title: Mini-Me

text: Mini-Me has almost no spoken dialogue in the films beyond an occasional frightened "Eeeee!". Otherwise, he is silent except for when he does his evil laugh with Dr. Evil. He also likes to lip sync the occasional line when Dr. Evil raps. At the beginning of "Goldmember", Dr. Evil asks him to "Use your words like a big boy clone!". At one point, he asks Dr. Evil to hug him after meeting Fat Bastard, who wants to eat him. Mini-Me often uses the middle finger as a means of insulting someone (even though he only uses it once during the third movie). On most other occasions, Mini-Me prefers to express himself through written notes.


title: Mini-Me

text: Mini-Me has a pet called Mini-Mr. Bigglesworth, which has only appeared once in the series, in which Mini-Me tried to gnaw on his ear. Mini Mr. Bigglesworth is a kitten version of Dr. Evil's cat. Mini-Me loves chocolate and disrespecting Scott Evil, Dr. Evil's son and his rival for affection. He is sometimes referred to and treated as a dog or other small objects. Scott refers to him as "That vicious little... Chihuahua thing". Austin says upon Mini-Me being knocked out, "Poor little bugger... he's like a dog or something." In the third movie's opening scenes, Dr. Evil uses a leash to restrain Mini-Me from attacking Scott, saying, "Heel, Mini-Me! Heel!" He also tends to dry hump random things. Nigel Powers, upon seeing him, says "Blimey, I thought I smelled cabbage," thinking he is a carny (referring back to a quip from the first "Austin Powers" movie). Mini-Me is appropriately confused by the remark.


title: Mini-Me

text: Despite his small size, Mini-Me is a powerful and effective fighter, once giving Austin Powers a considerable thrashing, until the spy took advantage of his small size and flushed him out into space through a toilet. Despite being a clone of Dr. Evil, Mini-Me is shown to be far stronger and tougher than his larger counterpart, as seen in "Goldmember" when they're lifting weights in prison. He was also given a significant beating in "Goldmember", in which he was tied in a pillowcase by Powers and slammed through shelves and glass tables, only to stand up without a scratch.


title: Mini-Me

text: A memorable gag had him passing a series of notes to Foxxy Cleopatra, first stating she was so beautiful, she must be the clone of an angel. When she smilingly disagreed, the second note asked if she was sure she didn't have a little clone in her. The third asked if she'd like to. As seen by Nigel Powers' reaction to Mini-Me's genitals ("My Word! You're a tripod!" and "If you ever get tired, you can use it as a kickstand"), he seems to have a large penis, which may or may not also fall under the "1/8" rule. He uses this as an advantage at the end of "Goldmember" when he gets Britney Spears' cell phone number.


title: Mini-Me

text: In "Austinpussy", the film within a film in "Goldmember", the role is played in cameo by Danny DeVito.


title: Mini-Me

text: In "", where Looney Tunes characters have scattered to different digital worlds based on Warner Bros. films, Elmer Fudd takes on the role of Mini-Me in the Austin Powers world, while Sylvester the Cat has become Mr. Bigglesworth.


title: Mini-Me

text: Mike Myers has acknowledged that the character was directly inspired by the character of Majai in the 1996 film "The Island of Dr. Moreau", who is similarly a miniature version of Marlon Brando's titular villain character.


title: Mini-Me

text: In 2021, the Hungarian government party Fidesz released an ad based on Mini-Me's introduction scene. The ad's aim was to emphasize the alleged similarities between opposition candidate Péter Márki-Zay (Mini-Me) and former prime minister Ferenc Gyurcsány (Dr. Evil).


title: Lee Unkrich

text: Lee Edward Unkrich (born August 8, 1967) is an American film director, film editor, screenwriter, and animator. He was a longtime member of the creative team at Pixar, where he started in 1994 as a film editor. He later began directing, first as co-director of "Toy Story 2".


title: Lee Unkrich

text: After co-directing "Toy Story 2", "Monsters, Inc." and "Finding Nemo", Unkrich made his solo directorial debut with "Toy Story 3" in 2010, and most recently directed "Coco" in 2017, both of which won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature and the Academy Award for Best Original Song.


title: Lee Unkrich

text: After working at Pixar for 25 years, Unkrich retired from the company in January 2019 to spend more time with his family and pursue other interests.


title: Lee Unkrich

text: Unkrich was raised in Chagrin Falls, Ohio. His father, Bob Unkrich, was a World War II veteran ("He stormed the beach at Normandy") and artist. Unkrich was raised in the Jewish faith. He spent his youth acting at The Cleveland Play House. Unkrich graduated from the University of Southern California School of Cinematic Arts in 1990.


title: Lee Unkrich

text: Unkrich was Vice-President of Editorial and Layout at Pixar. Before joining Pixar in 1994, Unkrich worked for several years in television as an editor and director. He is the 2011 recipient of the University of Southern California's Mary Pickford Distinguished Alumni Award recognizing alumni contributions to the cinematic arts.


title: Lee Unkrich

text: On January 18, 2019, Unkrich announced he was leaving Pixar to spend time with his family and pursue interests that have "long been back-burnered."


title: Lee Unkrich

text: Unkrich is married to Laura Century and they have three children: Hannah, Alice, and Max. Unkrich came out as bisexual to his family and friends in 2021 but only revealed it to the public in 2022.


title: Black Death (film)

text: Black Death is a 2010 adventure horror film directed by Christopher Smith from an original screenplay by Dario Poloni. It stars Sean Bean, Eddie Redmayne and Carice van Houten. Despite not being credited as a writer, Smith made very significant changes in the second half of the script, including a new ending. All the scenes of "Black Death" were shot in chronological order, a rare occurrence.


title: Black Death (film)

text: In 1348, during the Black Death in Medieval England, novice monk Osmund has a secret relationship with a young woman named Averill who has taken sanctuary in his monastery. When the disease strikes the monastery, Averill departs at Osmund's urging, but promises to wait one week for Osmund at a nearby forest. Osmund prays for a sign from God to leave the monastery and reunite with Averill. Shortly afterwards, Ulric, an envoy for the regional bishop, arrives at the monastery seeking a guide through the forest to reach a remote marshland village untouched by the plague. Taking Ulric's arrival as the sign to leave, Osmund volunteers to serve as the guide and joins his group, which consists of soldiers Wolfstan, Griff, Dalywag, Mold, Ivo and Swire. The group informs Osmund that the village is believed to be led by a necromancer, whom they intend to deliver to the bishop for trial and execution.


title: Black Death (film)

text: The journey to the village leads to the deaths of Griff and Ivo, while Osmund finds Averill's blood-stained clothing and believes she has died. Eventually reaching their destination, the group are met by Hob and Langiva, the village's leaders. Aware of the group's intentions, the villagers drug the soldiers, while Osmund learns that Averill's body is in the village and witnesses Langiva perform a ritual that revives her.


title: Black Death (film)

text: The members of the group are bound and placed in a water-filled pit where Hob and Langiva offer freedom to those who will renounce God. When the group refuses, Dalywag is crucified and disemboweled. The sight causes Swire to renounce his faith, only for the villagers to hang him in the woods. Afterwards, Osmund is brought to Averill and believing her to be in a state of suffering, stabs her to save her soul. Ulric is then taken from the pit to be dismembered by horses, but before the villagers execute him, he reveals that he is infected by the plague and has brought it to the village. With the villagers distracted by this revelation, Wolfstan and Mold are able to free themselves with a knife Osmund snuck by the pit and fight back. Hob kills Mold, but is incapacitated by Wolfstan and placed in the device for transporting the necromancer.


title: Black Death (film)

text: Osmund pursues Langiva to the swamp, where she tells him that she is not a witch and Averill did not die in the forest. Instead, Averill had been drugged and her apparent resurrection was an act; her actual death was caused by Osmund stabbing her. Broken by this information, Osmund is unable to prevent Langiva from escaping. Wolfstan, deeming the mission to be completed, returns Osmund to the monastery, with Hob to be delivered to the bishop. In the following years, the village becomes afflicted by the plague (its relative isolation being the true source of protection) while Wolfstan loses contact with Osmund, but hears rumours of him becoming cold and cruel as he dedicates himself to finding and punishing Langiva - however, he executes many innocent women due to his mind causing him to see Langiva when he looks at them.


title: Black Death (film)

text: "Black Death" was developed and produced by Douglas Rae and Robert Bernstein at London's Ecosse Films, with Phil Robertson of Zephyr Films acting as physical producer. Ultimately it could not get off the ground in the UK and became a 100% German production. The film was financed solely from Germany, with Jens Meurer of Egoli Tossell Films acting as producer.


title: Black Death (film)

text: The film was originally due to be directed by Geoffrey Sax. Rupert Friend and Lena Headey were attached to star. Famke Janssen was later considered for Headey's role. After he was attached to direct "Black Death", Smith suggested Carice van Houten, Tim McInnerny, and John Lynch for their respective roles.


title: Black Death (film)

text: The film was shot in the German federal state of Saxony-Anhalt at Blankenburg Castle in the city of Blankenburg and in Querfurt and Zehdenick, Brandenburg in the first half of 2009. Van Houten's first day on set was 14 May 2009. Technical elements included production design by John Frankish, a spartan score by composer Christian Henson, and cinematography by Sebastian Edschmid.


title: Black Death (film)

text: In the original script, the second half of the film turned to be entirely supernatural: Langiva was revealed to be the reincarnation of the Devil, while Osmund "was actually in Hell and Hell being in the physical place". Smith changed these elements to represent the idea that to him "Hell is the Hell you are in within yourself", as he tried to represent in "Triangle". Because it was considered too dark, producers tried to cut Smith's ending from the shooting schedule. However they changed their minds two days before the shootings of the epilogue.


title: Black Death (film)

text: International sales were handled by HanWay Films. Amongst other deals, Revolver Entertainment/Sony acquired the rights for the UK and planned a release on 28 May 2010, while Wild Bunch distributed the film in Germany. The film is part of the Canadian Fantasia 2010.


title: Black Death (film)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 71% based on 66 reviews, with an average rating of 6.3/10. The critical consensus states: ""Black Death" delivers the fire and brimstone violence its subject matter warrants, while posing some interesting questions of faith and religion." On Metacritic, the film has an aggregated score of 71 out of 100 based on 10 reviews, indicating "Generally favorable reviews".


title: Black Death (film)

text: In an advance review, Leslie Felperin of "Variety" wrote "A savvy, stylish horror-actioner that's more than the sum of its genre parts, "Black Death" manages to deliver enough suspense and bloodletting to appease gore fans... Use of grainy stock and a preference for special effects rather than visual or CGI effects gives it a pleasingly retro feel, as does its willingness to explore uncomfortable moral ambiguities. Tech credits create a strong, fetid atmosphere on what looks like a low budget. German locations in Saxony look appropriately beautiful, sinister and ancient all at the same time."


title: Black Death (film)

text: Alan Jones from Film4's FrightFest concluded: "Some may find the climax rather disconcerting as Smith pulls the rug from under one's feet. However, the greater percentage will thrill to the way the eerie and puzzling intensity builds up a compelling head of scream as the stark brand of "Witchfinder General" shock value rears its head in the most startling of codas. This intelligent original represents a commendable break from the genre norm and is one of the most powerful films made about God, the godless and what the Devil truly represents."


title: Live from Clear Channel Stripped 2008

text: Live from Clear Channel Stripped 2008 is the second live album featuring songs by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift, released by Big Machine Records on April 24, 2020, without Swift's approval. It was recorded in 2008 but only released after the masters to her older music had changed hands in a 2019 purchase of Big Machine by American media proprietor Scooter Braun. Swift denounced "Live from Clear Channel" on her social media accounts, calling it "shameless greed in the time of coronavirus" and asked fans not to buy or stream the album. Earning only 33 units in its first week in the United States, the live album was unsuccessful, and did not enter any official chart worldwide.


title: Live from Clear Channel Stripped 2008

text: The album was recorded shortly after the beginning of Swift's professional career, while she was promoting her second studio album, "Fearless" (2008). The album is composed of songs from her first two studio albums and her second EP, "Beautiful Eyes" (2008). It was released on streaming platforms without any prior announcement on April 24, 2020. According to Swift, the recording was made during a 2008 Clear Channel affiliates' internet-only performance when she was 18 years old. In a social media post, Swift stated that she did not authorize the release, calling it "just another case of shameless greed in the time of coronavirus. So tasteless, but very transparent." Swift's statement also mentioned Braun's financial backers: 23 Capital, The Carlyle Group, and Alexander Soros and the Soros family, the last of which drew allegations from "The Jerusalem Post" that she was "reproducing antisemitic conspiracy theories" by associating Soros and Braun, who are both Jewish, with "greed and profiting off the pandemic". Big Machine Records initially listed the record with a 2017 release date, but it was later adjusted to 2008 to reflect the fact that the recordings were available on Clear Channel websites in 2008.


title: Live from Clear Channel Stripped 2008

text: Music critic Quinn Moreland from "Pitchfork" wrote that "Live from Clear Channel" is predictable, failing to match the standards of Swift's past work, and dubbed it as a "cheap bootleg" and "a shameless cash-grab". Moreland commented that the unapproved release looks "eerily similar" to occasions when fake or leaked music appears on streaming services without the concerned artists' authorization—releases where "scammers hold the reins and the real creator never sees a dime".


title: Live from Clear Channel Stripped 2008

text: "Live from Clear Channel Stripped 2008" sold 33 units in the United States and the YouTube audio videos of its eight tracks accumulated 6,000 views combined in its first three days. The commercial failure was attributed to Swift's denouncement of the album on her social media; the album did not enter any "Billboard" chart.


title: Catabolism

text: Catabolism () is the set of metabolic pathways that breaks down molecules into smaller units that are either oxidized to release energy or used in other anabolic reactions. Catabolism breaks down large molecules (such as polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins) into smaller units (such as monosaccharides, fatty acids, nucleotides, and amino acids, respectively). Catabolism is the breaking-down aspect of metabolism, whereas anabolism is the building-up aspect.


title: Catabolism

text: Cells use the monomers released from breaking down polymers to either construct new polymer molecules or degrade the monomers further to simple waste products, releasing energy. Cellular wastes include lactic acid, acetic acid, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and urea. The formation of these wastes is usually an oxidation process involving a release of chemical free energy, some of which is lost as heat, but the rest of which is used to drive the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This molecule acts as a way for the cell to transfer the energy released by catabolism to the energy-requiring reactions that make up anabolism.


title: Catabolism

text: Catabolism is a destructive metabolism and anabolism is a constructive metabolism. Catabolism, therefore, provides the chemical energy necessary for the maintenance and growth of cells. Examples of catabolic processes include glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, the breakdown of muscle protein in order to use amino acids as substrates for gluconeogenesis, the breakdown of fat in adipose tissue to fatty acids, and oxidative deamination of neurotransmitters by monoamine oxidase.


title: Catabolism

text: There are many signals that control catabolism. Most of the known signals are hormones and the molecules involved in metabolism itself. Endocrinologists have traditionally classified many of the hormones as anabolic or catabolic, depending on which part of metabolism they stimulate. The so-called classic catabolic hormones known since the early 20th century are cortisol, glucagon, and adrenaline (and other catecholamines). In recent decades, many more hormones with at least some catabolic effects have been discovered, including cytokines, orexin (known as hypocretin), and melatonin.


title: Catabolism

text: The word "catabolism" is from New Latin, which got the roots from Greek: κάτω "kato", "downward" and βάλλειν "ballein", "to throw".


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: In political science, legitimacy is the right and acceptance of an authority, usually a governing law or a regime. Whereas "authority" denotes a specific position in an established government, the term "legitimacy" denotes a system of government—wherein "government" denotes "sphere of influence". An authority viewed as legitimate often has the right and justification to exercise power. Political legitimacy is considered a basic condition for governing, without which a government will suffer legislative deadlock(s) and collapse. In political systems where this is not the case, unpopular regimes survive because they are considered legitimate by a small, influential elite. In Chinese political philosophy, since the historical period of the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BC), the political legitimacy of a ruler and government was derived from the Mandate of Heaven, and unjust rulers who lost said mandate therefore lost the right to rule the people.


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: In moral philosophy, the term "legitimacy" is often positively interpreted as the normative status conferred by a governed people upon their governors' institutions, offices, and actions, based upon the belief that their government's actions are appropriate uses of power by a legally constituted government.


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: The Enlightenment-era British social philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) said that political legitimacy derives from popular explicit and implicit consent of the governed: "The argument of the ["Second"] "Treatise" is that the government is not legitimate unless it is carried on with the consent of the governed." The German political philosopher Dolf Sternberger said that "[l]egitimacy is the foundation of such governmental power as is exercised, both with a consciousness on the government's part that it has a right to govern, and with some recognition by the governed of that right". The American political sociologist Seymour Martin Lipset said that legitimacy also "involves the capacity of a political system to engender and maintain the belief that existing political institutions are the most appropriate and proper ones for the society". The American political scientist Robert A. Dahl explained legitimacy as a reservoir: so long as the water is at a given level, political stability is maintained, if it falls below the required level, political legitimacy is endangered.


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: Legitimacy is "a value whereby something or someone is recognized and accepted as right and proper". In political science, legitimacy has traditionally been understood as the popular acceptance and recognition by the public of the authority of a governing régime, whereby authority has political power through consent and mutual understandings, not coercion. The three types of political legitimacy described by German sociologist Max Weber, in ”Politics as Vocation,” are traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal:


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: More recent scholarship distinguishes between multiple other types of legitimacy in an effort to draw distinctions between various approaches to the construct. These include empirical legitimacy versus normative legitimacy, popular legitimacy, regulative legitimacy, and procedural legitimacy. Types of legitimacy draw distinctions that account for different sources of legitimacy, different frameworks for evaluating legitimacy, or different objects of legitimacy.


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: The political legitimacy of a civil government derives from agreement among the autonomous constituent institutions—legislative, judicial, executive—combined for the national common good. One way civil society grants legitimacy to governments is through public elections. There are also those who refute the legitimacy offered by public elections, pointing out that the amount of legitimacy public elections can grant depends significantly on the electoral system conducting the elections. In the United States, this issue has surfaced around how voting is impacted by gerrymandering, the United States Electoral College's ability to produce winners by minority rule and discouragement of voter turnout outside of Swing states, and the repeal of part of the Voting Rights Act in 2013. Another challenge to the political legitimacy offered by elections is whether or not marginalized groups such as women or those who are incarcerated are allowed to vote.


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: Civil legitimacy can be granted through different measures for accountability than voting, such as financial transparency and stake-holder accountability. In the international system another method for measuring civil legitimacy is through accountability to international human rights norms.


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: In an effort to determine what makes a government legitimate, the Center for Public Impact launched a project to hold a global conversation about legitimacy stating, inviting citizens, academics and governments to participate. The organization also publishes case studies that consider the theme of legitimacy as it applies to projects in a number of different countries including Bristol, Lebanon and Canada.


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: The United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commission (OHCHR) established standards of what is considered "good governance" that include the key attributes transparency, responsibility, accountability, participation and responsiveness (to the needs of the people).


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: Assessing the political legitimacy of a government can be done by looking at three different aspects of which a government can derive legitimacy. Fritz Scharpf introduced two normative criteria, which are output legitimacy, i.e. the effectiveness of policy outcomes for people and input legitimacy, the responsiveness to citizen concerns as a result of participation by the people. A third normative criterion was added by Vivien Schmidt, who analyzes legitimacy also in terms of what she calls throughput, i.e. the governance processes that happen in between input and output.


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: Abulof distinguishes between negative political legitimacy (NPL), which is about the object of legitimation (answering "what" is legitimate), and positive political legitimacy (PPL), which is about the source of legitimation (answering "who" is the 'legitimator'). NPL is concerned with establishing where to draw the line between good and bad; PPL with who should be drawing it in the first place. From the NPL perspective, political legitimacy emanates from appropriate actions; from a PPL perspective, it emanates from appropriate actors. In the social contract tradition, Hobbes and Locke focused on NPL (stressing security and liberty, respectively), while Rousseau focused more on PPL ("the people" as the legitimator). Arguably, political stability depends on both forms of legitimacy.


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: Weber's understanding of legitimacy rests on shared "values", such as tradition and rational-legality. But policies that aim at (re-)constructing legitimacy by improving the service delivery or 'output' of a state often only respond to shared "needs". Therefore, substantive sources of legitimacy need to be distinguished from more instrumental ones. "Instrumental legitimacy" rests on "the rational assessment of the usefulness of an authority ..., describing to what extent an authority responds to shared needs. Instrumental legitimacy is very much based on the perceived effectiveness of service delivery. Conversely, "substantive legitimacy" is a more abstract normative judgment, which is underpinned by shared values. If a person believes that an entity has the right to exercise social control, he or she may also accept personal disadvantages."


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: Establishing legitimacy is not simply transactional; service provision, elections and rule of law do not automatically grant legitimacy. State legitimacy rests on citizens’ perceptions and expectations of the state, and these are co-constructed between state actors and citizens. What legitimizes a state is also contextually specific. McCullough et al. (2020) show that in different countries, provision of different services build state legitimacy. In Nepal public water provision was most associated with state legitimacy, while in Pakistan it was health services.


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: Political theorist Ross Mittiga has proposed an alternative typology, consisting of two parts: foundational and contingent legitimacy. According to Mittiga, foundational legitimacy (FL) "pertains to a government’s ability to ensure the safety and security of its citizens," while contingent legitimacy (CL) obtains in situations in which governments "exercise[] power in acceptable ways."


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: Mittiga specifies further that FL:...is bound up with a range of political capacities and actions including, among other things, being able to ensure continuous access to essential goods (particularly food, water, and shelter), prevent avoidable catastrophes, provide immediate and effective disaster relief, and combat invading forces or quell unjustified uprisings or rebellions. If a government cannot fulfill these basic security functions, it is not legitimate, if it is even a government at all. [p.3]On the other hand, Mittiga acknowledges that there is "extensive debate" about which factors are relevant to CL, but argues that, "[a]mong the most commonly defended factors" are "the presence of democratic rights and processes, consent, guarantees of equal representation, provision of core public benefits, protection of basic individual rights and freedoms, social justice, and observance of fairness principles." [pp. 4–5] Mittiga specifies further that "[m]ost contemporary theorists maintain that legitimacy [in the contingent sense] requires multiple of these factors—some of which are procedural and others substantive."


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: According to Mittiga, what makes certain aspects of legitimacy "contingent" (as opposed to "foundational") is that they are affected by (1) "the problem of pluralism"—i.e., the idea that "any firm agreement on" which factor(s) matters (or matter most of all) "will remain elusive or at least always open to contestation and renegotiation"; (2) "the problem of partial displacement," which holds that "when new legitimation factors emerge," as they often have historically, "earlier ones may not entirely disappear but only become less salient, at least for sizable portions of the citizenry"; and (3) "the problem of exceptional circumstances," which is "the fact that even widely shared and seemingly stable CL factors are routinely relaxed or abandoned during emergencies, often without calling into question the basic legitimacy of the government."


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: Mittiga summarizes the difference between these two types or levels or types of legitimacy as follows:The factors associated with CL condition the use of political power by specifying, for instance, what can or cannot be done or sacrificed, how decisions should be made, and who counts (and for how much). The answers to these questions often appear to us as moral universals; yet, in practice, they are the products of long and contentious historical processes. FL, on the other hand, does not vary between societies, generations, or circumstances. Ensuring safety and security is always the "primary"—though, in good states, under reasonably favorable conditions, not the "exclusive"—end of political power.


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: Aristotle expresses something like this in insisting that the point of political society is to furnish the resources needed not just to live but to live "well". Crudely put, FL is about living, CL about living well. And it is of course impossible to live well without living: after all, there can be no democracy of desolation, no fair social cooperation in conditions of extreme scarcity, no real rights when political stability is maintainable only through raw assertions of coercive power (if it can be maintained at all). In this sense, FL is "necessarily" prior to CL, and must be regarded as such in moments when trade-offs become a necessary part of the political calculus. [p.7]


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: Max Weber proposed that societies behave cyclically in governing themselves with different types of governmental legitimacy. That democracy was unnecessary for establishing legitimacy, a condition that can be established with codified laws, customs, and cultural principles, not by means of popular suffrage. That a society might decide to revert from the legitimate government of a rational–legal authority to the charismatic government of a leader; e.g., the Nazi Germany of Adolf Hitler, Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini, and Francoist Spain under General Francisco Franco.


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: The French political scientist Mattei Dogan's contemporary interpretation of Weber's types of political legitimacy (traditional, charismatic, legal-rational) proposes that they are conceptually insufficient to comprehend the complex relationships that constitute a legitimate political system in the 21st century. Moreover, Dogan proposed that traditional authority and charismatic authority are obsolete as forms of contemporary government; e.g., the Islamic Republic of Iran (est. 1979) rule by means of the priestly Koranic interpretations by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. That traditional authority has disappeared in the Middle East; that the rule-proving exceptions are Islamic Iran and Saudi Arabia. Furthermore, the third Weber type of political legitimacy, rational-legal authority, exists in so many permutations no longer allow it to be limited as a type of legitimate authority.


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: In determining the political legitimacy of a system of rule and government, the term proper—"political legitimacy"—is philosophically an essentially contested concept that facilitates understanding the different applications and interpretations of abstract, qualitative, and evaluative concepts such as "art", "social justice", et cetera, as applied in aesthetics, political philosophy, the philosophy of history, and the philosophy of religion. Therefore, in defining the political legitimacy of a system of government and rule, the term "essentially contested concept" indicates that a key term (communism, democracy, constitutionalism, etc.) has different meanings within a given political argument. Hence, the intellectually restrictive politics of dogmatism ("My answer is right, and all others are wrong"), scepticism ("I don't know what is true, and I even doubt my own opinion"), and eclecticism ("Each meaning gives a partial view, so the more meanings the better") are inappropriate philosophic stances for managing a political term that has more than one meaning (see Walter Bryce Gallie).


title: Legitimacy (political)

text: Establishing what qualifies as a legitimate form of government continues to be a topic of great philosophical controversy. Forms of legitimate government are posited to include:


title: Insolvency

text: In accounting, insolvency is the state of being unable to pay the debts, by a person or company (debtor), at maturity; those in a state of insolvency are said to be "insolvent". There are two forms: cash-flow insolvency and balance-sheet insolvency.


title: Insolvency

text: Cash-flow insolvency is when a person or company has enough assets to pay what is owed, but does not have the appropriate form of payment. For example, a person may own a large house and a valuable car, but not have enough liquid assets to pay a debt when it falls due. Cash-flow insolvency can usually be resolved by negotiation. For example, the bill collector may wait until the car is sold and the debtor agrees to pay a penalty.


title: Insolvency

text: Balance-sheet insolvency is when a person or company does not have enough assets to pay all of their debts. The person or company might enter bankruptcy, but not necessarily. Once a loss is accepted by all parties, negotiation is often able to resolve the situation without bankruptcy. A company that is balance-sheet insolvent may still have enough cash to pay its next bill on time. However, most laws will not let the company pay that bill unless it will directly help all their creditors. For example, an insolvent farmer may be allowed to hire people to help harvest the crop, because "not" harvesting and selling the crop would be even "worse" for his creditors.


title: Insolvency

text: It has been suggested that the speaker or writer should either say technical insolvency or actual insolvency in order to always be clear where technical insolvency is a synonym for balance sheet insolvency, which means that its liabilities are greater than its assets, and actual insolvency is a synonym for the first definition of insolvency ("Insolvency is the inability of a debtor to pay their debt."). While technical insolvency is a synonym for balance-sheet insolvency, cash-flow insolvency and actual insolvency are not synonyms. The term "cash-flow insolvent" carries a strong (but perhaps not absolute) connotation that the debtor is balance-sheet solvent, whereas the term "actually insolvent" does not.


title: Insolvency

text: Balance sheet insolvency involves having negative net assets—where liabilities exceed assets. Insolvency is not a synonym for bankruptcy, which is a determination of insolvency made by a court of law with resulting legal orders intended to resolve the insolvency.


title: Insolvency

text: The principal focus of modern insolvency legislation and business debt restructuring practices no longer rests on the liquidation and elimination of insolvent entities but on the remodeling of the financial and organizational structure of debtors experiencing financial distress so as to permit the rehabilitation and continuation of their business. This is known as business turnaround or business recovery. Implementing a business turnaround may take many forms, including keep and restructure, sale as a going concern, or wind-down and exit. In some jurisdictions, it is an offence under the insolvency laws for a corporation to continue in business while insolvent. In others (like the United States with its Chapter 11 provisions), the business may continue under a declared protective arrangement while alternative options to achieve recovery are worked out. Increasingly, legislatures have favored alternatives to winding up companies for good.


title: Insolvency

text: It can be, in several jurisdictions, grounds for a civil action or even an offence, to continue to pay some creditors in preference to other creditors once a state of insolvency is reached.


title: Insolvency

text: Debt restructurings are typically handled by professional insolvency and restructuring practitioners, and are usually less expensive and a preferable alternative to bankruptcy.


title: Insolvency

text: Debt restructuring is a process that allows a private or public company - or a sovereign entity - facing cash flow problems and financial distress, to reduce and renegotiate its delinquent debts in order to improve or restore liquidity and rehabilitate so that it can continue its operations.


title: Insolvency

text: Although the term "bankrupt" may be used referring to a government, sovereign states do not go bankrupt. This is so because bankruptcy is governed by national law; there exists no entity to take over such a government and distribute assets to creditors. Governments "can" be insolvent in terms of not having money to pay obligations when they are due. If a government does not meet an obligation, it is in "default". As governments are sovereign entities, creditors who hold debt of the government cannot easily seize the assets of the government to re-pay the debt (though "Vulture funds" often find ways to do so). The recourse for the creditor is to request to be repaid at least some of what is owed. However, in most cases, debt in default is refinanced by further borrowing or monetized by issuing more currency (which typically results in inflation or hyperinflation).


title: Insolvency

text: Insolvency regimes around the world have evolved in very different ways, with laws focusing on different strategies for dealing with the insolvent. The outcome of an insolvent restructuring can be very different depending on the laws of the state in which the insolvency proceeding is run, and in many cases different stakeholders in a company may hold the advantage in different jurisdictions.


title: Insolvency

text: In Anguilla, the insolvency of individuals is regulated under the Bankruptcy Act (Cap B.15) and corporate insolvency is governed by the Bankruptcy Act (Cap B.15) or the Companies Act (Cap C.65).


title: Insolvency

text: In Australia, corporate insolvency is governed by the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth). Companies can be put into Voluntary Administration, Creditors Voluntary Liquidation, and Court Liquidation. Secured creditors with registered charges are able to appoint Receivers and Receivers & Managers depending on their charge.


title: Insolvency

text: In the British Virgin Islands, insolvency law is primarily codified in the Insolvency Act, 2003 and the Insolvency Rules, 2005.


title: Insolvency

text: In Canada, bankruptcy and insolvency are generally regulated by the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act. An alternative regime is available to larger companies (or affiliated groups) under the Companies' Creditors Arrangements Act, where total debts exceed $5 million.


title: Insolvency

text: In Germany, insolvency proceedings, both for companies and for natural persons, are regulated by the Insolvency Act "(Insolvenzordnung)," in effect since 1999 but with significant changes in 2012. The goal of insolvency law is the equal and best satisfaction of creditors.


title: Insolvency

text: If the interests of creditors are respected, insolvent companies are offered different ways to restructure their businesses, for example by implementing an 'insolvency plan' "()". While regular insolvency proceedings are led by a court-appointed insolvency administrator, 'debtor-in-possession' proceedings are common since the legislative changes in 2012.


title: Insolvency

text: For natural persons, the "Verbraucherinsolvenzverfahren" (literally “insolvency proceeding for individual consumers”) allows discharge of all debts after three years, if certain conditions are met.


title: Insolvency

text: In Hong Kong, insolvency is primarily governed by the Companies (Winding Up and Miscellaneous Provisions) Ordinance (Cap 32) and the Companies (Winding Up) Rules (Cap 32H).


title: Insolvency

text: In India, bankruptcy and insolvency are generally regulated by the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code 2016. The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI) is the regulator for overseeing insolvency "proceedings" and entities like Insolvency Professional Agencies (IPA), Insolvency Professionals (IP) and Information Utilities (IU) in India.


title: Insolvency

text: In Russia, insolvency law is governed by Federal Law No. 127-FZ "On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)" and Federal Law No. 40-FZ "On Insolvency (Bankruptcy) of Credit Institutions".


title: Insolvency

text: In South Africa, owners of businesses that had at any stage traded insolvently (i.e. that had a balance-sheet insolvency) become personally liable for the business's debts. Trading insolvently is often regarded as normal business practice in South Africa, as long as the business is able to fulfill its debt obligations when they fall due.


title: Insolvency

text: Under Swiss law, insolvency or foreclosure may lead to the seizure and auctioning off of assets (generally in the case of private individuals) or to bankruptcy proceedings (generally in the case of registered commercial entities).


title: Insolvency

text: Turkish insolvency law is regulated by Enforcement and Bankruptcy Law (Code No: 2004, Original Name: İcra ve İflas Kanunu). The main concept of the insolvency law is very similar to Swiss and German insolvency laws. Enforcement methods are realizing pledged property, seizure of assets and bankruptcy.


title: Insolvency

text: In the United Kingdom, the term bankruptcy is reserved for individuals. Insolvency is defined both in terms of cash flow and in terms of balance sheet in the UK Insolvency Act 1986, Section 123, which reads in part:


title: Insolvency

text: A company which is insolvent may be put into liquidation (sometimes referred to as winding-up). The directors and shareholders can instigate the liquidation process without court involvement by a shareholder resolution and the appointment of a licensed Insolvency Practitioner as liquidator. However, the liquidation will not be effective legally without the convening of a meeting of creditors who have the opportunity to appoint a liquidator of their own choice. This process is known as creditors voluntary liquidation (CVL), as opposed to members voluntary liquidation (MVL) which is for solvent companies. Alternatively, a creditor can petition the court for a winding-up order which, if granted, will place the company into what is called compulsory liquidation or winding up by the court. The liquidator realises the assets of the company and distributes funds realised to creditors according to their priorities, after the deduction of costs. In the case of Sole Trader Insolvency, the insolvency options include Individual Voluntary Arrangements and Bankruptcy.


title: Insolvency

text: It can be a civil and even a criminal offence for directors to allow a company to continue to trade whilst insolvent. However, two new insolvency procedures were introduced by the Insolvency Act 1986 which aim to provide time for the rescue of a company or, at least, its business. These are Administration and Company Voluntary Arrangement:


title: Insolvency

text: One particular type of Administration that is becoming more common is called pre pack administration (more information under administration (law)). In this process, immediately after appointment the administrator completes a pre-arranged sale of the company's business, often to its directors or owners. The process can be seen as controversial because the creditors do not have the opportunity to vote against the sale. The rationale behind the device is that the swift sale of the business may be necessary or of benefit to enable a best price to be achieved. If the sale was delayed, creditors would ultimately lose out because the price obtainable for the assets would be reduced.


title: Insolvency

text: In addition to the above-mentioned corporate insolvency procedures, a creditor holding security over an asset of the company may have the power to appoint an insolvency practitioner as administrative receiver or, in Scotland, receiver. The process, latterly known as administrative receivership or, in Scotland, receivership, has existed for many years and has often resulted in a successful rescue of a company's business via a sale, but not of the company itself. Since the introduction of the collective insolvency procedure of Administration in 1986, the legislators have decided to set a shelf life on the administrative receivership or, in Scotland, receivership procedure and it is no longer possible to appoint an administrative receiver or, in Scotland, receiver under security created after 15 September 2003.


title: Insolvency

text: In individual cases the bankruptcy estate is dealt by an official receiver, appointed by the court. In some cases the file is transferred to RTLU (OR Regional Trustee Liquidator Unit) that will assess your assets and income to see if you can contribute towards paying costs of bankruptcy or even discharge part of your debts.


title: Insolvency

text: Under the Uniform Commercial Code, a person is considered to be insolvent when the party has ceased to pay its debts in the ordinary course of business, or cannot pay its debts as they become due, or is insolvent within the meaning of the Bankruptcy Code. This is important because certain rights under the code may be invoked against an insolvent party which are otherwise unavailable.


title: Insolvency

text: The United States has established insolvency regimes which aim to protect the insolvent individual or company from the creditors, and balance their respective interests. For example, see Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code. However, some state courts have begun to find individual corporate officers and directors liable for driving a company deeper into bankruptcy, under the legal theory of "deepening insolvency".


title: Insolvency

text: In determining whether a gift or a payment to a creditor is an unlawful preference, the date of the insolvency, rather than the date of the legally declared bankruptcy, will usually be the primary consideration.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: In human–computer interaction and user interface design, cut, copy, and paste are related commands that offer an interprocess communication technique for transferring data through a computer's user interface. The "cut" command removes the selected data from its original position, while the "copy" command creates a duplicate; in both cases the selected data is kept in temporary storage (the clipboard). The data from the clipboard is later inserted wherever a "paste" command is issued. The data remains available to any application supporting the feature, thus allowing easy data transfer between applications.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: The command names are an interface metaphor based on the physical procedure used in manuscript editing to create a page layout.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: This interaction technique has close associations with related techniques in graphical user interfaces (GUIs) that use pointing devices such as a computer mouse (by drag and drop, for example). Typically, clipboard support is provided by an operating system as part of its GUI and widget toolkit.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: The capability to replicate information with ease, changing it between contexts and applications, involves privacy concerns because of the risks of disclosure when handling sensitive information. Terms like "cloning", "copy forward", "carry forward", or "re-use" refer to the dissemination of such information through documents, and may be subject to regulation by administrative bodies.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: The term ""cut and paste"" comes from the traditional practice in manuscript-editings whereby people would cut paragraphs from a page with scissors and paste them onto another page. This practice remained standard into the 1980s. Stationery stores sold "editing scissors" with blades long enough to cut an 8½"-wide page. The advent of photocopiers made the practice easier and more flexible.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: The act of copying/transferring text from one part of a computer-based document ("buffer") to a different location within the same or different computer-based document was a part of the earliest on-line computer editors. As soon as computer data entry moved from punch-cards to online files (in the mid/late 1960s) there were "commands" for accomplishing this operation. This mechanism was often used to transfer frequently-used commands or text snippets from additional buffers into the document, as was the case with the QED text editor.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: The earliest editors (designed for teleprinter terminals) provided keyboard commands to delineate a contiguous region of text, then delete or move it. Since moving a region of text requires first removing it from its initial location and then inserting it into its new location, various schemes had to be invented to allow for this multi-step process to be specified by the user. Often this was done with a "move" command, but some text editors required that the text be first put into some temporary location for later retrieval/placement. In 1983, the Apple Lisa became the first text editing system to call that temporary location "the clipboard".


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Earlier control schemes such as NLS used a verb—object command structure, where the command name was provided first and the object to be copied or moved was second. The inversion from verb—object to object—verb on which copy and paste are based, where the user selects the object to be operated before initiating the operation, was an innovation crucial for the success of the desktop metaphor as it allowed copy and move operations based on direct manipulation.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Copy-paste features are implemented in many command line text editors, such as ed, emacs, sed, and vi.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Inspired by early line and character editors that broke a move or copy operation into two steps—between which the user could invoke a preparatory action such as navigation—Lawrence G. "Larry" Tesler proposed the names "cut" and "copy" for the first step and "paste" for the second step. Beginning in 1974, he and colleagues at Xerox PARC implemented several text editors that used cut/copy-and-paste commands to move and copy text.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Apple Computer popularized this paradigm its Lisa (1983) and Macintosh (1984) operating systems and applications. The functions were mapped to key combinations using the key as a special modifier, which is held down while also pressing for cut, for copy, or for paste. This handful of keyboard shortcuts allows the user to perform all the basic editing operations, and the keys involved all cluster together at the left end of the bottom row of the standard QWERTY keyboard.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: The IBM Common User Access (CUA) standard also uses combinations of the Insert, Del, Shift and Control keys. Early versions of Windows used the IBM standard. Microsoft later also adopted the Apple key combinations with the introduction of Windows, using the control key as modifier key. For users migrating to Windows from DOS this was a big change as DOS users used the "COPY" and "MOVE" commands.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Similar patterns of key combinations, later borrowed by others, in most GUI text editors, word processors, and file-system browsers.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: The original copy/cut/paste workflow, as implemented at PARC, utilized a unique workflow: With two windows on the same screen, the user could use the mouse to pick a point at which to make an insertion in one window (or a segment of text to replace). Then, by holding shift and selecting the copy source elsewhere on the same screen, the copy would be made as soon as the shift was released. Similarly, holding shift and control would copy and cut (delete) the source. This workflow requires many fewer keystrokes/mouse clicks than the current multi-step workflows, and did not require an explicit copy buffer. It was dropped, one presumes, because the original Apple and IBM GUIs were not high enough density to permit multiple windows, as were the PARC machines, and so multiple simultaneous windows were rarely used.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Computer-based editing can involve very frequent use of cut-and-paste operations. Most software-suppliers provide several methods for performing such tasks, and this can involve (for example) key combinations, pulldown menus, pop-up menus, or toolbar buttons.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Whereas cut-and-paste often takes place with a mouse-equivalent in Windows-like GUI environments, it may also occur entirely from the keyboard, especially in UNIX text editors, such as Pico or vi. Cutting and pasting without a mouse can involve a selection (for which is pressed in most graphical systems) or the entire current line, but it may also involve text after the cursor until the end of the line and other more sophisticated operations.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: When a software environment provides "cut" and "paste" functionality, a nondestructive operation called "copy" usually accompanies them; "copy" places a copy of the selected text in the clipboard without removing it from its original location.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: The clipboard usually stays invisible, because the operations of cutting and pasting, while actually independent, usually take place in quick succession, and the user (usually) needs no assistance in understanding the operation or maintaining mental context. Some application programs provide a means of viewing, or sometimes even editing, the data on the clipboard.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: The term "copy-and-paste" refers to the popular, simple method of reproducing text or other data from a source to a destination. It differs from cut and paste in that the original source text or data does not get deleted or removed. The popularity of this method stems from its simplicity and the ease with which users can move data between various applications visually – without resorting to permanent storage.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Once one has copied data into the clipboard, one may paste the contents of the clipboard into a destination document.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: The X Window System maintains an additional clipboard containing the most recently selected text; middle-clicking pastes the content of this "selection" clipboard into whatever the pointer is on at that time.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Most terminal emulators and some other applications support the key combinations Ctrl-Insert to copy and Shift-Insert to paste. This is in accordance with the IBM Common User Access (CUA) standard. For similar functionality in historical text-mode terminals in Unix systems such as Linux and FreeBSD, see GPM or moused.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: The NeXTStep operating system extended the concept of having a single copy buffer by adding a second system-wide used for searching. The find buffer is also available in macOS.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Text can be placed in the find buffer by either using the Find panel or by selecting text and hitting .


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: The functionality comes in handy when for example editing source code. To find the occurrence of a variable or function name elsewhere in the file, simply select the name by double clicking, hit and then jump to the next or previous occurrence with / .


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Note that this does "not" destroy your copy buffer as with other UIs like Windows or the X Window System.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: While this might sound a bit complicated at first, it is often "much" faster than using the find panel, especial when only a few occurrences shall be replaced or when only some of the occurrences shall be replaced. When a text shall not be replaced, simply hit again to skip to the next occurrence.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: The find buffer is system wide. That is, if you enter a text in the find panel (or with ) in one application and then switch to another application you can immediately start searching without having to enter the search text again.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Copying data one by one from one application to another, such as from Excel to a web form, might involve a lot of manual work. Copy and paste can be automated with the help of a program that would iterate through the values list and paste them to the active application window. Such programs might come in the form of macros or dedicated programs which involve more or less scripting. Alternatively, applications supporting simultaneous editing may be used to copy or move collections of items.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: In a spreadsheet, moving (cut and paste) need not equate to copying (copy and paste) and then deleting the original: when moving, references to the moved cells may move accordingly.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Windows Explorer also differentiates moving from merely copy-and-delete: a "cut" file will not actually disappear until pasted elsewhere and cannot be pasted more than once. The icon fades to show the transient "cut" state until it is pasted somewhere. Cutting a second file while the first one is cut will release the first from the "cut" state and leave it unchanged. Shift+Delete cannot be used to cut files; instead it deletes them without using the Recycle bin.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Several editors allow copying text into or pasting text from specific clipboards, typically using a special keystroke-sequence to specify a particular clipboard-number.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Clipboard managers can be very convenient productivity-enhancers by providing many more features than system-native clipboards. Thousands of clips from the clip history are available for future pasting, and can be searched, edited, or deleted. Favorite clips that a user frequently pastes (for example, the current date, or the various fields of a user's contact info) can be kept standing ready to be pasted with a few clicks or keystrokes.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Similarly, a kill ring provides a LIFO stack used for cut-and-paste operations as a type of clipboard capable of storing multiple pieces of data. For example, the GNU Emacs text editor provides a kill ring. Each time a user performs a cut or copy operation, the system adds the affected text to the ring. The user can then access the contents of a specific (relatively numbered) buffer in the ring when performing a subsequent paste-operation. One can also give kill-buffers individual names, thus providing another form of multiple-clipboard functionality.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: An action can be described as "cut/copy-and-paste" in a pejorative sense, to mean that a person creating some item has, in fact, merely copied from a previously existing item. Examples may include film screenplays, books, and other creative endeavors that appear to "lift" their content substantially from existing sources, and papers submitted for examinations which are directly copied from other reference sources.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Concerns exist over the use of copy and paste functions in healthcare documentation and electronic health records. There is potential for the introduction of errors, information overload, and fraud.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Copy and paste programming is an anti-pattern arising from the careless pasting of pre-existing code into another source code file. Shared interfaces ("abstract classes") with the same named methods should be exposed, and each module should subclass the interface to provide needed differences in functionality.


title: Cut, copy, and paste

text: Web users copy on websites different things for different reasons, including words and phrases to look up elsewhere, key sentences for use in citations and text summaries, and programming code fragments for use in software development. Tracking and recording copy operations of users and using that data as implicit user feedback on the website content can be beneficial in a wide range of applications and uses, including in automatic text summarization, and in text simplification.


title: Bamboozled

text: Bamboozled is a 2000 American satirical dark comedy-drama film written and directed by Spike Lee about a modern televised minstrel show featuring black actors donning blackface makeup and the resulting violent fallout from the show's success. It features an ensemble cast including Damon Wayans, Jada Pinkett Smith, Savion Glover, Tommy Davidson, Michael Rapaport and Mos Def.


title: Bamboozled

text: The film was given a limited release by New Line Cinema during the fall of 2000 and was released on DVD the following year. Critical reception was mixed, and the film was unsuccessful financially, becoming a box office bomb. Despite its initial reception, "Bamboozled" later achieved cult film status for its satirical look at stereotypical depictions of black people in both historical and contemporary American film and television productions.


title: Bamboozled

text: Pierre Delacroix (real name Peerless Dothan) is an uptight, Harvard-educated African-American man in the employment of television network CNS. At work, he endures torment from his boss Thomas Dunwitty, a tactless, boorish white man. Not only does Dunwitty use African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) and the word "nigger" repeatedly in conversations, he also proudly proclaims that he is more black than Delacroix and that he can use "nigger" since he is married to a black woman and has two mixed-race children. Dunwitty frequently rejects Delacroix's scripts for series that portray black people in positive, intelligent scenarios, dismissing them as "Cosby clones".


title: Bamboozled

text: In an effort to escape his contract through being fired, Delacroix develops a minstrel show with the help of his personal assistant Sloane Hopkins. "Mantan: The New Millennium Minstrel Show" features black actors in blackface, extremely racist jokes and puns, and offensively stereotyped CGI-animated cartoons. Delacroix and Hopkins recruit two impoverished homeless street performers, Manray and Womack, to star in the show. While Womack is horrified when Delacroix tells him details about the show, Manray sees it as his big chance to become rich and famous for his tap-dancing skills.


title: Bamboozled

text: To Delacroix's horror, not only does Dunwitty enthusiastically endorse the show, it also becomes hugely successful. As soon as it premieres, Manray and Womack become big stars, while Delacroix, contrary to his original stated intent, defends the show as satire. Delacroix quickly embraces the fame and recognition he receives while Hopkins becomes ashamed of her association with it. Meanwhile, an underground, militant rap group called the Mau Maus, led by Hopkins' older brother Julius, becomes increasingly angry at the show's content. Though they had earlier unsuccessfully auditioned for the program's live band position, the group plans to end the show using violence.


title: Bamboozled

text: Womack quits, fed up with the show and Manray's increasing ego. Manray and Hopkins grow closer, despite Delacroix's attempts to sabotage their relationship. Delacroix confronts Hopkins, and when she lashes back at him, he fires her. She then shows him a videotaped montage she created of racist footage culled from assorted media to shame Delacroix into stopping production of the show, but he refuses to watch it. After an argument with Delacroix, Manray realizes he is being exploited and defiantly announces that he will no longer wear blackface. He appears in front of the studio audience, who are all in blackface, and does his dance number in his regular clothing. The network executives immediately turn against Manray, and Dunwitty fires him.


title: Bamboozled

text: The Mau Maus kidnap Manray and announce his public execution via live webcast. The authorities work feverishly to track down the source of the internet feed, but Manray is nevertheless assassinated while doing his famous tap dancing. At his office, Delacroix (now in blackface himself, mourning Manray's death) fantasizes that the various black-themed antique collectibles in his office are staring him down and coming to life; in a rage, he destroys many of the items. The police kill all the members of the Mau Maus except for One-Sixteenth Blak, a white member who demands to die with the others.


title: Bamboozled

text: Furious, Hopkins confronts Delacroix at gunpoint and demands that he play her tape. As he does so, Hopkins reminds him of the lives that were ruined because of his actions. During a struggle over the gun, Delacroix is shot in the stomach. Hopkins flees while proclaiming that it was Delacroix's own fault that he got shot. Delacroix, holding the gun in his hands to make his wound appear self-inflicted, watches the tape as he lies dying on the floor. The film concludes with a full reveal of the tape's contents; a long montage of racially insensitive and demeaning clips of African-American characters from Hollywood films of the first half of the 20th century. Afterwards, Manray is shown doing his last "Mantan" sequence on stage.


title: Bamboozled

text: Most of the film was shot on Mini DV digital video, using the Sony VX 1000 camera, and later converted to film format. This kept the budget limited to $10 million and allowed the use of multiple cameras to simultaneously capture masters, two-shots and close-ups to save time. The "Mantan: New Millenium Minstrel Show" sequences, and their sponsor ads, were shot on Super 16 film stock.


title: Bamboozled

text: The soundtrack album for the film was released September 26, 2000 by Motown Records. The album consisted of hip hop and contemporary R&B, and was India.Arie's first time on an album, with six singles.


title: Bamboozled

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 53% based on reviews from 106 critics. The site's consensus is: ""Bamboozled" is too over the top in its satire and comes across as more messy and overwrought than biting." On Metacritic it has a score of 54% based on reviews from 39 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Bamboozled

text: Among those who gave positive reviews to the film were CNN correspondent Dennis Michael, who compared the film favorably to Mel Brooks' "The Producers" and praised Glover's performance in the lead role, Kenneth Turan of the "Los Angeles Times", who described the film as "savage, abrasive, audacious and confrontational" and "the work of a master provocateur", and Stephen Holden of "The New York Times", who described the film as "an almost oxymoronic entity, an important Hollywood movie." It was not reviewed as favorably by the "Chicago Sun-Times"' Roger Ebert, who gave the film 2 stars out of a possible 4, writing that the film was "perplexing," raising important issues but handling them poorly. "The film is a satirical attack on the way TV uses and misuses African-American images, but many viewers will leave the theater thinking Lee has misused them himself."


title: Bamboozled

text: By the time of its twentieth anniversary, "Bamboozled" had been reappraised as an underappreciated work of Lee's. Writing for "Rolling Stone", David Fear noted that "the really scary thing is that, 20 years on, "Bamboozled" feels incredibly contemporary. It doesn’t look so extreme after all...and when you consider the content of this film, that’s a very troubling thing.”


title: Bamboozled

text: "Bamboozled" was released on VHS and DVD by New Line Home Entertainment on April 17, 2001. The DVD edition includes a director's commentary from Spike Lee in addition to behind-the-scenes featurettes and deleted scenes.


title: Bamboozled

text: "Bamboozled" was added to The Criterion Collection in 2020, with a reissue on DVD and debut on Blu-ray occurring on March 17 of that year.


title: Joe C.

text: Joseph Michael Calleja (November 9, 1974 – November 16, 2000), known by his stage name Joe C., was an American rapper, best known for being a hype man for fellow rapper Kid Rock.


title: Joe C.

text: Calleja was born in Trenton, Michigan, and grew up in nearby Taylor. Since childhood, had been treated for celiac disease, a chronic autoimmune disorder that limited his height to , and required him to take dozens of pills and undergo dialysis daily.


title: Joe C.

text: Calleja first met Detroit-area musician Kid Rock at a concert by the latter in Roseville, Michigan in 1994. Rock initially mistook Calleja for a child. "He used to come to all my shows. He'd be standing on tables in the front row singing the lyrics." Rock subsequently brought Calleja into his act: "He's talking and I'm like, would you like a job? He's like, I can't do anything. I'm like, it's not important right now. I was like, you got attitude flying all over this room. I was like, I'll teach you everything you need to know."


title: Joe C.

text: In 1997, Calleja posed with two naked strippers for an album cover for rapper Shortcut. A photo lab reported the image as possible child pornography, but the investigation was closed less than a day later when Joe C. verified his age to be 23.


title: Joe C.

text: Calleja also appeared on television, including a guest role with Kid Rock on the animated series "The Simpsons", on the season 11 episode "Kill the Alligator and Run". Joe C. was a World Wrestling Federation fan and made various references to the WWF stable D-Generation X during concerts. He appeared on the May 18, 2000, edition of "WWF Smackdown" during a taping in Detroit to drink beer with The Acolytes, and on the May 29 edition of "Raw Is War", helping Too Cool win their only WWF Tag Team Championship in 2000 from Edge and Christian. He was also featured posthumously in the animated film "Osmosis Jones" as a part of Kidney Rock.


title: Joe C.

text: On November 16, 2000, Calleja died in his sleep at his parents' home in Taylor, Michigan, from complications from celiac disease. His death was determined to be from natural causes and no autopsy was performed. Kid Rock released a statement on Calleja's death: "Family and friends are everything; without them, all of the fame and fortune means nothing. We have lost part of our family. Joey gave us, and the world, his love. He brought a smile to everyone who has ever known or seen him. In a world full of confusion, Joey made all of us laugh. No matter what color, religion, race, or beliefs we have, he made us all smile. He gave us the gift of joy. Joey, thank you. We will never forget you. We love you." Rock dedicated his 2001 album "Cocky" to Calleja.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Armoured warfare or armored warfare (mechanized forces, armoured forces or armored forces) (American English; see spelling differences), is the use of armored fighting vehicles in modern warfare. It is a major component of modern methods of war. The premise of armoured warfare rests on the ability of troops to penetrate conventional defensive lines through use of manoeuvre by armoured units.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Much of the application of armoured warfare depends on the use of tanks and related vehicles used by other supporting arms such as infantry fighting vehicles, self-propelled artillery, and other combat vehicles, as well as mounted combat engineers and other support units. The doctrine of armoured warfare was developed to break the static nature of World War I trench warfare on the Western Front, and return to the 19th century school of thought that advocated manoeuvre and decisive battle outcomes in military strategy.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Modern armoured warfare began during the First World War of 1914–1918. Strategists wanted to break the tactical, operational and strategic stalemates forced on commanders on the Western Front by the effectiveness of entrenched defensive infantry armed with machine guns—known as trench warfare. Under these conditions, attacks usually advanced very slowly and incurred massive casualties. The developers of tanks aimed to return manoeuvre to warfare, and found a practical way to do so: providing caterpillar traction to machine guns allowing them to overcome trenches, while at the same time offering them armour protection against small-arms (pistol, rifle, and machine gun) fire as they were moving.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Britain and France first developed tanks in 1915 as a way of navigating the barbed wire and other obstacles of no-man's land while remaining protected from machine-gun fire. British Mark I tanks first went into action at the Somme on 15 September 1916, but did not manage to break the deadlock of trench warfare. The first French employment of tanks, on 16 April 1917, using the Schneider CA, also failed to live up to expectations. In the Battle of Cambrai (1917) (November to December 1917) British tanks were more successful, and broke a German trenchline system, the Hindenburg Line.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Despite the generally unpromising beginnings, the military and political leadership in both Britain and France during 1917 backed large investment into armoured-vehicle production. This led to a sharp increase in the number of available tanks for 1918. The German Empire, on the contrary, produced only a few tanks, late in the war. Twenty German A7V tanks were produced during the entire conflict, compared to over 4,400 French and over 2,500 British tanks of various kinds. Nonetheless, World War I saw the first tank-versus-tank battle, during the Second Battle of Villers-Bretonneux in April 1918, when a group of three German A7V tanks engaged a group of three British Mark IV tanks which they met accidentally.


title: Armoured warfare

text: After the final German spring offensives of 21 March to 18 July 1918, the Entente deployed tanks "en masse" at the Battle of Soissons (18 to 22 July 1918) and Battle of Amiens (August 1918), which ended the stalemate imposed by trench warfare on the Western Front, and thus effectively ended the war.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Tactically, deployment plans for armour during the war typically placed a strong emphasis on direct support for infantry. The tank's main tasks were seen as crushing barbed-wire and destroying machine-gun nests, facilitating the advance of foot soldiers. Theoretical debate largely focused on the question of whether to use a "swarm" of light tanks for this, or a limited number of potent heavy vehicles. Though in the Battle of Cambrai a large concentration of British heavy tanks effected a breakthrough, it was not exploited by armour. The manoeuvrability of the tank should at least in theory regain armies the ability to flank enemy lines. In practice, tank warfare during most of World War I was hampered by the technical immaturity of the new weapon system, limiting speed, operational range, and reliability, and a lack of effective armoured tactics.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Strategic use of tanks developed only slowly during and immediately after World War I, partly due to these technical limits but also due to the prestige role traditionally accorded to horse-mounted cavalry. An exception, on paper, was the Plan 1919 of the British Army's Colonel John Fuller, who envisaged using the expected vast increase in armour production during 1919 to execute deep strategic penetrations by mechanised forces consisting of tanks and infantry carried by trucks, supported by aeroplanes, to paralyse the enemy command-structure.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Following the First World War, the technical and doctrinal aspects of armoured warfare became more sophisticated and diverged into multiple schools of doctrinal thought.


title: Armoured warfare

text: During the 1920s, a very limited number of tanks were produced. There were however, important theoretical and technical developments. Various British and French commanders who had contributed to the origin of the tank, such as Jean Baptiste Eugène Estienne, B. H. Liddell Hart and J. F. C. Fuller, theorised about a possible future use of independent armoured forces, containing a large concentration of tanks, to execute deep strategic penetrations. Especially Liddell Hart wrote many books about the subject, partly propagating Fuller's theories. Such doctrines were faced with the reality that during the 1920s the armoured vehicles, as early road transport in general, were extremely unreliable, and could not be used in sustained operations. Mainstream thought on the subject was more conservative and tried to integrate armoured vehicles into the existing infantry and cavalry organisation and tactics.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Technical development initially focussed on the improvement of the suspension system, transmission and engine, to create vehicles that were faster, more reliable and had a better range than their WW I predecessors. To save weight, such designs had thin armour plating and this inspired fitting small-calibre high-velocity guns in turrets, giving tanks a good antitank capacity. Both France and Britain eventually built specialised infantry tanks, more heavily armoured to provide infantry support, and cavalry tanks that were faster and could exploit a breakthrough, seeking to bring about defeat of the enemy by severing his lines of communication and supply, as cavalry had done during the previous century.


title: Armoured warfare

text: The British were the first to create a larger fully mechanised unit when the War Office sanctioned the creation of the Experimental Mechanized Force, which was formed on 1 May 1927, under infantry Colonel R. J. Collins, after Fuller (was) refused the function. Its sub-units were entirely mobile and consisted of reconnaissance tankettes and armoured cars, a battalion of forty-eight Vickers Medium Mark I tanks, a motorised machine-gun battalion, a mechanised artillery regiment, which had one battery of fully tracked self-propelled Birch guns capable of acting as conventional or anti-aircraft artillery, and a motorised company of field engineers. The unit carried out operations on Salisbury Plain and was observed by the other major nations, the United States, Germany, and the Soviet Union. Although its performance was recognised, it was disbanded in 1928.


title: Armoured warfare

text: All major European states (with the exception of Germany that was forbidden to possess armoured vehicles under the Treaty of Versailles), the US, and Japan, would create their own experimental mechanised forces during the late 1920s, many using either French or British vehicle designs or even directly purchased vehicles, but largely borrowing from both to develop their own doctrines.


title: Armoured warfare

text: During the 1930s, political tensions between the world powers quickly increased. The Soviet Union and France began to rearm in the early thirties. In the Soviet Union, the mechanisation of the armed forces was part of a massive general industrialisation programme, the successive Five Years Plans, and the country soon had more tanks than the rest of the world combined, thousands of them being produced per year. In this period, before the rise to power of the Nazi Party in Germany, German officers were sent to observe and participate in development of armoured doctrine in the USSR. Red Army and German experts collaborated in developing the use of tanks based on second generation vehicles with turreted main weapons, and experimenting to design different chassis configurations and drive trains. One important acquisition for the Red Army turned out to be the purchase of a T3 chassis, using the Christie suspension, from US designer John Walter Christie, which served as the basis of the Soviet BT series of fast tanks. The Red Army tactics were influenced by the theoretical works of Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky who advocated "large scale tank warfare" as part of the deep battle doctrine.


title: Armoured warfare

text: In France, the second largest tank producer, mechanisation was motivated by a need to compensate for severe manpower shortages due to a collapsed birth rate during World War I. This led to the development of a vast range of specialised armoured vehicles, not just tanks but also armoured cars, self-propelled guns, mechanised artillery, armoured tractors, armoured supply vehicles, armoured artillery observation vehicles, armoured command vehicles, half-tracks, and fully tracked armoured personnel carriers. As the mechanisation progressed, slowly the French armour doctrine began to reflect the increased capacity, evolving from direct infantry support, to independent breakthrough and eventually envelopment with the Infantry, and to deep strategic exploitation with the Cavalry.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Despite the increase in tank numbers, in all countries financial constraints prohibited a full mechanisation of the entire armed ground forces. Necessarily, most of the divisions still consisted of infantry that was not even motorised. As a result, tanks tended to be allotted to special armoured units, where the limited and expensive expert maintenance and training capacity could be concentrated. Only the Soviet Union had enough tanks to equip an organic tank battalion in each infantry division. Nevertheless, France was the first to create large armoured units: in 1934 two Mechanised Corps were formed of 430 tanks each. In July 1935, in France the 4th Cavalry Division was transformed into the "1e Division Légère Mécanique", the first French armoured division of the Cavalry. In Germany, after the Nazi Regime started open rearmament in March 1935, on 15 October 1935 three "Panzerdivisionen" were formed. Though some tank brigades were part of the Cavalry or Infantry arm, most German tanks were concentrated into a special branch, from 1936 called the "Panzerwaffe". The precise interpretation of this phenomenon has proven controversial among military historians. Traditionally, it has been seen as part of a ""Blitzkrieg" strategy" of swift world conquest by means of armoured forces. Later it has been argued, among others by Karl-Heinz Frieser, that the German army in the 1930s did not even possess an explicit "Blitzkrieg" tactical doctrine, let alone strategy. This would have been reflected by the relatively unimpressive rate of tank production and development. During the 1930s the United Kingdom gave priority to the Royal Air Force and Royal Navy. The British Army began the conversion of its cavalry from horse to tanks and all but a few regiments were fully converted by 1939. The British 1st Armoured Division was formed, as the "Mobile Division", in November 1937.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Before the Second World War actual use of armoured fighting vehicles was limited. Both sides used Italian, German and Soviet tanks during the Spanish Civil War but these proved to be vulnerable to antitank guns due to their thin armour. Traditionalist elements within the Red Army used this to diminish the influence of proponents of mechanisation. Tukhachevsky himself was executed in 1937. Nevertheless, during the Soviet-Japanese Border Wars of 1938 and 1939, the Soviet forces tested modern armoured warfare tactics. General Georgy Zhukov in the summer of 1939 combined mass tank manoeuvres with artillery and air attacks, to defeat the Japanese Imperial Army at the Battles of Khalkhin Gol at Nomonhan in Mongolia. Partly as a result of the experiences in Spain, the Soviet Union began the development of a new generation of medium and heavy tanks, sporting much stronger armour and armament.


title: Armoured warfare

text: In their Invasion of Poland during September 1939, German forces applied a narrow cooperation between large armoured units — of the "Panzerwaffe" and the Cavalry — and "active" infantry divisions to break the Polish defensive lines and pursue the defeated enemy forces. The more limited and dispersed Polish armoured units were quickly destroyed. The Red Army, invading the east of Poland, also deployed armoured divisions. At the time, the swift collapse of the Polish army was seen as the result of an armoured "Blitzkrieg". However, later it has been argued that the campaign was largely an instance of the classical nineteenth century German concept of the "Annihilation Battle", in which the role of deep strategic armoured penetrations was limited.


title: Armoured warfare

text: In the wake of the Polish campaign, during the Phoney War French, British and German tank production sharply increased, with both western allies out-producing Germany. However, the Anglo-French coalition proved unable to match the Germans in the number of armoured divisions, as it was impossible to quickly raise such large units. Though the French possessed a superior number of tanks, often better armoured and armed, half of these were allotted at army-level to independent "Bataillons de Chars de Combat" ("battle tank battalions") for infantry support. In early 1940, the German command had concluded that it could not win a war of attrition and embarked on a high-risk strategy. They approved the Manstein Plan, envisaging an advance through the Ardennes by the main mass of German infantry divisions, spearheaded by seven armoured divisions, while the main mobile French reserve consisting of three Cavalry armoured divisions ("Divisions Légères Mécaniques" or Mechanised Light Divisions) — the only armoured units organised on the lines of the German armoured divisions — would be lured into the Low Countries by a feint attack with a lesser force, including three armoured divisions. In May 1940, during the Battle of France, the German feint resulted in a number of undecided armour engagements, among them the Battle of Hannut, the largest tank battle fought until that date. At the same time, German motorised infantry west of the Ardennes forced the crossings over the river Meuse, assisted by massive carpet bombing of the crossing points. In the original plan, the armoured divisions were again supposed to closely cooperate with the infantry divisions. In reality, armour commanders like Erwin Rommel and Heinz Guderian immediately broke out of the bridgeheads, initiating a drive towards the English Channel, which was reached within a week. The French reserve of four Infantry armoured divisions, the "Divisions cuirassées", lacked sufficient strategic mobility to prevent this. The strategic envelopment surrounded the Belgian army, the British Expeditionary Force and the best French troops. It led to the Evacuation of Dunkirk and the ultimate fall of France in operation "Fall Rot".


title: Armoured warfare

text: The spectacular and unexpected success not only caused a sudden change in the global geostrategic situation, gaining Germany a position of hegemony on the European continent, but also seemed to vindicate the theories of Fuller and Liddell-Hart. Confronted with the undeniable potential of armoured manoeuvre warfare, from the summer of 1940 onwards the armed forces of all surviving major powers adapted their tactical doctrine, unit organisation, strategic planning and tank production plans. According to Frieser, this was even true for Germany itself, that only now officially adopted "Blitzkrieg" tactics.


title: Armoured warfare

text: In the deserts of North Africa, the British developed the alternative approach of combining the armoured, infantry and artillery together to form a 'balanced, combined arms team'. The 10th Italian Army of Maresciallo (Marshal) Rodolfo Graziani, being ill-armed and inadequately led, soon gave way to this approach by the Commonwealth troops of the 8th Army.


title: Armoured warfare

text: The arrival of the German "Afrika Korps" under command of General der Panzertruppe Erwin Rommel highlighted the weaknesses of the British approach: the small number of infantry and artillery in each armoured division was sufficient when attacking the immobile and uncoordinated Italian troops, but against the highly mobile, well-coordinated German units, the undermanned Commonwealth formations were proving inadequate.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Between 1941 and 1942, the Allies struggled in armoured battles in the North African desert due to improper tactics; in particular, running armoured formations into opposing anti-tank positions; however, they achieved some notable successes at Crusader, 1st Alamein and under Montgomery finally achieved decisive victories, in particular at the Second Battle of El Alamein..


title: Armoured warfare

text: Much of the Red Army development in tank use was based on the theoretical work carried out by such officers as Tukhachevsky and Triandafillov in the mid to late 1930s. This was as part of the two-directioned concepts, one being infantry-centred "broad front" and the other being a "shock army".


title: Armoured warfare

text: While the infantry based part of the doctrine demanded "powerful tanks" (heavy tanks armed with infantry guns and machineguns) and "tankettes" (light, often amphibious tanks with machineguns), the shock army demanded "manoeuvre tanks" (fast tanks with medium guns) used in conjunction with motorised forces and "mechanised cavalry" that would operate in depth as "strategic cavalry" combined with nascent airborne troops.


title: Armoured warfare

text: At the start of the Second World War much of the Red Army, including its armoured forces, was in transition and recovering from the 1937 repression of the officer corps. The Red Army ignored the lessons from Nomonhan, which had been successfully conducted by General Zhukov, and relied instead on lessons from politically selected officers who were veterans of the Spanish Civil War. The result was a poor showing during the Winter War. The Red Army tank fleet was extremely large, consisting of some 24,000 vehicles, but many were obsolete or unfit for service due to difficulties with supplying spare parts and lack of qualified support staff.


title: Armoured warfare

text: One important development took place shortly before the war, which influenced Soviet armoured doctrine and tank design for a decade: the creation of the T-34. Developed on the Christie suspension chassis and using sloped armour for the first time, the T-34 proved a shock to the German forces in the first German encounter of Soviet T-34 and KV tanks. The T-34 had an excellent combination of mobility, protection and firepower. Using wide tracks, the T-34 was also able to negotiate terrain in difficult weather conditions, something that persistently dogged the German designs.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Assessing the success of the German Blitzkrieg strategy, operational methods and tactics, the Red Army concluded that it should return to the use of operational methods developed before the war, so the Tank Armies were eventually created. To complement the T-34, heavy tanks, self-propelled artillery, and tank destroyers were also designed. The Red Army's armoured forces were used in concentrations during all strategic operations of the Red Army in World War II, initiated under strict secrecy and using the Principle of Surprise.


title: Armoured warfare

text: In Germany, in-depth research through theoretical approaches, wargaming and exercises developed a confidence within the "Panzertruppe" itself (and political support by Hitler) in the armoured formation as the key battlefield formation — although this view was before 1940 not shared by the other Arms of Service. A key part of this doctrine was improved communications by having radios in all tanks, although this ideal suffered from technical limits as most tanks had receiver sets only.


title: Armoured warfare

text: At the outbreak of World War II, the German armoured forces benefited from a much more profound and more flexible training than that of the Allies on the tactical and operational level. German tanks operated while directed by radio communication, which allowed tank commanders to take greater advantage of the manoeuvrability of their vehicles.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Even after the conquest of Poland, "Blitzkrieg" was not defined on the strategic level. Guderian and von Manstein devised a strategy that entailed what later would be seen as the essence of blitzkrieg: concentrated panzer divisions performing swift deep penetrations. This strategy was not initially accepted by German High Command. Nevertheless, the final plans for the invasion of France in 1940 hinged on the element of a "Schwerpunkt" at Sedan, and was assigned to such forces. The great success of this operation led to blitzkrieg being integrated with strategic planning for the rest of the war.


title: Armoured warfare

text: German tanks could carry with them enough fuel and supplies to go almost two hundred kilometers, and enough food to last three to nine days. This relative independence from supply lines proved effective, and allowed them to advance on critical targets much faster and without hesitation. Another factor was the ability of commanders to make strategic decisions in the field and without much consultation with their headquarters, the orders of which were often simply ignored. A prime example is Erwin Rommel's lead-from-the-front approach while commanding "7.Panzer-Division" which allowed him a flexible response to the battlefield situation, an instance of the "Auftragstaktik" (reliance on subordinates to make their own decisions).


title: Armoured warfare

text: The effect of German "Panzer" speed, mobility, and communication shocked the French, and ultimately were the deciding factors in the battle. It overcame their inferiority in armour and armament relative to the main French materiel such as the Char B1 "bis". The superior tactical and operational praxis, combined with an appropriate strategic implementation, enabled the Germans to defeat forces superior in armour (both quantitatively and qualitatively) in the battles of 1940, but just as Blitzkrieg became a deliberate military doctrine, in 1941, it ultimately failed on the eastern front, though initially attaining spectacular successes.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Before the war, Heinz Guderian had in his "Achtung–Panzer!" propounded a thorough mechanisation of the German forces. By 1942, increased AFV-production allowed a fuller implementation of this ideal. Now extensive armoured combined arms team could be formed, distinct from a purely infantry or cavalry formation. The panzer divisions integrated tanks with mechanised infantry (riding in halftracks to be protected from small-arms fire while being transported) and self-propelled artillery (howitzers fitted on a tank chassis). This allowed the panzer division to become an independent combat force, in principle able to overcome the problems of attaining a breakthrough against entrenched enemy infantry, equipped with large numbers of antitank-guns, with the potential to completely halt tank assaults inflicting devastating losses to armoured units without infantry support. However, much of the AFV production was increasingly diverted away from the "Panzertruppe". The Artillery formed its own Sturmgeschütz units and infantry divisions were given their own Panzerjäger companies. Despite lowering their formal organic strength, from the summer of 1943 onwards, the armoured divisions were structurally short of tanks.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Though the U.S. had established the Tank Corps in World War I using French Renault FT light tanks and British Mark V and Mark V* heavy tanks, and some officers like Dwight D. Eisenhower and George S. Patton, Jr. emerged from that war initially as avid proponents of continuing and developing an American armoured force, the rapid reduction of the forces and apathy and even antipathy towards funding and maintaining armed forces in the inter-war years led to relative stagnation of armoured doctrine in the United States. Adna R. Chaffee, Jr., virtually alone, advocated for the future of armoured warfare and the development of appropriate training, equipment and doctrine during the late 1920s through the 1930s.


title: Armoured warfare

text: The United States Army regarded the French Army as the best army in Europe, and consequently the U.S. Army frequently copied French uniforms (the American Civil War) and aeroplanes. Only when France was rapidly overrun in 1940 did the U.S. Army become "shocked" into re-thinking the influences by the perceived actions of German tanks in the 1939 Polish Campaign. Its Armored Combat Arm was not created until 1940 when the Armored Force was born on 10 July 1940, with the Headquarters, Armor Force and the Headquarters, I Armored Corps established at Fort Knox. On July 15, 1940, the 7th Cavalry Brigade (Mechanised) became the 1st Armored Division; the 7th Provisional Tank Brigade, an infantry tank unit at Fort Benning, became the 2nd Armored Division". The Tank Battalion was established at Fort Meade, Md., and a small Armored Force School was also established.


title: Armoured warfare

text: Under this doctrine, U.S. tank crews of both armoured divisions and GHQ tank battalions were taught to fight tanks in tank on tank engagements. Armoured force personnel during and after the war criticised the infantry for using the GHQ tank battalions assigned to infantry divisions strictly as infantry support.