title: Data breach

text: Some celebrities have found themselves to be the victims of inappropriate medical record access breaches, albeit more so on an individual basis, not part of a typically much larger breach. Given the series of medical data breaches and the lack of public trust, some countries have requiring safeguards to be put in place to protect the security and confidentiality of medical information as it is shared electronically and to give patients some important rights to monitor their medical records and receive notification for loss and unauthorized acquisition of health information. The United States and the EU have imposed mandatory medical data breach notifications. Reportable breaches of medical information are increasingly common in the United States.


title: Data breach

text: Although such incidents pose the risk of identity theft or other serious consequences, in most cases there is no lasting damage; either the breach in security is remedied before the information is accessed by unscrupulous people, or the thief is only interested in the hardware stolen, not the data it contains. Nevertheless, when such incidents become publicly known, it is customary for the offending party to attempt to mitigate damages by providing to the victim's subscription to a credit reporting agency, for instance, new credit cards, or other instruments. In the case of Target, the 2013 breach cost Target a significant drop in profit, which dove an estimated 40 percent in the 4th quarter of the year. At the end of 2015, Target published a report claiming a total loss of $290 million to data breach related fees.


title: Data breach

text: The Yahoo breach disclosed in 2016 may be one of the most expensive today. It may lower the price of its acquisition by Verizon by $1 billion. Verizon later released their renegotiation to Yahoo agreeing to lower the final price from $4.8 to $4.48 billion. Cybercrime cost energy and utilities companies an average of $12.8 million each year in lost business and damaged equipment according to DNV GL, an international certification body and classification society based in Norway. Data breaches cost healthcare organizations $6.2 billion in the last two years (presumably 2014 and 2015), according to a Ponemon study.


title: Data breach

text: In health care, more than 25 million people have had their health care stolen, resulting in the identity theft of more than 6 million people, and the out-of-pocket cost of victims is close to $56 billion. Privacy Rights Clearinghouse (PRC) has shown records from January 2005 to December 2018 that there has been more than 9000 breaches events. Also, what causes lead to each breach such as, insider attack, payment card fraud, lost or stolen portable device, infected malware and sending an email to the wrong person (DISC). This shows that many common mistake that leads to a data breach is humans who make mistakes allowing hackers to exploit it and perform an attack.


title: Data breach

text: It is notoriously difficult to obtain information on direct and indirect value loss resulting from a data breach. A common approach to assess the impact of data breaches is to study the market reaction to such an incident as a proxy for the economic consequences. This is typically conducted through the use of event studies, where a measure of the event's economic impact can be constructed by using the security prices observed over a relatively short period of time. Several studies such studies have been published with varying findings, including works by Kannan, Rees, and Sridhar (2007), Cavusoglu, Mishra, and Raghunathan (2004), Campbell, Gordon, Loeb, and Lei (2003) as well as Schatz and Bashroush (2017).


title: Data breach

text: Since data volume is growing exponentially in the digital era and data leaks happen more frequently than ever before, preventing sensitive information from being leaked to unauthorized parties becomes one of the most pressing security concerns for enterprises. To safeguard data and finances, businesses and companies often have to put in additional costs to take preventive measure on potential data breaches. From 2017 to 2021, the predicted global spending on internet security is to be over $1 trillion.


title: Powerpuff Girls Z

text: The series featured character designs by Miho Shimogasa, who was the character designer of "Cutie Honey Flash" and "Ultra Maniac" and one of the animation directors of "Sailor Moon". As production occurred in Japan, the creator of "The Powerpuff Girls", Craig McCracken was not involved with the project. "Powerpuff Girls Z" was aired in Japan on TV Tokyo between July 2006 and June 2007. In addition to Cartoon Network Japan, the anime was also broadcast on AT-X. A manga adaptation by Shiho Komiyuno ran in Shueisha's "Ribon" magazine between July 2006 and June 2007.


title: Powerpuff Girls Z

text: The anime's English-language adaptation was produced in association with Ocean Productions in Canada. It was aired on Cartoon Network in the Philippines and Boomerang in Australia and New Zealand in 2008.


title: Powerpuff Girls Z

text: Professor Utonium, his son, Ken Kitazawa, and his toy dog, Peach, are busy working on Chemical X, a powerful chemical substance in Tokyo City (New Townsville in the English dub), when Peach accidentally drops a daifuku into a vat of Chemical X, which magically transforms it into Chemical Z. Countries around the world suddenly experience weather calamity, and Ken uses a light beam ray attached to the vat of Chemical Z to blast Chemical Z on an iceberg in the Tokyo City bay, causing black-and-white rays of light to appear in the skies above it.


title: Powerpuff Girls Z

text: Three ordinary 13-year-old girls, Momoko Akatsutsumi, Miyako Gōtokuji, and Kaoru Matsubara, are engulfed in white light, which transforms them into Hyper Blossom, Rolling Bubbles, and Powered Buttercup, the Powerpuff Girls Z. Peach is also engulfed in white light, transforming into a toy dog who can talk and call the girls to transform. Numerous rays of black light engulf people, animals, and objects to transform them into evil monsters who want to take over Tokyo City, such as Mojo Jojo, Fuzzy Lumpkins, Princess Himeko, Sedusa, the Gangreen Gang and the Amoeba Boys. The Powerpuff Girls Z must protect Tokyo City with the help from the Professor, Ken, Mayor Mayer and his assistant, Ms. Bellum, and use their respective weapons, including Blossom's yo-yo, Bubbles' bubble rod and Buttercup's hammer from evil monsters.


title: Powerpuff Girls Z

text: The anime uses six pieces of theme music, two opening themes and four ending themes. In the English dub, an original song is used for the opening theme whilst the end credits used shortened versions of the six Japanese opening and ending themes. The official soundtrack was released in Japan by Aniplex on June 27, 2007. The soundtrack consists of TV size versions of most of the series theme songs, the series score by composers Taichi Master and Hiroshi Nakamura presented in the form of a party mix and character songs performed by Japanese voice actresses Emiri Katō, Nami Miyahara and Machiko Kawana who voiced the Powerpuff Girls Z. The album has a booklet that features concept art for all the characters.


title: Powerpuff Girls Z

text: A manga adaptation was illustrated by Shiho Komiyuno, was published in Shueisha's "Ribon" magazine between July 2006 and June 2007 and it features original characters in the manga like a pair of androids called Alpha and Beta who are the main antagonists of the manga and a boy named Natsuki Urawa who Momoko has a heavy crush at her middle high school.


title: Powerpuff Girls Z

text: was developed by Infinity and published by Bandai for the Nintendo DS on June 12, 2007. The game has board-game style gameplay similar to "Mario Party" and features Hyper Blossom, Rolling Bubbles and Powered Buttercup competing with Mojo Jojo to get to the center of the board, competing in minigames along the way.


title: Vehicle registration plates of South Africa

text: South African number plates are unique in each of the provinces. Each province has their own number plate design, colour scheme and alphanumeric scheme. e.g. AB 12 CD GP or CA 123-456


text: From 1 February 2000, a process started to replace all number plates in South Africa to an aluminium number plate with an RFID tag containing a unique identification code, including the ability to identify the number plate in a foreign nation. This is termed an Intelligent Number Plate system. The system has been implemented for additional and circumstantial use. The numbering structure on plates will also then change. Concerning the foreign identification system within South Africa, foreigners are granted the permission to verify their number plate to the South African number plate system.


text: The Department of Transport in South Africa has set aside R25 million for the project during the 2015/2016 fiscal year. The Department of Transport in KwaZulu-Natal has set aside R1.5 million for vehicle registration plates for the province. A secure electronic mark will be used in the encryption of the code. The system can automatically generate the details of driving offences committed by a driver.


text: As of January 2022, new vehicles are, however, still being fitted with plastic plates and the system has still not been implemented.


text: New legislation also requires that a new vehicle's number plate be fixed to the body of the vehicle, or an approved number plate holder, with four 4 mm rivets.


text: Number plates are available in plastic or metal. Plastic is the preferred material used by the majority of the motorists. They are also more common than their metal counterpart and are issued as standard plates by car dealerships, except in Gauteng Province where, from 2013, newly issued plates must be metal.


text: The most common size is identical to the European number plates' size () . However, a shorter plate is also common (). Most car dealerships now issue the former. Other shapes such as American and motorbike sizes are also available. Number plates can be made over the counter at registration/licensing stores in shopping centres, although the vehicle registration document may be required.


text: The standard annual non-personalised licence fee is between R250 and R600, depending on the province in which the vehicle is registered and the weight of the vehicle. A large number of heavy vehicles are registered in Northern and Eastern Cape where the licence fees per vehicle mass are low. The Western Cape has the most expensive annual licence fees, but as with Northern and Eastern Cape, it has few toll roads.


text: Vehicle owners can buy specific personalised registration numbers from registering authorities. The cost for a single digit registration e.g. CA 1 will be in the region of R6000 while a long number e.g. CA 12345 can be as low as R600.


text: After 1994, the Western Cape Province and KwaZulu-Natal Province are the only two provinces where the registration can be still linked to specific towns and cities. i.e. the pre-1980 system has largely been retained in these areas, so the first two or three letters at the start of each number plate identify where the vehicle was licensed.


text: In 1994, the Cape Province was subdivided into three provinces (Western, Eastern and Northern Cape provinces).


text: The Eastern and Northern Cape changed their licensing system so the Cape Province registration prefixes used there, like CB (Port Elizabeth) and CC (Kimberley), were dropped. The homeland states of Ciskei and Transkei became part of the Eastern Cape. The Stellaland district (Vryburg) became part of North West Province. The current Western Cape Province list is essentially an abbreviation of the pre-1980 Cape Province list.


text: The Free State is the only province in South Africa that places an expiry date on its registration plate. Every five years the owner is required to replace the plate irrespective of condition. This is only enforced in the Free State and if the owner uses the vehicle with "expired" plates in any other province he/she will not be prosecuted. This expiry is independent from the annual licence renewal required by national law.


text: This is the only province in the country that has the same borders today as it did before the Boer War, although it has had three changes of name. It was the Orange Free State (a Boer republic), the Orange River Colony (1902-1910), the Orange Free State Province (Provinsie Oranje Vrystaat, 1910–1994) and is now simply the Free State.


text: All vehicles in South Africa, excluding motorcycles, are required to display a number plate on the front and the rear of the vehicle. For vehicles that cannot accommodate a full size plate in front, a plate with smaller dimensions may be fitted with permission from the registering authority.


text: The validation of a vehicle's registration number is indicated by a licence disc displayed inside the vehicle's windshield and must be visible from the passenger side of the vehicle. The vehicle's registration number, VIN and engine number as well as the licence expiry date, vehicle weight and number of passengers the vehicle is allowed to carry is indicated on the disc.


text: In the Western Cape and KwaZulu-Natal, where the registration number is indicative of the town of registration, the registration number will not change when the owner of the vehicle relocates to another town in the same province. It is required of the owner to inform the authorities of a change of address within 21 days. However, if the owner relocates to another province, the owner has to register the vehicle in that province within 21 days. Whenever a vehicle is registered in a new owner's name, the vehicle will receive the registration of the new owner's town. If the vehicle is registered in the same town as the current registration, no change of registration number takes place.


text: When a vehicle changes ownership it is required that the vehicle be taken for a roadworthy test. The new owner is allowed to use a vehicle for a period of 21 days on the previous owner's registration before the vehicle has to be registered in the new owner's name. If the roadworthy result cannot be obtained within this period, the owner may register the vehicle without being roadworthy, however a licence disc will not be issued and the vehicle may not be used on a public road. A temporary permit must be obtained from the registering authority to drive the vehicle to the testing station or repair shop. The permit is valid for three days.


text: When a person buys a vehicle from a dealer in another province or town other than the one they live in, a temporary permit valid for three weeks is issued by the registration authorities. A vehicle can only be registered in the town the owner lives in. It is also not possible to renew the licence in any other town than the town the registered owner lives in.


text: The temporary permit is a cardboard "number plate" to be displayed in either the front or rear window of the vehicle.


text: When a vehicle's engine is replaced or the VIN and engine number needs to be verified for some legal reason, the vehicle needs to obtain police clearance. Since September 2012, a vehicle can only obtain a clearance if it was marked with a micro dot, or data dot system. This is a process where about 10,000 micro dots with a serial number on is sprayed with a resin onto all components of the vehicle. This serial number is linked to the vehicle's VIN on the national registration database. These dots can be found with an ultraviolet light and when magnified the serial number can be traced. New vehicles are treated in the factory and the dots carry the vehicle's VIN. This is to assist the authorities in identifying a vehicle or any part thereof when VIN and engine numbers are not legible, or have been removed.


text: Legislation is also on the table to have micro dotting made compulsory for all vehicles changing owners as well as requiring a 2-yearly roadworthy status for vehicles older than 10 years. The downside of this is that it might cause many poorer South Africans not to register vehicles in their name or to let licences lapse and just pay the fine when getting caught.


text: It is illegal in South Africa to alter or tamper with a vehicle's VIN or the factory stamped number on an engine in any way. Evidence of tampering will lead to the vehicles being confiscated and possibly destroyed.


text: Before 1994, South Africa had only four provinces: Cape Province, Natal Province, Orange Free State and Transvaal. Each province had its own identifying lettering: Cape – C, Natal – N, Orange Free State – O and Transvaal – T.


title: Leyte

text: Leyte ( ) is an island in the Visayas group of islands in the Philippines. It is eighth-largest and sixth-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total population of 2,626,970 as of 2020 census.


title: Leyte

text: Since the accessibility of land has been depleted, Leyte has provided countless number of migrants to Mindanao.


title: Leyte

text: Most inhabitants are farmers. Fishing is a supplementary activity. Rice and corn (maize) are the main food crops; cash crops include coconuts, abaca, tobacco, bananas, and sugarcane. There are some manganese deposits, and sandstone and limestone are quarried in the northwest.


title: Leyte

text: Politically, the island is divided into two provinces: (Northern) Leyte and Southern Leyte. Territorially, Southern Leyte includes the island of Panaon to its south. To the north of Leyte is the island province of Biliran, a former sub-province of Leyte.


title: Leyte

text: The major cities of Leyte are Tacloban, on the eastern shore at the northwest corner of Leyte Gulf, and Ormoc, on the west coast.


title: Leyte

text: The island was known to 16th-century Spanish explorers as Tandaya. Its population grew rapidly after 1900, especially in the Leyte and Ormoc valleys. The island was once the location of "Mairete", a historic community which was ruled by Datu Ete. Before being colonized by Spain, the island was once home to indigenous animist Warays to the east and other indigenous animist Visayan groups to the west.


title: Leyte

text: Leyte is most famous for its role in the reconquest of the Philippines in World War II. On 20 October 1944, General Douglas MacArthur waded ashore on Leyte, saying, "I have returned", but the Japanese did not give up so easily, as the ensuing Battle of Leyte proved. The convergence of naval forces resulted in the four-day Battle of Leyte Gulf, the largest naval battle in history. During World War II the island was part of a large US Navy base Leyte-Samar Naval Base.


title: Leyte

text: The island measures about north-south and about at its widest point. In the north it nearly joins the island of Samar, separated by the San Juanico Strait, which becomes as narrow as in some places. The island province of Biliran is also to the north of Leyte and is joined to Leyte island by a bridge across the narrow Biliran Strait. To the south, Leyte is separated from Mindanao by the Surigao Strait. To the east, Leyte is somewhat "set back" from the Philippine Sea of the Pacific Ocean, Samar to the northeast and the Dinagat Islands to the southeast forming the Leyte Gulf. To the west is the Camotes Sea.


title: Leyte

text: Leyte is mostly heavily forested and mountainous, but the Leyte Valley in the northeast has much agriculture.


title: Leyte

text: The Leyte provincial capitol is the seat of the provincial government where there is a mural depicting the First Mass in the Philippines, believed to have happened in Limasawa, and the landing of General Douglas MacArthur.


title: Leyte

text: The MacArthur Landing Memorial National Park in Red Beach, Palo, marks the 1944 landing by the American liberation forces. It also has a lagoon where a life-sized statue of Gen. MacArthur stands.


title: Leyte

text: Mahagnao Volcano Natural Park Located in Burauen, Leyte, about from Tacloban City, the Mahagnao Volcano Natural Park attracts visitors with its lakes, craters, hot springs, multi-colored mud, virgin forests and lagoon. It was proclaimed as a national park in 1937. Like other regions in the Philippines, the area enjoys a temperate climate. It has an elevation of 1,200 meters above sea level and an area of 635 hectares, within the boundaries of Burauen, La Paz and McArthur towns.


title: Leyte

text: Kalanggaman Island in Palompon, Leyte is a virgin island with pure white sand. The ecological atmosphere of the island had been preserved by the municipality.


title: Leyte

text: The Sto. Nino Shrine and Heritage Museum boasts the painting of the fourteen stations of the cross done by Filipino artists and a bas-relief of the legend of the first Filipino man and woman ("Malakas" and "Maganda").


title: Leyte

text: On Friday, 8 November 2013, Super Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan) destroyed 70-80% of the structures in its path on Leyte province. An estimated 10,000 people died and up to 620,000 people were displaced across the region.


title: Leyte

text: Leyte Tide Embankment Project was conceptualized as part of the program on rehabilitation from the aftermath of the strongest typhoon, to build safer cities/communities. The flood control shall cover a length of about 27.3 kilometers stretching from the shoreline of Barangay Diit, Tacloban City passing through the entire shoreline of the Municipality of Palo, Leyte and ending up to Barangay Ambao of Tanauan, Leyte.


title: Leyte

text: The 1959 Japanese film "Nobi" ("Fires on the Plain"), though filmed in Japan, is set in Leyte in 1945.


title: TAROM

text: TAROM (; legally "Compania Națională de Transporturi Aeriene Române TAROM S.A.") is the flag carrier and oldest currently operating airline of Romania, based in Otopeni near Bucharest. Its headquarters and its main hub are at Henri Coandă International Airport. It is currently the first and largest airline operating in Romania based on international destinations, international flights and the second-largest measured by fleet size and passengers carried.


title: TAROM

text: The brand name is an acronym for (Romanian Air Transport). Over ninety-seven percent (97.22%) of TAROM is owned by the Romanian Government (Ministry of Transport). The airline transported almost 2.75 million passengers in 2018, with an average load factor of 74%. The airline joined SkyTeam on 25 June 2010.


title: TAROM

text: The history of the Romanian National Air Transport Company can be traced back to 1920, when CFRNA - ("French-Romanian Company for Air Navigation") was founded. On 13 April 1920, the company registered its headquarters at 194 Rue Rivoli, in Paris. A decree issued on 26 April 1920 establishes "Direcțiunea Aviației" (The Directorate of Aviation), in the subordination of the Ministry of Communications. In the same year, the Kingdom of Romania offered CFRNA exploitation rights. The country offered the airline two aerodromes: one in Arad, and another one in Bucharest-Băneasa. The airline used French-built Potez 15 aircraft for its passenger/mail service between Paris and Bucharest via several cities in Central Europe. In 1925, the city of Galați became the first destination in Romania served by regular flights followed, from 24 June 1926, by an extended service to Iași and Chișinău. Ten de Havilland DH.9 and five Ansaldo A.300, in addition to the Potez aircraft, operated the service.


title: TAROM

text: In 1928 the airline changed its name to SNNA ("Serviciul Național de Navigație Aeriană", The National Air Navigation Service). On 9 July 1930, the company adopted the name LARES ("Liniile Aeriene Române Exploatate de Stat", Romanian State-Operated Air Lines) while 20 July 1937 saw the merger of LARES with its competitor, SARTA ("Societatea Anonimă Română de Transporturi Aeriene").


title: TAROM

text: Immediately after World War II, in 1945, when the Soviet Union had extended its influence across Eastern Europe, a new reorganization replaced LARES with TARS ("Transporturi Aeriene Româno-Sovietice"), jointly owned by the governments of Romania and the Soviet Union. Domestic operations were started from Bucharest (Băneasa Airport) on 1 February 1946, when TARS took overall air services and aircraft from LARES.


title: TAROM

text: Over the following decade, the company's Soviet share was purchased by the Romanian government and, on 18 September 1954, the airline adopted the name of TAROM ("Transporturi Aeriene Române", Romanian Air Transport). By 1960, TAROM was flying to a dozen cities across Europe. 1966 saw the operation of its first transatlantic flight. On 14 May 1974, it launched a regular service to New York City (John F. Kennedy International Airport).


title: TAROM

text: Being part of the regional group of airlines within Eastern Bloc states meant that for much of its history TAROM has operated Soviet-designed aircraft. These included Lisunov Li-2s, Ilyushin Il-14s, Ilyushin Il-18 long-range turboprops, Ilyushin Il-62 long-range jet airliners, Antonov An-24 regional turboprops, and Tupolev Tu-154 medium-range tri-jets. As was the case with several other nations, the Il-62 was the first long-range jet airliner to be put into operation by Romania, in 1973. Five examples (three Il-62s and two later version Il-62Ms) were owned by TAROM, which also leased the aircraft to other operators.


title: TAROM

text: An exception to Soviet-built aircraft was made in 1968, when TAROM bought six BAC One-Eleven 400s for European and Middle East destinations, and in 1974 when it acquired Boeing 707 aircraft to share its long-haul operations with the Il-62. Plans were made to acquire Vickers VC10 aircraft as well, but in the end, the Soviets did not allow it, and made them buy the Il-62 instead. With 59 aircraft in operation, in the late '70s, TAROM had the largest fleet in the Eastern Bloc, after Aeroflot.


title: TAROM

text: In 1978, a contract was signed with the UK enabling Rombac to manufacture the BAC One Eleven at Romaero, near Bucharest. Meanwhile, the 707 and Il-62 long-range aircraft were operating New York (via Amsterdam, later London and finally Vienna), Abu-Dhabi-Bangkok-Singapore, and Karachi-Beijing. TAROM was the only Eastern Bloc airline to operate flights to Tel Aviv, Israel.


title: TAROM

text: During the mid 1980s, TAROM leased Tupolev Tu-154 jets to Guyana Airways and also supported these aircraft which were operated in scheduled passenger service between Georgetown, Guyana in South America and both Miami and New York City.


title: TAROM

text: After the collapse of the communist regime in 1989, the airline, operating a fleet of 65 aircraft of six basic types, was able to acquire more Western-built jets. In 1992, TAROM bought 3 Airbus A310 planes, nicknamed: "Transilvania" (YR-LCA), "Moldova" (YR-LCB) and "Muntenia" (YR-LCC). By 1993, TAROM had introduced long-haul flights to Montreal and Bangkok using Ilyushin Il-62 and Airbus A310 aircraft. The YR-LCC Airbus A310 joined TAROM's fleet on 10 April 1994, to then crash near Balotești on 31 March 1995.


title: TAROM

text: During the 1990s, TAROM replaced its long-haul fleet of Boeing 707s and IL-62s with Airbus A310s (the last Il-62 being sold in 1999).


title: TAROM

text: TAROM is recovering from a difficult period that began in the 1990s when losses of up to $68 million per year were registered, caused by unprofitable routes. At the beginning of the new millennium, the airline initiated a programme that was aimed at restoring profitability. This was achieved by terminating loss-making intercontinental services. In 2001, the airline cancelled its non-profitable long-haul services to Bangkok and Montreal and also terminated services to its remaining intercontinental destinations of Chicago in 2002, and Beijing and New York City in 2003. TAROM terminated loss-making domestic services to Craiova, Tulcea, Caransebeș, and Constanța, and focused its activity on service to key destinations in Europe and the Middle East. TAROM has decided to focus its operations on Bucharest (Henri Coandă International Airport) (OTP) and Cluj-Napoca International Airport (CLJ), and initiated direct international flights from Sibiu International Airport. 2004 was the first profitable year of the last decade. By 2005, TAROM tried selling its A310 fleet three times, which was being preserved since 2003.


title: TAROM

text: A fleet upgrade programme started in 2006 with the acquisition of four Airbus A318s, three Boeing 737-800s, and two ATR 72-500s, which resulted in a fleet increase to 26 by 2009.


title: TAROM

text: From 2003 till 2007, the airline spent €1 million per year to preserve "Moldova" and "Transilvania". In 2007, TAROM modernized its two Airbus A310 planes at the Airbus plant in Bordeaux. After being reconditioned, the pair was used in medium-haul flights, which weren't successful.


title: TAROM

text: The airline had a frequent-flyer programme "Smart Miles", which was turned into Flying Blue on 5 June 2010. Codeshare agreements with foreign partner airlines are in place for several international routes. On 25 June 2010, TAROM joined SkyTeam as the alliance's thirteenth member.


title: TAROM

text: Starting with November 2012, in accordance with the Romanian state-company legislation, TAROM was led by a private manager, the Belgian Christian Heinzmann occupying the positions of CEO and Accountable Manager until March 2016. During Heinzmann's leadership, the company reduced its financial losses by more than 75%, grew its yearly passenger number to a record 2.4 million and stabilised its load-factor around 70%. However, broad reforms like the fleet renewal and harmonisation, as well as the establishment of profit centers such as the TAROM Maintenance and TAROM Charter services, were not accomplished due to a constant lack of a decision from the company's board of administrators.


title: TAROM

text: On 12 September and 29 October 2016, TAROM retired their remaining two Airbus A310-300s after final flights from Madrid to Bucharest. The A310s will be replaced with new smaller aircraft. In May 2017, TAROM received its first of two leased Boeing 737-800s. Another two ex-Malaysian Airlines 737-800 were added to the fleet in 2018 and a contract for five Boeing 737 MAX 8 was signed with deliveries stated to begin in 2023. On 27 December 2019, the Ministry of Transport announced that 9 new ATR 72-600 leased from Nordic Aviation Capital for a 10 year-period would replace the existent ATR 42-500 and 72-500, manufactured in 1999–2000 and 2009, respectively. TAROM received the first four aircraft in February 2020, with the first one, registered with code YR-ATJ, landing in Bucharest on 18 February 2020, at 2:50 PM EET.


title: TAROM

text: TAROM was directly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, ceasing temporarily all scheduled operations starting with 25 March 2020. TAROM operated flights for the Romanian Government during the state of emergency, bringing some medical equipments from China. After the state of emergency expired, TAROM resumed scheduled operations from May 2020.


title: TAROM

text: In 2021, TAROM's then new CEO stated that none of the airline's current routes are profitable. In October 2022, it has been reported that the operator of Henri Coandă International Airport, TAROM's home base, considers legal action against the airline over unpaid fees exceeding 10 million Euros and also might suspend all services for the carrier.


title: TAROM

text: The TAROM logo, representing a swallow in flight, has been used on all TAROM aircraft since 1954. The 1970s livery had the logo on the tail painted in red, with a red cheatline. The livery introduced in the early 1990s (on the Airbus A310 aircraft) is an overall-white scheme with the titles and the tailfin painted in dark blue. The current colour scheme (introduced in 2006 on the A318) is a slightly modified version of the previous one, with an oversized logo on the tailfin, and the engine pods also painted in dark blue.


title: TAROM

text: All aircraft in the TAROM fleet receive a "name" which is a Romanian toponym. For instance, the names of the ATR aircraft in the fleet are related to the rivers of Romania, the Boeing aircraft bear names of Romanian cities, the Airbus long-haul aircraft bear Romanian historical province names, while the Airbus A318s bear names of Romanian aviation pioneers.


title: TAROM

text: In 2009, marking the airline's 55th anniversary, a Boeing 737-700 (YR-BGG "Craiova") was painted in a retro jet colour scheme, representing the airline's first livery used in the 1950s on Lisunov Li-2 aircraft.


title: TAROM

text: The TAROM Technical Division provides aircraft maintenance services for the entire fleet of the company and the fleet of other national and international companies. The objective of TAROM Technical Department is to be the best and the most efficient, in terms of costs, maintenance service provider for Boeing 737, ATR 42 and ATR 72 aircraft in Central and Eastern Europe. The services provided by the TAROM Technical Department include unscheduled maintenance works, scheduled maintenance works and repair works for spare parts.


title: TAROM

text: The major maintenance activity is performed in the hangar of the technical department, built between 1969 and 1972, with an area of 6,000 m and restored in 2000 to fully comply with EASA (European Safety Aviation Agency) and FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) standards. The hangar is equipped to perform all types of inspections for TAROM fleet, and the personnel is qualified and licensed for all types of aircraft in the fleet. Maintenance activities for 3 to 6 aircraft, depending on their size, may be carried out simultaneously in the hangar. The hangar is equipped with a full MERO system for B737 docking.


title: TAROM

text: The most important maintenance capacities of the TAROM Technical Department include full maintenance services for Boeing 737 and ATR42/72 aircraft, inspection capacity type C for Airbus A310 and A318 aircraft, total painting, interior cleaning, modifications.


title: TAROM

text: The technical department also provides safe storage facilities for spare parts and materials necessary for maintenance activity, dedicated spaces for chemicals, special tools and testing equipment, and quarantine spaces. The TAROM Technical Department also provides conveyance services (packaging, preparation of documents, customs) and acceptance services (customs, disassembly, and reception inspection) for various substances and equipment.


title: TAROM

text: The airline directly operates 50 destinations including charter and seasonal services in 22 countries in Europe, the Middle East and Northern Africa including 8 domestic destinations.


title: TAROM

text: The airline's flights to the USA ceased in 2003 and are now operated under a codeshare agreement with Air France via Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport.


title: TAROM

text: In 2006, TAROM was scheduled to join SkyTeam as an associate member (sponsored by Alitalia), but the entry into the alliance was postponed until 2008. On 7 May that year, SkyTeam signed a SkyTeam Alliance Associate Adherence Agreement (SAAAA) with TAROM. On 22 June 2010, SkyTeam announced that it had renewed its membership program, thereby making TAROM a future full member of the alliance. On 25 June 2010, TAROM became a full member of SkyTeam.


title: TAROM

text: TAROM has agreed in 2019 to lease 9 ATR 72-600 aircraft from Nordic Aviation Capital in order to replace existing ATR 42-500 and ATR 72-500 aircraft. In 2021, the order was reduced from 9 to 7 ATR 72-600.


title: TAROM

text: After the retiring of Airbus A310s in 2016, two new Boeing 737-800 were leased in 2017. In 2018, another two Boeing 737-800 were leased. Also, at the Farnborough Air Show, the Government of Romania signed the contract for buying 5 Boeing 737 MAX-8 at an estimated value of $586 mil. As of 2022, TAROM negociates with a few leasing companies for 4 to 8 Boeing 737 MAX-8. Airbus A318s and Boeing 737-700s are going to be retired soon, while Boeing 737-300s were retired in 2021.


title: TAROM

text: TAROM had been planning to lease three widebody aircraft to resume long-haul operations to China and the United States after the withdrawal of its Airbus A310s. The Request For Proposals (RFP) to leasing firms expired on 31 August 2017. In 2018, TAROM made efforts to lease some Boeing 787s, but there is no further information.


title: TAROM

text: In 2018, the CEO of that time declared TAROM could operate a legacy aircraft with maximum 10 seats, which could fly over Atlantic, in order to be leased by the Romanian Government, the Presidential Administration, in business affairs or in medical emergencies. There is no further information. Between 2010 and 2013, under Băsescu administration, TAROM operated an Airbus A310-300 for presidential purposes.


title: Houssem Aouar

text: Houssem-Eddine Chaâbane Aouar (born 30 June 1998) is a French professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Ligue 1 club Lyon and the France national team.


title: Houssem Aouar

text: He signed a three-year professional contract at Lyon in July 2016. He made his first team debut in on 16 February 2017 in a 1–4 away win over AZ Alkmaar in the round of 32 of the knockout phase of the UEFA Europa League, replacing Sergi Darder after 84 minutes. Aouar scored his first goal for Lyon's first team a week later in the second-leg match against AZ Alkmaar


title: Houssem Aouar

text: at Parc Olympique Lyonnais, which Lyon won 7–1. He made his Ligue 1 debut by starting in the away match against SC Bastia on 16 April 2017, but the match was abandoned at half-time with the score at 0–0. A win was given to Lyon three weeks later. He was nominated for the Golden Boy award in July 2018.


title: Houssem Aouar

text: At the beginning of the 2017–18 season, despite having played only five competitive matches for Lyon's first team since he joined the club, Aouar was given the symbolic number 8 (having previously been worn by club legend Juninho) left free when Corentin Tolisso left the club for Bayern Munich in June 2017.


title: Houssem Aouar

text: On 11 December 2019, Aouar scored a goal against RB Leipzig in a Champions League group stage match helping Lyon to secure their way into the Champions League round of 16. His side later upset both Juventus and Manchester City to reach the semi-finals, where they were beaten by Bayern Munich.


title: Houssem Aouar

text: Aouar is eligible to feature for Algeria despite playing for the French youth teams at the U17 and U21 levels.


title: Houssem Aouar

text: In 2018, he was reported considering to represent Algeria at international level following a talk with former Lyon and current Real Madrid striker Karim Benzema.


title: Houssem Aouar

text: In January 2019, manager of Algeria Djamel Belmadi confirmed that he would visit Aouar and present the vision and project of the Desert Foxes in hope of convincing him to play in the upcoming Africa Cup of Nations.


title: Houssem Aouar

text: In 2014, Aouar was called by the France U17 team, but only played one game. In 2019, he was a starter throughout EURO U21 Championship for France U21 team which was eventually eliminated by Spain in semi finals.


title: Houssem Aouar

text: In November 2019, Aouar was summoned in the training for France senior team, but he did not accept the invitation due to injury.


title: Houssem Aouar

text: On 26 August 2020, Aouar received his first call-up for France to prepare for 2020–21 UEFA Nations League matches against Sweden and Croatia in early September.


title: Houssem Aouar

text: On 27 August 2020, Aouar tested positive for COVID-19 during regular test carried out by Lyon, amid its pandemic in France; He was put into isolation for a fortnight and had to skip training for at least 10 to 15 days. Therefore, France decided to replace him with his former teammate Nabil Fekir from Real Betis.


title: Houssem Aouar

text: Aouar is a versatile attacking midfielder who can play anywhere in midfield, and has been praised for his excellent technical ability and calmness with the ball at his feet.


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: In Boolean logic, a formula is in conjunctive normal form (CNF) or clausal normal form if it is a conjunction of one or more clauses, where a clause is a disjunction of literals; otherwise put, it is a product of sums or an AND of ORs. As a canonical normal form, it is useful in automated theorem proving and circuit theory.


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: All conjunctions of literals and all disjunctions of literals are in CNF, as they can be seen as conjunctions of one-literal clauses and conjunctions of a single clause, respectively. As in the disjunctive normal form (DNF), the only propositional connectives a formula in CNF can contain are and, or, and not. The not operator can only be used as part of a literal, which means that it can only precede a propositional variable or a predicate symbol.


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: In automated theorem proving, the notion ""clausal normal form"" is often used in a narrower sense, meaning a particular representation of a CNF formula as a set of sets of literals.


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: All of the following formulas in the variables formula_1, and formula_2 are in conjunctive normal form:


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: For clarity, the disjunctive clauses are written inside parentheses above. In disjunctive normal form with parenthesized conjunctive clauses, the last case is the same, but the next to last is formula_7. The constants "true" and "false" are denoted by the empty conjunct and one clause consisting of the empty disjunct, but are normally written explicitly.


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: Every formula can be equivalently written as a formula in conjunctive normal form. The three non-examples in CNF are:


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: Every propositional formula can be converted into an equivalent formula that is in CNF. This transformation is based on rules about logical equivalences: double negation elimination, De Morgan's laws, and the distributive law.


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: Since all propositional formulas can be converted into an equivalent formula in conjunctive normal form, proofs are often based on the assumption that all formulae are CNF. However, in some cases this conversion to CNF can lead to an exponential explosion of the formula. For example, translating the following non-CNF formula into CNF produces a formula with formula_14 clauses:


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: This formula contains formula_14 clauses; each clause contains either formula_18 or formula_19 for each formula_20.


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: There exist transformations into CNF that avoid an exponential increase in size by preserving satisfiability rather than equivalence. These transformations are guaranteed to only linearly increase the size of the formula, but introduce new variables. For example, the above formula can be transformed into CNF by adding variables formula_21 as follows:


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: An interpretation satisfies this formula only if at least one of the new variables is true. If this variable is formula_23, then both formula_18 and formula_19 are true as well. This means that every model that satisfies this formula also satisfies the original one. On the other hand, only some of the models of the original formula satisfy this one: since the formula_23 are not mentioned in the original formula, their values are irrelevant to satisfaction of it, which is not the case in the last formula. This means that the original formula and the result of the translation are equisatisfiable but not equivalent.


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: An alternative translation, the Tseitin transformation, includes also the clauses formula_27. With these clauses, the formula implies formula_28; this formula is often regarded to "define" formula_23 to be a name for formula_30.


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: In first order logic, conjunctive normal form can be taken further to yield the clausal normal form of a logical formula, which can be then used to perform first-order resolution.


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: An important set of problems in computational complexity involves finding assignments to the variables of a boolean formula expressed in Conjunctive Normal Form, such that the formula is true. The "k"-SAT problem is the problem of finding a satisfying assignment to a boolean formula expressed in CNF in which each disjunction contains at most "k" variables. 3-SAT is NP-complete (like any other "k"-SAT problem with "k">2) while 2-SAT is known to have solutions in polynomial time. As a consequence, the task of converting a formula into a DNF, preserving satisfiability, is NP-hard; dually, converting into CNF, preserving validity, is also NP-hard; hence equivalence-preserving conversion into DNF or CNF is again NP-hard.


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: Typical problems in this case involve formulas in "3CNF": conjunctive normal form with no more than three variables per conjunct. Examples of such formulas encountered in practice can be very large, for example with 100,000 variables and 1,000,000 conjuncts.


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: A formula in CNF can be converted into an equisatisfiable formula in ""k"CNF" (for "k"≥3) by replacing each conjunct with more than "k" variables formula_31 by two conjuncts formula_32 and formula_33 with a new variable, and repeating as often as necessary.


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: As an example, the formula saying ""Anyone who loves all animals, is in turn loved by someone"" is converted into CNF (and subsequently into clause form in the last line) as follows (highlighting replacement rule redexes in formula_73):


title: Conjunctive normal form

text: Informally, the Skolem function formula_74 can be thought of as yielding the person by whom formula_62 is loved, while formula_76 yields the animal (if any) that formula_62 doesn't love. The 3rd last line from below then reads as ""formula_62 doesn't love the animal formula_76, or else formula_62 is loved by formula_74"".


title: Black Shuck

text: In English folklore, Black Shuck, Old Shuck, Old Shock or simply Shuck is the name given to a ghostly black dog which is said to roam the coastline and countryside of East Anglia, one of many such black dogs recorded in folklore across the British Isles. Accounts of Black Shuck form part of the folklore of Norfolk, Suffolk, the Cambridgeshire Fens and Essex, and descriptions of the creature's appearance and nature vary considerably; it is sometimes recorded as an omen of death, but, in other instances, is described as companionable.


title: Black Shuck

text: According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", the name "Shuck" derives from the Old English word 'devil, fiend', perhaps from the root 'to terrify'. The first mention in print of "Black Shuck" is by Reverend E. S. Taylor in an 1850 edition of the journal "Notes and Queries" which describes "Shuck the Dog-fiend"; "This phantom I have heard many persons in East Norfolk, and even Cambridgeshire, describe as having seen as a black shaggy dog, with fiery eyes and of immense size, and who visits churchyards at midnight."


title: Black Shuck

text: Abraham Fleming's account of the appearance of "A strange, and terrible wunder" in 1577 at Bungay, Suffolk is a famous account of the beast. Images of sinister black dogs have become part of the iconography of the area and have appeared in popular culture. Writing in 1877, Walter Rye stated that Shuck was "the most curious of our local apparitions, as they are no doubt varieties of the same animal."


title: Black Shuck

text: Descriptions of Black Shuck vary in both shape and size, from that of a large dog to being the size of a calf or horse. W. A. Dutt, in his 1901 "Highways & Byways in East Anglia" describes the creature thus:


title: Black Shuck

text: Dr Simon Sherwood suggests that the earliest surviving description of devilish black hounds is an account of an incident in the Peterborough Abbey recorded in the Peterborough Chronicle (one version of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle") around 1127:


title: Black Shuck

text: One of the most notable reports of Black Shuck is of his appearance at the churches of Bungay and Blythburgh in Suffolk. On 4 August 1577, at Blythburgh, Black Shuck is said to have burst in through the doors of Holy Trinity Church to a clap of thunder. He ran up the nave, past a large congregation, killing a man and boy and causing the church steeple to collapse through the roof. As the dog left, he left scorch marks on the north door which can be seen at the church to this day.


title: Black Shuck

text: The encounter on the same day at St Mary's Church, Bungay was described in "A Straunge and Terrible Wunder" by Abraham Fleming in 1577:


title: Black Shuck

text: Fleming was a translator and editor for several printing houses in London, and therefore probably only published his account based on exaggerated oral accounts. Other local accounts attribute the event to the Devil (Fleming calls the animal "the Divel in such a likeness"). The scorch marks on the door are referred to by the locals as "the devil’s fingerprints", and the event is remembered in this verse:


title: Black Shuck

text: Dr David Waldron and Christopher Reeve suggest that a fierce electrical storm recorded by contemporary accounts on that date, coupled with the trauma of the ongoing Reformation, may have led to the accounts entering folklore.


title: Black Shuck

text: Littleport, Cambridgeshire is home to two different legends of spectral black dogs, which have been linked to the Black Shuck folklore, but differ in significant aspects: local folklorist W.H. Barrett relates the story of a huge black dog haunting the area after being killed rescuing a local girl from a lustful friar in pre-reformation times, while fellow folklorist Enid Porter relates stories of a black dog haunting the A10 road after its owner drowned in the nearby River Great Ouse in the 1800s.


title: Black Shuck

text: British rock band The Darkness have a song called "Black Shuck" on their 2003 debut album "Permission to Land".


title: Black Shuck

text: In "Teen Wolf", an ancient Hellhound spirit that had possessed someone, tells one of the main characters that it is known by many names, one of which is "Black Shuck".


title: Black Shuck

text: British rock band Down I Go have a song called "Black Shuck" on their 2019 EP 'All Down the Church in Midst of Fire the Hellish Monster Flew, and Passing Onward to the Quire, He Many People Slew'.


title: Black Shuck

text: In June 2019, after being previously crowdfunded on Kickstarter, the graphic novel "The Burning Black: Legend of Black Shuck" was published by Renegade Arts Entertainment. The book was written by Mark Allard-Will, with artwork by Ryan Howe and lettering by Elaine M. Will. The graphic novel features Black Shuck as its central antagonist.


title: Black Shuck

text: The Black Shuck appears in the 2020 video game "" as a mini boss encountered while exploring the countryside of East Anglia. The player can find it eating a carcass amidst a ruined building, and when killed it gives the player a skill point and its decapitated head.


title: Black Shuck

text: The Black Shuck appears in Rahel Kapsaski's 2020 stop-motion animated folk horror film "Curse of the Black Shuck" released by Troma.


title: Black Shuck

text: Black Shuck is a track with 'knot-in-the-stomach insistent strings' on These Feral Lands Volume 1, a 2020 release by musician Laura Cannell, comedian Stewart Lee and others.


title: Black Shuck

text: Satirical, comedic, theatrical string quartet Bowjangles feature a song about Black Shuck composed by Norfolk-born ensemble member Bertie Anderson in the recording of their stage show "Excalibow", in keeping with the overall theme of myths and legends.


title: James Burrows

text: James Edward Burrows (born December 30, 1940), sometimes known as Jim "Jimmy" Burrows, is an American television director who has been working in television since the 1970s. Burrows has directed over 50 television pilots and co-created the long-running television series "Cheers". He has also formed 3 Sisters Entertainment, a joint venture with NBC that is known for "Will & Grace" as well as the CBS Productions show "Caroline in the City".


title: James Burrows

text: Burrows was born to a Jewish family in Los Angeles, California, the son of Ruth (Levinson) and Abe Burrows, a well-known composer, director and writer. James has one sister, Laurie Burrows Grad. When James was still a young child, his family moved to New York where James attended New York’s High School of Music & Art. Burrows is a graduate of Oberlin College and the graduate program of the Yale School of Drama.


title: James Burrows

text: After Yale, Burrows returned to California where he became employed as a dialogue coach on "O.K. Crackerby!", a television series starring Burl Ives and created by Burrows' father, Abe. Burrows then took a job as an assistant stage manager on the play "Holly Golightly", an adaptation of the novella "Breakfast at Tiffany's". The production was unsuccessful, but the job served as Burrows' introduction to its star, Mary Tyler Moore. Early on Burrows also worked for the road company of "Cactus Flower" and the Broadway production of "Forty Carats". He also went to direct the short lived Broadway play "The Castro Complex".


title: James Burrows

text: Burrows continued working in theater as a stage manager and transitioned into directing plays. Burrows directed traveling plays and a production at a Jacksonville, Florida dinner theater.


title: James Burrows

text: While working in theater, Burrows wrote Moore and her then husband Grant Tinker seeking a job at their production company, MTM Enterprises. In 1974, Tinker hired Burrows as a director for MTM Enterprises where he directed episodes of "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" and "The Bob Newhart Show". Tinker asked director Jay Sandrich, known for his work directing "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" and later "The Cosby Show" and "The Golden Girls", to serve as a mentor to Burrows.


title: James Burrows

text: Burrows is best known for his comic timing, complex blocking for actors, and incorporating more sophisticated lighting in television studio shoots. He is also credited as being one of the first sitcom directors to increase the typical multi-camera television shoot from three to four cameras.


title: James Burrows

text: Burrows co-created "Cheers" with brothers Glen and Les Charles. The Charles brothers were also former employees of MTM Enterprises and served as producers on the series "Taxi" where Burrows worked as in-house director for 76 episodes. Burrows and the Charles brothers wanted to create a show where they could have more control. "Cheers" premiered on NBC on September 30, 1982. Although "Cheers" initially struggled in the ratings, the series became a hit, running 275 episodes over eleven seasons. Burrows directed all but 35 of those 275 episodes.


title: James Burrows

text: Burrows directed every episode of "Will & Grace" during its initial eight-year run. Additionally, by 2012 Burrows had directed over 50 pilots for television series.


title: James Burrows

text: Burrows has directed over 1,000 episodes of television, a milestone he achieved in November 2015 with the NBC sitcom "Crowded". To celebrate Burrows' achievement, NBC aired a special tribute on February 21, 2016, titled "Must See TV: An All-Star Tribute to James Burrows" featuring cast reunions from many of the series Burrows has directed such as "Cheers", "Taxi", "Friends", "Frasier", "The Big Bang Theory", "Will & Grace" and "Mike & Molly". In January 2020, Andy Fisher and Burrows won the Directors Guild of America Award for Variety/Talk/News/Sports - Specials for "Live in Front of a Studio Audience: Norman Lear's All in the Family and The Jeffersons".


title: James Burrows

text: In 1998, Burrows directed a Chicago-based production of the 1939 comedy "The Man Who Came to Dinner" starring John Mahoney.


title: James Burrows

text: Burrows has had cameo appearances in several of the shows for which he has directed. In the first season of "Friends", Burrows appeared in the episode "The One with the Butt" as the director of the film in which the character Joey Tribbiani is cast as Al Pacino's "butt double". He also appears as a television director named Jimmy in the 2005 HBO series "The Comeback". Burrows played himself on the series. An episode of "Scrubs", "My Life in Four Cameras", had a character named Charles James in honor of "Cheers" creators Burrows and Glen and Les Charles. It was previously asserted in "Sitcoms: the 101 Greatest TV Comedies of All Time" (2007) that Burrows served as the silhouette of the customer who knocks on the door in the final scene of "Cheers", but Burrows himself refuted this claim on episode 9 of the "NewsRadio"-themed podcast Dispatches from Fort Awesome, revealing that the actual "Man Who Knocks" was agent Bob Broder.


title: James Burrows

text: Over the course of his career, Burrows has been nominated for fifteen Directors Guild of America awards, and for an Emmy Award every year between 1980 and 2005, excluding 1997. Burrows has won ten Emmy Awards and four Directors Guild of America Awards. The Academy of Television Arts and Sciences celebrated Burrows' forty-year career by hosting a panel in his honor on October 7, 2013.


title: James Burrows

text: Burrows is married to celebrity hairstylist Debbie Easton; the couple lives in Manhattan. Burrows was previously married to Linda Solomon. He has three daughters and one stepdaughter.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: The Masters and Johnson research team, composed of William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson, pioneered research into the nature of human sexual response and the diagnosis and treatment of sexual disorders and dysfunctions from 1957 until the 1990s.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: The work of Masters and Johnson began in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Washington University in St. Louis and was continued at the independent not-for-profit research institution they founded in St. Louis in 1964, originally called the Reproductive Biology Research Foundation and renamed the Masters and Johnson Institute in 1978.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: In the initial phase of Masters and Johnson's studies, from 1957 until 1965, they recorded some of the first laboratory data on the anatomy and physiology of human sexual response based on direct observation of 382 women and 312 men in what they conservatively estimated to be "10,000 complete cycles of sexual response". Their findings, particularly on the nature of female sexual arousal (for example, describing the mechanisms of vaginal lubrication and debunking the earlier widely held notion that vaginal lubrication originated from the cervix) and orgasm (showing that the physiology of orgasmic response was identical whether stimulation was clitoral or vaginal, and, separately, proving that some women were capable of being multiorgasmic), dispelled many long-standing misconceptions.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: They jointly wrote two classic texts in the field, "Human Sexual Response" and "Human Sexual Inadequacy", published in 1966 and 1970, respectively. Both of these books were best-sellers and were translated into more than thirty languages. The team has been inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame. Additionally, they are the focus of a television series called "Masters of Sex" for Showtime based on the 2009 biography by author Thomas Maier.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Masters and Johnson met in 1957 when William Masters hired Virginia Johnson as a research assistant to undertake a comprehensive study of human sexuality. According to author Thomas Maier, as part of their clinical research, Masters and Johnson observed paid volunteers engaging in sexual activity while hooked to wires in their lab. At Masters's request, Masters and Johnson engaged in intercourse as subjects of their own study and eventually became lovers. Maier stated that Masters spent more time in the lab with Johnson than he did with his wife, Libby, and their children and also spent summer vacations together with Johnson. By the time Masters divorced his first wife in 1971, associates believed that he and Johnson essentially lived together and worked and traveled together seven days a week. Masters and Johnson married in 1971 but then later divorced on March 18, 1993 in the Circuit Court of St. Louis County; they nonetheless continued to work together professionally.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Previously, the study of human sexuality (sexology) had been a largely neglected field of study due to the restrictive social conventions of the time, with prostitution as a notable exception.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Alfred Kinsey and colleagues at Indiana University had previously published two volumes on sexual behavior in the human male and female (known as the Kinsey Reports), in 1948 and 1953, respectively, both of which had been revolutionary and controversial in their time. Kinsey's work, however, had mainly investigated the frequency with which certain behaviors occurred in the population and was based on personal interviews, not on laboratory observation. In contrast, Masters and Johnson set about to study the structure, psychology, and physiology of sexual behavior through observing and measuring masturbation and sexual intercourse in the laboratory.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Initially, participants used in their experiments were prostitutes. Masters and Johnson explained that they were a socially isolated group of people, they were knowledgeable about sex, and that they were willing to cooperate with the study. Of the 145 prostitutes who participated, only a select few were further evaluated for their genital anatomy and their physiological responses. In later studies, however, Masters and Johnson recruited 382 women and 312 men from the community. The vast majority of participants were white, they had higher education levels, and most participants were married couples.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: As well as recording some of the first physiological data from the human body and sex organs during sexual excitation, they also framed their findings and conclusions in language that espoused sex as a healthy and natural activity that could be enjoyed as a source of pleasure and intimacy.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: The era in which their research was conducted permitted the use of methods that had not been attempted before, and that have not been attempted since: "[M]en and women were designated as 'assigned partners' and arbitrarily paired with each other to create 'assigned couples'."


title: Masters and Johnson

text: One of the most enduring and important aspects of their work has been the four stage model of sexual response, which they described as the human sexual response cycle and defined as:


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Their model shows no difference between Sigmund Freud's purported categories of "vaginal orgasm" and "clitoral orgasm": the physiological response was identical, even if the stimulation was in a different place.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Masters and Johnson's findings also revealed that men undergo a refractory period following orgasm during which they are not able to ejaculate again, whereas there is no refractory period in women: this makes women capable of multiple orgasm. They also were the first to describe the phenomenon of the rhythmic contractions of orgasm in both sexes occurring initially in 0.8 second intervals and then gradually slowing in both speed and intensity.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Masters and Johnson were the first to conduct research on the sexual responsiveness of older adults, finding that given a state of reasonably good health and the availability of an interested and interesting partner, there was no absolute age at which sexual abilities disappeared. While they noted that there were specific changes to the patterns of male and female sexual responses with aging – for example, it takes older men longer to become aroused and they typically require more direct genital stimulation, and the speed and amount of vaginal lubrication tends to diminish with age as well – they noted that many older men and women are perfectly capable of excitement and orgasm well into their seventies and beyond, a finding that has been confirmed in population-based epidemiological research on sexual function in the elderly.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Masters and Johnson randomly assigned gay men into couples and lesbians into couples and then observed them having sex in the laboratory, at the Masters and Johnson Institute. They provided their observations in "Homosexuality in Perspective:"


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Their research into the anatomy and physiology of sexual response was a springboard to developing a clinical approach to the treatment of sexual problems in a revolutionary manner. Prior to 1970, when they described their treatment program to the world for the first time, sexual dysfunctions such as premature ejaculation, impotence, vaginismus, and female frigidity had been generally treated by long-term (multi-year) psychotherapy or psychoanalysis with very low rates of success. Masters and Johnson revolutionized things by devising a form of rapid treatment (2 week) psychotherapy always involving a couple, rather than just an individual, working with a male-female therapist team that resulted in a success rate of more than 80%. This was strictly a talking therapy – couples in their sex therapy program were never observed in sexual activity.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: From 1968 to 1977, the Masters and Johnson Institute ran a program to convert homosexuals to heterosexuality. This program reported a 71.6% success rate over a six-year treatment period. At the time of their earlier work, homosexuality was classified as a psychological disorder by the American Psychiatric Association, a classification which was repealed in 1973.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Thomas Maier stated "that Virginia Johnson had serious reservations about Masters' conversion theory, and she suspected that, at worst, the results of the study may have been fabricated by William Masters". Psychiatrist Robert C. Kolodny, a clinical associate of the Masters', also expressed reservations about the veracity of the findings in Masters' book on the topic and alleged that Masters had not kept files of the case studies cited in the book. Shortly before the book was published, he wrote Masters a two-page letter expressing Johnson's and Kolodny's reservations on the alleged successful reconversion findings and urging him to reconsider publication of the book, to no avail. As homosexuality was on the verge of being dropped from the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM), Masters's insistence on publishing the book proved to be tone-deaf and was shunned by book critics.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Some sex researchers, Shere Hite in particular, have focused on understanding how individuals regard sexual experience and the meaning it holds for them. Hite has criticized Masters and Johnson's work for uncritically incorporating cultural attitudes on sexual behavior into their research; for example, her work concluded that the 70% of women who do not have orgasms through intercourse are able to achieve orgasm easily by masturbation. She, as well as Elisabeth Lloyd, have criticized Masters and Johnson's argument that enough clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm should be provided by thrusting during intercourse, and the inference that the failure of this is a sign of female "sexual dysfunction". While not denying that both Kinsey and Masters and Johnson have made major contributions to sex research, she believes that people must understand the cultural and personal construction of sexual experience to make the research relevant to sexual behavior outside the laboratory. Hite's work, however, has been challenged for methodological defects.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Moreover, Masters and Johnson's research methodology has been criticized. First, Paul Robinson argues that because many of their participants were sex workers, it is highly likely that these individuals have had more sexual experience and are more comfortable with sex and sexuality in general. He says that one must approach these results with caution, because the participants do not represent the general population.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Other researchers have argued that Masters and Johnson eliminated same-sex attracted participants when studying the human sexual response cycle, which also limits the generalizability of their results.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Furthermore, Masters and Johnson have been criticized for studying sexual behaviors in the laboratory. While they attempted to make participants as comfortable as possible in the lab by giving them a "practice session" before their behavior was recorded, critics have argued that two people engaging in sexual activity in a lab is a different experience compared to being in the privacy and comfort of one's home.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Another persistent critique was that despite her extensive years of clinical work, Virginia Johnson never earned a university degree and often did not correct those who referred to her in the press or in person as "Dr. Johnson."


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Masters and Johnson appeared together on the NBC daily news program "America Alive!" in the second half of 1978, as authorities on the subject of sex.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: The American cable network Showtime debuted "Masters of Sex", a dramatic television series based on the 2009 biography of the same name, on September 29, 2013. The series stars Michael Sheen as Masters and Lizzy Caplan as Johnson.


title: Masters and Johnson

text: Masters and Johnson were referenced in a 1974 Italian comedy directed by Bruno Corbucci, "Il trafficone".


title: Masters and Johnson

text: One character in the film "Mallrats" (1995) is nicknamed Masters & Johnson for her bizarre school project of studying sex.


title: The Tailor of Panama (film)

text: The Tailor of Panama is a 2001 spy thriller film directed by John Boorman from a screenplay he co-wrote with John le Carré and Andrew Davies. Based on le Carré's 1996 novel of the same name, it stars Pierce Brosnan and Geoffrey Rush. Rush portrays the title character, a former convict turned tailor who is strong-armed by an amoral MI6 agent (Brosnan) into spying on the Panamanian government. Jamie Lee Curtis, Brendan Gleeson, Catherine McCormack, Leonor Varela, and Harold Pinter co-star, along with Daniel Radcliffe in his film debut.


title: The Tailor of Panama (film)

text: The film premiered at the Berlin International Film Festival on 11 February 2001, and was released theatrically in the United States by Columbia Pictures on 30 March. It received positive reviews, with praise for the performances of Brosnan and Rush, and grossed $28 million on a $21 million budget.


title: The Tailor of Panama (film)

text: Andy Osnard is an MI6 spy reassigned to Panama after having an affair in Madrid with the foreign minister's mistress. His superior warns him of the corruption present in Panama, but Osnard views that as an opportunity. Consulting a list of British citizens residing in Panama, he meets Harry Pendel, the tailor to many of Panama's elite, including the President. Pendel, a gifted storyteller, passes himself off as being formerly of Savile Row, but is in fact an ex-con who used to run scams with his late uncle Benny. Pendel's American wife Louisa, the assistant to the administrator of the Panama Canal Authority, is unaware of his criminal record. While Harry is a superb tailor, he is a bad businessman; his tailor shop is constantly in debt, and he owes $50,000 of Louisa's money to the bank for a farming business that failed.


title: The Tailor of Panama (film)

text: Knowing that Pendel needs money, Osnard offers to help him, if Pendel feeds him information about the elite of Panama City. Pendel agrees, and uses the money to pay off his debts and help his friend Mickie, a down-on-his-luck alcoholic, and his assistant Marta, who was raped and disfigured by Manuel Noriega's soldiers. However, Osnard soon requires better information, threatening to cut off the money and reveal that Pendel has been spying for a foreign government if he does not get what he wants.


title: The Tailor of Panama (film)

text: Pendel starts "tailoring" his stories, escalating the roles of friends to make them appear more significant than they are. He casts Mickie as a revolutionary who still holds sway over the youth of Panama, and his shop manager as the leader of an opposition movement. After fixing the suit of the President of Panama (whose conversation consisted of his suit being too tight), he comes up with a tale that the president intends to sell the canal to China. When an incredulous Osnard asks which, Beijing or Taiwan, Pendel replies "both". Osnard knows that Pendel is making up these stories, but does not care as long as his superiors believe them.


title: The Tailor of Panama (film)

text: As he passes along this misinformation (bypassing the embassy staff, apart from Francesca, a staffer he is sleeping with), it makes its way to Washington, where military and government officials are alarmed and plan an invasion to prevent the canal from falling into Chinese hands. Pendel, meanwhile, seeks to end his spying, saying the opposition won't listen to him because it needs $10 million. He thinks the figure will put Osnard off, but Osnard relays a request to fund the opposition as a means to control Panama after this supposed revolution; he asks for $"15" million, which is granted by the Pentagon. Osnard's superior arrives with a briefcase containing the money, ready to meet with the opposition, while American attack helicopters are preparing for an assault on the city.


title: The Tailor of Panama (film)

text: The British Ambassador uncovers what Osnard has been up to, and threatens to reveal everything. Osnard pays for his silence and cooperation with $1.25 million. Osnard manages to ditch his superior and make off with the briefcase. Meanwhile, Pendel gets a call from Marta, who tells him that Mickie has committed suicide out of fear that he would go to prison for his supposed revolutionary ties. Pendel blames himself for Mickie's death, and resolves to thwart Osnard's plans. He waylays Osnard as he flees to the airport, but Osnard gives him the slip.


title: The Tailor of Panama (film)

text: Louisa finds out what Pendel has been doing and races to the Administrator's office. The Administrator contacts the President of Panama, who is able to contact the U.S. government and have the invasion called off shortly after it began. During the confusion, Osnard makes it to the airport, where he meets the Ambassador and hands him his bribe. The Ambassador allows Osnard to make it to an airplane.


title: The Tailor of Panama (film)

text: Pendel returns home to Louisa and tells her about his criminal past, and she forgives him. Osnard, meanwhile, escapes the country with the money.


title: The Tailor of Panama (film)

text: "The Tailor of Panama" was shot at the Ardmore Studios in County Wicklow, Ireland, and on location in Panama City, Lake Gatun, and Gamboa, Panama. It was produced by Boorman's Irish production company Merlin Films, with financial support from Columbia Pictures.


title: The Tailor of Panama (film)

text: Like the novel, the film is inspired by Graham Greene's 1958 novel "Our Man in Havana", which depicts intelligence agencies believing reports from local informants in Cuba. Whereas the novel was set in the 1990s, before the American withdrawal from the Panama Canal Zone, the film moves the time period to the 21st century.


title: The Tailor of Panama (film)

text: In the original ending of the film Osnard is shot by Pendell. This was changed to allow Osnard to escape.


title: The Tailor of Panama (film)

text: The film holds a 76% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 6.80/10 based on 117 reviews. The site's consensus states: ""The Tailor of Panama" is a smart, darkly satirical thriller with exuberant performances from Pierce Brosnan and Geoffrey Rush." On Metacritic, it holds a score of 66 out of 100 based on reviews from 31 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Sally Kirkland

text: Sally Kirkland (born October 31, 1941) is an American film, television and stage actress and producer. A former member of Andy Warhol's The Factory and an active member in 1960s New York avant-garde theater, she has appeared in more than 250 film and television productions during her career that spend six decades. Kirkland is the daughter of a fashion editor of "Life" magazine and "Vogue" Sally Kirkland.


title: Sally Kirkland

text: Kirkland was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance in "Anna" (1987). She won the Golden Globe for Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama for her role and received awards from the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, and the Independent Spirit Awards. She earned a second Golden Globe nomination for Best Performance by an Actress in a Miniseries or Motion Picture Made for Television for "The Haunted" (1991). Kirkland is also known for her roles in "Cold Feet" (1989), "Best of the Best" (1989), "JFK" (1991) and "Bruce Almighty" (2003).


title: Sally Kirkland

text: Kirkland was born in New York City. She was named after her mother, Sally Kirkland (born Sarah Phinney), who was a fashion editor at "Vogue" and "LIFE" magazines, and was raised in Oklahoma. Her father, Frederic McMichael Kirkland, worked in the scrap metal business. Kirkland started out as a "Vogue" model and then studied at the Actors Studio with Lee Strasberg and Uta Hagen.


title: Sally Kirkland

text: Kirkland began acting Off-Broadway in 1963. She joined Andy Warhol's The Factory and appeared nude and tied to a chair for 45 minutes in the 1964 drama film "The 13 Most Beautiful Women". By 1964, Kirkland was deeply involved in the New York's avant-garde movement and was also an active drug user until an attempted suicide frightened her into cleaning up her life through yoga and painting. Four years later, she returned to film, appearing in the western "Blue", and the following year starred in the underground film "Coming Apart" (1969).


title: Sally Kirkland

text: Kirkland spend 1970s and most of 1980s playing secondary roles in film include "Going Home" (1971), "The Young Nurses" (1973), "The Way We Were" (1973), "The Sting" (1973), "Big Bad Mama" (1974), "Crazy Mama" (1975), "A Star Is Born" and "Private Benjamin" (1980). She played a leading role in the 1984 horror film "Fatal Games". Her television credits include guest-starring roles on "Hawaii Five-O", "Police Story", "The Rookies", "Three's Company", "Kojak", "Starsky & Hutch", "Charlie's Angels" and "Falcon Crest".


title: Sally Kirkland

text: In 1987, Kirkland received positive reviews from critics and Academy Award for Best Actress nomination for playing title role in the independent drama film "Anna". For this performance she won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama, a Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award, and an Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead. Her performance received widespread critical praise, in a performance that the "Washington Post" deemed "superb" and the "Los Angeles Times" rated her as one of the best actresses of the decade. Kirkland later acted in second-grade films include "Cold Feet" (1989), "Paint It Black" (1989) and "Two Evil Eyes" (1990).


title: Sally Kirkland

text: In 1990s, Kirkland starred in action comedy "Bullseye!" (1990) opposite Michael Caine, and played supporting roles in films "Revenge" (1990), "JFK" (1991), "The Player" (1992), "Gunmen" (1994), "Excess Baggage" (1997) and "EDtv" (1999). She starred in the erotic thrillers "In the Heat of Passion" and "Double Threat" in 1992, which found success in home video releases. She found better success on television, playing leading roles in a number of made-for-television movies, and starring in the syndicated soap opera "Valley of the Dolls" in 1994. In 1990, she also played Truvy Jones in the television adaptation of "Steel Magnolias". For her performance in the television film "The Haunted" (1991), Kirkland received Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film nomination. She guest-starred in "Roseanne", "Murder, She Wrote" and "The Nanny". In 1999, she had a recurring roles in "Felicity" and "Days of Our Lives". In 2000s, she played supporting roles in films include "Bruce Almighty" (2003), "Adam & Steve" (2005) and "Big Stan" (2007).


title: Sally Kirkland

text: Kirkland hosted a weekly program on the syndicated HealthyLife Radio Network. In 2019, she starred in the film "Cuck". In 2020, she starred in the Amazon release film "Hope For The Holidays" with Robert Lasardo, Doug Hutchison, Alex Cubis George Stults.


title: Sally Kirkland

text: Kirkland is also a health activist including advocating for women harmed by breast implants. She founded the Kirkland Institute for Implant Survival Syndrome in August 1998.


title: Sally Kirkland

text: She is a gallery-shown painter and a noted acting teacher whose students have included Sandra Bullock, Barbra Streisand, Liza Minnelli, Dwight Yoakam, and Roseanne Barr, among others.


title: Female education

text: Female education is a catch-all term of a complex set of issues and debates surrounding education (primary education, secondary education, tertiary education, and health education in particular) for girls and women. It is frequently called girls' education or women's education. It includes areas of gender equality and access to education. The education of women and girls is important connection to the alleviation of poverty. Broader related topics include single-sex education and religious education for women, in which education is divided gender lines.


title: Female education

text: Inequalities in education for girls and women are complex: women and girls face explicit barriers to entry to school, for example, violence against women or prohibitions of girls from going to school, while other problems are more systematic and less explicit, for example, science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education disparities are deep rooted, even in Europe and North America. In some Western countries, women have surpassed men at many levels of education. For example, in the United States in 2005/2006, women earned 62% of associate degrees, 58% of bachelor's degrees, 60% of master's degrees, and 50% of doctorates.


title: Female education

text: Improving girls' educational levels has been demonstrated to have clear impacts on the health and economic future of young women, which in turn improves the prospects of their entire community. The infant mortality rate of babies whose mothers have received primary education is half that of children whose mothers are illiterate. In the poorest countries of the world, 50% of girls do not attend secondary school. Yet, research shows that every extra year of school for girls increases their lifetime income by 15%. Improving female education, and thus the earning potential of women, improves the standard of living for their own children, as women invest more of their income in their families than men do. Yet, many barriers to education for girls remain. In some African countries, such as Burkina Faso, girls are unlikely to attend school for such basic reasons as a lack of private latrine facilities for girls.


title: Female education

text: Education increases a woman's (and her partner and the family's) level of health and health awareness. Furthering women's levels of education and advanced training also tends to lead to delay initiation of sexual activity, first marriage, and first childbirth. Moreover, more education increases likelihood to remain single, have no children, or have no formal marriage while increasing levels of long-term partnerships. Women's education is important for women's health as well, increasing contraceptive use while lowering sexually transmitted infections, and increasing the level of resources available to women who divorce or are in a situation of domestic violence. Education also improves women's communication with partners and employers, and rates of civic participation.


title: Female education

text: Because of the wide-reaching effects of female education on society, alleviating inequalities in education for women is highlighted in Sustainable Development Goal 4 "Quality Education for All", and deeply connected to Sustainable Development Goal 5 "Gender Equality." Education of girls (and empowerment of women in general) in developing countries leads to faster development and a faster decrease of population growth, thus playing a significant role in addressing environmental issues such as climate change mitigation. Project Drawdown estimates that educating girls is the sixth most efficient action against climate change (ahead of solar farms and nuclear power).


title: Female education

text: Violence against women teachers became a political issue in Sweden during the period from 1900 to 1940. By 1900, 66 percent of Sweden’s teachers were women, many of whom worked in isolated rural areas, where they faced loneliness and the threat of male violence. Politicians, teachers, and female authors debated a number of solutions to reduce these threats, such as providing the teachers with guard dogs, weapons, and telephones.


title: Female education

text: In Pakistan, a negative relationship was found between the formal level of education a woman attains and the likelihood of violence against that woman (After, 2013). The researcher used snowball convenient sampling, a sampling method where participants are referred. Ethical and privacy issues made this the most convenient method. An informant played a major role in gathering information that was then cross-checked. The sample of victims of violence was made up of married women from ages 18–60 both from rural and urban communities. The study described different forms of physical violence that are already present and provided an idea of what women go through, even across communities (rural and urban). Education in this study was stressed to be the solution and a necessity in eliminating violence. A discussion of political and social barriers is needed.


title: Female education

text: The relationship is a lot more complicated than it seems, women can be illiterate but still become empowered (Marrs Fuchsel, 2014). Immigrant Latina Women (ILW) were part of a qualitative study of 8 to 10 participant groups, at a time, and completed an 11-week program centered on self-esteem, domestic violence awareness, and healthy relationships. Immigrant Latina Women (ILW) is a highly affected group by domestic violence. Though this program took place outside of a traditional classroom, dialogue, critical thinking, and emotional well-being were stressed, areas that should be acquired while in school. Lastly, though many of the women were illiterate they were still able to come away with a stronger sense of control over their own lives, an important life skill.


title: Female education

text: Education systems vary in administration, curriculum and personnel, but all have an influence on the students that they serve. As women have gained rights, formal education has become a symbol of progress and a step toward gender equity. In order for true gender equity to exist, a holistic approach needs to be taken. The discussion of girl power and women's education as solutions for eliminating violence against women and economic dependence on men can sometimes take dominance and result in the suppression of understanding how context, history and other factors affect women (ShenilaKhoja-Moolji, 2015). For example, when past secretary of State, Hillary Clinton, referenced the tragedies of Malala Yousafzai in Pakistan and the girls kidnapping in Chibok, Nigeria, as comparable, using girls' education as the focus, history and context were ignored. What led to the shooting of Malala was reduced to being solely about her educating herself as a girl. United States interference, poverty, and government corruption and instability were not addressed.


title: Female education

text: Education systems and schools play a central role in determining girls' interest in various subjects, including STEM subjects, which can contribute to women's empowerment by providing equal opportunities to access and benefit from quality STEM education.


title: Female education

text: A systematic review on vocational and business training for women in low- and middle-income countries summarized the evidence from thirty-five studies regarding the impacts of such training programs. The authors found that these types of programs have small positive effects on employment and income with variability across studies. They found that the effects of training may increase with a stronger gender focus of the program.


title: Female education

text: Education of girls (and empowerment of women in general) in developing countries leads to faster development and a faster decrease of population growth. It therefore has a significant impact on environmental issues such as climate change. The research network Drawdown estimates that educating girls is the sixth most efficient action against climate change (ahead of solar farms, nuclear power, afforestation and many other actions).


title: Female education

text: The proliferation of digital technology and digital services has made digital skills a prerequisite for full participation in society. Today, an inability to navigate the internet poses disadvantages. While these disadvantages were once somewhat contained to wealthy countries, they are now relevant globally, due to the rapid and continuing proliferation of internet-connected technology.


title: Female education

text: Equipping women and girls with digital skills helps put them on equal footing with digitally savvy men, and opens up countless opportunities for increased agency and choice. Websites and mobile applications on health and legal rights, for example, can help women make informed decisions to safeguard and care for themselves and their families, while online social networks and digital communications allow women to disseminate information and share knowledge beyond their immediate community.


title: Female education

text: Mobile learning opportunities, from literacy apps to open online courses (MOOCs) about subjects as diverse as astronomy and caring for older relatives with dementia, can open up new educational pathways, especially for out-of-school girls and adult women. Job search engines and professional networking sites enable women to compete in the labour market, while e-commerce platforms and digital banking services can help increase their income and independence.


title: Female education

text: Education for disabled women has also improved. In 2011, Giusi Spagnolo became the first woman with Down Syndrome to graduate college in Europe (she graduated from the University of Palermo in Italy).


title: Female education

text: Christian missionaries in the 19th century opened modern educational methods, but they usually focused on boys. After early experiments they settled on promoting ideology of domestic femininity imparted through girls' schooling. In South Africa after 1820, male Scottish missionaries decided that only the most basic education was necessary to prepare native women for the propagation of Christianity within the home. They prevented female teachers from operating in the Scottish mission's territory. They delayed the establishment of a Girls' Department at Lovedale Institution. Finally new leadership arrived who had a broader vision of uplifting native women so they could promote Christianity and Western gender codes.


title: Female education

text: Muslims from India who came to East Africa in the late 19th century brought along a highly restrictive policy against schooling for their girls.


title: Female education

text: As of 2015, Priscilla Sitienei was attending elementary school in Kenya at age 92. She died in November 2022, at the age of 99, whilst preparing for final exams.


title: Female education

text: Women's education in West Africa manifested in both formal and informal structures, with one of the more notable structures that had influence on women's education being preparatory schools labeled "Bush Schools." These bush schools were institutions that would oftentimes boast near 100% graduation rates and completed courses. They were organized by women and had a planned, structured curriculum, which included learning how to do skills such as learning how to "fish, cook, weave, spin cotton, dress hair, and make baskets, musical instruments, pots, and fishing nets." Much of the scholarship and research on these schools arises from the Bundu schools of Sierra Leone. In addition to these skills, girls would often be given reproductive education, such as birth control techniques or child rearing skills. In particular to the Bundu schools, women would be given an intense education in medicinal herbs and home medicinal skills. These schools did not just teach educational curriculum (such as history passed on through songs and dances), but enabled the transmission of cultural values and were centers of female power. Despite the colonial and post-colonial ideal that women ought to be educated just to serve decorative or child-bearing maternal roles, these institutions taught women to play central economic, corporate and familial roles in their communities.


title: Female education

text: Early colonial forms of education on the West African coasts, particularly among the Dahomey, Asante and Yorùbá people, were pioneered by missionaries and institutions that were trying to educate religious thought in addition to teaching more traditional western educational topics such as reading and writing. As early as 1529, King John III of Portugal had given instruction to open schools and provide education in "religious thought, reading and writing" and for the instructors to be paid by the pupil. For women in particular however, these colonial forms of education brought with them European ideals of women's roles in the family, society and economy. These Western ideas of womanhood oftentimes contrasted with women's roles in the economy, society, or in the home. For example, Igbo women had associations known as Mikiri, which were economic and social forums for women in which they discussed direct action to enforce their interests, which were largely misunderstood and disregarded by various British colonial administrations. Hence, as the colonial administrations introduced schools to the region, they ignored educating women to fill economic roles in the community. In fact, the educational ideal of men as "breadwinners", i.e. the primary financial support of a nuclear family structure, was introduced by successive British colonial governments in West Africa.


title: Female education

text: One of the groups of people that the colonial governments in West Africa put heavy import on educating were the mixed children of white people, typically men, and indigenous people, typically women. In pre-British era of Ghanaian history, when much of the interaction between indigenous people and Europeans was through Dutch traders, mixed race children of traders and indigenous people were removed from their indigenous communities and placed in Dutch educational institutions in Ghana. In these early colonial schools the education was also gendered by Western standards: the boys were educated from a young age to be military officers in the Dutch army and the girls were educated to be married to Dutch military officers in the region.


title: Female education

text: One of the other ways through which colonizing countries were able to exert influence and indirect rule over the indigenous people was through maternal education. In colonial Ghana, Methodist missionaries led classes teaching western methods of hygiene and child birth to the indigenous mothers or mothers-to-be. The missionaries tried to construct an ideal of motherhood that matched white European middle-class standards, irrespective of the social context of the ideals of motherhood in place in the Asante societies they were located in.


title: Female education

text: In post-colonial West Africa, many of the ideals of Western education have remained while much of the infrastructure and funding left with the colonial presence. Particularly in Nigeria, formal education was seen as a policy making tool, as women's formal education has been linked to having effects on "population growth, health, nutrition, fertility, infant mortality, and changes in women's productivity and earnings." Researchers have cited some disadvantages however to this reliance on women's formal education. One, there is concern for women being alienated from their indigenous cultures and not receiving the education in values that were typically received through pre-colonial indigenous educational systems. In addition, there is an increasing body of literature that suggests how the formal education institutions channel women into particular lower-earning job fields such as the humanities, while guiding women away from more technical jobs with higher wages.


title: Female education

text: In regards to academic achievement, according to the FAWE Conference girls across the Sub-Saharan region reported lower scores in Math and Science subjects. The tendency for girls to be pushed into clerical positions upon finishing school is also a widely researched and held belief. Despite this, formal education offers many benefits recognized internationally. The Fourth United Nations World Conference on Women has released publications citing numerous ways through which women's education in Africa is beneficial to society as a whole. These entail an increase in family health, in higher wage jobs available to women, an improvement in quality standards of childhood development, and a greater inclusion of women in decisions making that can impact a nation in environmental, political, social and economic ways. Despite there being a drop in participation of women in education in the majority of countries in West Africa in the 1950s and 1960s, rates of women education have been steadily climbing since then. However, there is still much statistical gender disparity as according to UNESCO statistics on women's enrollment and graduation rates.