title: Terror management theory

text: Experimentally, the MS hypothesis has been tested in close to 200 empirical articles. After participants in an experiment are asked to write about their own death (vs. a neutral, non-death control topic, such as dental pain), and then following a brief delay (distal, worldview/self-esteem defenses work the best after a delay; see Greenberg "et al." (1994) for a discussion), the participants' defenses are measured. In one early TMT study assessing the MS hypothesis, Greenberg "et al." (1990) had Christian participants evaluate other Christian and Jewish students that were similar demographically, but differed in their religious affiliation. After being reminded of their death (experimental MS induction), Christian participants evaluated fellow Christians more positively, and Jewish participants more negatively, relative to the control condition. Conversely, bolstering self-esteem in these scenarios leads to less worldview defense and derogation of dissimilar others.


title: Terror management theory

text: Mortality salience has an influence on individuals and their decisions regarding their health. Cox "et al." (2009) discuss mortality salience in terms of suntanning. Specifically, the researchers found that participants who were prompted with the idea that pale was more socially attractive along with mortality reminders, tended to lean towards decisions that resulted in more protective measures from the sun. The participants were placed in two different conditions; one group of participants were given an article relating to the fear of death, while the control group received an article unrelated to death, dealing with the fear of public speaking. Additionally, they gave one group an article pertaining to the message that "bronze is beautiful," one relating to the idea that "pale is pretty," and one neutral article that did not speak of tan or pale skin tones. Finally, after introducing a delay activity, the researchers gave the participants a five-item questionnaire asking them about their future sun-tanning behaviors. The study illustrated that when tan skin was associated with attractiveness, mortality salience positively affected people's intentions to suntan; however, when pale skin was associated with attractiveness people's intentions to tan decreased.


title: Terror management theory

text: Studies have shown that mortality and self-esteem are important factors of the terror management theory. Jessop "et al." (2008) study this relationship within four studies that all examine how people react when they are given information on risks, specifically, in terms of the mortality related to the risks of driving. More specifically, the researchers were exploring how participants acted in terms of self-esteem, and its impact on how mortality-related health-risk information would be received. Overall, Jessop "et al." (2008) found that even when mortality is prominent, people who engage in certain behaviors to improve their self-esteem have a greater chance of continuing with these activities. Mortality and self-esteem are both factors that influence people's behaviors and decision-making regarding their health. Furthermore, individuals who are involved in behaviors and possess motivation to enhance their self-worth are less likely to be affected by the importance placed on health risks, in terms of mortality.


title: Terror management theory

text: Self-esteem is important when mortality is made salient. It can allow people a coping mechanism, one that can cushion individuals' fears; and thus, impacting one's attitudes towards a given behavior. Individuals who have higher levels of self-esteem regarding their behavior(s) are less likely to have their attitudes, and thus their behaviors changed regardless of mortality salient or death messages. People will use their self-esteem to hide behind their fears of dying. In terms of smoking behaviors, people with higher smoking-based self-esteem are less susceptible to anti-smoking messages that relate to death; therefore, mortality salience and death warnings afford them with an even more positive outlook on their behavior, or in this instance their smoking.


title: Terror management theory

text: In the Hansen "et al." (2010) experiment the researchers manipulated mortality salience. In the experiment, Hansen "et al." (2010) examined smokers' attitudes towards the behavior of smoking. Actual warning labels were utilized to create mortality salience in this specific experiment. The researchers first gave participants a questionnaire to measure their smoking-based self-esteem. Following the questionnaire, participants were randomly assigned to two different conditions; the first were given anti-smoking warning labels about death and the second control group were exposed to anti-smoking warning labels not dealing with death. Before the participants' attitudes towards smoking were taken the researchers introduced an unrelated question to provide a delay. Further research has demonstrated that delays allow mortality salience to emerge because thoughts of death become non-conscious. Finally, participants were asked questions regarding their intended future smoking behavior. However, one weakness in their conduction was that the final questionnaire addressed opinions and behavioral questions, as opposed to the participants level of persuasion regarding the different anti-smoking warning labels.


title: Terror management theory

text: Many people are more motivated by social pressures, rather than health risks. Specifically for younger people, mortality salience is stronger in eliciting changes of one's behavior when it brings awareness to the immediate loss of social status or position, rather than a loss, such as death that one can not imagine and feels far off. However, there are many different factors to take into consideration, such as how strongly an individual feels toward a decision, his or her level of self-esteem, and the situation around the individual. Particularly with people's smoking behaviors, self-esteem and mortality salience have different effects on individuals' decisions. In terms of the longevity of their smoking decisions, it has been seen that individuals' smoking habits are affected, in the short-term sense, when they are exposed to mortality salience that interrelates with their own self-esteem. Moreover, people who viewed social exclusion prompts were more likely to quit smoking in the long run than those who were simply shown health-effects of smoking. More specifically, it was demonstrated that when individuals had high levels of self-esteem they were more likely to quit smoking following the social pressure messages, rather than the health risk messages. In this specific instance, terror management, and specifically mortality salience is showing how people are more motivated by the social pressures and consequences in their environment, rather than consequences relating to their health. This is mostly seen in young adult smokers with higher smoking-based self-esteems who are not thinking of their future health and the less-immediate effects of smoking on their health.


title: Terror management theory

text: Another paradigm that TMT researchers use to get at unconscious concerns about death is what is known as the death thought accessibility (DTA) hypothesis. Essentially, the DTA hypothesis states that if individuals are motivated to avoid cognitions about death, and they avoid these cognitions by espousing a worldview or by buffering their self-esteem, then when threatened, an individual should possess more death-related cognitions (e.g., thoughts about death, and death-related stimuli) than they would when not threatened.


title: Terror management theory

text: The DTA hypothesis has its origins in work by Greenberg "et al." (1994) as an extension of their earlier terror management hypotheses (i.e., the anxiety buffer hypothesis and the mortality salience hypothesis). The researchers reasoned that if, as indicated by Wegner's research on thought suppression (1994; 1997), thoughts that are purposely suppressed from conscious awareness are often brought back with ease, then following a delay death-thought cognitions should be more available to consciousness than (a) those who keep the death-thoughts in their consciousness the whole time, and (b) those who suppress the death-thoughts but are not provided a delay. That is precisely what they found. However, other psychologists have failed to replicate these findings.


title: Terror management theory

text: In these initial studies (i.e., Greenberg "et al." (2004); Arndt "et al." (1997)), and in numerous subsequent DTA studies, the main measure of DTA is a word fragment task, whereby participants can complete word fragments in distinctly death-related ways (e.g., coff_ _ as coffin, not coffee) or in non death-related ways (e.g., sk_ _l as skill, not skull). If death-thoughts are indeed more available to consciousness, then it stands to reason that the word fragments should be completed in a way that is semantically related to death.


title: Terror management theory

text: The introduction of this hypothesis has refined TMT, and led to new avenues of research that formerly could not be assessed due to the lack of an empirically validated way of measuring death-related cognitions. Also, the differentiation between proximal (conscious, near, and threat-focused) and distal (unconscious, distant, symbolic) defenses that have been derived from DTA studies have been extremely important in understanding how people deal with their terror.


title: Terror management theory

text: It is important to note how the DTA paradigm subtly alters, and expands, TMT as a motivational theory. Instead of solely manipulating mortality and witnessing its effects (e.g., nationalism, increased prejudice, risky sexual behavior, etc.), the DTA paradigm allows a measure of the death-related cognitions that result from various affronts to the self. Examples include threats to self-esteem and to one's worldview; the DTA paradigm can therefore assess the role of death-thoughts in self-esteem and worldview defenses. Furthermore, the DTA hypothesis lends support to TMT in that it corroborates its central hypothesis that death is uniquely problematic for human beings, and that it is fundamentally different in its effects than meaning threats (i.e., Heine "et al.", 2006) and that is death itself, and not uncertainty and lack of control associated with death; Fritsche "et al." (2008) explore this idea.


title: Terror management theory

text: Since its inception, the DTA hypothesis had been rapidly gaining ground in TMT investigations, and as of 2009, has been employed in over 60 published papers, with a total of more than 90 empirical studies.


title: Terror management theory

text: How people respond to their fears and anxiety of death is investigated in TMT. Moreover, Taubman-Ben-Ari and Noy (2010) examine the idea that a person's level of self-awareness and self-consciousness should be considered in relation to their responses to their anxiety and death cognitions. The more an individual is presented with their death or death cognitions in general, the more fear and anxiety one may have; therefore, to combat said anxiety one may implement anxiety buffers.


title: Terror management theory

text: Due to a change in people's lifestyles, in the direction of more unhealthy behaviors, the leading causes of death now, being cancer and heart disease, most definitely are related to individuals' unhealthy behaviors (though the statement is over-generalising and certainly cannot be applied to every case). Age and death anxiety both are factors that should be considered in the terror management theory, in relation to health-promoting behaviors. Age undoubtedly plays some kind of role in people's health-promoting behaviors; however, an actual age related effect on death anxiety and health-promoting behaviors has yet to be seen. Although research has demonstrated that for young adults only, when they were prompted with death related scenarios, they yielded more health-promoting behaviors, compared to those participants in their sixties. In addition, death anxiety has been found to have an effect for young adults, on their behaviors of health promotion.


title: Terror management theory

text: The terror management health model (TMHM) explores the role that death plays on one's health and behavior. Goldenberg and Arndt (2008) state that the TMHM proposes the idea that death, despite its threatening nature, is in fact instrumental and purposeful in the conditioning of one's behavior towards the direction of a longer life.


title: Terror management theory

text: According to Goldenberg and Arndt (2008), certain health behaviors such as breast self-exams (BSEs) can consciously activate and facilitate people to think of death, especially their own death. While death can be instrumental for individuals, in some cases, when breast self-exams activate people's death thoughts an obstacle can present itself, in terms of health promotion, because of the experience of fear and threat. Abel and Kruger (2009) have suggested that the stress caused by increased awareness of mortality when celebrating one's birthday might explain the birthday effect, where mortality rates seem to spike around these days.


title: Terror management theory

text: On the other hand, death and thoughts of death can serve as a way of empowering the self, not as threats. Researchers, Cooper "et al." (2011) explored TMHM in terms of empowerment, specifically using BSEs under two conditions; when death thoughts were prompted, and when thoughts of death were non-conscious. According to TMHM, people's health decisions, when death thoughts are not conscious, should be based on their motivations to act appropriately, in terms of the self and identity. Cooper "et al." (2011) found that when mortality and death thoughts were primed, women reported more empowerment feelings than those who were not prompted before performing a BSE.


title: Terror management theory

text: Additionally, TMHM suggests that mortality awareness and self-esteem are important factors in individuals' decision making and behaviors relating to their health. TMHM explores how people will engage in behaviors, whether positive or negative, even with the heightened awareness of mortality, in the attempt to conform to society's expectations and improve their self-esteem. The TMHM is useful in understanding what motivates individuals regarding their health decisions and behaviors.


title: Terror management theory

text: People with low self-esteem, but not high self-esteem, have more negative emotions when reminded of death. This is believed to be because these individuals lack the very defenses that TMT argues protect people from mortality concerns (e.g., solid worldviews). In contrast, positive mood states are not impacted by death thoughts for people of low or high self-esteem.


title: Terror management theory

text: It has been suggested that culture provides meaning, organization, and a coherent world view that diminishes the psychological terror caused by the knowledge of eventual death. The terror management theory can help to explain why a leader's popularity can grow substantially during times of crisis. When a follower's mortality is made prominent they will tend to show a strong preference for iconic leaders. An example of this occurred when George W. Bush's approval rating jumped almost 50 percent following the September 11 attacks in the United States. As Forsyth (2009) posits, this tragedy made U.S. citizens aware of their mortality, and Bush provided an antidote to these existential concerns by promising to bring justice to the terrorist group responsible for the attacks.


title: Terror management theory

text: Researchers Cohen "et al." (2004), in their particular study on TMT, tested the preferences for different types of leaders, while reminding people of their mortality. Three different candidates were presented to participants. The three leaders were of three different types: task-oriented (emphasized setting goals, strategic planning, and structure), relationship-oriented (emphasized compassion, trust, and confidence in others), and charismatic. The participants were then placed in one of two conditions: mortality salient or control group. In the former condition the participants were asked to describe the emotions surrounding their own death, as well as the physical act of the death itself, whereas the control group were asked similar questions about an upcoming exam. The results of the study were that the charismatic leader was favored more, and the relationship-oriented leader was favored less, in the mortality-salient condition. Further research has shown that mortality salient individuals also prefer leaders who are members of the same group, as well as men rather than women (Hoyt "et al." 2010). This has links to social role theory.


title: Terror management theory

text: TMT posits that religion was created as a means for humans to cope with their own mortality. Supporting this, arguments in favor of life after death, and simply being religious, reduce the effects of mortality salience on worldview defense. Thoughts of death have also been found to increase religious beliefs. At an implicit, subconscious level, this is the case even for people who claim to be nonreligious.


title: Terror management theory

text: Some researchers have argued that death anxiety may play a central role in numerous mental health conditions. To test whether death anxiety causes a particular mental illness, TMT researchers use a mortality salience experiment, and examine whether reminding participants of death leads to increased prevalence of behaviors associated with that mental illness. Such studies have shown that reminders of death lead to increases in compulsive handwashing in obsessive-compulsive disorder, avoidance in spider phobias and social anxiety, and anxious behaviors in other disorders, including panic disorder and health anxiety, suggesting the role of death anxiety in these conditions according to TMT researchers.


title: Terror management theory

text: Some psychologists, especially evolutionary psychologists, have argued against terror management theory. One scholar commented that the field of psychology would be advanced by a study of paralyzed states caused by anxiety that would only be alleviated with the reworking of a person's mental state. These authors instead explain that human behavior is selected to urge people to avoid situations likely to lead to death. This suggests that mortality salience effects reflect adaptive responses to solve specific life threats rather than an unconscious attempt to avoid this realization.


title: Terror management theory

text: Since findings on mortality salience and worldview defense were first published, other researchers have claimed that the effects may have been obtained due to reasons other than death itself, such as anxiety, fear, or other aversive stimuli such as pain. Other studies have found effects similar to those that MS results in – for example, thinking about difficult personal choices to be made, being made to respond to open-ended questions regarding uncertainty, thinking about being robbed, thinking about being socially isolated, and being told that one's life lacks meaning. While these cases exist, thoughts of death have since been compared to various aversive experimental controls, such as (but not limited to) thinking about: failure, writing a critical exam, public speaking with a considerable audience, being excluded, paralysis, dental pain, intense physical pain, etc.


title: Terror management theory

text: With regards to the studies that found similar effects, TMT theorists have argued that in the previously mentioned studies where death was not the subject thought about, the subjects would quite easily be related to death in an individual's mind due to "linguistic or experiential connection with mortality" (p. 332). For example, being robbed invokes thoughts of violence and being unsafe in one's own home – many people have died trying to protect their property and family. A second possible explanation for these results involves the death-thought accessibility hypothesis: these threats somehow sabotage crucial anxiety-buffering aspects of an individual's worldview or self-esteem, which increases their DTA. For example, one study found increased DTA in response to thoughts of antagonistic relations with attachment figures.


title: Terror management theory

text: The meaning maintenance model (MMM) was initially introduced as a comprehensive motivational theory that claimed to subsume TMT, with alternative explanations for TMT findings. Essentially, it posits that people automatically give meaning to things, and when those meanings are somehow disrupted, it causes anxiety. In response, people concentrate on "meaning maintenance to reestablish their sense of symbolic unity" and that such "meaning maintenance often involves the compensatory reaffirmation of alternative meaning structures". These meanings, among other things, should "provide a basis for prediction and control of our...environments, help [one] to cope with tragedy and trauma...and the symbolic cheating of death via adherence to the enduring values that these cultures provide".


title: Terror management theory

text: TMT theorists argue that MMM cannot describe why different sets of meaning are preferred for a symbol by different people, and that while they may exist, "different [(i.e., more concrete)] types of meaning have different psychological functions". For example, MMM theorists argue that all types of meaning are basically equal, and yet one could not compare the likelihood of defensive responses resulting from exposure to a deck of cards containing black hearts with something like the September 11 attacks. TMT theorists argue, essentially, that unless something is an important element of a person's anxiety-buffering worldview or self-esteem, it will not require broad meaning maintenance.


title: Terror management theory

text: In sum, TMT theorists believe that MMM cannot accurately claim to be an alternative to TMT because it does not seem to be able to explain the current breadth of TMT evidence. As an example, TMT theorists assert that mortality salience would not be a threat to meaning, since our eventual demise is a necessary condition of life. Therefore, it should not cause an individual to engage in general meaning maintenance. MMM also makes no attempt to explain why threatening meaning increases DTA.


title: Terror management theory

text: Some theorists have argued that it is not the idea of death and nonexistence that is unsettling to people, but the fact that uncertainty is involved. For example, these researchers posited that people defend themselves by altering their fear responses from uncertainty to an enthusiasm approach. Other researchers argue for distinguishing fear of death from fear of dying and, therein, posit that ultimately the fear of death has more to do with some other fear (e.g., fear of pain) or reflects fear of the unknown.


title: Terror management theory

text: TMT theorists agree that uncertainty can be disconcerting in some cases and it may even result in defense responses, but note that they believe the inescapability of death and the possibility of its finality regarding one's existence is most unsettling. They ask, "'Would death be any less frightening if you knew for certain that it would come next Tuesday at 5:15 p.m., and that your hopes for an afterlife were illusory?'...Would you rather be certain that death is the end, or live with the uncertainty that it might not be?" They also note that people actually seek out some types of uncertainty, and that being uncertain is not always very unpleasant. In contrast, there is substantial evidence that, all things being equal, uncertainty and the unknown represent fundamental fears and are only experienced as pleasant when there is sufficient contextual certainty. For example, a surprise involves uncertainty, but is only perceived as pleasant if there is sufficient certainty that the surprise will be pleasant. Consider a box received on a birthday from a trusted family member as compared to the box received at the end of the film "Seven" (which contains a severed head).


title: Terror management theory

text: Though TMT theorists acknowledge that many responses to mortality salience involve greater approaches (zealousness) towards important worldviews, they also note examples of mortality salience which resulted in the opposite, which offensive defensiveness cannot account for: when negative features of a group to which participants belong were made salient, people actively distanced themselves from that group under mortality salience.


title: Terror management theory

text: Several critiques have been proposed against TMT from evolutionary psychologists – for reasons including that fear is an adaptive response in individuals that has come about as a result of natural selection; without these adaptations human beings would have never been able to avoid maladaptive situations. Thus, it is unlikely that people would have psychological ways of slowing-down anxiety. In response, TMT theorists argue that this critique is mixing up fear related to immediate danger with anxiety related to thoughts of threats that will or may occur eventually. TMT is talking about the protection that self-esteem and cultural worldviews offer against the threat of unavoidable death in the "future". While anxiety may be adaptive in avoiding entering a dangerous place (e.g. because a predator may be waiting), this doesn't mean that anxiety must be adaptive in all cases. For a more comprehensive review of TMT and evolutionary psychology, see Landau "et al.", 2007. Similar evolutionary critiques have been raised by researchers exploring uncertainty and unknowns (see for reviews).


title: Terror management theory

text: Coalitional psychology (CP) is presented as another alternative to TMT, which proposes that there is an evolutionary tendency to seek safety in groups (coalitions) as a reaction to adaptive threats. People already a part of coalitional groups seek to protect their membership by exhibiting their value to the group. TMT theorists answer by arguing that CP:


title: Terror management theory

text: In addition to the criticisms from alternative theoretical perspectives, Many Labs 4 failed to replicate mortality salience results in one TMT study. A large scale effort to test the theory failed to obtain support for the mortality salience effect on worldview defense, i.e. a greater preference for an essay writer adopting a pro-U.S. argument than an essay writer adopting an anti-U.S. argument. The test is a multi-lab replication of Study 1 of Greenberg et al. (1994). Psychologists in 21 labs across the U.S. re-executed the original experiment, among a total of 2,200 participants. In response to the Many Labs 4 paper, Tom Pyszczynski (one of the founding psychologists of TMT), stated ML4 "deviated from their pre-registered protocol and failed to mention these deviations" and further "failure to follow their (highly justified) preregistered protocol has led to incorrect conclusions that have become widely publicized and have inadvertently done more damage than good to our common goal of improving psychological science."


title: Armata Universal Combat Platform

text: The "Armata" Universal Combat Platform () is a Russian advanced next generation modular heavy military tracked vehicle platform. The Armata platform is the basis of the T-14 (a main battle tank), the T-15 (a heavy infantry fighting vehicle), a combat engineering vehicle, an armoured recovery vehicle, a heavy armoured personnel carrier, a tank support combat vehicle, and several types of self-propelled artillery, including the 2S35 Koalitsiya-SV under the same codename based on the same chassis. It is also intended to serve as the basis for artillery, air defense, and NBC defense systems. The new "Armata" tank platform is meant to replace the older Russian main battle tanks and APCs that are currently used by the Russian military.


title: Armata Universal Combat Platform

text: The combat platform is formally designated as "prospective family of heavy unified battlefield platforms". The name "Armata" derives from the plural of the Latin word which refers to weapons of war, and was an old Russian word for 14th century guns; it is also the plural of the ancient Greek word "Arma", meaning "chariot" or in modern Greek, "tank". This was wrongly transcribed as "Armada" by journalists on several occasions.


title: Armata Universal Combat Platform

text: The Armata combat platform has been under design and development since 2009 by Uralvagonzavod headquartered in Nizhny Tagil. Prototypes of heavy armored vehicles based on the Armata combat platform were presented at the defense exhibition Russian Arms Expo in Nizhny Tagil in September 2013. In November 2014 trials of the 2S35 Koalitsiya-SV self-propelled gun variant were under way.


title: Armata Universal Combat Platform

text: The first vehicles were shown to the public in the 2015 Moscow Victory Day Parade, with a batch of 32 to be delivered to the Russian Land Forces during the same year. Russian media has previously stated that mass delivery will start in 2015 or 2016.


title: Armata Universal Combat Platform

text: A total of 2,300 MBTs were expected to be supplied by 2020, modernizing 70 percent of the Russian tank fleet. The Uralvagonzavod plant was expected to roll out around 500 T-14 Armata tanks per year. In 2017, the order was scaled back to a test batch of 100 tanks by 2020, with the program extended to 2025.


title: Armata Universal Combat Platform

text: At a 2015 Moscow Victory Day Parade practice drill run on the Alabino training grounds several types of armored vehicles described as various Armata models appeared with their turrets covered. Russian Defence Ministry signed a long-term contract for delivery of tanks and heavy IFVs on the Armata basis.


title: Armata Universal Combat Platform

text: In December 2019, Russian Deputy Minister of Defense Alexei Krivoruchko reported delays with the development and production, with the first batch of five vehicles available for state-conducted testing expected "in the next month or two".


title: Armata Universal Combat Platform

text: Russian Lieutenant-General Yuri Kovalenko states that the "Armata" combat platform will utilize many features of the T-95 tank, of which only a few prototypes have been built. In the main battle tank variant, the ammunition compartment will be separate from the crew, increasing operational safety while the engine will be more powerful and the armor, main gun and autoloader will be improved.


title: Armata Universal Combat Platform

text: According to preliminary reports, the new tank designated T-14 Armata will be less radical and ambitious than the canceled ‘Object 195’ or T-95. It will weigh less, therefore being more agile and more affordable when compared to its more ambitious predecessors. Additionally, the T-15 Armata, Kurganets-25 IFV and Bumerang IFV will be able to equip the same 30mm Bumerang-BM.


title: Armata Universal Combat Platform

text: The tank will have an unmanned, remotely controlled turret. It will be digitally controlled by a crew-member located in a separate compartment. It is believed that this would eventually lead to the development of a fully robotic tank.


title: Armata Universal Combat Platform

text: The vehicles of the Armata platform will be equipped with the radar and other technologies found on the Sukhoi Su-57 fifth-generation jet fighter. They include a Ka band radar (26.5–40 GHz) based on AESA radar. The devices should be ready by 2015.


title: Armata Universal Combat Platform

text: The Armata will use a new type of lightweight armor designated 44S-SV-SH, developed by Steel Scientific Research Institute enterprise. This armor does not lose its qualities when used in extremely low temperatures, which may indicate an interest in using the tank in Arctic conditions.


title: Armata Universal Combat Platform

text: The Armata tank will have a remote weapon station turret and an automated control system, with the crew protected by an armored capsule. It will have an externally mounted 125 mm gun with 32 rounds of ammunition; in addition to tank rounds, a new laser-guided missile able to be fired from the main gun with a tandem Kornet-D (or better) anti-tank or anti low flying helicopters warhead with a range of . The secondary armament will consist of a 12.7mm 6P49 machine gun and a 7.62mm PKT machine gun.


title: Wire (band)

text: Wire are an English rock band, formed in London in October 1976 by Colin Newman (vocals, guitar), Graham Lewis (bass, vocals), Bruce Gilbert (guitar) and Robert Grey (drums). They were originally associated with the punk rock scene, appearing on "The Roxy London WC2" album, and were later central to the development of post-punk, while their debut album "Pink Flag" was influential for hardcore punk.


title: Wire (band)

text: Wire are considered a definitive art punk and post-punk band, due to their richly detailed and atmospheric sound and obscure lyrical themes.They steadily developed from an early noise rock style to a more complex, structured sound involving increased use of guitar effects and synthesizers (1978's "Chairs Missing" and 1979's "154"). The band gained a reputation for experimenting with song arrangements throughout their career.


title: Wire (band)

text: Wire's debut album "Pink Flag" (1977) – "perhaps the most original debut album to come out of the first wave of British punk", according to AllMusic – contains songs that are diverse in mood and style, but most use a minimalist punk approach combined with unorthodox structures. "Field Day for the Sundays", for example, is only 28 seconds long.


title: Wire (band)

text: Their second album, "Chairs Missing" (1978) marked a retreat from the stark minimalism of "Pink Flag", with longer, more atmospheric songs and synthesizer parts added by producer Mike Thorne. "Outdoor Miner" was a minor hit, peaking at number 51 in the UK singles chart. The experimentation was even more prominent on "154" (1979).


title: Wire (band)

text: Wire's unorthodox ideas to promote "154" led to a falling out with their label. According to Newman, "We'd worked out a sales strategy for "154" that EMI couldn't see at all...They couldn't understand a rock band that wanted to do a week in a theater as an event, and wanted to promote "154" with videos or left-field TV adverts. We wanted to help them sell records; they thought we were simply being intransigent." According to Jim Green in an interview with Newman, "personnel changes at EMI had left Wire without any support." Colin Newman's solo album, ""A-Z" was planned as the fourth Wire album, but EMI cancelled studio time in the wake of failed negotiations with the band, and then dropped Wire's option."


title: Wire (band)

text: Lacking a recording deal and money, creative differences split the band in 1979, leading to the "Document and Eyewitness" LP (1981), a recording of a live performance that featured, almost exclusively, new material. The album was described as "disjointed", "unrecognizable as rock music" and "almost unlistenable". The LP came packaged with an EP of a different performance of more new material. Some of these songs, along with others performed but not included on the album, were included on Newman's post-Wire solo albums ("5/10", "We Meet Under Tables"), while others were released by Gilbert's and Lewis' primary post-Wire outlet Dome ("And Then...", "Ritual View").


title: Wire (band)

text: Between 1981 and 1985, Wire ceased recording and performing in favour of solo and collaborative projects such as Dome, Cupol, Duet Emmo and several Colin Newman solo efforts.


title: Wire (band)

text: In 1985, the group re-formed as a "beat combo" (a joking reference to early 1960s beat music), with greater use of electronic musical instruments. Wire announced that they would perform none of their older material, hiring The Ex-Lion Tamers (a Wire cover band named after a song title from "Pink Flag") as their opening act. The Ex-Lion Tamers played Wire's older songs, and Wire played their new material.


title: Wire (band)

text: In June 1988, Wire were part of a lineup that included Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark and Thomas Dolby supporting Depeche Mode at the Pasadena Rose Bowl where they played to over 60,000 people. In 1989, Wire released "IBTABA", a "live" album of mostly reworked versions of songs from "The Ideal Copy" and "A Bell Is a Cup", heavily rearranged, edited, and remixed. A new song from the album, "Eardrum Buzz", was released as a single and peaked at number 68 in the UK singles chart.


title: Wire (band)

text: Gotobed left the band in 1990, after the release of the album "Manscape". After his departure, the band dropped one letter from its name, becoming "Wir" (still pronounced "wire"), and released "The First Letter" in 1991. There followed a further period of solo recordings, during which Newman founded the swim ~ label, and later Githead with his wife (ex-Minimal Compact bassist Malka Spigel), while Wire remained an occasional collaboration. It was not until 1999 that Wire again became a full-time entity.


title: Wire (band)

text: With Gotobed back in the line-up (now using his birth name, Robert Grey), the group initially reworked much of their back catalogue for a performance at Royal Festival Hall in 2000. Wire's reception during a short tour in early May of the US, and a number of UK gigs, convinced the band to continue. Two EPs and an album, "Send" (2003), followed, as well as collaborations with stage designer Es Devlin and artists Jake and Dinos Chapman.


title: Wire (band)

text: In 2006, Wire's 1970s albums were remastered and re-released with the original vinyl track listings. A third "Read & Burn" EP was released in November 2007.


title: Wire (band)

text: A full-length album of new material entitled "Object 47" was released in July 2008. Bruce Gilbert was not involved in this recording, although, according to Newman, he did feature in a minimal capacity on the third "Read and Burn" EP.


title: Wire (band)

text: In January 2011, Wire released "Red Barked Tree", which according to the band's press release "rekindles a lyricism sometimes absent from Wire's previous work and reconnects with the live energy of performance, harnessed and channelled from extensive touring over the past few years". The album was written and recorded by Newman, Lewis and Grey, but speaking to Marc Riley on the day of the release, Newman introduced as "a new boy" guitarist Matt Simms (from It Hugs Back), who had been a touring member with the band since April 2010.


title: Wire (band)

text: In March 2013 the band released "Change Becomes Us", their 13th studio album, which was very well received. Their fourteenth album, eponymously titled "Wire", was released in April 2015. The following year, in April 2016, the band's 15th studio album, entitled "Nocturnal Koreans," was released on their label Pinkflag. It consisted of eight songs recorded during the sessions for their previous album, but were cut from the track listing. Stereogum named "Nocturnal Koreans" the Album of the Week. Reviews for the album were mostly positive. In 2017 Wire celebrated 40 years since their debut gig on 1 April 1977 by releasing their 16th studio album "Silver/Lead" and headlining the Los Angeles edition of their DRILL : FESTIVAL.


title: Wire (band)

text: In January 2020, Wire released "Mind Hive" on their own Pinkflag label. The band appeared on the front cover of "Wire" magazine (issue 432) published in January 2020; it featured an interview with the band about the new album and discussed the enduring nature of the group.


title: Wire (band)

text: In March 2020, the band announced an eight-song album entitled "10:20" that would be released on Record Store Day. Side one of the vinyl LP consists of four tracks that were originally released as the limited edition "Strays" EP, which was given away with mail ordered copies of "Red Barked Trees". Side two contains four tracks that were recorded during the "Mind Hive" sessions but not released until their appearance on "10:20".


title: Wire (band)

text: In June 2021, in conjunction with Record Store Day, Wire released "PF456 Deluxe" an 18-song vinyl-only compilation of the first two Read and Burn EPs, the "Twelve Times You" single, and the four unreleased tracks from "Send". Concurrently, Wire released a CD version of "PF456 Redux", a 16-song vinyl-only compilation, originally released in 2003, of edited versions of all the songs from the first two Read and Burn EPs along with the unreleased songs on "Send". In April 2022, in conjunction with Record Store Day, Wire released "Not About to Die" which was originally released as a bootleg in the early 1980s. The album consists of recordings made for EMI as demos for the 1978 and 1979 albums, "Chairs Missing" and "154". The songs on "Not About to Die" were also previously released by Wire on the special editions of the two EMI albums.


title: Wire (band)

text: Wire's influence has outshone their comparatively modest record sales. In the 1980s and 1990s, Big Black, Minutemen, and Sonic Youth all expressed a fondness for the group. Minutemen bassist Mike Watt described their influence as key saying of "Pink Flag" "I don't know what we would have sounded like if we didn't hear it."


title: Wire (band)

text: Wire were influential on American hardcore punk. Fans included Ian MacKaye of Minor Threat and Henry Rollins, formerly of Black Flag. Minor Threat covered "12XU" for the "Flex Your Head" compilation, as did Boss Hog on their "I Dig You" EP. Rollins, as Henrietta Collins & The Wife-Beating Childhaters, covered "Ex Lion Tamer" on the EP "Drive by Shooting". Michael Azerrad reported, in the book "Our Band Could Be Your Life", that at Minor Threat's second gig, each of the seven bands on the roster performed a version of a Wire song. Big Black covered Wire's "Heartbeat" twice, once as a studio version that was released as a single (also included on "The Rich Man's Eight Track Tape" compilation) and also as a live version, featuring Bruce Gilbert and Graham Lewis, included on the VHS version of the live album "Pigpile".


title: Wire (band)

text: R.E.M. covered "Strange" on their album "Document." Robert Smith has described how, after seeing the group live, Wire influenced The Cure's sound after their first album. The shoegaze band Lush covered "Outdoor Miner" in the 90s.


title: Wire (band)

text: A plagiarism case between Wire's music publisher and Elastica over the similarity between Wire's 1977 song "Three Girl Rhumba" and Elastica's 1995 hit "Connection" resulted in an out-of-court settlement.


title: Wire (band)

text: Alternative Press included Wire in their 1996 list of 100 underground inspirations of the past 20 years, stating that "as long as there are listeners equally lured by tough, intelligent riffs and fearless experimentalism, Wire will remain a crucial benchmark."


title: Wire (band)

text: Guided By Voices' Robert Pollard is a self-proclaimed fan of Wire, stating that the existence of a large number of songs on GBV's albums is a direct Wire influence. One of My Bloody Valentine's last releases prior to reconvening in 2007 was a cover of "Map Ref 41°N 93°W" for a Wire tribute entitled "Whore". The song was selected as a favourite cover by Flak Magazine.


title: Wire (band)

text: Fischerspooner (who covered "The 15th" on their album "#1"), Britpop bands like Elastica and Menswe@r and post-punk revival bands like Bloc Party, Futureheads, Blacklist and Franz Ferdinand have cited Wire as an influence. The Smiths' Johnny Marr has confirmed that he is a fan of the band and has acknowledged that seeing Wire live helped give him the confidence to release his first solo album in 2013.


title: Wire (band)

text: The British electronic band Ladytron included Wire's "The 15th" on the mix compilation "Softcore Jukebox". Ladytron member Reuben Wu claimed Wire as a musical influence.


title: Wire (band)

text: The slowcore band Low included an early, previously unreleased cover of "Heartbeat" on their career-spanning box set in 2007. Ampere recorded a cover of "Mr. Suit" for their 2006 split with Das Oath. New Bomb Turks also recorded a cover of "Mr. Suit" on the 1993 album "!!Destroy-Oh-Boy!!". The chorus of Ministry's "Thieves" was influenced by "Mr. Suit" as well. Helmet guitarist Page Hamilton cites Wire as one of his "top five bands" and as an influence on his music.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: Ouray () is a home rule municipality that is the county seat of Ouray County, Colorado, United States. The city population was 1,000 as of the 2010 census. The Ouray Post Office has the ZIP Code 81427. Located at an elevation of , Ouray's climate, natural alpine environment, and scenery have earned it the nickname "Switzerland of America".


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: Originally established by miners seeking silver and gold in the surrounding mountains, the town at one time boasted more horses and mules than people. arrived in the area in 1875. In 1877, William Weston and George Barber found the Gertrude and Una gold veins in Imogene Basin, six miles south southwest of Ouray. Thomas Walsh acquired the two veins and all the open ground nearby. In 1897, Walsh opened the Camp Bird Mine, adding a twenty-stamp mill in 1898, and a forty-stamp mill in 1899. The mine produced almost 200,000 ounces of gold by 1902, when Walsh sold out to Camp Bird, Ltd. By 1916, Camp Bird, Ltd., had produced over one million ounces of gold.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: At the height of the mining, Ouray had more than 30 active mines. The town—after changing its name and that of the county it was in several times—was incorporated on October 2, 1876, named after Chief Ouray of the Utes, a Native American tribe. By 1877 Ouray had grown to over 1,000 in population and was named county seat of the newly formed Ouray County on March 8, 1877.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: The Denver & Rio Grande Railway arrived in Ouray on December 21, 1887. It would stay until the automobile and trucks caused a decline in traffic. The last regularly scheduled passenger train was September 14, 1930. The line between Ouray and Ridgway was abandoned on March 21, 1953.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: The entirety of Main Street is registered as a National Historic District with most of the buildings dating from the late nineteenth century. The Beaumont Hotel and the Ouray City Hall and Walsh Library are listed on the National Register of Historic Places individually, while the Ouray County Courthouse, St. Elmo Hotel, St. Joseph's Miners' Hospital (currently housing the Ouray County Historical Society and Museum), Western Hotel, and Wright's Opera House are included in the historic district.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: Ouray is located at (38.023217, −107.672178), in the San Juan Mountains of southwestern Colorado. It is about south of Montrose. It is only northeast of Telluride, but due to the severity of the landscape, the drive is about . Ouray is connected to Silverton and then Durango to the south by Red Mountain Pass which crests at just over . The drive along the Uncompahgre River and over the pass is nicknamed the "Million Dollar Highway", although the exact origin of the name is disputed. Yankee Boy Basin is located a few miles from the town.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: Ouray is located at an elevation of , and experiences four distinct seasons. Summers are warm in the day and mild to cool at night with brief thunderstorms often occurring in the afternoons in July and August sometimes resulting in intense, though short lived, rainfall. Autumn is cool and mostly clear with occasional rain. Winters are long and cold—though seldom extremely so—with considerable snowfall. Spring is generally cool with early spring often bringing the largest snowfalls; late spring into early summer (mid-May through late June) is mild to warm and is usually the driest time of year. The Köppen climate classification for Ouray is .


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: The majority of Ouray's economy is based on tourism. Ouray bills itself as the "Switzerland of America" because of its setting at the narrow head of a valley, enclosed on three and a half sides by steep mountains.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: Much of the town tourism is focused on ice climbing, mountain biking, hiking, trail running and off-roading in four-wheel drive (4WD) expeditions into the San Juan Mountains. Ouray has also become a popular destination for motorcyclists, as it marks the beginning of the Million Dollar Highway. This stretch of highway connects Ouray to its neighboring cities of Silverton and Durango. The Million Dollar Highway is frequently regarded as one of the most beautiful roads in Colorado, but is also considered one of the most dangerous due to its sharp turns, steep ledges, and lack of guard rails. Destinations include Yankee Boy Basin, Engineer Mountain, and Black Bear Road. Recording artist (and later Ouray mayor) C. W. McCall helped make Black Bear famous in the area. His song "Black Bear Road" borrowed the phrase, "you don't have to be crazy to drive this road, but it helps", from a sign once posted somewhere at the beginning of Black Bear Pass.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: Ouray is a popular destination for ice climbing. The world's first ice climbing park, expanding on previously-popular natural falls, consists of dozens of frozen waterfalls from 80 to high farmed along more than a mile of the Uncompahgre Gorge. The water is supplied by a sprinkler system developed and maintained by a volunteer organization and supported by donations from local businesses, gear manufacturers and climbers. The Ouray Ice Park is free and attracts climbers from around the world. The annual Ice Festival is a weekend-long extravaganza of contests, exhibitions and instruction with many of the world's top ice climbers. Ice climbing has been a boon to the local economy as well, with hotels and restaurants that previously closed through the winter months now staying open to accommodate climbers.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: There are five developed hot springs in Ouray and nearby Ridgway. These include thermal pools and vapor caves. Ouray Hot Springs is the largest facility with numerous pools.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: There are numerous waterfalls along the road from Durango to Ouray, and within the city limits there are two waterfalls within easy reach. Cascade Falls is a short, 1/4 mile hike accessible from a parking lot on 8th Avenue. Box Canyon Falls is at the southwest edge of Ouray.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: Ouray was originally a mining town. The largest and most famous mine is the Camp Bird Mine, the second-largest gold mine in Colorado, established by Thomas Walsh in 1896. Even though there was an operation permit filed in 2007, the mine still remains inactive. During its lifespan, the mine produced about 1.5 million troy ounces of gold, and 4 million troy ounces of silver, from 1896 to 1990. In 1995 the old milling equipment "The Crusher" was disassembled and sold to a smaller mine located in Mongolia where it operated for about two years. The vacant mine can be seen on the steep two-wheel drive road leading to the four-wheel drive roads to Yankee Boy Basin and Imogene Pass.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 1,000 people, 457 households, and 283 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 800 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 95.2% White, 0.1% (1) African American, 0.4% (4) Native American, 0.8% (8) Asian, 1.9% (19) from other races, and 1.6% (16) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.2% of the population.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: There were 457 households, out of which 26.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.1% were married couples living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38.1% were non-families. 32.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.76.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 21.7% under the age of 18, 28.1% from 18 to 44, 33.2% from 45 to 64, and 17.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.8 males.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: The median income for a household in the city was $36,094, and the median income for a family was $45,313. Males had a median income of $35,217 versus $27,083 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,127. About 9.3% of families and 8.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.1% of those under age 18 and 6.4% of those age 65 or over.


title: Ouray, Colorado

text: The nearest airport with scheduled service is Montrose Regional Airport, located approximately to the north.


title: Knightly sword

text: In the European High Middle Ages, the typical sword (sometimes academically categorized as the knightly sword, arming sword, or in full, knightly arming sword) was a straight, double-edged weapon with a single-handed, cruciform (i.e., cross-shaped) hilt and a blade length of about . This type is frequently depicted in period artwork, and numerous examples have been preserved archaeologically.


title: Knightly sword

text: The high medieval sword of the Romanesque period (10th to 13th centuries) developed gradually from the Viking sword of the 9th century.


title: Knightly sword

text: In the Late Medieval period (14th and 15th centuries), late forms of these swords continued to be used, but often as a sidearm, at that point called "arming swords" and contrasting with the two-handed, heavier longswords.


title: Knightly sword

text: Though the majority of late-medieval arming swords kept their blade properties from previous centuries, there are also surviving specimens from the 15th century that took the form of a late-medieval estoc, specialised for use against more heavily armoured opponents. After the end of the medieval period, the arming sword developed into several forms of the early modern one-handed straight swords, such as the side-sword, the rapier, the cavalry-focused "Reiterschwert" and certain types of broadsword.


title: Knightly sword

text: The term "arming sword" () is first used in the 15th century to refer to the single-handed type of sword after it had ceased to serve as the main weapon and was on its way to being used as a side-sword.


title: Knightly sword

text: "Arming sword" in late medieval usage specifically refers to the when worn as a side-arm, but as a modern term it may also refer to any single-handed sword in a late medieval context.


title: Knightly sword

text: The terms "knight's sword" or "knightly sword" are modern terms to specify the sword of the high medieval period.


title: Knightly sword

text: Period terminology for swords is somewhat fluid. Mostly, the common type of sword in any given period would simply be referred to as "sword" (English , French , Latin etc.).


title: Knightly sword

text: During the high medieval period, references to swords as "great sword" (, ) or "small" or "very large sword" (, ) does not necessarily indicate their morphology, but simply their relative size.


title: Knightly sword

text: Oakeshott (1964) notes that this changes in the late medieval period, beginning towards the end of the 20th century, when the "bastard sword" appeared as an early type of what developed into the 1st-century longsword.


title: Knightly sword

text: The term "romanesque sword" does not see significant use in English, but it is more current in French (), German (), and especially in Slavic languages (such as Czech ), identifying the swords as being contemporary with the corresponding Romanesque period in art history (roughly 1000 to 1300).


title: Knightly sword

text: The most evident morphological development is the appearance of the crossguard. The transitional swords of the 11th century are also known as Norman swords.


title: Knightly sword

text: Already in the 10th century, some of the "finest and most elegant" of the Ulfberht type of "Viking" (actually Carolingian/Frankish) swords began to exhibit a more slender blade geometry, moving the center of mass closer to the hilt to improve wieldability.


title: Knightly sword

text: In the late medieval period, when the longsword came to predominate, the single-handed sword was retained as a common sidearm, especially of the estoc type, and came to be referred to as an "arming sword", later evolving into the cut and thrust swords of the Renaissance.


title: Knightly sword

text: At the end of the medieval period, the estoc arming sword develops into the Spanish and the Italian , the predecessors of the early modern rapier. In a separate development, the was a heavier single-handed sword used by the Dalmatian bodyguard of the Doge of Venice in the 16th century. This type influenced the development of the early modern basket-hilted sword which in turn developed into the modern (Napoleonic era) cavalry sword.


title: Knightly sword

text: The most widespread typology for the medieval sword was developed by Ewart Oakeshott in 1960, mostly based on blade morphology. Oakeshott (1964) introduced an additional typology for pommel shapes.


title: Knightly sword

text: A more recent typology is due to Geibig (1991). Geibig's typology focusses on swords from continental the transitional period from the early to the high medieval period (early 8th to late 12th centuries) and does not extend to the late medieval period.


title: Knightly sword

text: Pommels were most commonly of the 'Brazil-nut' type from around 1000–1200 AD, with the 'wheel' pommel appearing in the 11th and predominating from the 13th to 15th centuries.


title: Knightly sword

text: However, Oakeshott (1991) is emphatic on the point that a medieval sword cannot conclusively be dated based on its morphology. While there are some general trends in the development of fashion, many of the most popular styles of pommels, hilts and blades remain in use throughout the duration of the High Middle Ages.


title: Knightly sword

text: The common "knightly swords" of the high medieval period (11th to early 12th centuries) fall under types X to XII.


title: Knightly sword

text: Type X is the Norman sword as it developed out of the early medieval Viking sword by the 11th century.


title: Knightly sword

text: Type XII is a further development, typical throughout the Crusades period, showing a tapering blade with a shortened fuller. Subtype XIIa comprises the longer and more massive "great-swords" which developed in the mid-13th century, probably designed to counter improvements in mail armour; these are the predecessors of the late medieval longsword (see also Cawood sword).


title: Knightly sword

text: Swords of this type have long, wide blades with parallel edges, terminating in a rounded or spatulate tip, and with a lens-shaped cross-section.


title: Knightly sword

text: Subtype XIIIa has longer blades and hilts. These are the knightly "great-swords", or "Grans espées d'Allemagne" which seamlessly develop into the longsword type in the 14th century. Subtype XIIIb describes smaller single-handed swords of similar shape.


title: Knightly sword

text: The form classified as type XIV develops towards the very end of the high medieval period, around 1270, and remained popular during the early decades of the 14th century. They are often depicted on the tomb effigies of English knights of the period, but there are few surviving specimens.


title: Knightly sword

text: Continuations of the knightly sword as the "arming sword" type of the late medieval period correspond to Oakeshott types XV, XVI and XVIII.


title: Knightly sword

text: Type G is the disk-pommel found very frequently in medieval swords. Type H is a variant of the disk pommel, with the edges chamfered off. This is one of the most frequently found shapes throughout the 10th to 15th centuries. I, J and K are derived variants of the disk pommel.


title: Knightly sword

text: Type M is a special derived variant of the multi-lobed pommel of the Viking Age, found only in a very limited number of swords (see Cawood sword).


title: Knightly sword

text: Types P ("shield-shaped") and Q ("flower-shaped") are not even known to be attested in any surviving sword and known only from period artwork. R is a spherical pommel, known only from a few specimens.


title: Knightly sword

text: T is the "fig" or "pear" or "scent-stopper" shape, first used in the early 14th century, but seen with any frequency only after 1360, with numerous derived forms well into the 16th century. U is a "key-shaped" type used only in the second half of the 15th century.


title: Knightly sword

text: V is the "fish-tail" pommel, used in the 15th century. Z is the "cat's head" shape apparently used exclusively in Venice.


title: Knightly sword

text: Many European sword blades of the high medieval period have blade inscriptions. Inscribed blades were particularly popular during the 12th century. Many of these inscriptions are garbled strings of letters, often apparently inspired by religious formulae, especially the phrase "in nomine domini" and the word "benedictus" or "benedicat".


title: Knightly sword

text: The 12th-century fashion for blade inscriptions is based on the earlier, 9th to 11th century, tradition of the so-called Ulfberht swords. A single stray find from Eastern Germany, dated to the late 11th or possibly early 12th century, combines both an "Ulfberht" and an "in nomine domini" (in this case, "+IINIOMINEDMN") inscription.


title: Knightly sword

text: Many blade inscriptions of the later 12th and 13th century are even more indecipherable, bearing no resemblance to the "in nomine domini" phrase, sometimes resembling random strings of letters, such as


title: Lingam massage

text: Some therapy-based analysts have discussed the link between lingam massage practitioners and claims of alleviation of genital desensitization such as death-grip syndrome.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the branch of physical chemistry that is concerned with understanding the rates of chemical reactions. It is to be contrasted with chemical thermodynamics, which deals with the direction in which a reaction occurs but in itself tells nothing about its rate. Chemical kinetics includes investigations of how experimental conditions influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that also can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: In 1864, Peter Waage and Cato Guldberg pioneered the development of chemical kinetics by formulating the law of mass action, which states that the speed of a chemical reaction is proportional to the quantity of the reacting substances.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: Van 't Hoff studied chemical dynamics and in 1884 published his famous "Études de dynamique chimique". In 1901 he was awarded by the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions". After van 't Hoff, chemical kinetics deals with the experimental determination of reaction rates from which rate laws and rate constants are derived. Relatively simple rate laws exist for zero order reactions (for which reaction rates are independent of concentration), first order reactions, and second order reactions, and can be derived for others. Elementary reactions follow the law of mass action, but the rate law of stepwise reactions has to be derived by combining the rate laws of the various elementary steps, and can become rather complex. In consecutive reactions, the rate-determining step often determines the kinetics. In consecutive first order reactions, a steady state approximation can simplify the rate law. The activation energy for a reaction is experimentally determined through the Arrhenius equation and the Eyring equation. The main factors that influence the reaction rate include: the physical state of the reactants, the concentrations of the reactants, the temperature at which the reaction occurs, and whether or not any catalysts are present in the reaction.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: Gorban and Yablonsky have suggested that the history of chemical dynamics can be divided into three eras. The first is the van 't Hoff wave searching for the general laws of chemical reactions and relating kinetics to thermodynamics. The second may be called the Semenov--Hinshelwood wave with emphasis on reaction mechanisms, especially for chain reactions. The third is associated with Aris and the detailed mathematical description of chemical reaction networks.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: The reaction rate varies depending upon what substances are reacting. Acid/base reactions, the formation of salts, and ion exchange are usually fast reactions. When covalent bond formation takes place between the molecules and when large molecules are formed, the reactions tend to be slower.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: The nature and strength of bonds in reactant molecules greatly influence the rate of their transformation into products.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: The physical state (solid, liquid, or gas) of a reactant is also an important factor of the rate of change. When reactants are in the same phase, as in aqueous solution, thermal motion brings them into contact. However, when they are in separate phases, the reaction is limited to the interface between the reactants. Reaction can occur only at their area of contact; in the case of a liquid and a gas, at the surface of the liquid. Vigorous shaking and stirring may be needed to bring the reaction to completion. This means that the more finely divided a solid or liquid reactant the greater its surface area per unit volume and the more contact it with the other reactant, thus the faster the reaction. To make an analogy, for example, when one starts a fire, one uses wood chips and small branches — one does not start with large logs right away. In organic chemistry, on water reactions are the exception to the rule that homogeneous reactions take place faster than heterogeneous reactions ( are those reactions in which solute and solvent not mix properly)


title: Chemical kinetics

text: In a solid, only those particles that are at the surface can be involved in a reaction. Crushing a solid into smaller parts means that more particles are present at the surface, and the frequency of collisions between these and reactant particles increases, and so reaction occurs more rapidly. For example, Sherbet (powder) is a mixture of very fine powder of malic acid (a weak organic acid) and sodium hydrogen carbonate. On contact with the saliva in the mouth, these chemicals quickly dissolve and react, releasing carbon dioxide and providing for the fizzy sensation. Also, fireworks manufacturers modify the surface area of solid reactants to control the rate at which the fuels in fireworks are oxidised, using this to create diverse effects. For example, finely divided aluminium confined in a shell explodes violently. If larger pieces of aluminium are used, the reaction is slower and sparks are seen as pieces of burning metal are ejected.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: The reactions are due to collisions of reactant species. The frequency with which the molecules or ions collide depends upon their concentrations. The more crowded the molecules are, the more likely they are to collide and react with one another. Thus, an increase in the concentrations of the reactants will usually result in the corresponding increase in the reaction rate, while a decrease in the concentrations will usually have a reverse effect. For example, combustion will occur more rapidly in pure oxygen than in air (21% oxygen).


title: Chemical kinetics

text: The rate equation shows the detailed dependence of the reaction rate on the concentrations of reactants and other species present. The mathematical forms depend on the reaction mechanism. The actual rate equation for a given reaction is determined experimentally and provides information about the reaction mechanism. The mathematical expression of the rate equation is often given by


title: Chemical kinetics

text: Here formula_2 is the reaction rate constant, formula_3 is the molar concentration of reactant "i" and formula_4 is the partial order of reaction for this reactant. The partial order for a reactant can only be determined experimentally and is often not indicated by its stoichiometric coefficient.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: Temperature usually has a major effect on the rate of a chemical reaction. Molecules at a higher temperature have more thermal energy. Although collision frequency is greater at higher temperatures, this alone contributes only a very small proportion to the increase in rate of reaction. Much more important is the fact that the proportion of reactant molecules with sufficient energy to react (energy greater than activation energy: "E" > "E") is significantly higher and is explained in detail by the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of molecular energies.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: The effect of temperature on the reaction rate constant usually obeys the Arrhenius equation formula_5, where A is the pre-exponential factor or A-factor, E is the activation energy, R is the molar gas constant and T is the absolute temperature.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: At a given temperature, the chemical rate of a reaction depends on the value of the A-factor, the magnitude of the activation energy, and the concentrations of the reactants. Usually, rapid reactions require relatively small activation energies.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: The 'rule of thumb' that the rate of chemical reactions doubles for every 10 °C temperature rise is a common misconception. This may have been generalized from the special case of biological systems, where the "α" (temperature coefficient) is often between 1.5 and 2.5.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: The kinetics of rapid reactions can be studied with the temperature jump method. This involves using a sharp rise in temperature and observing the relaxation time of the return to equilibrium. A particularly useful form of temperature jump apparatus is a shock tube, which can rapidly increase a gas's temperature by more than 1000 degrees.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: A catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction but it remains chemically unchanged afterwards. The catalyst increases the rate of the reaction by providing a new reaction mechanism to occur with in a lower activation energy. In autocatalysis a reaction product is itself a catalyst for that reaction leading to positive feedback. Proteins that act as catalysts in biochemical reactions are called enzymes. Michaelis–Menten kinetics describe the rate of enzyme mediated reactions. A catalyst does not affect the position of the equilibrium, as the catalyst speeds up the backward and forward reactions equally.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: In certain organic molecules, specific substituents can have an influence on reaction rate in neighbouring group participation.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: Increasing the pressure in a gaseous reaction will increase the number of collisions between reactants, increasing the rate of reaction. This is because the activity of a gas is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas. This is similar to the effect of increasing the concentration of a solution.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: In addition to this straightforward mass-action effect, the rate coefficients themselves can change due to pressure. The rate coefficients and products of many high-temperature gas-phase reactions change if an inert gas is added to the mixture; variations on this effect are called fall-off and chemical activation. These phenomena are due to exothermic or endothermic reactions occurring faster than heat transfer, causing the reacting molecules to have non-thermal energy distributions (non-Boltzmann distribution). Increasing the pressure increases the heat transfer rate between the reacting molecules and the rest of the system, reducing this effect.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: Condensed-phase rate coefficients can also be affected by pressure, although rather high pressures are required for a measurable effect because ions and molecules are not very compressible. This effect is often studied using diamond anvils.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: A reaction's kinetics can also be studied with a pressure jump approach. This involves making fast changes in pressure and observing the relaxation time of the return to equilibrium.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: The activation energy for a chemical reaction can be provided when one reactant molecule absorbs light of suitable wavelength and is promoted to an excited state. The study of reactions initiated by light is photochemistry, one prominent example being photosynthesis.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: The experimental determination of reaction rates involves measuring how the concentrations of reactants or products change over time. For example, the concentration of a reactant can be measured by spectrophotometry at a wavelength where no other reactant or product in the system absorbs light.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: For reactions which take at least several minutes, it is possible to start the observations after the reactants have been mixed at the temperature of interest.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: For faster reactions, the time required to mix the reactants and bring them to a specified temperature may be comparable or longer than the half-life of the reaction. Special methods to start fast reactions without slow mixing step include


title: Chemical kinetics

text: While chemical kinetics is concerned with the rate of a chemical reaction, thermodynamics determines the extent to which reactions occur. In a reversible reaction, chemical equilibrium is reached when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal (the principle of dynamic equilibrium) and the concentrations of the reactants and products no longer change. This is demonstrated by, for example, the Haber–Bosch process for combining nitrogen and hydrogen to produce ammonia. Chemical clock reactions such as the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction demonstrate that component concentrations can oscillate for a long time before finally attaining the equilibrium.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: In general terms, the free energy change (ΔG) of a reaction determines whether a chemical change will take place, but kinetics describes how fast the reaction is. A reaction can be very exothermic and have a very positive entropy change but will not happen in practice if the reaction is too slow. If a reactant can produce two products, the thermodynamically most stable one will form in general, except in special circumstances when the reaction is said to be under kinetic reaction control. The Curtin–Hammett principle applies when determining the product ratio for two reactants interconverting rapidly, each going to a distinct product. It is possible to make predictions about reaction rate constants for a reaction from free-energy relationships.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: The kinetic isotope effect is the difference in the rate of a chemical reaction when an atom in one of the reactants is replaced by one of its isotopes.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: Chemical kinetics provides information on residence time and heat transfer in a chemical reactor in chemical engineering and the molar mass distribution in polymer chemistry. It is also provides information in corrosion engineering.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: The mathematical models that describe chemical reaction kinetics provide chemists and chemical engineers with tools to better understand and describe chemical processes such as food decomposition, microorganism growth, stratospheric ozone decomposition, and the chemistry of biological systems. These models can also be used in the design or modification of chemical reactors to optimize product yield, more efficiently separate products, and eliminate environmentally harmful by-products. When performing catalytic cracking of heavy hydrocarbons into gasoline and light gas, for example, kinetic models can be used to find the temperature and pressure at which the highest yield of heavy hydrocarbons into gasoline will occur.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: Chemical Kinetics is frequently validated and explored through modeling in specialized packages as a function of ordinary differential equation-solving (ODE-solving) and curve-fitting.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: In some cases, equations are unsolvable analytically, but can be solved using numerical methods if data values are given. There are two different ways to do this, by either using software programmes or mathematical methods such as the Euler method. Examples of software for chemical kinetics are i) Tenua, a Java app which simulates chemical reactions numerically and allows comparison of the simulation to real data, ii) Python coding for calculations and estimates and iii) the Kintecus software compiler to model, regress, fit and optimize reactions.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: To solve the differential equations with Euler and Runge-Kutta methods we need to have the initial values.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: The unknown part of the equation is y(x+Δx), which can be found if we have the data for the initial values.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: In this method, an initial condition is required: y=y at x=x. The problem is to find the value of y when x=x + h, where h is a given constant.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: It can be shown analytically that the ordinate at that moment to the curve through (x, y) is given by the third-order Runge-Kutta formula.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: In first-order ordinary equations, the Runge-Kutta method uses a mathematical model that represents the relationship between the temperature and the rate of reaction. It is worth it to calculate the rate of reaction at different temperatures for different concentrations. The equation obtained is: formula_12


title: Chemical kinetics

text: In an equilibrioum reaction with direct and inverse rate constants, it is easier to transform from A to B rather than B to A.


title: Chemical kinetics

text: As for probability computations, at each time it choose a random number to be compared with a threshold to know if the reaction runs from A to B or the other way around.


title: Russell Hantz

text: Russell Dennis Hantz (born October 10, 1972) is a television personality, best known for his appearances on the U.S. reality show, "Survivor." He was the runner-up on "", and the second runner-up on "". He also competed on "" and "Australian Survivor: Champions vs. Contenders", where he was the second player to be eliminated both times.


title: Russell Hantz

text: Hantz's performance on "Survivor" was very polarising. This controversy has resulted in ongoing media attention and appearances, along with acknowledgement that his particular brand of ruthless gameplay can result in wins for those who employ it. Most have strongly criticized his strategy, naming him one of the biggest villains in "Survivor" history. Nevertheless, on both "Survivor: Samoa" and "Survivor: Heroes vs. Villains", Hantz was voted by viewers the "Sprint Player of the Season", which came with a $100,000 cash prize. He is one of only eight contestants to ever make it to the finals in more than one season (the others are Rob Mariano, Amanda Kimmel, Parvati Shallow, Sandra Diaz-Twine, Tony Vlachos, Natalie Anderson, and Michele Fitzgerald).


title: Russell Hantz

text: Hantz was nominated in the 2010 Teen Choice Awards for his performance on "Heroes vs. Villains". In the "CBS Watch" "Greatest Castaways" viewers poll, Hantz came in second for "being willing to do anything to win. His villianous nature always made for great TV."


title: Russell Hantz

text: After "Survivor", Hantz starred alongside his older brother, Shawn, on the A&E reality documentary, "Flipped Off".


title: Russell Hantz

text: After applying to compete on "Pirate Master", Hantz was called by casting two years later to appear on "". Assigned to the Foa Foa tribe, he began playing the game through lies and deceit, which included telling a false story about being a firefighter who survived Hurricane Katrina, and later burning his tribemates' socks and emptying their canteen water. In an interview with Andy Dehnart, Hantz explained that the idea behind this strategy was to psychologically weaken the other players in order to manipulate them.


title: Russell Hantz

text: Early on, Hantz executed a successful plan to locate the hidden immunity idol before any clues were found. When the Foa Foa and Galu tribes merged, he attempted to use his idol as a bargaining chip with his new tribe mates in hopes of forming a coalition against Laura Morett. When she won the immunity challenge, the plan collapsed and word spread that Hantz possessed an idol. Unaware of anyone's real intentions, Hantz played the idol at Tribal Council, but no votes were cast against him. He later located a new idol, again without clues, and played it at the next Tribal Council, where he received seven votes, eliminating Kelly Sharbaugh (who received the other four votes). Later, Shannon "Shambo" Waters and John Fincher joined Hantz's alliance and eliminated Morett. Hantz then arranged Fincher's elimination in the next vote.


title: Russell Hantz

text: Due to the large number of Galu members on the jury, it was almost certain that Brett Clouser, Galu's last remaining member, would win the game if he won the final immunity challenge. Hantz narrowly won immunity and Clouser was eliminated by a 3-1 vote at the next Tribal Council. Ultimately, Hantz beat out fellow finalist Mick Trimming, but lost the title of Sole Survivor to his close ally, Natalie White, by a jury vote of 7–2–0, despite being "heavily favored" to win. Host Jeff Probst believed his loss resulted from bitter feelings towards him by the jurors, rather than a positive attitude towards White. Hantz complained that Natalie did not deserve the win, and insisted he did. During the results show, Hantz offered White $10,000 for the Sole Survivor title, and then increased the offer to $100,000, but she declined both times. Despite the loss, Hantz won the "Sprint Player of the Season" award, which included a cash prize of $100,000.


title: Russell Hantz

text: Nine days prior to the "Samoa" live finale, Hantz registered <nowiki>russellgotscrewed.com</nowiki> where he thanked his supporters and asked them to purchase T-shirts and/or donate money to St. Jude Children's Research Hospital.


title: Russell Hantz

text: Hantz was invited back for "Survivor"s 20th season, "", as a last-minute substitute for ""'s Shane Powers, and was assigned to the Villains tribe. Since "Survivor: Samoa" and this season were filmed back-to-back, no other player had had an opportunity to watch Hantz’ game, although they were told by the production crew that he was considered "one of the five most notorious male villains of all time".


title: Russell Hantz

text: During this season, an infamous rivalry developed between Hantz and "Boston Rob" Mariano. Early on, Mariano organized his alliance to split the vote 3–3 between Hantz and Parvati Shallow. The former then told Tyson Apostol that he also intended to eliminate her, which influenced Apostol to change his vote from Hantz to her. At Tribal Council, Hantz revealed an immunity idol and gave it to Shallow. The result was four votes for her, two votes for Hantz, and three votes for Apostol. Since Shallow's votes were negated, Apostol was eliminated. Later on, Jerri Manthey joined Hantz's alliance with Shallow and Danielle DiLorenzo and aided in Mariano's elimination.


title: Russell Hantz

text: The Heroes tribe began to blindly believe that there was an all-female alliance, headed up by Shallow, controlling the Villains tribe. James "J.T." Thomas, Jr., of the Heroes tribe, had found an immunity idol earlier, and gave it to Hantz during an immunity challenge with instructions to eliminate Shallow, but Hantz chose instead to vote out Courtney Yates. When the two tribes merged, Hantz gave his idol to Shallow, not knowing she already had an idol of her own. She gave the idols to Manthey and Sandra Diaz-Twine at Tribal Council. Manthey and Thomas received five votes each, but since Manthey's votes were negated, Thomas was eliminated. Later, DiLorenzo found a clue to an immunity idol on a reward and shared it with Hantz and his allies, but he ultimately discovered the idol for himself. He later showed it to Candice Woodcock in attempt to pull her into his alliance with the intention of eventually eliminating Diaz-Twine. At Tribal Council, he played the idol, but received no votes. Later, he arranged DiLorenzo's elimination in order to break up her strong alliance with Shallow.


title: Russell Hantz

text: At the final immunity challenge, Hantz edged out Shallow and Manthey by a few inches. He then chose to vote out Manthey, assuming he would get her vote for the "Survivor" title. His game, however, was panned by the jurors, all of whom refused to vote for Hantz in the end. Diaz-Twine ultimately triumphed over him and Shallow in a 6–3–0 vote, thus winning her second Sole Survivor title. Despite his shutout loss, Hantz's Reunion experience was similar to his last one in that he won the “Sprint Player of the Season” award and $100,000 for the second time.


title: Russell Hantz

text: Hantz returned for "", the show's 22nd season, to face off with his old rival, "Boston Rob." By a random draw, Hantz joined the Zapatera tribe, which later threw the third immunity challenge and immediately targeted him and his ally, Stephanie Valencia. Suspecting that something was up, Hantz devised a counter-strategy, but was ultimately voted out at the next Tribal Council and sent to Redemption Island. His elimination from the game was finalized upon losing the Redemption Island duel to Matt Elrod. Deeply saddened by the loss, Hantz stated that this season would be his last on "Survivor", although at the reunion show he indirectly stated that he had changed his mind.


title: Russell Hantz

text: In an interview with "Entertainment Weekly", Hantz threatened legal action against his tribemates for forfeiting the immunity challenge, claiming that they had breached their "Survivor" contracts by doing so. He also criticized Mariano, referring to him as a ""Survivor" whore".


title: Russell Hantz

text: Competing at an international level, Hantz joined the cast of "Australian Survivor: Champions vs. Contenders" as a member of the Champions tribe, the first season to be filmed since CBS acquired Network Ten in 2017. Enjoying initial success in the first few days, Hantz grew frustrated of the laid-back mentality from his fellow tribe-mates and began actively searching for, and locating, a Hidden Immunity Idol. Wanting to cause paranoia, Hantz announced his intention to play the hidden immunity idol at their first Tribal Council. During this time he formed allegiances with Samuel Hinton, Monika Radulovic and Damien Thomlinson. After losing the second Immunity Challenge, Hantz attempted to orchestrate a split vote between Jackie Glazier and Shane Gould but a counter-alliance led by Moana Hope forced a tie in the event Hantz' hidden immunity idol was played. At Tribal Council, Hantz did not play his hidden immunity idol leading to a revote between himself and Glazier. At the revote, Thomlinson stayed loyal to Hantz with the rest of the vote eliminating him in a unanimous decision. He finished in 23rd place.


title: Russell Hantz

text: In 2011, Hantz was accused of violating his "Survivor" contract by leaking information regarding the show's results. Late in the previous year, a man named Jim Early was sued by executive producer and "Survivor" creator Mark Burnett's DJB Inc., for successfully spoiling "Survivor: Samoa" and "Survivor: Heroes vs. Villains" on a "Survivor" fansite known as "Survivor Sucks". The lawsuit accused Early of "misappropriation of trade secrets” and "tortious interference with contract." The charges were dropped on January 13, 2011, after Early provided to an attorney an email, which allegedly confirmed Hantz as source of the spoilers. Early claims that he had originally made contact with Hantz via telephone to warn him that someone had posted his private information online, but that Hantz had recontacted him later and begun revealing accurate information about the show's outcome, which Early posted to the fansite. Thus far, no legal action has been taken against Hantz, although contestants who reveal information regarding a season's results may face liquidated damages of $5 million. In an interview with "USA Today", Hantz denied the accusations, commenting, "See, that's another thing. I am the villain, and its unfair that people perceive me that way, and they throw out things that's not fair to me or my family, and I guess I got to deal with it. I'm not sure if I'm supposed to comment on this or not, but it is 100% false."


title: Russell Hantz

text: On February 10, 2010, Hantz and ten other contestants from "Survivor: Heroes vs. Villains" made a special appearance on "The Late Show with David Letterman" to present the show's Top Ten List. As a promotion for "Redemption Island", Hantz appeared on the cover of TV Guide Magazine for the week of February 14, 2011, alongside Rob Mariano.


title: Russell Hantz

text: In 2012, Hantz was featured on "Flipped Off", an A&E reality series about house flipping. The series followed Hantz and his older brother, Shawn, as they worked with a local real estate agent to flip houses in the Houston area in pursuit of profit. Taking place in the aftermath of the subprime mortgage crisis, Hantz stated that he expected "to be one of the biggest house flippers in Houston," and that he was "here to bring Houston's economy back on its feet." He later told Rob Cesternino that he had turned down an opportunity to host Boston Rob's "Around the World in 80 Ways" in order to host "Flipped Off". The show consisted of seven episodes and ran from April 28 to June 16, 2012.


title: Russell Hantz

text: In Dayton, Texas, Hantz is a part-owner of an oil outfit known as "Hantz Tankering Service" with his father and brother. He also owns a bar in Lafayette, Louisiana, known as "Bootleggers", and he is a native of Vinton, Louisiana.


title: Russell Hantz

text: Hantz currently resides in Dayton, Texas. He and his ex-wife, Melanie, have four children, including twin girls. Hantz's brother, Shawn, has a son named Brandon, who was a contestant on "" and later "". Hantz also has a younger brother, Willie, who competed on "Big Brother 14" before being expelled from the show due to violence.


title: Russell Hantz

text: On April 23, 2010, at 2:15 am, Hantz was arrested for battery while partying near the bar he owns in Lafayette, Louisiana. A woman was involved in a verbal argument with Hantz, during which he allegedly shoved her to the ground, causing her minor injuries. Hantz was released later that day without bail but was given a misdemeanor summons and a court date scheduled for June 24.


title: Ketu (mythology)

text: Ketu (Sanskrit: केतु, IAST: ) () is the descending (i.e. 'south') lunar node in Vedic, or Hindu astrology. Personified as a deity, Rahu and Ketu are considered to be the two halves the immortal Asura (demon) Svarbhanu, who was beheaded by the god Vishnu.


title: Ketu (mythology)

text: As per Vedic astrology, Rahu and Ketu have an orbital cycle of 18 years and are always 180 degrees from each other orbitally (as well as in the birth charts). This coincides with the precessional orbit of moon or the ~18-year rotational cycle of the lunar ascending and descending nodes on the earth's ecliptic plane. Ketu rules the Scorpio zodiac sign together with Mangala


title: Ketu (mythology)

text: Astronomically, Rahu and Ketu denote the points of intersection of the paths of the Sun and the Moon as they move on the celestial sphere, and do not correspond to a physical planet. Therefore, Rahu and Ketu are respectively called the north and the south lunar nodes. Eclipses occur when the Sun and the Moon are at one of these points, giving rise to the mythical understanding that the two are being swallowed by the snake. Hence, Ketu is believed to be responsible for causing the Eclipse of the Moon.


title: Ketu (mythology)

text: Since Rahu and Ketu are two opposite lunar nodes, they always appear in diametrically opposite houses (Bhāva) of horoscopes.


title: Ketu (mythology)

text: In Hindu astrology Ketu represents karmic collections both good and bad, spirituality and supernatural influences. Ketu signifies the spiritual process of the refinement of materialisation to the spirit and is considered both malefic and benefic, as it causes sorrow and loss, and yet at the same time turns the individual to God. In other words, it causes material loss in order to force a more spiritual outlook in the person. Ketu is a "karaka" or indicator of intelligence, wisdom, non-attachment, fantasy, penetrating insight, derangement, and psychic abilities. Ketu is believed to bring prosperity to the devotee's family, removes the effects of snakebite and illness arising out of poisons. He grants good health, wealth and cattle to his devotees. Ketu is the lord of three nakshatras or lunar mansions: Ashvini, Magha and Mula.


title: Ketu (mythology)

text: Ketu is considered responsible for "moksha", "sannyasa", self-realization, "gnana", a wavering nature, restlessness, the endocrine system and slender physique.


title: Ketu (mythology)

text: Rahu, being a karmic planet would show the necessity and urge to work on a specific area of life where there had been ignorance in the past life. To balance the apparent dissatisfaction one has to go that extra mile to provide a satisfactory settlement in the present lifetime. Rahu can remove all negative qualities of every planet while Ketu can emphasise every positive quality of the planet.


title: Ketu (mythology)

text: Ruler of Ketu: According to the most popular astrology text Brihat Parashara Hora Shastra, (BPHS) Ketu is related to Matsya.


title: Ketu (mythology)

text: Exaltation and Debilitation: This has been a debatable point in astrology, as per BPHS Ketu is exalted in the sign of Scorpio and debilitated in Taurus, however, many astrologers have disputed this and most modern astrologers now seem to agree that Ketu is exalted in Sagittarius and debilitated in Gemini . This stands to logic as Ketu is a torso and a prominent part of Sagittarius is a big horse torso attached to a male upper body.


title: Ketu (mythology)

text: Negative Significations: While Ketu is considered malefic and has been mostly associated with negative things. Most people consider it a difficult planet as it brings lot of troubles on the material plane. It often brings a sense of complete detachment, losses, mindlessness, wandering, and confusion in one's life.


title: Ketu (mythology)

text: Positive Significations: There is a much deeper side to Ketu and it has been called the most spiritual of all planets. Ketu has been considered the planet of enlightenment and liberation. As the one who has “lost his head (worldly senses)” Being a personification of renunciation (torso without a head who needs nothing). Ketu the ascetic that wants to go beyond the mundane life and achieve the final liberation.


title: Ketu (mythology)

text: Friends Planets: Ketu is a friend of Mercury, Venus, and Saturn. Jupiter is neutral in friendship. Sun, Moon, and Mars are Ketu's enemies.


title: Ketu (mythology)

text: Jyotisha is Hindu astrology, which entails concept of Nakshatra (see also List of Natchathara temples), Navagraha (see also List of Navagraha temples and Saptarishi included in the list of Hindu deities whose dedicated temples are found at various Hindu pilgrimage sites to which Hindus take pilgrimage yatra.


title: Bobby's World

text: Bobby's World (originally known as The World According to Bobby) is an American animated comedy children's television series, which ran from September 8, 1990, to February 23, 1998, on the Fox Kids network. The show was created by Canadian actor/comedian Howie Mandel, who also performs the voices of both Bobby and his father Howard Generic.


title: Bobby's World

text: It was produced by Film Roman for Mandel's company Alevy Productions and Fox Children's Productions in association with 20th Century Fox Television and Saban International. The theme song for "Bobby's World" was composed by John Tesh and Michael Hanna.


title: Bobby's World

text: The series follows the daily life of Bobby Generic ( ), with his very overactive imagination and how he sees the world.


title: Bobby's World

text: The Generic family's surname is pronounced "JEN-uh-rik", but mispronounced as "juh-NEHR-ik" by other characters as a running gag.


title: Bobby's World

text: Howie Mandel explained that he accidentally created the voice that would be later used to voice Bobby when he was choking on a piece of cake. Two of Mandel's friends Jim Fisher and Jim Staahl signed an agreement with the Fox Broadcasting Company's then newly created children's division in 1989. Fisher and Staahl asked Mandel to join them in creating a show based on Mandel's Bobby character and voice. Mandel explained that he believed Fox did not think his stand-up routines were "family entertainment." He, Fisher, and Staahl (co-producers) recalled stories from their childhoods as they discussed the formation of the show. Mandel said "that was the seed of "Bobby's World"." Later stories from the childhoods of writers Dianne and Peter Tilden along with Mitch Schauer were used as the basis of many of the stories. The other characters on the show were mixes of characteristics of the creators' parents' friends and relatives. Specifically, Uncle Ted was based on Fisher and Staahl's former comedy partner in a comedy trio formed by the three after leaving Chicago's Second City, called The Graduates. Ultimately, that partner Tino Insana read for and won the part of Uncle Ted.