title: Cyberman

text: After Steven Moffat took over the role of executive producer in 2010, Cybermen of essentially the design introduced by Davies continued to appear. No explicit reference is made to their origin, but generally the stylised 'c' (for Cybus Corporation) on their breastplate had been replaced by a plain circle, implying that they were not from the parallel universe. They appear in "The Pandorica Opens" (2010) alongside many of the Doctor's recurring enemies as part of an alliance dedicated to stopping him, arriving in cyber ships in 102 CE. They appear again in "A Good Man Goes to War" (2011), when the Eleventh Doctor's (Matt Smith) companion Rory Williams (Arthur Darvill) demands the location of a secret asteroid base in a quadrant of space which they monitor in the 52nd century. The Doctor destroys a large fleet of their spaceships to indicate their seriousness. In "Closing Time", an ancient slumbering cyber ship is awakened in 2011 Colchester, and the Doctor and his friend Craig Owens (James Corden) work together to repel a Cyberman invasion. This episode also reintroduces cybermats to the series. Neil Gaiman's episode "Nightmare in Silver" (2013) depicts the re-emergence of the Cybermen in the distant future, following what was believed to be their complete eradication by humankind. These redesigned Cybermen have discarded many of their limitations, exhibiting increased speed, rapid upgrading to overcome weaknesses, and the ability to cyberconvert any biological organism into their ranks. The Eleventh Doctor undergoes a partial cyber-conversion, and mentally duels with a Cyber-Planner for control of his body. The emperor of the galaxy (Warwick Davis) orders a planet's destruction to wipe out the Cyberman, but one intact cybermite (new, minuscule cybermat variants) is later seen floating through space. A dead Cyberman head is briefly shown in the UNIT Black Archive in "The Day of the Doctor", and in "The Time of the Doctor" they are among the many species which besiege the planet Trenzalore for centuries. In the latter episode, the Doctor also uses a disembodied Cyberman head, devoid of any remaining organic parts; named "Handles", he serves as the Doctor's personal assistant and confidant for several centuries until his eventual 'death' brings the Doctor to tears.


title: Cyberman

text: In the two-part finale of the 2014 series, "Dark Water" and "Death in Heaven", the Twelfth Doctor (Peter Capaldi) learns too late that the Cybermen have formed an alliance with a female incarnation of the Master, Missy (Michelle Gomez), who is converting the stolen bodies of the dead into an army. A cyberconversion process begins on all of Earth's dead. Missy offers the Doctor control of the Cybermen army so they can rule the universe together, but her plan is foiled when Danny Pink (Samuel Anderson), the cyber-converted boyfriend of the Doctor's companion Clara Oswald (Jenna Coleman), resists his programming and destroys himself along with all the other Cybermen. Cybermen are next seen in "Face the Raven" (2015), among the various alien refugees hiding in London, and in series finale "Hell Bent", in which a rusted Cyberman is imprisoned in the Cloisters of Gallifrey. The origin of another group of Cybermen is told in the two-part Series 10 finale "World Enough and Time" and "The Doctor Falls", when a Mondasian colony ship is stuck escaping the gravity of a black hole for many years. The human-like Mondasians, assisted unknowingly by the Master (John Simm), begin upgrading their population to adapt to life aboard the decaying ship. The Doctor reflects on all the societies that have created Cybermen and concludes that the Cybermen is an example of parallel evolution; the Cybermen will always arise and be developed on human-like species across the universe. Ultimately, this encounter with the Cybermen proves brutal: the Doctor's companion Bill Potts (Pearl Mackie) is cyberconverted; two incarnations of the Master (Simm and Gomez) kill one another in a disagreement over standing alongside the Doctor; and the Doctor's companion Nardole (Matt Lucas) is left behind on the ship to look after human colonists, for whom inevitable cyberconversion has been delayed but not averted, though the Doctor manages to destroy most of the Cybermen in a massive explosion. The Doctor, exhausted and wounded to a point of nearing death, awakens in his TARDIS and begins to regenerate. At the same time, the cyberconverted Bill is saved by her old flame Heather who turns her into the same sort of being Heather became after being infected by a sentient liquid.


title: Cyberman

text: Cybermen feature heavily in Series 12 (2020). In "Fugitive of the Judoon", experienced companion Captain Jack Harkness (John Barrowman) sends a message to the Thirteenth Doctor (Jodie Whittaker): "do not give the lone Cyberman what it wants". In "The Haunting of Villa Diodati", the Doctor encounters this Cyberman, the sole survivor of the Cyber-Wars, partially-converted Ashad (Patrick O'Kane). She ignores Jack's warning and gives him the Cyberium, the total knowledge of the defeated Cyberman empire, to save human history. This leads to Ashad rejuvenating the Cyber-Empire in season finale "Ascension of the Cybermen" and "The Timeless Children", intending to end all organic life in the universe with a "Death Particle" once he transforms the Cybermen into a purely technological race. However, the Master (Sacha Dhawan) intervenes, promising an alliance only to swiftly betrays Ashad, confiscating the Cyberium and converting the massacred Time Lord civilisation into "CyberMasters" – a new race of infinitely regenerating Cybermen. This army is seemingly defeated by a miniaturised version of the Death Particle. A Cyberman is later seen the 2021 New Years Special "Revolution of the Daleks" as of the Doctor's cellmates in a Judoon prison. The CyberMasters and a clone of Ashad return alongside the Master in a daring scheme alongside the Daleks to steal the Doctor's body in "The Power of the Doctor" (2022), narrowly defeated only when the Doctor's companions succeed in bringing her back to life.


title: Cyberman

text: In the revival series, some Cybermen who have interacted with the Doctor have been portrayed by actor Paul Kasey.


title: Cyberman

text: The Cybermen were also featured in the novel "Iceberg" by actor David Banks, who played the Cyber Leader in the television series from "Earthshock" to "Silver Nemesis". Banks had previously written, in 1988, "Cybermen", a fictional history of the Cybermen which included a "future" design for them. The Missing Adventure Novel "Killing Ground" also features Cybermen of the type seen in "Revenge of the Cybermen". During this novel, the Sixth Doctor's new companion Grant Markham returns to his home planet and learns that a group of Cybermen have hidden on it for centuries, with his robophobia being based around the repressed memory of witnessing a Cyberman kill his mother before he escaped.


title: Cyberman

text: In two Virgin Missing Adventures novels by Craig Hinton, the Cybermen become Cyberlords at some point in their history. They are mentioned in passing in Hinton's "The Crystal Bucephalus", where the Cyberlord Hegemony is a peaceful future version of the Cybermen who have an empire in the Milky Way; their description was modelled after Banks's designs. In "The Quantum Archangel", there are numerous unexplained references to the Cyberlords as an extremely advanced race. At one point, they are referred to as the Time Lords' greatest ally in the Millennium War, though because that war was supposed to have taken place a very long time before the modern era, it is unclear how this bit of Cyberhistory fits in or whether or not they have achieved advanced time travel capabilities. While not explicitly mentioned, Hinton may have adopted this idea from the aborted script for the Five Doctors by Robert Holmes (scriptwriter), which would have had the Cybermen adopting Time Lord DNA to achieve their higher state of being.


title: Cyberman

text: The Past Doctor Adventures novel "Illegal Alien" featured Cybermen and Cybermats in London during the Blitz. Cyber-technology left over from that adventure was subsequently misused in "Loving the Alien", written by the same authors. The Fifth Doctor story "Warmonger" by Terrance Dicks has the Cybermen join the Doctor's alliance against Morbius. The First Doctor story "The Time Travellers" by Simon Guerrier, set in an alternate reality, has the Cybermen (who are never named) living at the South Pole and trading advanced technology to South Africa. The Eighth Doctor Adventures novel "Hope" by Mark Clapham features the Silverati, a group of cybernetically enhanced humans heavily reminiscent of the Cybermen, in existence in the very far future as the universe approaches its end, with some evidence suggesting that the Silverati were adapted from remnants of the Cybermen of the present.


title: Cyberman

text: The Cybermen have appeared in several Big Finish audio plays battling the Doctor, the first of which was "Sword of Orion" (released on CD in 2001 and broadcast on BBC 7 in 2005), where the Eighth Doctor deals with humans and androids engaged in a war who seek Cyber-technology to improve their sides. The 2002 play "Spare Parts" explored aspects of the Cybermen's origin, revealing that the design was ironically only perfected after their creator, Doctorman Allan, studied the biology of the Fifth Doctor and duplicated a third lobe to the Doctor's brain that controlled his body functions. They were the villains in the company's BBCi webcast "Real Time", which was released on purely audio in December 2002. The first instalment of a four-CD series titled "Cyberman", which does not feature the Doctor, was released in September 2005. "Sword of Orion" and the "Cyberman" series are set around the "Great Orion Cyber-Wars" of the 26th century, when androids rebelled against humanity in the Orion System and both human and android turned to the Cybermen to gain a military advantage. In "Sword of Orion", the Cybermen are still entombed on Telos and are mostly forgotten, setting it before "Earthshock"; by the time of "Cyberman", Telos has been destroyed by an asteroid collision, placing that series after "Attack of the Cybermen".


title: Cyberman

text: The Cybermen appeared in a linked trilogy of plays entitled "The Harvest" (2004), "The Reaping" (2006) and "The Gathering" (2006), where small groups of Cybermen attempt to manipulate humans into setting up conversion factories on Earth. The Bernice Summerfield play "The Crystal of Cantus" features a former human colony turned into Cybermen, with Irving Braxiatel planning to use them as a private army. A Cyberman tomb also appeared in the Bernice Summerfield play "Silver Lining", which came free with "Doctor Who Magazine" #351. They appear in "Human Resources", which Big Finish produced for radio BBC 7 and subsequently released on CD, and sees the Eighth Doctor averting a plan to take control of a new weapons system. The Sixth Doctor joins forces with the Second Doctor's companions Jamie and Zoe to deal with two different Cybermen assaults in "Legend of the Cybermen" and "Last of the Cybermen"; "Legend" sees Zoe made into the new Mistress of the Land of Fiction, bringing in the Sixth Doctor and a fictional version of Jamie to stop the Cybermen conquering the Land, and "Last" depicts the Sixth swapping places with the Second just as the younger Doctor discovers a Cybermen plot to alter the outcome of the last battle of the Cyber-Wars. In the Fourth Doctor Adventures audio "The Fate of Krelos"/"Return to Telos", the Fourth Doctor, Leela and K9 discover that the Cybermen planted nanobots on Jamie during their past trip to Telos that allow the Cybermen to infect K9 and subsequently use the TARDIS to take over the machinery of the planet Krelos, but the Doctor is able to use a robot drone to go back to his original trip to Telos and prevent Jamie being exposed to the nanites, undoing these events.


title: Cyberman

text: In March 2018, the Cybermen had their first encounter with the Third Doctor (this time played by Tim Treloar) in "The Tyrants of Logic", one of the stories in Volume 4 of Big Finish's "The Third Doctor Adventures" series. In the story, the Doctor and companion Jo Grant (Katy Manning) arrive in the town of Port Anvil on the planet Burnt Salt. They come across a mysterious crate, which the Cybermen set about to reclaim as it contains the "Cyber Leveler," a type of tactician similar to the Cyber Controller. In the ensuing adventure, the Doctor is exposed to "Cyber Smoke," a poisonous gas that prepares a body for cyber conversion. The Doctor is able to fight off the infection for a time, and develop a cure, which he then uses against the Cybermen, defeating them. The Cybermen battle the Third Doctor and Sarah Jane Smith in the Audio Novel "Scourge of the Cybermen". David Banks reprised his role as the Cyber-Leader in "Hour of the Cybermen", against the Sixth Doctor and UNIT, and "Conversion", which served as a follow up to "Earthshock".


title: Cyberman

text: They have also appeared in the various "Doctor Who" comic strips, beginning with "The Coming of the Cybermen" in "TV Comic" #824-#827. TV Comic cashed in on their frequent presence in the TV series in the late 1960s by featuring them regularly, and they appeared in "Flower Power" (TVC #832-#835), "Cyber-Mole" (TVC #842-#845), "The Cyber Empire" (TVC #850-#853), "Eskimo Joe" (TVC #903-#906), "Masquerade" (TVC Holiday Special 1968), "The Time Museum" (TVC Annual 1969), "The Champion" (TVC Holiday Special 1969) and "Test-Flight" (TVC Annual 1970). Their absence from the TV show for most of the 1970s was reflected in a lack of appearances in the strip: they eventually returned in the early 1980s in the "Doctor Who Monthly" strip "Junk-Yard Demon" (DWM #58-#59). They made further appearances after the publication was re-titled "Doctor Who Magazine": "Exodus"/"Revelation"/"Genesis" (DWM #108-#110), "The World Shapers" (DWM #127-#129, written by Grant Morrison, which revealed that the Voord were the race that evolved into the Cybermen and that Mondas was previously the planet Marinus), "The Good Soldier" (DWM #175-#178) and "The Flood" (DWM #346-#353). In addition, a Cyberman named Kroton, who originally appeared in a couple of "Doctor Who Weekly" back-up strips called "Throwback: The Soul of a Cyberman" (DWW #5-#7) and "Ship of Fools" (DWW #23-#24), was reintroduced in "Unnatural Born Killers" (DWM #277) and was briefly a companion of the Eighth Doctor in "The Company of Thieves" (DWM #284-#286) and "The Glorious Dead" (DWM #287-#296). The Cybermen had their own one-page strip in DWM from issues #215-#238, written by Alan Barnes and drawn by Adrian Salmon.


title: Cyberman

text: In 1996, the "Radio Times" published a "Doctor Who" comic strip. The first story, entitled "Dreadnought", featured the Cybermen attacking a human starship in 2220 and introduced the strip companion Stacy Townsend.


title: Cyberman

text: In 2006/7, the Trading Cards magazine Doctor Who - Battles in Time issues 8 - 11 ran a sixteen-page comic strip consisting of four linked stories featuring the Cybermen, written by Steve Cole, drawn by Lee Sullivan and coloured by Alan Craddock.


title: Cyberman

text: In the "Doctor Who"/"Star Trek" crossover, , the Cybermen join forces with the Borg, forcing the Eleventh Doctor to join forces with the crew of the "Enterprise"-D to stop them. The Borg and Cybermen have begun to attack and convert worlds without warning, with the apparent 'leader' being a Cyber-Controller with Borg components. The Doctor also recalls a past incident where he helped the crew of the original "Enterprise" defeat a Cyberman infiltration of a Federation outpost in his fourth incarnation, although it would appear that this is a recent addition to his history as the Eleventh Doctor also remembers "not" remembering that encounter. The Cybermen attempt to subvert and take over the Borg Collective, forcing the Doctor and the "Enterprise" to ally with the Borg to stop the Cybermen and restore the Collective to normal.


title: Cyberman

text: The Cybermen also feature in the Titan Comics 2016 multi-Doctor event story "Supremacy of the Cybermen", which depicts the last Cybermen at the end of the universe forming an alliance with Rassilon- after he was exiled from Gallifrey by the Twelfth Doctor in "Hell Bent"- with the goal of conquering Gallifrey and using Time Lord energy to regenerate the universe into one under Cyber-control. Although Rassilon's insight allows the Cybermen to conquer history and defeat all of the past Doctors, the Twelfth Doctor is able to convince Rassilon to help him after the Cybermen betray Rassilon, the two turning the Cybermens' equipment against them so that the universe is 'regenerated' to a point before the Cybermen conquered Gallifrey, with only the Twelfth Doctor (and possibly Rassilon) remembering these events.


title: Cyberman

text: The 2010 video game "", features Cybermen of the 2006 design without the Cybus Industries chest plate. These Cybermen are unearthed in the Arctic in 2010; their ship is said to have been damaged by a time-storm and crashed 10,000 years earlier. The player plays as the Eleventh Doctor and his companion Amy, who work to defeat the Cybermen. They also appear on Telos in both the android games "" and Doctor Who and the Dalek.


title: Cyberman

text: The Cybermen appear as enemies in "Lego Dimensions", and one was added as a playable character in Wave 3.


title: Cyberman

text: While the Doctor's archenemy, the Daleks, were on the whole unchanged during the original series's 26-season run, the Cybermen were seen to change with almost every encounter. The Cybermen are humanoid, but have been altered until they have few remaining organic parts. They retain living human brains. In their first appearance in the series, the only parts of their bodies that still seemed human were their hands; by their next appearance in "The Moonbase" (1967), their bodies were entirely covered in their metallic suits, with their hands replaced by three finger claws, but they changed back to regular five-fingered hands in "The Invasion" (1968). As they are relatively few, the Cybermen tend towards covert activity, scheming from hiding and using human pawns or robots to act in their place until they need to appear. They also seek to increase their numbers by converting others into Cybermen (a process known as "cyber-conversion" or "Cybernisation" in the older episodes and "upgrading" in the newer episodes), an often painful process as body parts are removed and replaced with cybernetic replacements.


title: Cyberman

text: It is implied that there are still organic components beneath their suits, meaning they are cyborgs, not robots: in "The Tenth Planet", a Cyberman tells a group of humans that "our brains are just like yours", although by the time of "Attack of the Cybermen" (1985), their brains seem to have been replaced with electronics. Also in this story, two human slave-prisoners of the Cybermen on the planet Telos, named Bates and Stratton, reveal that their organic arms and legs have been removed by the Cybermen and replaced by cyber-substitutes. In "Earthshock" (1982), the actors' chins were vaguely visible through a clear perspex area on the helmet to suggest some kind of organic matter. In "The Tomb of the Cybermen" (1967), veins and brains were visible through the domed head of the Cyber-Controller, and similarly, in "Attack of the Cybermen" (1985) and "The Age of Steel" (2006), the Cyber-Controller's brain is visible through the dome. The first is a Mondas Cyber Controller, and the second involves alternative Earth's John Lumic. However, in "Revenge of the Cybermen" (1975), the Doctor says they are "total machine creatures".


title: Cyberman

text: The audio play "Real Time" implies that the converted victim's face remains beneath the Cyberman faceplate, although the audio plays, like all non-televised spin-off media, are of uncertain canonicity with regard to the television series. In the 2014's "Death in Heaven", Danny Pink removes the faceplate showing his face underneath. The "Virgin New Adventures" novel "Iceberg" by David Banks states that some Cybermen experience rare flashes of emotional memory from the time before they were converted; these flashes are then usually suppressed. The Cybermen in the revived series are usually constructed from human brains bonded to a Cyberman exoskeletal shell with an artificially-grown nervous system threaded throughout ("The Age of Steel"), although direct grafting of cyber-components is another method of conversion ("Cyberwoman"). In "The Pandorica Opens", a Cyberman head is shown to open up, revealing an entire human skull, not just the brain.


title: Cyberman

text: Although the Cybermen often claim that they have done away with human emotion, they have exhibited emotions ranging from anger to smug satisfaction in their confrontations with the Doctor. Some Cybermen in the early stories were even given individual names such as "Krang" (however these names only appeared in the cast listings for "The Tenth Planet" and were not spoken on-screen). Some parallel Earth Cybermen did retain some memories of their pre-conversion lives, although their emotional response varied. In "Cyberwoman", the partial conversion led to a degree of insanity in Lisa Hallett, which was retained even after she transferred her brain into a fully human body. In "Doomsday", Yvonne Hartman retains at least some elements of her personality (including her voice being heard over the usual Cyberman voice) to prevent the advance of a group of other Cybermen, and is last seen weeping what appears to be either an oil-like substance or blood. In the same episode, the Cyber-Leader expresses clear frustration at the humans' refusal to surrender, although in a later scene he criticises the Doctor for showing emotion. In "The Age of Steel", the Doctor defeats the Cybermen by shutting down their emotional inhibitors, enabling them to "see" what had become of them. Their realisation of what they had become led them to either simply shut down out of sheer horror, or partially explode. Lastly, when the first Cyber Leader is killed, his head explodes with some white liquid leaking down his body; there are references in that episode to a patented Cybus Industries mixture of chemicals used to preserve the brain. In "Death in Heaven", Danny Pink also retains some of his personality traits, including shock at seeing his reflection and what he's become, but also his love for Clara Oswald. The Doctor turns it on to gain intelligence and reveal that the Cybermen have developed a way to cyber-convert dead human remains. Only then does the Doctor exploit Danny's keeping of his personality traits, even under the inhibitor, to command the Cyber-Army. In "The Doctor Falls", the Doctor's companion Bill retains her complete sense of self and identity, even to the point of not initially seeing herself as a Cyberman, as a result of her experiences resisting mind control and telepathic suggestions in a past adventure. However, Cyberman program does manifest in her bursts of anger and she says her mind cannot hold on forever.


title: Cyberman

text: The Virgin Missing Adventures novel "Killing Ground", by Steve Lyons suggests that some Cybermen imitate emotions to intimidate and unnerve their victims. The Big Finish Productions audio play "Spare Parts" (set on Mondas in the early days of Cyber-conversion) suggests that the Cybermen deliberately remove their emotions as part of the conversion process to stifle the physical and emotional trauma of becoming a Cyberman.


title: Cyberman

text: This motive behind the removal of emotions is made more explicit in "The Age of Steel", where it is done by an emotional inhibitor. In that episode, deactivating their emotional inhibitors causes the converted Cybermen to realise what they have become, driving them insane and killing them.


title: Cyberman

text: The Cybermen have had a number of weaknesses since their introduction. The most notable weakness of the original Cybermen is the element gold. Their aversion to gold was not mentioned until they try to destroy the planetoid Voga (the so-called "Planet of Gold") in "Revenge of the Cybermen" (1975). Initially, it was explained that, due to its non-corrodible nature, gold essentially chokes their respiratory systems. For example, the glittergun, a weapon used during the Cyber-Wars in the future, fired gold dust at its targets. However, in later serials, gold appeared to affect them rather as silver affects werewolves, with gold coins or gold-tipped bullets fired at them having the same effect. The revived series's Cybermen have no such weakness, though the tie-in website for the episode mentions it. Cybermen are also efficiently killed when shot with their own guns, or by a Dalek. Other weaknesses from early stories include solvents, gravity based technology, and excessive levels of radiation. In "The Age of Steel", an EMP grenade is shown to disable a Cyberman and shut down its emotional inhibitor. The vulnerability to gold is clearly not present in some early Cyberman types, for example the type seen in the 1968 serial "The Invasion" were unlikely to possess it, or perhaps more likely the weakness is not known, otherwise the Doctor/UNIT would simply have used it and not needed the elaborate plan involving the assistance of a Russian missile base and the Cybermen's puppet ally, Tobias Vaughn. In "Nightmare in Silver", the Doctor uses gold to slow down though not destroy some circuitry of technologically advanced Cybermen in the distant future. It is unclear precisely how many of the different types, and which types, of Cyberman are vulnerable to gold.


title: Cyberman

text: Their armour is often depicted as flexible and resistant to bullets, but can be penetrated by gold arrows and projectiles made of gold. The Cybus Cybermen are bullet-proof and are very resilient, but are not indestructible – they are vulnerable to high explosives, electromagnetic pulses, specialised weaponry and Dalek weapons.


title: Cyberman

text: In "The Power of the Doctor" (2022), Tegan Jovanka and Ace fire gold bullets at a group of Cybermen only to be told that they have evolved beyond weakness to gold.


title: Cyberman

text: For "The Tenth Planet", the original Cyberman costumes, including the "handle" shapes on their heads, were designed by Sandra Reid. The masks and one-piece bodystockings were made from jersey fabric, with holes trimmed with vinyl where the Cybermen "eyes" and "mouths" were; the actors' features were darkened to hide their faces. The fabric of the costumes were coloured a faint blue so they could show up on black and white television cameras. Over the top of the stockings, the Cybermen wore polythene suits ribbed with metal wings, along with epaulettes made of metal, and plastic piping. Their boots were short Wellington boots, painted silver. In a 2016 interview, Reid, by then going by the name Alexandra Tynan, described the motivation behind her designs was "I had a planning meeting that I had to be at, and I had to have a design drawing with me. My motivation was the clock on the wall!" Although the script specified the Cybermen should keep their human hands, Reid wanted them to wear gloves. However, Reid mistakenly forgot she said she would make special gloves for the Cybermen until the first day in the studio. Instead, make-up designer Gillian James hastily added silver paint to the actors' human hands. The chest units and "handles" were built by Shawcraft of Uxbridge. The handles were adapted from lorry headlamps, while the chest units used a lot of clear plastic and had battery-powered flashing mechanisms. The handles were intended as the housing for wires that lit up the lamps, but in a test shot the bulb exploded and the idea was dropped. Tynan explained in 2016, "I indicated that there was going to be a chest unit there, but I didn't do any designs for them, because I knew that the units were going to be a props thing."


title: Cyberman

text: Producer Innes Lloyd's production team wished to update the Cybermen for "The Moonbase" and make them look more sophisticated and robotic. Sandra Reid designed new costumes for this serial. These were based on a one-piece silver jumpsuit made from vinyl fabric, and the Cybermen were given gloves with three-fingered hands. Their boots were lace-up army boots painted silver. Fibreglass helmets and chest units made from aluminium were built by freelance prop makers Jack and John Lovell. Silver tape was added around the eye and mouth area for emphasis, and on Reid's instruction, the Lovells attached "hydraulic joints" consisting of tubing from a vacuum cleaner manufacturer and plastic practice golf balls. Costume designer Daphne Dare, consulting with Reid over the phone, took over midway through production of "The Moonbase" while Reid was recovering from surgery. Eight of these costumes were reused, with slight repainting and additions, for "The Tomb of the Cybermen", Reid's final "Doctor Who" serial, and a new costume was built for the Cyber Controller, with a red-domed cranium built that was intended to light up, but the lighting mechanism failed.


title: Cyberman

text: For the filmed inserts in "The Wheel in Space", Martin Baugh supervised the creation of the costumes, made from a thinner one-piece material. Junction boxes, linked by steel rods, were used at the joints and near the neck to give the impression of something more technological and functional than was seen in "The Moonbase" and "The Tomb of the Cybermen". The same chest units from before were used, with the lamp at the bottom of the unit. New helmets were cast with simpler handles that extended out further from the head. These introduced a "teardrop" shape to the Cybermen's eyes. An unmodified "The Tomb of the Cybermen" suit was also used to swell the Cybermen's numbers during the spacewalk scene, and was positioned at the back to hide the difference from the other two costumes. Mid-production, the suits were redesigned again for the more extensive recordings of "The Wheel in Space" in the studio. Baugh's solution was to spray-paint two padded wet suits to make them look bulkier, with the helmets, junction boxes and rods from the filmed inserts modified or removed to make the actors move more freely. The hands from the earlier "Wheel in Space" costumes were cut off and used as gloves for the new costumes. The chest units were turned upside down so the lamps, mounted beneath the Cybermen's chins, could be fired as a weapon in a tighter shot.


title: Cyberman

text: For "The Invasion", costume designer Bobi Bartlett ordered a resculpt of the helmet moulds with more head space for the actors to be done by outside company Trading Post. This included the sculpting of two large "ear muffs". The helmet was made of a light fibreglass. The costumes featured army boots, and now had five-fingered gloves, rather than three. Wetsuits were reused for this serial, and a simpler and sturdier version of the chest units, with the light at the top of the unit as before, was commissioned. At each of the joints there were now domes connected by a set of ribbed rods.


title: Cyberman

text: While production notes in "Doctor Who: The Complete History" claimed that the brief appearance of a Cyberman in "Carnival of Monsters" consisted of a diving suit from "The Invasion", Gavin Rymill in "Doctor Who Magazine" wrote that this Cyberman was a Cyber Controller costume from "The Tomb of the Cybermen". Both sources concurred that the helmet originated from "The Invasion", and the back of the helmet was left unfastened.


title: Cyberman

text: Prue Handley was the costume designer on "Revenge of the Cybermen". The costumes were built by freelance prop company Alister Bowtell, and were again based on wet suits, with rubber tubing along the arms and at the knees and elbow. The chest unit props from "The Moonbase" returned, and included bits of broken television sets. New, larger fibreglass helmets were made, and the costumes had silver gloves and Wellington boots.


title: Cyberman

text: The "Earthshock" designs by Dinah Collin included a set of Mk 2C RAF flight suits with built-in pipes used to pump cool air around. The "Revenge of the Cybermen" head was reshaped and recut by Richard Gregory of the freelance company Imagineering to add more details. There was a transparent section in the face through where the actor's moving jaw could be seen. New chest units were made in fibreglass, and they were decorated with ammunition trays. Also worn with the costumes were padded zip-back gloves and Tecnica Moon Boots. For "The Five Doctors" and "Attack of the Cybermen", the jaw area was sprayed silver, and less ostentatious boots were worn. Anushia Nieradzik was the costume designer on "Attack of the Cybermen". A specially modified Cyber Controller costume with a tall silver dome on its head was made for "Attack of the Cybermen"; as with the Controller costume used in "The Tomb of the Cybermen", its helmet had no handles. For "Silver Nemesis", the same head and chest pieces returned with a dappled plastic jaw and the removal of the ammunition trays. A plainer type of flight suit without built-in pipes was used for the bodies, and cable junction boxes with plastic tubes were added to the limbs for more detail. The costumes had cricket gloves sprayed silver, and Dr. Martens boots.


title: Cyberman

text: The redesign of the Cybermen in "Rise of the Cybermen" and "The Age of Steel" was a month-long process involving nearly every part of the design team. The production team decided on an Art Deco approach, and the final design was handed to Neill Gorton's team at Millennium FX, who also built the final costumes. The head was designed to be able to be turned independently from the body; such movement had not been possible in previous helmets. Millennium's Martin Rezard was the lead sculptor of a full-sized clay Cyberman, from which moulds were taken to create over forty fibreglass pieces to make up the head and body of each costume. Powdered aluminium was added to the final layer of the fibreglass, and each component was hand polished until it gleamed. Each of the fibreglass pieces were clipped onto a basic Lycra suit assembled by Jo Glover. The gloves and neck were cast in a soft silver-tinted silicone by Helen Rowe and Alex Whathey. Ten Cyberman costumes were made, including the Cyber Controller, which had a visible brain and pipes connecting him to his life support systems. In "A Good Man Goes to War" the costumes no longer had the Cybus Industries "C" logo introduced in "Rise of the Cybermen".


title: Cyberman

text: The sleeker and more elegant design introduced in "Nightmare in Silver" was made by the Millennium FX team from flexible polyurethane rubber, painted to look metallic using a new process originally developed for use in the car industry.


title: Cyberman

text: The "Mondasian Cybermen" in "World Enough and Time" and "The Doctor Falls" were created by the Millennium FX team, and were an updated version of Sandra Reid's 1966 design of the Cybermen for "The Tenth Planet". The Chest units and helmets and other like attachments were moulded and constructed by Millennium FX. The costumes themselves were built from a silver latex fabric by costume designer Robin Archer. The Cybermen's hands were covered by rubber gloves. Millennium also created the transitional "patients" that evolve into Cybermen from the two-parter. Despite the "Tenth Planet" Cybermen not having gloves, director Rachel Talalay said that the reason for adding them to the Mondasian Cybermen in the series 10 two-part finale was "partially an issue because of skintone" with Pearl Mackie's Cyberman, but also to "get a scarier feel and something more artificial by putting the gloves on them". She further explained that in "The Tenth Planet" it was hard to tell if they had skintone gloves or not to justify their addition.


title: Cyberman

text: Unlike the Doctor's other foes, the Cybermen costumes have changed substantially in appearance over the years, looking more and more modern, although retaining certain commonalities of design, the most iconic being the "handles" attached to Cybermen heads. Other design elements include their round eyeholes and their chest units.


title: Cyberman

text: Aside from these changes, variations in design between rank-and-file Cybermen and their leaders have been seen. In "The Wheel in Space" and "The Invasion" (both 1968), the Cyber Director was depicted as an immobile mechanism. The Cyber Leader in "The Next Doctor" sports a transparent brain casing.


title: Cyberman

text: Because the Doctor is a time traveller, he meets the Cybermen at various points in their history out of sequence from the order the serials were made. This can be confusing since Cybermen from serials set in "earlier" periods of history can sometimes look more sophisticated than those from "later" periods. Lawrence Miles suggests in his reference work "About Time 5" that the anachronistically designed Cybermen of "Earthshock" and "Silver Nemesis" are time travellers, like those in "Attack of the Cybermen". The Doctor Who Role Playing Game "Cyber Files" worked around the contradiction by stating that in "The Tenth Planet", the oldest designs of Cybermen were used for the attack while the later more sophisticated models remained on Mondas.


title: Cyberman

text: The "Torchwood" episode "Cyberwoman" features a partially cyber-converted woman who lacks the outer plating of a fully converted Cyberman. Her body is encased in metal structures but much of her flesh, including her face, is visible. She also has clearly visible metallic breasts, though it is not clear how much of her own flesh has been replaced and how much is merely covered. Another character speculates she could be 40–45% human, and 55–60% Cyberman.


title: Cyberman

text: Early Cybermen had an unsettling, sing-song voice, constructed by placing the inflections of words on the wrong syllables. In their first appearance, the effect of this was augmented by having a Cyberman abruptly open his mouth wide and keep it open, without moving his tongue or lips, while the separately recorded voice would be playing, and then shut it quickly when the line was finished. Although the cloth-like masks of the first Cybermen were soon replaced by a full helmet, a similar physical effect involving the mouth "hatch" opening and then shutting when the line was finished was used until "The Wheel in Space" (1968).


title: Cyberman

text: Later, the production team used special effects from its Radiophonic Workshop by adding first a mechanical larynx, then a vocoder, to modify speech to make it sound more artificial. In later stories of the original series and in the audio plays, two copies of the voice track were sampled and pitch-shifted downwards by differing amounts and layered to produce the effect, sometimes with the addition of a small amount of flanging. From "Revenge of the Cybermen" to "Silver Nemesis" (1988) the actors provided the voices themselves, using microphones and transmitters in the chest units.


title: Cyberman

text: The voices for the 2006 return of the Cybermen are similar to the buzzing electronic monotone voices of the Cybermen used in "The Invasion". They were provided by Nicholas Briggs. As shown in the second series of "Doctor Who Confidential", the timbre was created by processing Briggs' voice through a Moog moogerfooger ring modulator. Unusually, in "The Age of Steel", the Cyber-Controller (John Lumic, played by Roger Lloyd-Pack) retains his voice after being upgraded, but it is still electronic. In "Doomsday", a Cyberman which contains the brain of Torchwood Institute director Yvonne Hartman retains a female-sounding though still electronic voice, as does the partially converted Lisa Hallett in "Cyberwoman" when her Cyberman personality is dominant. In an effect reminiscent of the earliest Cybermen's mouths snapping open while speaking, the new Cybermen have a blue light in their "mouths" (or "teeth") which illuminates in synchronisation with their speech.


title: Cyberman

text: Since "The Next Doctor" in 2008, the Cybermen have had nasally-sounding electronic voices; this continued all the way until "Closing Time" in 2011. Between the 2013 episode "Nightmare in Silver" and 2017 episode "The Doctor Falls", the Cybermen (continuing to be voiced by Briggs) now have deep, almost growl-like voices. Their mouths retain a blue light-up effect but flicker luminously instead of staying lit as opposed to the 2006 design.


title: Cyberman

text: The Patients in "World Enough and Time" (Pre Mondasian Cybermen) communicated through speech synthesis keyboards, similar to those used in hospitals for people unable to talk normally or use their vocal cords. These voices were disturbing in that they almost 'replicated' actual human speech, but with stilted delivery


title: Cyberman

text: Some Cybermen are given titles, being credited as "Cyber Leader" (or variants thereof), "Cyber Lieutenant", "Cyber Scout" or the "Cyber Controller". The Cyber Leader is usually depicted as a Cyberman with black handles.


title: Cyberman

text: An immobile computer, referred to as the "Cyber Planner", appears in "The Wheel in Space" and "The Invasion". A Cyber Planner also takes over the Eleventh Doctor's body in "Nightmare in Silver".


title: Cyberman

text: The original Controller is seen (and destroyed) in two serials, "The Tomb of the Cybermen" and "Attack of the Cybermen", and in each may or may not be the same consciousness in different bodies; it appears to recognise and remember the Doctor from previous encounters. In the Virgin New Adventures novel "Iceberg", the first Cyber Controller is created by implanting a Cyber Director, or Cyber Planner, into the skull of a recently converted Cyberman.


title: Cyberman

text: The parallel universe Cyber Controller in "The Age of Steel" uses the brain of John Lumic, the creator of the Cybermen in that parallel reality.


title: Cyberman

text: In "Doomsday", a Cyber Leader appears, and when he is destroyed, mention is made of downloading his data files into another Cyberman unit, which is then upgraded to Cyber Leader.


title: Cyberman

text: The 2008 Christmas special, "The Next Doctor", featured a new, more agile variant called a Cybershade. The Doctor theorises that it is a more primitive version of a Cyberman, using the brain of a cat, and they physically resemble animals as they cannot speak and walk on all fours. In the same story a "Cyber-King" appears; according to the Doctor, it is a "Dreadnought-class" ship for use in invasions resembling a Cyberman hundreds of feet tall, and contains a Cyber-factory in its chest. It is controlled from within its mouth. Its right arm can be converted into a cannon, and its left into a laser.


title: Cyberman

text: "The Time of the Doctor" introduced a unique prototype Cyberman that was made of wood to avoid detection by the Church of the Papal Mainframe and equipped with blowtorches.


title: Cyberman

text: After Bill Potts is wounded on the bridge of a Mondasian colony ship, and taken down the ship's lifts to be surgically repaired, she encounters half converted Mondasians referred to only as 'The Patients'. They wore grey surgical robes and their faces were entirely covered with cloth bags, save for a nasal canula that administered fluids and all were hooked up to IV drips. Most remained stationary; reliant on wheelchairs in the "out ward" while some walked the hospital grounds; being prepped for additional surgery and rounding up humans in the city and leading them to the hospital. During the early stages of these experiments (a precursor to cyber-conversion), The Patients were shown to feel the pain caused by this process, with some even begging for death, twisting in their chairs and jabbing at their speech keyboards. They were capable of attacking, following commands (such as restraining Bill) and possessed great strength. They could be incapacitated, though not killed by gunfire.


title: Cyberman

text: In "Ascension of the Cybermen (Series 12)", Cyber Warriors are introduced who are a "Warrior Class" of Cyberman. Their armour is specifically designed in a medieval way, giving the appearance of a medieval warrior. The chest is that of a 2013 Cyberman but with less detail, while their helmets bear a resemblance to the Cybermen from "The Invasion". They also have small guns on their arms. In "The Timeless Children (Series 12)", the Master creates the "Cyber Masters", a new breed created from Cyberium and Time Lord corpses. These Cybermen, while resembling the Cyber-Warriors, have Time Lord apparel built into their armour, such as their headdresses. These Cybermen were loyal to the Master, and had the ability to regenerate, making them a potentially unstoppable threat. They also appeared in "The Power of the Doctor (Series 13, Specials)."


title: Cyberman

text: Cybermen technology is almost completely oriented towards weaponry, apart from their own bodies. When originally seen in "The Tenth Planet", they had large energy weapons that attached to their chests. In "The Moonbase", the Cybermen had two types of weaponry: an electrical discharge from their hands, which stunned the target, and a type of gun. They also made use of a large laser cannon with which they attempted to attack the base itself.


title: Cyberman

text: The hand discharge was also present in "The Tomb of the Cybermen", which featured a smaller, hand-held Cyber-weapon shaped like a pistol that was described as an X-ray laser. In "The Wheel in Space", the Cybermen could use the discharge to also operate machinery, and had death rays built into their chest units. They displayed the same units in "The Invasion" as well as carrying large rifles for medium distance combat. In "Revenge of the Cybermen" and the audio play "Real Time", their weapons were built into their helmets. "Killing Ground" indicates that this type of Cybermen also have more powerful hand weapons. Subsequent appearances have shown them armed almost exclusively with hand-held cyberguns.


title: Cyberman

text: The Cybermen have access to weapons of mass destruction known as cobalt bombs, also sometimes as Cyber-bombs, which were banned by the galactic Armageddon Convention ("Revenge of the Cybermen"). A "Cyber-megatron bomb" was mentioned in "The Invasion", supposedly powerful enough to destroy all life on Earth. In "Earthshock", the Cybermen also used android drones as part of their plans to invade Earth.


title: Cyberman

text: The revived programme Cybermen electrocute their victims by touching them and at first carried no other weaponry. In "Army of Ghosts" and "Doomsday", the Cybermen are equipped with retractable energy weapons housed within their forearms (these were actually first shown in "The Age of Steel", but only very briefly and were not used during that episode), but also use advanced human weapons to battle the Daleks. The arm mounted guns prove effective against humans but are unable to penetrate Dalek shields. Two Cybermen sent to parley with Dalek Thay at the Battle of Canary Wharf shot the Dalek but were promptly exterminated. In the "Torchwood" episode "Cyberwoman", the partially converted Lisa Hallett used her electrical touch against the Torchwood team, as well as an energy beam fired from her arm which could only stun the part of the body at which it was aimed. In "The Pandorica Opens", the Cybermen again have the wrist-blaster, but also regain the modified human weapons. In "Nightmare in Silver", the Cybermen have the ability to move at a warp-like speed. At this speed they appear as blurry after images. Cyberman had also overcome the weakness of solely being able to convert human-like species; the Doctor had been safe from being in danger of conversion until this point.


title: Cyberman

text: The Mondasian Cybermen from The Tenth Planet were updated for the Series 10 Finale. As opposed to shooting from their chest pieces they used their lanterns as weapons. This was in the Novelisation for The Tenth Planet. They also had the ability to emit electricity.


title: Cyberman

text: The Cybermen also use smaller, cybernetic creatures called "cybermats" as weapons of attack. In their first appearance in "The Tomb of the Cybermen", they resembled oversized metallic silverfish and had segmented bodies with hair-like tactile sensor probes along the base of their heads, which were topped with crystalline eyes. The Second Doctor described them as a "form of metallic life," implying that they may be semi-organic like the Cybermen, and that they too attack by feeding off brain waves. They were defeated using electricity.


title: Cyberman

text: The second model of Cybermat seen in "The Wheel in Space" was used for sabotage, able to tune in on human brainwaves. They were carried to the "Wheel" in small but high-density sacs that sank through the hull of the space station, causing drops in air pressure. These Cybermats had solid photoreceptors for eyes instead of crystals. The Second Doctor used an audio frequency to jam them, causing them to spin, crash and disintegrate.


title: Cyberman

text: The third model, seen in "Revenge of the Cybermen", was a much larger, snake-like cybermat that could be remotely controlled and could inject poison into its victims. It had no visible eyes or other features, and was as vulnerable to gold dust as the Cybermen were.


title: Cyberman

text: The original model was later mentioned in a conversation between the Doctor and his double during "The Rebel Flesh", reaffirming that that model of Cybermat killed by feeding on brainwaves.


title: Cyberman

text: The fourth model of cybermat appears for the first time in the revived series in the 2011 episode "Closing Time", where it is shown to have an organic mouth full of sharp teeth, and transmits power to a crashed cyber-ship.


title: Cyberman

text: In the audio play "Spare Parts", "mats" are cybernetically augmented creatures, sometimes kept as pets. Cybermats of a different design are used for surveillance by Mondas' Central Committee. The creatures occasionally go wild, chewing on power sources, and must be rounded up by a "mat-catcher." In the Past Doctor Adventures novel "Illegal Alien" by Mike Tucker and Robert Perry, set in the 1940s, the Cybermen create cybermats by cyber-converting local animals like cats or birds, possibly because of lack of technological resources.


title: Cyberman

text: In the Bernice Summerfield audio adventure "The Crystal of Cantus", a Cyberman reveals that the organs of children who are too small to be fully cyber-converted are used in the creation of cybermats.


title: Cyberman

text: The cybermats appeared in the video game "Blood of the Cybermen" where instead of killing, they turned individuals into cyberslaves. The slaves have mostly human bodies, but have Cyberman heads and arms. The Cybermen see the cyberslaves as inferior, and delete them once they have served their purpose.


title: Cyberman

text: An upgraded form of cybermats appeared in "Nightmare in Silver". They were incredibly small mechanical insects that were more versatile and were able to partially convert other lifeforms into Cybermen. They were referred to as cybermites.


title: Syncopy Inc.

text: Syncopy Inc. is a production company founded by British-American film director, screenwriter and producer Christopher Nolan, and producer Emma Thomas. The name of the company is a play on syncopation, and was suggested to Nolan by his late father, Brendan, a classical music fan. Syncopy has offices in Los Angeles, California.


title: Syncopy Inc.

text: Founded in 2001, the majority of Syncopy's productions have been distributed by Warner Bros. They partnered with Legendary Pictures to produce "Batman Begins" (2005), "The Prestige" (2006), "The Dark Knight" (2008), "Inception" (2010), and "The Dark Knight Rises" (2012). In 2013, Syncopy released Zack Snyder's "Man of Steel", and in 2015, they formed a joint venture with Zeitgeist Films to release Blu-ray editions of Zeitgeist's prestige films. The first title in their partnership was "Elena" (2011), from director Andrey Zvyagintsev. Recently the production company has produced the science fiction film "Interstellar" (2014), the documentary short "Quay" (2015), the war film "Dunkirk" (2017), and the spy film "Tenet" (2020), all directed by Christopher Nolan.


title: Syncopy Inc.

text: Syncopy employs only four people, including Nolan and Thomas. In a 2018 interview for "Vanity Fair", Thomas said: "We're not empire builders, we're about the individual film." In October 2021, it was announced that Nolan's next film, titled "Oppenheimer", which will be shot in IMAX and 65mm film, will be released on July 21, 2023. The film stars Cillian Murphy in the title role, with Hoyte van Hoytema, Jennifer Lame, and Ludwig Göransson all returning in their respective technical roles. This is Nolan's first film distributed by Universal Pictures, as well as his second film set in the backdrop of World War II after Dunkirk.


title: Irregular military

text: Irregular military is any non-standard military component that is distinct from a country's national armed forces. Being defined by exclusion, there is significant variance in what comes under the term. It can refer to the type of military organization, or to the type of tactics used. An irregular military organization is one which is not part of the regular army organization. Without standard military unit organization, various more general names are often used; such organizations may be called a "troop", "group", "unit", "column", "band", or "force". Irregulars are soldiers or warriors that are members of these organizations, or are members of special military units that employ irregular military tactics. This also applies to irregular infantry and irregular cavalry units.


title: Irregular military

text: Irregular warfare is warfare employing the tactics commonly used by irregular military organizations. This involves avoiding large-scale combat, and focusing on small, stealthy, hit-and-run engagements.


title: Irregular military

text: The words "regular" and "irregular" have been used to describe combat forces for hundreds of years, usually with little ambiguity. The requirements of a government's chain of command cause the regular army to be very well defined, and anybody fighting outside it, other than official paramilitary forces, are irregular. In case the legitimacy of the army or its opponents is questioned, some legal definitions have been created.


title: Irregular military

text: In international humanitarian law, the term "irregular forces" refers to a category of combatants that consists of individuals forming part of the armed forces of a party to an armed conflict, international or domestic, but not belonging to that party's regular forces and operating inside or outside of their own territory, even if the territory is under occupation.


title: Irregular military

text: The Third Geneva Convention of 1949 uses "regular armed forces" as a critical distinction. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is a non-governmental organization primarily responsible for and most closely associated with the drafting and successful completion of the Third Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War ("GPW"). The ICRC provided commentary saying that "regular armed forces" satisfy four Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907) (Hague IV) conditions. In other words, "regular forces" must satisfy the following criteria:


title: Irregular military

text: The term "irregular military" describes the "how" and "what", but it is more common to focus on the "why" as just about all irregular units were created to provide a tactical advantage to an existing military, whether it was privateer forces harassing shipping lanes against assorted New World colonies on behalf of their European contractors, or Auxiliaries, levies, civilian and other standing irregular troops that are used as more expendable supplements to assist costly trained soldiers. Bypassing the legitimate military and taking up arms is an extreme measure. The motivation for doing so is often used as the basis of the primary label for any irregular military. Different terms come into and out of fashion, based on political and emotional associations that develop. Here is a list of such terms, which is organized more or less from oldest to latest:


title: Irregular military

text: Intense debates can build up over which term is to be used to refer to a specific group. Using one term over another can strongly imply strong support or opposition for the cause.


title: Irregular military

text: It is possible for a military to cross the line between regular and irregular. Isolated regular army units that are forced to operate without regular support for long periods of time can degrade into irregulars. As an irregular military becomes more successful, it may transition away from irregular, even to the point of becoming the new regular army if it wins.


title: Irregular military

text: Most conventional military officers and militaries are wary of using irregular military forces and see them as unreliable, of doubtful military usefulness, and prone to committing atrocities leading to retaliation in kind. Usually, such forces are raised outside the regular military like the British SOE during World War II and, more recently, the CIA's Special Activities Division. However at times, such as out of desperation, conventional militaries will resort to guerilla tactics, usually to buy breathing space and time for themselves by tying up enemy forces to threaten their line of communications and rear areas, such as the 43rd Battalion Virginia Cavalry and the Chindits.


title: Irregular military

text: Although they are part of a regular army, United States Special Forces are trained in missions such as implementing irregular military tactics. However, outside the United States, the term special forces does not generally imply a force that is trained to fight as guerillas and insurgents. Originally, the United States Special Forces were created to serve as a cadre around which stay-behind resistance forces could be built in the event of a communist victory in Europe or elsewhere. The United States Special Forces and the CIA's Special Activities Division can trace their lineage to the OSS operators of World War II, which were tasked with inspiring, training, arming and leading resistance movements in German-occupied Europe and Japanese occupied Asia.


title: Irregular military

text: In Finland, well-trained light infantry Sissi troops use irregular tactics such as reconnaissance, sabotage and guerrilla warfare behind enemy lines.


title: Irregular military

text: The founder of the People's Republic of China, Mao Zedong actively advocated for the use of irregular military tactics by regular military units. In his book On Guerrilla Warfare, Mao described seven types of Guerilla units, and argues that "regular army units temporarily detailed for the purpose (of guerilla warfare)," "regular army units permanently detailed (for the purpose of guerilla warfare)," and bands of guerillas created "through a combination of a regular army unit and a unit recruited from the people" were all examples of ways in which regular military units could be involved in irregular warfare. Mao argues that regular army units temporarily detailed for irregular warfare are essential because "First, in mobile-warfare situations, the coordination of guerilla activities with regular operations is necessary. Second, until guerilla hostilities can be developed on a grand scale, there is no one to carry out guerilla missions but regulars." He also emphasizes the importance for the use of regular units permanently attached to guerilla warfare activities, stating that they can play key roles in severing enemy supply routes.


title: Irregular military

text: While the morale, training and equipment of the individual irregular soldier can vary from very poor to excellent, irregulars are usually lacking the higher-level organizational training and equipment that is part of regular army. This usually makes irregulars ineffective in direct, main-line combat, the typical focus of more standard armed forces. Other things being equal, major battles between regulars and irregulars heavily favor the regulars.


title: Irregular military

text: However, irregulars can excel at many other combat duties besides main-line combat, such as scouting, skirmishing, harassing, pursuing, rear-guard actions, cutting supply, sabotage, raids, ambushes and underground resistance. Experienced irregulars often surpass the regular army in these functions. By avoiding formal battles, irregulars have sometimes harassed high quality armies to destruction.


title: Irregular military

text: The total effect of irregulars is often underestimated. Since the military actions of irregulars are often small and unofficial, they are underreported or even overlooked. Even when engaged by regular armies, some military histories exclude all irregulars when counting friendly troops, but include irregulars in the count of enemy troops, making the odds seem much worse than they were. This may be accidental; counts of friendly troops often came from official regular army rolls that exclude unofficial forces, while enemy strength often came from visual estimates, where the distinction between regular and irregular were lost. If irregular forces overwhelm regulars, records of the defeat are often lost in the resulting chaos.


title: Irregular military

text: By definition, "irregular" is understood in contrast to "regular armies," which grew slowly from personal bodyguards or elite militia. In Ancient warfare, most civilized nations relied heavily on irregulars to augment their small regular army. Even in advanced civilizations, the irregulars commonly outnumbered the regular army.


title: Irregular military

text: Sometimes entire tribal armies of irregulars were brought in from internal native or neighboring cultures, especially ones that still had an active hunting tradition to provide the basic training of irregulars. The regulars would only provide the core military in the major battles; irregulars would provide all other combat duties.


title: Irregular military

text: Notable examples of regulars relying on irregulars include Bashi-bazouk units in the Ottoman Empire, auxiliary cohorts of Germanic peoples in the Roman Empire, Cossacks in the Russian Empire, and Native American forces in the American frontier of the Confederate States of America.


title: Irregular military

text: One could attribute the disastrous defeat of the Romans at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest to the lack of supporting irregular forces; only a few squadrons of irregular light cavalry accompanied the invasion of Germany when normally the number of "foederati" and auxiliaries would equal the regular legions. During this campaign the majority of locally recruited irregulars defected to the Germanic tribesmen led by the former auxiliary officer Arminius.


title: Irregular military

text: During the decline of the Roman Empire, irregulars made up an ever-increasing proportion of the Roman military. At the end of the Western Empire, there was little difference between the Roman military and the barbarians across the borders.


title: Irregular military

text: Following Napoleon's modernisation of warfare with the invention of conscription, the Peninsular War led by Spaniards against the French invaders in 1808 provided the first modern example of guerrilla warfare. Indeed, the term of "guerrilla" itself was coined during this time.


title: Irregular military

text: As the Industrial Revolution dried up the traditional source of irregulars, nations were forced take over the duties of the irregulars using specially trained regular army units. Examples are the light infantry in the British Army.


title: Irregular military

text: Prior to 1857 Britain's East India Company maintained large numbers of cavalry and infantry regiments officially designated as "irregulars", although they were permanently established units. These were less formally drilled and had fewer British officers (sometimes only three or four per regiment) than the "regular" sepoys in British service. This system enabled the Indian officers to achieve greater responsibility than their counterparts in regular regiments. Promotion for both Indian and British officers was for efficiency and energy, rather than by seniority as elsewhere in the EIC's armies. In irregular cavalry the Indian troopers provided their horses under the "silladar" system. The result was a loose collection of regiments which in general were more effective in the field, if not so smart on parade, than their regular counterparts. These irregular units were also cheaper to raise and maintain and as a result many survived into the new Indian Army that was organized following the great Indian Rebellion of 1857.


title: Irregular military

text: During French rule, small local volunteer militia units or colonial militias were used to provide defence needs. During British control of various local militias, the Provincial Marine were used to support British regular forces in Canada.


title: Irregular military

text: Use of large irregular forces featured heavily in wars such as the American Revolution, the Irish War of Independence and Irish Civil War, the Franco-Prussian War, the Russian Civil War, the Second Boer War, Liberation war of Bangladesh, Vietnam War, the Syrian Civil War and especially the Eastern Front of World War II where hundreds of thousands of partisans fought on both sides.


title: Irregular military

text: The Chinese People's Liberation Army began as a peasant guerilla force which in time transformed itself into a large regular force. This transformation was foreseen in the doctrine of "people's war", in which irregular forces were seen as being able to engage the enemy and to win the support of the populace but as being incapable of taking and holding ground against regular military forces.


title: Irregular military

text: Modern conflicts in post-invasion Iraq, the renewed Taliban insurgency in the 2001 war in Afghanistan, the Darfur conflict, the rebellion in the North of Uganda by the Lord's Resistance Army, and the Second Chechen War are fought almost entirely by irregular forces on one or both sides.


title: Irregular military

text: The CIA's Special Activities Division (SAD) is the premiere United States unit for creating or combating irregular military forces. SAD paramilitary officers created and led successful units from the Hmong tribe during the Laotian Civil War in the 1960s and 1970s. They also organized and led the Mujaheddin as an irregular force against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan in the 1980s, as well as the Northern Alliance as an irregular insurgency force against the Taliban with US Army Special Forces during the war in Afghanistan in 2001 and organized and led the Kurdish Peshmerga with US Army Special Forces as an irregular counter-insurgency force against the Kurdish Sunni Islamist group Ansar al-Islam at the Iraq-Iran border and as an irregular force against Saddam Hussein during the war in Iraq in 2003.


title: Irregular military

text: Irregular civilian volunteers also played a large role during the battle of Kyiv during the 2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine.


title: Jessica Barth

text: Jessica Barth is an American actress, known for portraying Tami-Lynn McCafferty in the film "Ted" and its sequel.


title: Jessica Barth

text: After high school, she took classes at the Wilma Theater, and later attended La Salle University, where she studied communications for two years; she later earned a Bachelor of Arts at West Chester University, where she studied theater and creative writing.


title: Jessica Barth

text: Barth built up her résumé while also working at three different restaurants in Los Angeles. She began her acting career with theater plays, with her first television role on "The District" in 2004 and her first film role in "Neo Ned" in 2005. Barth earned worldwide recognition with her appearance in Seth MacFarlane's 2012 film "Ted" as Tami-Lynn, the title character's love interest. She reprised the role in "Ted 2" (2015).


title: Jessica Barth

text: In 2012, Barth accused her manager David Guillod of drugging and sexually assaulting her. She re-stated the accusation in 2017. In June 2020, Guillod was charged with 11 felony counts of sex-related crimes, including kidnapping and rape, stemming from accusations made by other women.


title: Jessica Barth

text: In 2017, Barth revealed that she was a victim of sexual harassment from Harvey Weinstein. She met with Weinstein in his hotel suite for a presumed business meeting where he "alternated between offering to cast her in a film and demanding a naked massage in bed." MacFarlane, who directed Barth in both "Ted" movies, stated his support for her allegations in a statement on Twitter.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Scott John Hutchison (20 November 1981 – 9 May 2018) was a Scottish singer, songwriter, guitarist and artist. He was the founding member and primary songwriter of the indie rock band Frightened Rabbit, with whom he recorded five studio albums, and created the artwork for each release.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Hutchison was also a member of the musical collective The Fruit Tree Foundation, and released one solo album under the moniker Owl John. His last musical project was the indie "supergroup" Mastersystem, featuring Frightened Rabbit bandmate and brother Grant alongside members of Editors and Minor Victories.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Hutchison studied illustration at the Glasgow School of Art, before forming Frightened Rabbit in 2003. Initially a solo project, Hutchison collaborated with his brother Grant on the band's debut album, "Sing the Greys" (2006), and recorded the band's critical breakthrough, "The Midnight Organ Fight" (2008), as a three-piece, following the collapse of a romantic relationship.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Following the album's release, the band's fanbase expanded significantly and a third studio album, "The Winter of Mixed Drinks", was released in 2010. Signing to Atlantic Records, the band released their fourth studio album, "Pedestrian Verse", in 2013. The following year, Hutchison recorded a solo album as Owl John. In 2016, the band released their fifth and final studio album, "Painting of a Panic Attack".


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Hutchison disappeared on 9 May 2018, and his body was found the following day on the banks of the Firth of Forth.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Hutchison was born on 20 November 1981 in Edinburgh, Scotland, and was raised in the Scottish Borders town of Selkirk. He was the second of three sons born to Marion and Ron Hutchison, grew up with a close relationship to his brothers Neil and Grant. Hutchison suffered from anxiety and night terrors throughout his childhood, and his mother would often refer to him as her "little frightened rabbit". In particular, Hutchison avoided socialization with other children of his age, and would play by himself in silence.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Moving to the city of Glasgow, he studied illustration at the Glasgow School of Art: "I was there for four years and I didn't particularly want to be an illustrator, so I wanted to apply the rules that I learnt to everything I do, in terms of working in a bank or writing music." While living in Glasgow, he worked in a specialist whisky shop in the residential area of Hyndland, noting: "I began to appreciate and admire the heritage of flavour in a dram of single malt."


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Initially considering himself solely a guitarist, Hutchison began singing at the age of nineteen, stating: "Up to that point I was just a guitar player. I didn't know I could sing, I had been told I couldn't." His early songwriting influences included such American artists as Ryan Adams, Wilco and Laura Cantrell, with Hutchison noting, "When I started writing songs, my references were [these] Americana acts. [...] I could associate with those stories. And you can see American folk's deep connections with Scottish folk."


title: Scott Hutchison

text: In 2003, Hutchison began performing under the name Frightened Rabbit, a name given to him by his mother to describe his once shy nature, and began recording and performing with his brother the following year. The duo recorded the band's debut album, "Sing the Greys", at The Diving Bell Lounge, with producer Marcus MacKay, and released it independently on local label, Hits the Fan, in 2006; the band signed soon after to Fat Cat Records.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Joined by guitarist Billy Kennedy, the band reissued the album on their new label and began work on its follow-up, "The Midnight Organ Fight" (2008), with producer Peter Katis, in Bridgeport, Connecticut. Influenced by the collapse of his relationship with his high school and college girlfriend Shell Jubin, the deeply personal album was released to widespread critical acclaim and increased the band's exposure significantly.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Owl John was a solo musical project by Hutchison, formed in 2014. Regarding Owl John and his decision to release a solo record, Hutchison noted, "It was approximately 10 years ago that I started a band called Frightened Rabbit. In that time I've dedicated so much of my life to that good wee band with a stupid name, I felt it was time to indulge Owl John."


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Hutchison recorded the project's sole album, "Owl John" (2014), alongside his Frightened Rabbit bandmate Andy Monaghan and the band's touring guitarist Simon Liddell.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: In January 2014, after a long tour in support of Frightened Rabbit's fourth studio album "Pedestrian Verse" (2013), Hutchison expressed his desire to record solo material without the band, stating: "The process has to be different, otherwise I'm just going to make a Frightened Rabbit-sounding record, which I really don't want to do."


title: Scott Hutchison

text: The idea for a solo album stemmed from Frightened Rabbit's label, Atlantic Records: "It was actually the idea of the label to make it rather than me. I thought we were going to get off tour and go straight back into writing another album, and the guy at the label knew things weren't really quite right. He basically was like, 'We'll pay for this record. Go away, make a record and indulge yourself.'" The following month, work began on the album, on the Isle of Mull, with bandmate Andy Monaghan producing, alongside Simon Liddell. Released on 4 August 2014, the self-titled album debuted at number ninety-nine on the UK Albums Chart.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Hutchison wrote and recorded with The Fruit Tree Foundation, a collaborative charity project featuring Scottish indie rock and folk musicians. The resulting album, "First Edition", was released in 2011. Regarding the experience, Hutchison stated: "It was really beautifully done. I thought it was such a great thing, and also personally, for me, that was my first taste of proper collaboration and it really changed my outlook on songwriting. Before, I was kind of like, 'Yeah, I know how to write songs. I don't need anyone's help', and then, of course, you learn so much. So it changed my whole outlook, and I would love to get involved in that kind of thing again."


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Hutchison performed a guitar solo on the track "A Bigger World" by indie rock band The Birthday Suit, and is featured in its accompanying music video. The song was the first single released from the band's third studio album, "A Hollow Hole of Riches" (2014). Hutchison also played guitar and sang backing vocals on the Withered Hand track "Fall Apart" from the 2014 album "New Gods". He previously appeared in the video for Withered Hand's 2012 song "Inbetweens".


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Hutchison is credited, alongside Andy Monaghan, as co-producer of the Florida band Flashlights 2014 album "Bummer Summer", released on Hard Rock Records.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Hutchison joined the "indie supergroup" in 2017 with his brother Grant and brothers Justin and James Lockey from Editors and Minor Victories respectively. The band released one album, "Dance Music", in April 2018.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Hutchison illustrated much of the album artwork and tour posters for both Frightened Rabbit and his Owl John solo project. The Cross of Lorraine and the Papal cross were reoccuring symbols in his art. Speaking in 2010 Scott explained: "None of the symbols on the record mean anything. I wanted to create this weird, fake, almost Masonic code that didn't mean anything... It's supposed to be almost religious, but it's not. I'm really interested in documenting visually things that you think you know what they are or what they're for, but maybe you're not so sure. It's supposed to be open-ended enough. I hope no one thinks we're a Christian rock band."In addition to album and poster art for Frightened Rabbit, Hutchison created artwork for several other artists, including Out Lines' album "Conflats" (2017) and the Stanley Odd EP "Chase Yirsel" (2014).


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Hutchison illustrated several books. He created all artwork from the 2017 release "Oyster", the second book by Edinburgh poet Michael Pedersen. Editions of the book from 2018 onward include a new preface dedicated to Hutchison.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: He also worked on two projects with Philadelphia poet Francis Daulerio. The first of those is "If & When We Wake" (2015), to which Hutchison contributed twelve drawings. The second collaboration, "Please Plant This Book" (2018), was first released on bundles of heirloom seed packets, and re-released in a traditional chapbook format. Hutchison contributed nine drawings to it. The book celebrates the 50th anniversary of the original poetry publication by Richard Brautigan and benefits the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Hutchison was reported missing by Scottish police and the members of Frightened Rabbit on 9 May 2018. He was last seen at 1 a.m. that morning leaving a hotel in South Queensferry. Hutchison had tweeted "Be so good to everyone you love. It's not a given. I'm so annoyed that it's not. I didn't live by that standard and it kills me. Please, hug your loved ones", followed by "I'm away now. Thanks." prior to his disappearance. Grant, Hutchinson's brother and bandmate, tweeted to urge anyone with information to contact Police Scotland given his fragile state.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: On 10 May, the Chief Inspector of Police Scotland reported that they were searching the area around the Forth Road Bridge for Hutchison, and were looking to contact two individuals who were spotted walking along the bridge the night he disappeared.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Police discovered a body at 8:30 p.m. in the Port Edgar region near South Queensferry, and on 11 May confirmed it was that of Hutchison; no immediate cause of death was disclosed. It was later confirmed by his family via the Tiny Changes mental health charity website that he died by suicide.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Celebrities and musicians mourned Hutchison on social media on the day his body was discovered, including Stuart Murdoch, Jo Whiley, Gary Lightbody, Hayley Williams, Sarah Silverman, Jay Baruchel and Wil Wagner. Nicola Sturgeon, the First Minister of Scotland, responded to Hutchison's death on Twitter, writing "Heartbreaking news. My thoughts are with Scott's family, friends and fans. A remarkable and much loved talent." Artists close to Hutchison who performed tributes to him include Frank Turner, The Twilight Sad, Manchester Orchestra, Craig Finn of The Hold Steady, PAWS, Julien Baker and We Were Promised Jetpacks. Several albums released not long after his death were dedicated to him, including Death Cab for Cutie's "Thank You for Today" (2018), The Twilight Sad's "It Won/t Be Like This All the Time" (2019) and Idlewild's "Interview Music" (2019).


title: Scott Hutchison

text: In May 2019, the Hutchison family established Tiny Changes, a mental health charity named after a lyric from the band's song "Head Rolls Off", in memory of Scott. In July 2019, Atlantic Records released "Tiny Changes: A Celebration of Frightened Rabbit's The Midnight Organ Fight", an album featuring musician friends and colleagues of the band covering their 2008 album in full. It was supposed to be released in summer 2018 to mark the tenth anniversary of "The Midnight Organ Fight", and Scott Hutchison was fully involved in the process and had approved the tracks included. In the run-up to the covers album's release, the remaining members of the band gave several interviews, stating that "the band does not exist" without Scott.


title: Scott Hutchison

text: Songs dedicated to Hutchison released after his death include Coldplay's "Champion of the World", Dan Mangan's "In Your Corner", Spanish Love Songs' "Routine Pain", Mystery Jets' "Watching Yourself Slowly Disappear", Dave Hause's "Bearing Down", Biffy Clyro's "Unknown Male 01", and The Lone Bellow's "August", co-written with Aaron Dessner, who produced Frightened Rabbit's album "Painting of a Panic Attack". Dessner also wrote the song "Hutch" from his band's Big Red Machine second album, 2021's "How Long Do You Think It's Gonna Last?". "A Wave Across a Bay", from Frank Turner's 2022 album "FTHC", was written after the musician had a dream in which "Scott came into my room with a guitar and showed me a few chords and a few words and some melody".


title: Scott Hutchison

text: In November 2021, Faber Music published a limited-edition hardcover book titled "The Work: The lyrics of Scott Hutchison", which compiled Hutchison's lyrics alongside some of his original drawings. The book is a collaboration between the band and their longtime art designer DLT (Dave Thomas). A paperback edition was released in April 2022.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: Caesar's civil war (49–45 BC) was one of the last politico-military conflicts of the Roman Republic before its reorganization into the Roman Empire. It began as a series of political and military confrontations between Gaius Julius Caesar and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: Before the war, Caesar had led an invasion of Gaul for almost ten years. A build-up of tensions starting in late 49 BC, with both Caesar and Pompey refusing to back down led, however, to the outbreak of civil war. Eventually, Pompey and his allies induced the Senate to demand Caesar give up his provinces and armies. Caesar refused and instead marched on Rome.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: The war was a four-year-long politico-military struggle, fought in Italy, Illyria, Greece, Egypt, Africa, and Hispania. Pompey defeated Caesar in 48 BC at the Battle of Dyrrhachium, but was himself defeated decisively at the Battle of Pharsalus. Many former Pompeians, including Marcus Junius Brutus and Cicero, surrendered after the battle, while others, such as Cato the Younger and Metellus Scipio fought on. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was assassinated on arrival. Caesar intervened in Africa and Asia Minor before attacking North Africa, where he defeated Scipio in 46 BC at the Battle of Thapsus. Scipio and Cato committed suicide shortly thereafter. The following year, Caesar defeated the last of the Pompeians under his former lieutenant Labienus in the Battle of Munda. He was made "dictator perpetuo" (dictator in perpetuity or dictator for life) in 44 BC and, shortly thereafter, assassinated.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: The main issue at hand in the lead-up to the war was how Caesar, who had been in Gaul for almost ten years before 49 BC, was to be re-integrated into the political fabric of Rome after accumulating immense power and wealth in Gaul.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: Starting from 58 BC, the year after his consulship in 59, Caesar had held the proconsulship of Cisalpine Gaul along with Illyricum under the terms of the "lex Vatinia" and Transalpine Gaul at the assignment of the Senate. Caesar had allied himself with Crassus and Pompey in the so-called First Triumvirate during his consulship. The alliance of three men "induced a sharp restructuring of alliances and alignments" with temporary benefit to them but harm in the long-run with aristocratic groups coalescing in opposition. The short-term benefits to the three emerged from their own purposes: ratification of Pompey's eastern settlement, agrarian measures involving Pompey and Crassus.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: The political alliance between the three began to fray in the mid 50s BC, but was put on hold with a renegotiation and the joint consulship of Pompey and Crassus in 55 BC. Their joint consulship assigned new provincial commands to the consuls, with Pompey receiving Spain while Crassus went to Syria to fight the Parthians; Caesar, for his part, had his proconsulship in Gaul renewed.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: After Crassus' departure from Rome at the end of 55 BC and following his death in battle in 53 BC, the alliance started to fracture more cleanly. With the death of Crassus, and that of Julia (Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife) in 54 BC, the balance of power between Pompey and Caesar collapsed and "a faceoff between [the two] may, therefore, have seemed inevitable". From 61 BC, the main political fault-line in Rome was counterbalancing against the influence of Pompey, leading to his seeking allies outside the core senatorial aristocracy, i.e. Crassus and Caesar; but the rise of anarchic political violence from 55–52 BC finally forced the Senate to ally with Pompey to restore order. The breakdown of order in 53 and 52 BC was extremely disturbing: men like Publius Clodius Pulcher and Titus Annius Milo were "essentially independent agents" leading large violent street gangs in a highly volatile political environment. This led to Pompey's sole consulship in 52 BC in which he took sole control of the city without convening an electoral assembly.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: Political agitation to strip Caesar of his command and his legions had already started in the spring of 51 BC: M Claudius Marcellus argued in that year that the capture of Alesia and victory over Vercingetorix meant that Caesar's "provincia" (i.e., task) in Gaul was completed and therefore his command had lapsed. He also argued that Caesar's expected desire to stand for a second consulship "in absentia" was no longer justified after his victory. Regardless, the Senate rejected Marcellus' motion, as well as his later motion to declare Caesar's term in Gaul to end on 1 March 50 BC. At this time, Pompey was also instrumental in rejecting the proposed motions.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: Subsequent to the summer of 50, "positions had been hardened and events progressed irreversibly toward cataclysm", with Pompey now rejecting any Caesar's standing for a second consulship until he gave up his army and provinces. The Senate as a whole was relatively pacific, strongly supporting a proposal by Caesar's ally C Scribonius Curio, who was then tribune of the plebs, that both Pompey and Caesar give up their armies and commands. The proposal passed in the Senate by 370 in favour to 22 against on 1 December 50 BC, it was rejected by Pompey and the consul. The consul, C Claudius Marcellus then seized upon rumours that Caesar was preparing to invade Italy and charged Pompey with defending the city and the Republic.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: One of the reasons given as to why Caesar decided to go to war was that he would be prosecuted for legal irregularities during his consulship in 59 BC and violations of various laws passed by Pompey in the late 50s, the consequence of which would be ignominious exile. However, the prosecution theory emerging from Suetonious and Pollio is in "highly dubious territory" and "dubious in the extreme". There is no evidence from the period 50–49 BC that anyone was seriously planning on putting Caesar on trial. Caesar's choice to fight the civil war was motivated by his mostly stumbling in efforts to attain a second consulship and triumph, in which failure to do so would have jeopardised his political future. Moreover, war in 49 BC was advantageous for Caesar, who had continued military preparations while Pompey and the republicans had barely started preparing.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: Even in ancient times, the causes of the war were puzzling and perplexing, with specific motives "nowhere to be found". Various pretexts existed, such as Caesar's claim that he was defending the rights of tribunes after they fled the city, which was "too obvious a sham". Caesar's own explanation was that he would protect his personal "dignitas"; both Caesar and Pompey were impelled by pride, with Caesar refusing to "yield submissively to the blusterings of the conservatives, much less to the bullying of Pompey" in Gruen's words, and Pompey similarly refusing to accept Caesar's proposals, delivered as if they were directives. There was little conscious desire for war until the last weeks of 50 BC, but "the "boni" had entrapped themselves... in a political vise from which they could not emerge with dignity except by aggressive self-assertion" while Caesar could not "permit [his status and reputation] to collapse through submission".


title: Caesar's civil war

text: For the months leading up to January 49 BC, both Caesar and the anti-Caesarians composed of Pompey, Cato, and others seemed to believe that the other would back down or, failing that, offer acceptable terms. Trust had eroded between the two over the last few years and repeated cycles of brinksmanship harmed chances for compromise.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: On 1 January 49 BC, Caesar stated that he would be willing to resign if other commanders would also do so but, in Gruen's words, "would not endure any disparity in their [Caesar and Pompey's] forces", appearing to threaten war if his terms were not met. Caesar's representatives in the city met with senatorial leaders with a more conciliatory message, with Caesar willing to give up Transalpine Gaul if he would be permitted to keep two legions and the right to stand for consul without giving up his "imperium" (and, thus, right to triumph), but these terms were rejected by Cato, who declared he would not agree to anything unless it was presented publicly before the Senate.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: The Senate was persuaded on the eve of war (7 January 49 BC) – while Pompey and Caesar continued to muster troops – to demand Caesar give up his post or be judged an enemy of the state. A few days later, the Senate then also stripped Caesar of his permission to stand for election in absentia and appointed a successor to Caesar's proconsulship in Gaul; while pro-Caesarian tribunes vetoed these proposals, the Senate ignored it and moved the "senatus consultum ultimum", empowering the magistrates to take whatever actions were necessary to ensure the safety of the state. In response, a number of those pro-Caesarian tribunes, dramatising their plight, fled the city for Caesar's camp.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: On the 10th or 11th of January, Caesar crossed the Rubicon, a small river marking the boundary between the province of Cisalpine Gaul to the north and Italy proper to the south. Crossing the Rubicon, Suetonius claims Caesar exclaimed "alea iacta est" ("the die is cast"), though Plutarch maintains Caesar spoke in Greek quoting the poet Menander with "anerriphtho kubos" ("ἀνερρίφθω κύβος," "let the die be thrown"); Caesar's own commentaries do not mention the Rubicon at all. This marked a formal start to hostilities, with Caesar being "undoubtedly a rebel".


title: Caesar's civil war

text: On both sides, the rank and file soldiers followed their leaders: "the Gallic legions obeyed their patron and benefactor [who] deserved well of the "res publica"... others followed Pompey and the consuls [who] represented the "res publica"". Caesar made sure to address his men: according to his own account, he spoke of injustices done to him by his political enemies, how Pompey had betrayed him, and focused mostly on how the rights of tribunes had been trampled by the Senate's ignoring tribunician vetoes, parading the tribunes who had fled the city before the troops in their disguises. On the "senatus consultum ultimum", Caesar argued it was unnecessary and should be confined only to circumstances in which Rome was under direct threat.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: For most Romans, the choice of what side to pick was difficult. Only a small number of people were committed to one side or the other at the onset of hostilities. For example, Gaius Claudius Marcellus, who as consul in 50 BC had charged Pompey with defending the city, chose neutrality. The then-young Marcus Junius Brutus, whose father had been treacherously killed by Pompey during Brutus' childhood, whose mother was Caesar's lover, and who had been raised in Cato the Younger's house, chose to leave the city, setting off a post in Cilicia and thence to Pompey's camp. Caesar's most trusted lieutenant in Gaul, Titus Labienus also defected from Caesar to Pompey, possibly due to Caesar's hoarding of military glories or an earlier loyalty to Pompey.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: Caesar's timing was far-sighted: Italy was totally unprepared for an invasion. Caesar captured Ariminum (modern day Rimini) without resistance, his men having already infiltrated the city; he captured three more cities in quick succession. News of Caesar's incursion into Italy reached Rome around 17 January. In response Pompey "issued an edict in which he recognised a state of civil war, ordered all the senators to follow him, [and] declared that he would regard as a partisan of Caesar any one who remained behind". Pompey and his allies to left the city along with many uncommitted senators, fearing bloody reprisals of the previous civil wars; other senators simply left Rome for their country villas, hoping to keep a low profile.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: In late January, Caesar and Pompey were negotiating, with Caesar proposing that the two of them return to their provinces (which would have required Pompey to travel to Spain) and then disband their forces. Pompey accepted those terms provided that they withdraw from Italy at once and submit to arbitration of the dispute by the Senate, a counter-offer that Caesar rejected as doing so would have put him at the mercy of hostile senators while giving up all the advantages of his surprise invasion. Caesar continued to advance.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: After encountering five cohorts under Quintus Minucius Thermus at Iguvium, Thermus' forces deserted. Caesar quickly overran Picenum, the area from which Pompey's family originated. While Caesar's troops skirmished once with local forces, fortunately for him, the population was not hostile: his troops were refraining from looting and his opponents had "little popular appeal". In February 49 BC, Caesar received reinforcements and captured Asculum when the local garrison deserted.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: Only when he reached Corfinium did he encounter serious opposition led by Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, recently appointed governor of Gaul by the Senate. Pompey had urged Ahenobarbus to retreat south and join Pompey, but Ahenobarbus had responded with requests for support; regardless, Caesar prepared for a siege. After Ahenobarbus received a letter from Pompey denying support, he claimed help was on the way but was caught planning a personal escape; in response, his men arrested him and sent envoys to surrender to Caesar after a short week-long siege. Among the surrendered were some fifty senators and equestrians, all of whom Caesar allowed to go free. When Corfinium's local magistrates handed over some six million sestertii that Ahenobarbus had brought to pay his men, Caesar returned it to the men and asked them to take an oath of loyalty, which they did.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: Caesar's advance down the Adriatic coast was surprisingly clement and disciplined: his soldiers did not plunder the countryside as soldiers had during the Social War a few decades earlier. Nor did Caesar avenge himself on his political enemies as Sulla and Marius had. The policy of clemency was also highly practical: Caesar's pacificity prevented the population of Italy from turning on him. At the same time, Pompey planned to escape east to Greece where he could raise a massive army from the eastern provinces. He therefore escaped to Brundisium (modern Brindisi), requisitioning merchant vessels to travel the Adriatic.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: Caesar pursued Pompey to Brundisium, arriving on 9 March with six legions. By then, most of Pompey's forces had departed, with a rearguard of two legions waiting for transport. While Caesar tried to block the harbour with earthworks and reopen negotiations, the earthworks were unsuccessful and Pompey refused to negotiate, escaping east with almost all of his men and all the ships in the region.


title: Caesar's civil war

text: Following this setback and taking advantage of Pompey's escape east, Caesar marched west to Hispania. While in Italy, he assembled a meeting of the rump Senate on 1 April; the turnout was poor. There, Caesar repeated his grievances and requested senatorial envoys be sent to negotiate with Pompey; though the motion was passed, nobody volunteered. A meeting of the "concilium plebis" also was called; although Caesar promised every citizen a gift of 300 sestertii and a guarantee of the grain supply, the reception was muted. When one of the tribunes, Lucius Caecilius Metellus interposed his veto against Caesar's attempt to raid the state treasury, his veto was either ignored or his life threatened until he backed down. This also showed the sham nature of Caesar's supposed "casus belli" in protecting the rights of tribunes: "the man who had proclaimed that he was championing the rights of the tribunes in January was now as ready as his opponents... [to] threaten one of these magistrates". Caesar's raid captured some 15 thousand gold bars, 30 thousand silver bars, and 30 million sestertii, even seizing a special fund kept over the centuries to defend against Gallic attack.