newly tooled super-detailed Class 43 powers car, alongside the more basic Class 43 HST power cars of the Railroad Range. In 2009 Hornby released newly tooled BR Mk 3 carriages. Graham Farish were the first to produce a HST in N gauge; more recently Dapol have produced another N gauge model of the train. Railway Shop (Hong Kong) produces a T gauge model (1:450 scale).


title: InterCity 125

text: Three Class 43 locomotives have been written off in railway accidents, all of which occurred on the Great Western Main Line. 43011 was written off in the 1999 Ladbroke Grove rail crash, 43019 was written off after colliding with a car at Ufton Nervet in 2004, and 43173 was scrapped after heavy damage in the Southall rail crash of 1997. In each of these cases, the damage was to the leading power car – the trailing power cars suffered limited or no damage, and were returned to service. At Ladbroke Grove and Ufton Nervet the accidents were ultimately caused by factors not involving the HST sets or their drivers, although the set involved in the Ladbroke Grove crash had a faulty AWS system; however, the Southall accident was due to the HST colliding with a goods train which was entering Southall Goods Yard, crossing the main lines. The immediate cause of the crash was the result of the driver of the HST passing a red signal without stopping. In addition, the leading power car of the set had a faulty Automatic Warning System which if operational would have alerted the driver to his error and possibly prevented the accident. Following investigation, this system has since been required to be kept operational and switched on for all use of the InterCity 125 fleet.


title: InterCity 125

text: An InterCity HST, comprising four coaches between power cars, was involved in the Stonehaven derailment on 12 August 2020, in which three people died.


title: InterCity 125

text: In 2005, the train leasing company, Angel Trains, initiated and led an industry-wide programme to replace the 30-year-old Paxman Valenta engines in the HST power cars with new MTU 16V 4000 engines. The upgrade, which was part of a £110 million total investment made by Angel Trains on its fleet of High Speed Trains, included the re-powering and refurbishment of 54 HST power cars: those then on lease to GNER (now London North Eastern Railway) (23), First Great Western (26) and CrossCountry (5). Virgin CrossCountry planned a similar project in the early 2000s, but with the collapse of the programme the upgraded trainsets were sold along with their unmodified stablemates.


title: InterCity 125

text: Additionally, many operators undertook some refurbishment of the Mark 3 carriages in the early 2000s. In view of the delay and change of direction of the HST2 programme, operators began to refurbish their HST fleets in 2006 – both by remotoring with the more modern MTU4000 diesel engine, and by refurbishing the carriage interiors. It was anticipated that these overhauls would give the HST at least another 10 years in front-line service.


title: InterCity 125

text: The first partial replacement of HSTs occurred from 1988 on the East Coast Main Line, with the introduction of the InterCity 225 when the line to Edinburgh was electrified. Some were retained for services to Aberdeen, Inverness, Skipton, Bradford and Hull.


title: InterCity 125

text: As the Intercity 125 fleet has become old compared to most stock used in passenger service, it has been recognised that it is near the end of its service life. More recently, HSTs have been replaced (or augmented) by high-speed DMUs such as the Bombardier Voyagers and the UK express version of the Alstom Coradia. These DMUs have better acceleration than the HST due to a higher power/weight ratio, with greater efficiency and braking performance in addition.


title: InterCity 125

text: In 2005 the initial concept of HST2 was rejected by the government and the rail industry as a like-for-like replacement for the HST fleet. In the light of this rejection, in 2006 existing operators turned to refurbishments of the InterCity 125 trains. Nevertheless, the HST2 concept was expanded and replaced by the Intercity Express Programme, with proposals for a joint replacement of both HST and InterCity 225 trains. The eventual successor to the two Intercity fleets is the Hitachi Super Express, comprising three classified types of fixed-rake formations: two electro-diesel types, the Class 800 sets and the Class 802 sets and the electric multiple unit Class 801 sets.


title: InterCity 125

text: On the Greater Western franchise, the first HST was returned to its leasing company in September 2017, and by June 2019, all sets on Intercity routes were withdrawn in favour of the Class 800 and the Class 802 sets.


title: InterCity 125

text: Legally in the UK, train operators are allowed to discharge up to 25 litres of untreated waste at a time on to the track. Most Mk3 carriages have no toilet tanks, discharging directly onto the track. In the 2000s both the RMT trade union and politicians were concerned at the environmental impact of this legacy issue. The problem was first raised in 2003 after Railtrack staff at abandoned local clean-up and then track maintenance procedures due to an excessive buildup of sewage waste in the area. In 2006 the RMT agreed waste-tank and clean-out developments at Northern Rail's Heaton depot in 2006 with GNER, plus new clean-out procedures at all other depots, to solve an ongoing dispute over the previous 18 months.


title: InterCity 125

text: By 2011, the European Union had started a formal investigation to see whether trains composed of such carriages were breaking EU environmental and health laws, although the Environment Agency confirmed that train companies claimed special exemptions to dump waste along the tracks. In 2013, transport minister Susan Kramer branded the practice "utterly disgusting" and called on the industry to take action. ATOC responded by stating that, as all new vehicles had to be fitted with compliant toilet tanks, with withdrawal of the HSTs by the end of 2017 the problem would be solved. HSTs remained in operation after 2017, but sliding-door conversions of CrossCountry's fleet and the shortened sets for GWR and ScotRail have all included the fitting of controlled emission toilets.


title: InterCity 125

text: As of the start of 2019, HSTs in their original form are not permitted to operate passenger services on the National Rail network because various deficiencies make them non-compliant with accessibility regulations (in particular, the need to manually open the doors). However, to avoid rolling stock shortages, some operators have been temporarily granted permission to operate them anyway: ScotRail, whose sets planned to be modified to be compliant, and East Midlands Trains, who will withdraw their sets once new rolling stock arrives.


title: InterCity 125

text: In 1982, the State Rail Authority in New South Wales, Australia placed the first of what would ultimately be 19 power cars and 60 carriages into service.


title: InterCity 125

text: Built locally by Comeng and ABB Transportation, the HST design was significantly modified, with the power cars being shorter, the Paxman Valenta engine downrated from , gearing lowered for a top operating speed of , suspension modified to operate on inferior track, and air filters and the cooling system modified to cater for hotter and dustier Australian conditions. However, the XPT is theoretically capable of reaching speeds of . A different light cluster was fitted along with three high-beam spotlights mounted to the roof. The carriages were based on a Budd design, with the British Rail Mark 3s considered unsuitable.


title: InterCity 125

text: In 1986, an agreement was reached to build a fleet of XPTs for the State Railway of Thailand. To allow it to be built to the narrower gauge and retain the same fuel capacity, it was proposed to extend the power cars by 2.7 metres to 20 metres and mount them on Bo-Bo-Bo bogies. The negotiations were sufficiently advanced for the Prime Minister of Thailand to announce it on television, however the Australian Department of Trade withdrew its support at the last moment and the deal fell through.


title: Electric Warrior

text: Electric Warrior is the second studio album by English rock band T. Rex, their sixth since their debut as Tyrannosaurus Rex. The album marked a turning point in the band's sound, moving away from the folk-oriented sound of the group's previous albums and pioneering a more flamboyant, pop-friendly glam rock style.


title: Electric Warrior

text: The album reached number one on the UK charts and became the best selling album of 1971. Specifically the single "Get It On" helped promote the album's success and reached the top ten in the US "Billboard Hot 100" singles chart. Retitled "Bang a Gong (Get It On)" by the US record company, it also became the band's only North American hit.


title: Electric Warrior

text: "Electric Warrior" has since received acclaim as a pivotal release of the glam rock movement. It had a profound influence on later musicians of different genres.


title: Electric Warrior

text: Marc Bolan, in a 1971 interview contained on the Rhino Records reissue, said of the album, "I think "Electric Warrior", for me, is the first album which is a statement of 1971 for us in England. I mean that's... If anyone ever wanted to know why we were big in the other part of the world, that album says it, for me."


title: Electric Warrior

text: Bolan was a guest on the BBC Television show, "Cilla", in January 1973. He and Cilla Black sang an acoustic version of "Life's a Gas".


title: Electric Warrior

text: The cover artwork was designed by English art design group Hipgnosis, based on a photo taken by Kieron "Spud" Murphy of Marc Bolan at a T. Rex concert. Murphy also took the photo of the band that was used for the poster that was included with the first issue in the UK and Germany. The inner sleeve artwork, portraits of Marc Bolan and Mickey Finn, was drawn by artist George Underwood.


title: Electric Warrior

text: "Electric Warrior" was released on 24 September 1971 by record label Fly in the UK and Reprise in the US. It went to number 1 on the UK Albums Chart, staying there at the slot for 8 weeks. The album remained in the UK chart for a total of 44 weeks. It was preceded by the single "Hot Love", a hit single in the UK, where it stayed at number 1 for six weeks. In the US, "Electric Warrior" reached number 32 in the "Billboard" 200 chart.


title: Electric Warrior

text: Two singles were released from the album: "Get It On" and "Jeepster". "Get It On" was T. Rex's biggest selling single, and became the band's only top-ten US hit. In the United States, "Get It On"'s title was originally changed to "Bang a Gong (Get It On)" to distinguish it from Chase's song "Get It On", which was also released in late 1971.


title: Electric Warrior

text: In a positive 1972 review for "Rolling Stone", Ben Gerson noted Bolan's transition from his earlier fairytale lyrics, noting that now "his targets are your common rock & roll cliches, as well as your common pseudo-poetic, pseudo-philosophical rock & roll cliches [...] What Marc seems to be saying on "Electric Warrior" is that rock is ultimately as quaint as wizards and unicorns, and finally, as defunct. Gerson concluded that the album established Bolan as "the heaviest rocker under 5’4″ in the world today." "The Village Voice" critic Robert Christgau was reserved in his praise: "A freak hit turned [Bolan] into a singer of rhythmic fairy tales for British pre-pubes, exactly what he was always suited for, and the great 'Bang a Gong' extends his subject matter into the rock myth itself, which has its limits but sure beats unicorns. Now if he'd only recycle a few more pop readymades I could stop complaining about fey."


title: Electric Warrior

text: Retrospectively, "Electric Warrior" has received critical acclaim and is regarded as one of Marc Bolan's best works. Chris Jones of "BBC Music" called the album a "slice of pop heaven," and stated that "this was the point at which he and long-term producer Tony Visconti took the hippy-dippy lyrics and Larry the lamb vocal stylings and bolted them on to good old stripped-down, four-to-the-floor rock 'n' roll." In his retrospective review, Steve Huey of AllMusic called it "the album that essentially kick-started the U.K. glam rock craze" and wrote that "the real reason "Electric Warrior" stands the test of time so well – despite its intended disposability – is that it revels so freely in its own absurdity and wilful lack of substance [...] Bolan's lack of pomposity, back-to-basics songwriting, and elaborate theatrics went on to influence everything from hard rock to punk to new wave." Brian James of "Pitchfork" called it "the first and best of a trio of brilliant albums," stating that "When T.Rex is kicking out the jams, they sound like they're having the most gleeful, absurd good time ever committed to wax," but adding that "the most significant aspect of "Electric Warrior" isn't its arena rock confidence; it's that Bolan allows his grinning mask to slip [...] On ballads like 'Cosmic Dancer', 'Monolith' and 'Girl', he speaks in the same gibberish as elsewhere, but he's clearly haunted-- by what we can't say."


title: Electric Warrior

text: In 1987, "Electric Warrior" was ranked number 100 in "Rolling Stone" magazine's "100 Greatest Albums of the Last 20 Years" list. In 2003, the album was ranked number 160 by the same magazine in its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, maintaining the rating in a 2012 revised list, dropping to number 188 in a 2020 revised list. In 2004, Pitchfork ranked "Electric Warrior" as the 20th best album of the 1970s. The album was also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die".


title: Electric Warrior

text: The Jam's Paul Weller cited it as one of his all-time favourite records, hailing Bolan's guitar playing as "really unique. You know his sound instantly." Lol Tolhurst of the Cure said that they listened to it during their formative years: "We were listening to T.Rex at this time,” [...] “I recall Robert [Smith] had a copy of "Electric Warrior"". The Slits's guitarist Viv Albertine also mentioned a special liking for this album for "the whole sound, the whole cartoony, sexual, and thing, it's very English as well. I think Prince has taken so much from Bolan." PJ Harvey's main collaborator John Parish included it in his favourites: "when I'm working... I like to have a few records that are most important for me, which I periodically stick on to remind myself just how good records can be. [...] I have a duty to at least try and make something as sweet and irresistible as this". Morrissey covered "Cosmic Dancer" live in 1991, both solo and for a one-off duet with David Bowie during an encore at a Los Angeles' concert; a version was included as a b-side for "Pregnant for the Last Time". Bobby Gillespie of Primal Scream has cited "Get it On" as one of his all-time favorite pop songs, adding "When I was growing up, singles were an art statement. [...] People like [..] T. Rex were changing all the time. As a fan you wanted to know what they were going to wear and whether you could follow them to that new place". The Pixies recorded a version of "Mambo Sun" for the b-side of one of their singles.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: A defensive midfielder with the ability to contribute offensively and creatively, he turned professional playing for Argentinos Juniors and played one full decade in La Liga, for CD Tenerife and Real Madrid, then finished his career (curtailed by several injury problems) in Italy, with Milan. With Real Madrid, he won two La Liga championships and as many Champions League trophies, adding the 2003 Champions League with Milan.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: Redondo was a member of the Argentina national team in the 1990s, representing the nation in the 1994 World Cup, and also winning the 1992 King Fahd Cup and the 1993 Copa América.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: Born in Adrogué, Buenos Aires Province, Redondo played his first game in the Primera División at only 16 for Argentinos Juniors, and remained five years with the team before moving abroad to Spain.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: Redondo made his debut in La Liga with CD Tenerife, under the management of countryman Jorge Solari. During this period, Real Madrid twice lost the league title to arch-rivals FC Barcelona on the final day of the season, in matches against Tenerife who were managed by Jorge Valdano and, when the coach was appointed at Real Madrid in the summer of 1994, the player also made the move for a fee of US$5 million.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: The key years of Redondo's career were spent at Real Madrid, where he won two league championships and the UEFA Champions League in 1998 and 2000. During the second victorious campaign in the latter competition, his performances won him the competition's Most Valuable Player award, with new coach Vicente del Bosque utilising him in a midfield combination with Steve McManaman. In the quarter-finals against Manchester United at Old Trafford, he was the author of a spectacular play in which he dribbled past Henning Berg by backheeling the ball around him, recovering it and assisting Raúl for his side's third goal (3–2 win, 3–2 on aggregate); after the game, opposing manager Alex Ferguson said "What does this player have in his boots? A magnet?”. For his performances, he was subsequently voted the Champions League and UEFA Club Footballer of the Year footballer of the year.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: During his time in Madrid, Redondo earned the nickname "El Principe" ("The Prince"). In April 2013 he was named by daily newspaper Marca as a member of the "Best foreign eleven in Real Madrid's history", and four years later was selected by its readers to the club's all-time XI; during one full decade, he amassed Spanish top division totals of 268 games and 12 goals.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: In 2000, Redondo transferred to Serie A club A.C. Milan in a controversial £11m move: he stated that he was not involved in transfer discussions and expressed his desire to stay at Madrid. In response, a section of Real Madrid supporters gathered outside the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium protesting the transfer. However, he suffered a serious knee injury in one of his first training sessions for his new team, and was unable to play for the next years; he suspended his £2.74m-a-year salary, and even tried to give back the house and car which the Milan board had given him.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: Redondo did manage to contribute (albeit in a peripheral role) to Milan's successes in the 2002–03 and 2003–04 seasons, making a combined 16 league appearances and adding five in the 2002–03 Champions League and six in the same edition of the Coppa Italia, including the two-legged final. In late 2004, at the age of 35, he retired from professional football following another knee injury.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: Redondo earned 29 caps for Argentina, the bulk of his appearances coming from 1992 to 1994 while Alfio Basile was the manager. His first appearance was on 18 June 1992, in a 2–0 friendly win over Australia.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: Redondo turned down a call-up to the national team just before the 1990 FIFA World Cup, when it was coached by Carlos Salvador Bilardo. The player excused himself on account of not wanting to interrupt his law studies, but it was also reported that he objected to Bilardo's defensive strategy. Redondo later explained: "I was picked for Argentina's World Cup squad in 1990 but I knew I wasn't going to be in the starting line-up, I would just be another squad member, so I preferred to stay home."


title: Fernando Redondo

text: In the 1994 World Cup, Redondo started in all of Argentina's matches, but was unable to prevent the country from falling 2–3 to Romania in the round of 16. Following the tournament in the United States he refused to play under Daniel Passarella who had banned long hair, earrings and homosexuals in his squad, leading to disputes with several players. The former refused the latter's demand to cut his hair, and was left out of the national team as even Diego Maradona and president Carlos Menem went on to take sides in the situation.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: Passarella excluded Redondo from his 1998 World Cup squad, stating: "Twice he was asked to play for the national team and twice he refused and gave a different reason each time. Then he announced publicly he did not want to play for the national team and I do not pick any player who does not want to play for Argentina." The player later explained: "I was in great form. But he had particular ideas about discipline and wanted me to have my hair cut. I didn't see what that had to do with playing football so I said no again."


title: Fernando Redondo

text: In 1999, when Argentina was managed by Marcelo Bielsa, Redondo was recalled to the national side for two exhibition matches with Brazil. Although he was chosen "Player of the match" in the 2–0 victory in Buenos Aires he refused any subsequent call-ups, preferring to focus on club football; in 2015, he was included in an all-time team by the Argentine Football Association.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: An elegant deep-lying playmaker who played in front of the defence, Redondo's main attributes were his creative passing, vision, technique and close control with his left foot, his ability to control the tempo of his team's play in midfield making him a key member of the Real Madrid side of the 90s. Despite not having a great deal of pace, he possessed good acceleration and was an efficient and aggressive tackler, who contributed defensively just as much as he did offensively.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: Although he was regarded as one of the greatest midfielders of his generation, Redondo's career was also largely marked by injuries, in particular during the final years of his career.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: Redondo was born into an industrialist family and enjoyed a wealthy upbringing, later studying law at university in the early years of his playing career. He married the cousin of fellow footballer Santiago Solari, and his sons Federico and Fernando Jr. were also involved in the sport.


title: Fernando Redondo

text: An avid reader, Redondo counted Jorge Luis Borges and Gabriel García Márquez as his two favourite authors.


title: David Gyasi

text: David Kwaku Asamoah Gyasi (; born 2 January 1980) is a British actor. He is best known for his roles in "Cloud Atlas" (2012) and "Interstellar" (2014), as well as the lead role of Lex Carnahan in The CW miniseries "Containment".


title: Flipper (1964 TV series)

text: Flipper is an American television program broadcast on NBC from September 19, 1964, until April 15, 1967. Flipper, a bottlenose dolphin, is the pet of Porter Ricks, chief warden at Coral Key Park and Marine Preserve (a fictional version of John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park in Key Largo, Florida), and his two young sons, Sandy and Bud. The show has been dubbed an "aquatic "Lassie"", and a considerable amount of children's merchandise inspired by the show was produced during its first run.


title: Flipper (1964 TV series)

text: The television show is an extension of the 1963 film "Flipper" starring Chuck Connors and Luke Halpin as Porter and Sandy Ricks, and of its 1964 sequel, "Flipper's New Adventure". For the second film, the producers scripted that Mrs. Ricks had died, making Porter now a single parent, with Brian Kelly taking over the role as Porter Ricks, but now as a trainee park ranger rather than a fisherman. In adapting the films to a television series, the producers gave Porter a second, younger son, Bud, portrayed by Tommy Norden, and the TV series has Porter returning permanently to the Florida Keys as the park ranger of the Coral Key Marine Preserve. The producers also departed from the films by endowing Flipper with an unnatural degree of intelligence and an extraordinary understanding of human motives, behavior, and vocabulary.


title: Flipper (1964 TV series)

text: The show was created, by way of the creation of the first film, by Jack Cowden and Ricou Browning, the latter of whom had experience in underwater filming and underwater performance, notably as the monster in "Creature from the Black Lagoon". In Browning's second filmed portrayal of the creature, "Revenge of the Creature", a scene showcases one of the film's shooting locations, Marineland of Florida (depicted with a fictionalized name), presenting several stunts performed by "Flippy, the Educated Porpoise", in a form of product placement. Browning also wrote the book "Flipper" based on the ancient legend of Taras, a mythical founder of the Spartan city-state of the same name (on the coast of Italy where modern day Taranto is located), who was rescued from shipwreck by a dolphin sent by Poseidon, which was picked up and adapted by famous producer Ivan Tors into the first "Flipper" movie.


title: Flipper (1964 TV series)

text: "Flipper" was filmed in Miami at Greenwich Studios (at the time called Ivan Tors Studios) at 12100 Ivan Tors Boulevard in Miami, Florida, and at Key Biscayne, Florida. Nassau was an occasional location, especially for underwater footage. The show was produced in co-operation with the Miami Seaquarium, an aquarium also located on Key Biscayne in Miami.


title: Flipper (1964 TV series)

text: The show used two different Thunderbird Iroquois boats as picture boats, a 22' model with all white upholstery and a single porthole on the sides of the cuddy for the first two seasons, and upgraded to a 23' model in the third season with two-tone upholstery and two portholes on the sides of the cuddy.


title: Flipper (1964 TV series)

text: Miami Seaquarium still presents the "Flipper Show", a dolphin show in the lagoon that served as the film location for the show.


title: Flipper (1964 TV series)

text: The Miami Seaquarium set where "Flipper" was filmed also served as the set of another Ivan Tors production, "Gentle Ben"; the house where the Ricks family lived was the same house used for the Wedloe family on "Gentle Ben." Flipper was moved to Jimbo's Shrimp (also known as Jimbo's Place), located across from Miami Seaquarium, into the care and exercise of James "Jimbo" Luznar. Sr. Flipper lived in a pen in the cove behind Jimbo's Shrimp.


title: Flipper (1964 TV series)

text: Flipper was portrayed at first by a female dolphin named Susie, though mostly by another female, Kathy, and occasionally by other females named Patty, Scotty, and Squirt. Female dolphins were chosen because they are less aggressive than males and their skins (unlike the skins of male dolphins) are usually free from scars and other disfigurations acquired in altercations with other dolphins, making their passing for the identical "Flipper" easier. The five dolphins performed all of Flipper's scenes except the famous tail walk, a trick they were unable to master completely. A male dolphin named Clown was brought in for scenes involving the tail walk. The famous "voice" of Flipper was actually the doctored song of a kookaburra bird.


title: Flipper (1964 TV series)

text: The show's theme tune was credited to Henry Vars with lyrics by By Dunham. In France, the melody was known as "La Romance de Paris" ("The Love Song of Paris"). The first five episodes of the second season featured a different version of the theme, with Frankie Randall singing new lyrics. After those episodes, the original style of the theme was brought back. The background music of the long underwater sequences was inspired by Ravel's "Daphnis and Chloe".


title: Flipper (1964 TV series)

text: Filming began in the early summer of 1964, and the first episode of season one was broadcast on September 19, 1964, with the series ending with the 28th episode of season three being broadcast on April 15, 1967, showing on NBC Saturday nights 7:30–8:00 pm, making 88 episodes in total. NBC continued broadcasts with repeats from season three until September 1967. One episode (episode three in season one, called "SOS Dolphin") was filmed earlier in 1964 as a pilot immediately after the filming of "Flipper's New Adventure" was completed. Brian Kelly appeared in all 88 episodes, Luke Halpin was in 85, and Tommy Norden was in 84. Later, reruns of the first two seasons aired January 1968 – June 1968, NBC, Sunday 6:30–7:00 pm and June 1968 – September 1968, NBC, Sunday 7:00–7:30 pm.


title: Flipper (1964 TV series)

text: In its debut season in the 1964–65 United States network television schedule, Flipper was a considerable ratings success, rating in the top 25, especially going up against the long-standing and popular "The Jackie Gleason Show" on CBS. Ratings declined only slightly in season two 1965–66 United States network television schedule buoyed by its proximity to NBC's popular new Saturday night shows "I Dream of Jeannie" and "Get Smart". Ratings fell sharply in season three against a strong rise in ratings for Gleason's show.


title: Flipper (1964 TV series)

text: "Flipper" was notable for the casting of a number of guest actors, several of whom went on to stardom in later years or had already had a stellar acting career.