title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: Chelsea produced their worst performance of the season in arguably their most important game of the season. Ten-man PSG knocked out the Blues on away goals, and despite star forward Zlatan Ibrahimović being sent off after only 30 minutes, and Chelsea could not find a breakthrough with over 60 minutes with the man advantage. Goals from Cahill and Hazard looked to send the disappointing Blues through, but former Chelsea defender David Luiz scored in normal time and Thiago Silva scored in extra time to condemn Chelsea to defeat.


title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: The Blues disappointing form continued as they drew 1–1 to Southampton at Stamford Bridge. Despite the draw, Chelsea extended their lead at the top to six points due to Manchester City's slip at Burnley. Chelsea rounded off March with a hard-fought 3–2 win over Hull City, early goals from Costa and Hazard sent the Blues on their way before two goals in the space of a minute sent Hull City level at the break. Costa went off with an injury after 75 minutes and his replacement Rémy scored moments later to send Chelsea six points clear with a game in hand.


title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: Club captain Terry signed a new, one-year deal with the Blues, keeping him at the club until June 2016. Playing 650 times scoring 59 goals while also lifting a record 15 trophies, he is the most successful captain in the club's history.


title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: The Blues started April with a hard-fought 2–1 home win against Stoke City. A first half penalty kick from Hazard sent Chelsea on their way before Charlie Adam scored from 65 yards to equalise, yet for the second game, Rémy netted a second-half winner. A week later, Chelsea battled to a 0–1 win at QPR, Fàbregas scoring with the Blues' only shot on target in the 88th minute to send them seven points clear of second-place Arsenal.


title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: The Chelsea youth team won the second-ever 2014–15 UEFA Youth League, defeating Shakhtar Donetsk 3–2 in the final. Dominic Solanke finished as the competition's top scorer with 12 goals.


title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: Hazard and Costa were then nominated for the PFA Players' Player of the Year, while Thibaut Courtois and Hazard were also nominated for the PFA Young Player of the Year, an accolade which Hazard received in the previous season; it was the third consecutive year that Hazard had been nominated in the PFA Players' Player of the Year and PFA Young Player of the Year.


title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: A 1–0 home win over Manchester United extended the Blues lead at the top of the table to ten points. Hazard notched the only goal of the game in the 38th minute, after good work from Fàbregas and Oscar. Despite Manchester United having 70 percent of the ball's possession, they rarely troubled Courtois' goal and the Blues held resolute to record a 13th win in 16 games at Stamford Bridge.


title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: Chelsea had a club-record six players named in the 2014–15 PFA Team of the Year. Defenders Ivanović, Terry and Cahill, and Hazard, Matić and Costa were all included, the latter two for the first time. Ivanović and Cahill had both been named once before, Terry received the honour for the fourth time and Hazard had his third consecutive nomination. Later that evening, the Belgian also won the PFA Player of the Year award.


title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: Arsenal faced Chelsea in a match at the top of the table on 26 April. The match finished a 0–0 draw; Chelsea and the Blues regained their ten-point lead at the top of the table.


title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: Following their victory in the 2014–15 UEFA Youth League, Chelsea Youth Team record a 5–2 aggregate victory over the Manchester City Elite Development Squad in the 2014–15 FA Youth Cup Final. The young Blues won the FA Youth Cup for a second consecutive season thanks to goals from Tammy Abraham, Dominic Solanke and Isaiah Brown over two legs.


title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: The Blues rounded off April with a 3–1 away win over Leicester City. Despite conceding first, goals from Drogba, Terry and Ramires sent Chelsea 13 points clear at the top of the table, guaranteeing them a spot in 2015–16 UEFA Champions League group stage.


title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: Chelsea secured their fourth Premier League trophy and their fifth top division trophy overall, after a 1–0 victory over Crystal Palace. A Hazard goal was enough to send the Blues 16 points clear and unable to be caught. This was José Mourinho's third Premier League and eighth title overall. The title victory also put him level with Arsène Wenger in the second-most Premier League wins behind Alex Ferguson. Chelsea had spent 253 days at the top of the Premier League table to date this season, and only Chelsea in 2005–06 (257 days) and Manchester United in 1993–94 (262 days) had been at the top of the table for longer in a single campaign. Due to the Blues securing the title against Palace, Chelsea spent 274 days at the top of the table and set a new record..


title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: Mourinho continued his unbeaten run against Liverpool after drawing 1–1. The Blues goal came from Terry, who broke the record for the most goals by a defender in Premier League history. The Blues last away game of the year was a 0–3 defeat at West Brom. However, the game made no difference to either of the teams' league positions, yet it gave Mourinho the chance to assess youngsters Ruben Loftus-Cheek, Nathan Aké and Isaiah Brown in a league match. The Blues finished their season with a 3–1 victory over Sunderland at Stamford Bridge. Despite falling behind to an early goal, Costa and Rémy gave Chelsea all three points.


title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: Chelsea finished the season as 2014–15 Premier League champions and winners of the 2014–15 Football League Cup. Mourinho's side broke numerous records on their way to the title, most significantly remaining top of the Premier League for 274 days and recording the fewest losses in all competitions. Terry became the first player since Gary Pallister to play in every minute of the title-winning campaign. Striker Drogba announced he was leaving the club for a second time. He left the Blues having scored a total of 164 goals in 381 appearances, and winning numerous trophies including the Premier League and UEFA Champions League.


title: 2014–15 Chelsea F.C. season

text: Mourinho won the Premier League Manager of the Season and LMA Manager of the Year awards, while Hazard won a triple award at the end of the season, with the PFA Player of the Year, FWA Footballer of the Year and the Premier League Player of the Season awards. And at the end of season club awards, Zouma won the young player of the year, and Oscar won the goal of the year for his stunner with the outside of the box against QPR. Hazard won a second consecutive Chelsea Player of the Year and won the Players' Player of the Year award.


title: Shirt

text: Originally an undergarment worn exclusively by men, it has become, in American English, a catch-all term for a broad variety of upper-body garments and undergarments. In British English, a shirt is more specifically a garment with a collar, sleeves with cuffs, and a full vertical opening with buttons or snaps (North Americans would call that a "dress shirt", a specific type of collared shirt). A shirt can also be worn with a necktie under the shirt collar.


title: Shirt

text: The world's oldest preserved garment, discovered by Flinders Petrie, is a "highly sophisticated" linen shirt from a First Dynasty Egyptian tomb at Tarkan, dated to c. 3000 BC: "the shoulders and sleeves have been finely pleated to give form-fitting trimness while allowing the wearer room to move. The small fringe formed during weaving along one edge of the cloth has been placed by the designer to decorate the neck opening and side seam."


title: Shirt

text: The shirt was an item of clothing that only men could wear as underwear, until the twentieth century. Although the women's chemise was a closely related garment to the men's, it is the men's garment that became the modern shirt. In the Middle Ages, it was a plain, undyed garment worn next to the skin and under regular garments. In medieval artworks, the shirt is only visible (uncovered) on humble characters, such as shepherds, prisoners, and penitents. In the seventeenth century, men's shirts were allowed to show, with much the same erotic import as visible underwear today. In the eighteenth century, instead of underpants, men "relied on the long tails of shirts ... to serve the function of drawers. Eighteenth-century costume historian Joseph Strutt believed that men who did not wear shirts to bed were indecent. Even as late as 1879, a visible shirt with nothing over it was considered improper.


title: Shirt

text: The shirt sometimes had frills at the neck or cuffs. In the sixteenth century, men's shirts often had embroidery, and sometimes frills or lace at the neck and cuffs and through the eighteenth-century long neck frills, or jabots, were fashionable. Coloured shirts began to appear in the early nineteenth century, as can be seen in the paintings of George Caleb Bingham. They were considered casual wear, for lower-class workers only, until the twentieth century. For a gentleman, "to wear a sky-blue shirt was unthinkable in 1860, but had become standard by 1920 and, in 1980, constituted the most commonplace event."


title: Shirt

text: European and American women began wearing shirts in 1860, when the Garibaldi shirt, a red shirt as worn by the freedom fighters under Giuseppe Garibaldi, was popularized by Empress Eugénie of France. At the end of the nineteenth century, the "Century Dictionary" described an ordinary shirt as "of cotton, with linen bosom, wristbands and cuffs prepared for stiffening with starch, the collar and wristbands being usually separate and adjustable".


title: Shirt

text: The first documented appearance of the expression "To give the shirt off one's back", happened in 1771 as an idiom that indicates extreme desperation or generosity and is still in common usage. In 1827 Hannah Montague, a housewife in upstate New York, invents the detachable collar. Tired of constantly washing her husband's entire shirt when only the collar needed it, she cut off his collars and devised a way of attaching them to the neckband after washing. It wasn't until the 1930s that collar stays became popular, although these early accessories resembled tie clips more than the small collar stiffeners available today. They connected the collar points to the necktie, keeping them in place


title: Shirt

text: Many terms are used to describe and differentiate types of shirts (and upper-body garments in general) and their construction. The smallest differences may have significance to a cultural or occupational group. Recently, (late twentieth century, into the twenty-first century) it has become common to use tops as a form of advertisement. Many of these distinctions apply to other upper-body garments, such as coats and sweaters.


title: Shirt

text: There are two main categories of fibres used: natural fibre and man-made fibre (synthetics or petroleum based). Some natural fibres are linen, the first used historically, hemp, cotton, the most used, ramie, wool, silk and more recently bamboo or soya. Some synthetic fibres are polyester, tencel, viscose, etc. Polyester mixed with cotton (poly-cotton) is often used. Fabrics for shirts are called shirtings. The four main weaves for shirtings are plain weave, oxford, twill and satin. Broadcloth, poplin and end-on-end are variations of the plain weave. After weaving, finishing can be applied to the fabric.


title: Shirt

text: In addition, red shirts have been used to symbolize a variety of different political groups, including Garibaldi's Italian revolutionaries, nineteenth-century American street gangs, and socialist militias in Spain and Mexico during the 1930s.


title: Shirt

text: Different colored shirts signified the major opposing sides that featured prominently in the 2008 Thai political crisis, with red having been worn by the supporters of the populist People's Power Party (PPP), and yellow being worn by the supporters of the royalist and anti-Thaksin Shinawatra movement the People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD). Each side is commonly referred to as the 'red shirts' and 'yellow shirts' respectively, though the later opponents of the later Thaksin supporting groups have largely ceased wearing yellow shirts to protest rallies.


title: Michelle Beadle

text: Michelle Denise Beadle (born October 23, 1975) is an American sports reporter and host who is part of the San Antonio Spurs broadcast team. Beadle was formerly the co-host of the ESPN morning sports show "Get Up!" along with Jalen Rose and Mike Greenberg, the co-host of "SportsNation" on ESPN2, and former host of "Winners Bracket" on ABC with Marcellus Wiley.


title: Michelle Beadle

text: Beadle has had various hosting jobs on different networks prior to joining ESPN in 2009, including College Sports Television and the YES Network.


title: Michelle Beadle

text: Michelle Beadle was born in Italy to Bob Beadle, a former executive at Valero Energy, and Serenella Paladino, from Italy. She spent the first half of her childhood in Roanoke, Texas, outside Dallas, and the second half in Boerne, a small town outside San Antonio. She said that her mother was her best friend growing up because her mother did not speak English when she immigrated to America and they had to learn the language together. She was admittedly a tomboy growing up and had all male friends. She graduated from Boerne High School.


title: Michelle Beadle

text: Beadle attended the University of Texas at Austin for political science as a pre-law student. She later joined a law group, and worked at the capitol in Austin, which helped dissuade her from pursuing a legal career. After three years she decided against law and took three years off because she did not know what she wanted to do and her college credits were geared toward law school. She spent time in Canada working odd jobs and eventually returned to Austin and waited tables while trying to decide what to do with her life.


title: Michelle Beadle

text: With her father's assistance, Beadle got her career start as an intern for the San Antonio Spurs and was later given a shot at being a reporter. She also started her career at Fox Sports Net hosting "Big Game Hunters". In 2002, Beadle moved to TNN as a "behind-the-chutes" sideline reporter for the coverage of the Professional Bull Riders' (PBR) Bud Light Cup tour. She was originally meant to fill in for two weeks but was asked to stay full-time. While at TNN, she also served as a freelance reporter for CBS Sports on its coverage of the PBR and ESPN's "Titan Games".


title: Michelle Beadle

text: Next, Beadle went to the Travel Channel and hosted the show "Get Packing". She then hosted a show for Major League Baseball Production's magazine show "Cathedrals of the Game". Beadle later worked for the YES Network where she conducted interviews and did feature reporting for YES' regular season, preseason, and postseason New Jersey Nets telecasts. She also served as a sideline reporter for Nets basketball games, was co-host of "Kids on Deck" and "Sportslife NYC," and was the host of "YES' Ultimate Road Trip". Additionally, Beadle hosted College Sports Television's "The 1 College Sports Show", and pre and postgame sports shows. She was also the reporter for the NFL Films syndicated program "NFL Under the Helmet".


title: Michelle Beadle

text: She also hosted several other entertainment-themed and reality-based shows, including People.com's feature, "What You Missed Over the Weekend"; Fine Living Network's "I Want Your Job"; Animal Planet's "Animal Planet Report"; Travel Channel's "Beach Week" series and Discovery Channel's "Inside Orlando's Resorts", and "Outrageous Room Service". She has also been a Red Carpet reporter for the Golden Globes, Grammy Awards, SAG Awards, and the Tony Awards, and contributed for People Magazine on television, appearing on "The Today Show", "The Early Show", "Extra", "Access Hollywood", and "Entertainment Tonight".


title: Michelle Beadle

text: Beadle joined ESPN on June 1, 2009, as co-host with Colin Cowherd of "SportsNation", which premiered on ESPN2 on July 6, 2009. Beadle was one of the last people out of 142 to audition for "SportsNation". ESPN called her back and asked her to write about what she would do to make the show better. Thinking it was a joke, she wrote "a sarcastic list of 10 stupid things," which helped her land the job. Prior to co-hosting "SportsNation", during her time at TNN, Beadle also worked freelance as a reporter for ESPN's "Titan Games". She also was the New York "SportsCenter" anchor for ESPN Radio's "The Michael Kay Show" on 1050 ESPN New York.


title: Michelle Beadle

text: She was later named the co-host of "Winners Bracket" along with Marcellus Wiley. The show, which was part of "ESPN Sports Saturday", a two-hour block of sports programming on ABC, premiered on April 3, 2010. She also hosted a weekly Podcast, "The Michelle Beadle Podcast", and has also served as a guest host on "Mike and Mike in the Morning".


title: Michelle Beadle

text: On May 22, 2012, it was announced that she was leaving ESPN for the family of NBC networks, primarily as host on NBC Sports Network as well as correspondent on "Access Hollywood". She anchored NBC Sports Network's daily morning studio coverage of the 2012 London Olympics.


title: Michelle Beadle

text: "The Crossover with Beadle and Briggs" debuted on January 28, 2013, on the NBC Sports Network. The show featured Beadle and Dave Briggs, formerly of Fox News Channel and CSN New England. NBC described the show as one that focuses on sports, pop culture and entertainment. In May 2013, the show was rebranded as "The Crossover with Michelle Beadle", with Beadle as the sole host. On September 25, 2013, "The Crossover with Michelle Beadle" was cancelled.


title: Michelle Beadle

text: Beadle returned to ESPN on March 3, 2014, appearing as a co-host on "SportsNation". She was released from her NBC contract early as part of a deal between the two media companies that included Ryder Cup coverage and Olympics highlights rights.


title: Michelle Beadle

text: In July 2014, she criticized ESPN colleague Stephen A. Smith on social media for comments he made about the Ray Rice domestic abuse case. The furor led to a week-long suspension of Smith. She had another heated social media dialog on the same matter with MTV celebrity Christopher Boykin.


title: Michelle Beadle

text: Beadle began hosting NBA Countdown in 2016. In April 2018, she also began co-hosting a morning sports show on ESPN called "Get Up!" along with Jalen Rose and Mike Greenberg. In August of the same year, ESPN announced that Beadle would be leaving "Get Up!" by the end of the month, and instead focus her efforts on NBA coverage. In the summer of 2019, ESPN quietly removed Beadle from NBA Countdown, replacing her with Rachel Nichols and Maria Taylor, respectively. Beadle then proceeded to enter a buyout with ESPN, which ended her time at the company.


title: Michelle Beadle

text: As of March 2015, Beadle had interviewed Manny Pacquiao on HBO's "The Fight Game" regarding the 2015 fight with Floyd Mayweather.


title: Michelle Beadle

text: Beadle is an avid dog lover, as well as being a fan of professional wrestling, the Houston Astros, and the San Antonio Spurs. She has two siblings: a younger brother, Robert, and a younger sister.


title: Cassady McClincy

text: Cassady Marie McClincy is an American actress best known for her portrayal of Lydia on the AMC horror-drama television series "The Walking Dead" since 2019. She is also known for her role in the Netflix original series "Ozark" (2017)


title: Cassady McClincy

text: McClincy was born in Ohio and raised in Georgia. She got an agent and began acting at the age of 9. McClincy has guest starred in Lifetime's "Drop Dead Diva", NBC's "Constantine", TNT's "Good Behavior" and Amazon Prime Video's original anthology series "Lore". In 2017, she made recurring guest star appearances on the Netflix original series "Ozark", the Hulu original series "Castle Rock" and VH1's "Daytime Divas".


title: Cassady McClincy

text: At the age of 17, McClincy began to portray Lydia in "The Walking Dead" during season 9 and became a series regular beginning with season 10.


title: Lip plate

text: The lip plate, also known as a lip plug, lip disc, or mouth plate is a form of body modification. Increasingly large discs (usually circular, and made from clay or wood) are inserted into a pierced hole in either the upper or lower lip, or both, thereby stretching it. The term labret denotes all kinds of pierced-lip ornaments, including plates and plugs.


title: Lip plate

text: Archaeological evidence indicates that disk and plate labrets have been invented multiple times including in Africa (Sudan, Eritrea and Ethiopia; 5500–6000 BC) Mesoamerica (1500 BC), and coastal Ecuador (500 BC).


title: Lip plate

text: In some African countries, a lower lip plate is usually combined with the two lower front teeth, sometimes all four. Among the Sara people and Lobi of Chad, a plate is also inserted into the upper lip. Other tribes, such as the Makonde of Tanzania and Mozambique, used to wear a plate in the upper lip only.


title: Lip plate

text: Due to the Mursi reliance on tourism, many sources have suggested that the plate's size was a sign of social or economical importance in some tribes, such as "bridewealth" or laziness. However, because of natural mechanical attributes of human skin, the plate's size may often depend on the marriage status of the wearer.


title: Lip plate

text: Among the Surma and Mursi people of the lower Omo River valley in Ethiopia, about 6 to 12 months before marriage, a young woman has her lip pierced by her mother or one of her kinswomen, usually at around the age of 15 to 18. The initial piercing is done as an incision of the lower lip of 1 to 2 cm length, and a simple wooden peg is inserted. After the wound has healed, which usually takes between two and three weeks, the peg is replaced with a slightly bigger one. At a diameter of about 4 cm, the first lip plate made of clay is inserted. Every woman crafts her own plate and takes pride in including some ornamentation. The final diameter ranges from about 8 cm to over 20 cm.


title: Lip plate

text: In 1990 Beckwith and Carter claimed that for Mursi and Surma women, the size of their lip plate indicates the number of cattle paid as the bride price. Anthropologist Turton, who studied the Mursi for 30 years, denies this. LaTosky, meanwhile, argues that most Mursi women use lip plates, and the value of the ornamentation lies within a discourse of female strength and self-esteem.


title: Lip plate

text: In contemporary culture, most girls of age 13 to 18 appear to decide whether or not to wear a lip plate. This adornment has caused the Mursi and Surma women to be treated as if they are a tourist attraction.


title: Lip plate

text: The largest lip plate recorded was in Ethiopia, measuring 59.5 cm (23.4 in) in circumference and 19.5 cm (7.6 in) wide, in 2014.


title: Lip plate

text: In South America among some Amazonian tribes, young males traditionally have their lips pierced and begin to wear plates when they enter the men's house and leave the world of women. Lip plates there are associated with oration and singing. The largest plates are worn by the greatest orators and war chiefs, such as Chief Raoni of the Kayapo tribe, a well known environmental campaigner. In South America, lip plates are nearly always made from light wood.


title: Lip plate

text: In the Pacific Northwest of North America, labrets have a long history of use, dating back at least five thousand years. At times they were used by both men and women, but in more recent times (e.g. 19th century) were associated with exclusive use by high ranking women.


title: Lip plate

text: Among the Haida, Tsimshian, and Tlingit, they were once used by women to symbolize social maturity by indicating a girl's eligibility to be a wife. The installation of a girl's first plate was celebrated with a sumptuous feast.


title: Lip plate

text: In western nations, some young people, including some members of the Modern Primitive movement, have adopted larger-gauge lip piercings, a few large enough for them to wear proper lip plates. Some examples are given on the BME website.


title: Lip plate

text: In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, African women wearing lip plates were brought to Europe and North America for exhibit in circuses and sideshows. Around 1930, Ringling Brothers and Barnum & Bailey promoted such women from the French Congo as members of the "Ubangi" tribe; the Ringling press agent admitted that he picked that name from a map for its exotic sound. The word "Ubangi" was still given a definition as an African tribe in 2009 in some English-language dictionaries. The word was used in this way in the 1937 Marx Brothers film "A Day at the Races".


title: Puruṣārtha

text: Purushartha (Sanskrit: पुरुषार्थ, IAST: ) literally means "object(ive) of men". It is a key concept in Hinduism, and refers to the four proper goals or aims of a human life. The four "puruṣārthas" are Dharma (righteousness, moral values), Artha (prosperity, economic values), Kama (pleasure, love, psychological values) and Moksha (liberation, spiritual values, self-actualization).


title: Puruṣārtha

text: All four "Purusharthas" are important, but in cases of conflict, "Dharma" is considered more important than "Artha" or "Kama" in Hindu philosophy. "Moksha" is considered the ultimate goal of human life. At the same time, this is not a consensus among all Hindus, and many have different interpretations of the hierarchy, and even as to whether one should exist.


title: Puruṣārtha

text: Historical Indian scholars recognized and debated the inherent tension between active pursuit of wealth (Artha) and pleasure (Kama), and renunciation of all wealth and pleasure for the sake of spiritual liberation (Moksha). They proposed "action with renunciation" or "craving-free, dharma-driven action", also called "Nishkama Karma" as a possible solution to the tension.


title: Puruṣārtha

text: "Puruṣārtha" (पुरुषार्थ) is a composite Sanskrit word from "Purusha" (पुरुष) and "Artha" (अर्थ). "Purusha" means "spirit", "immaterial essence", or "primaeval human being as the soul and original source of the universe".


title: Puruṣārtha

text: The fourth stage of "Sannyasa" is different, and the overwhelming consensus in ancient and medieval Indian texts is that anyone accepting "Sannyasa" must entirely devote to "Moksha" aided by "Dharma", with a complete renunciation of "Artha" and "Kama".


title: Puruṣārtha

text: With the known exception of Kamasutra, most texts make no recommendation on the relative preference on Artha or Kama, that an individual must emphasize in what stage of life. The Kamasutra states,


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: Bergdorf Goodman Inc. is a luxury department store based on Fifth Avenue in Midtown Manhattan, New York. The company was founded in 1899 by Herman Bergdorf and was later owned and managed by Edwin Goodman, and later his son, Andrew Goodman.


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: Today, Bergdorf Goodman operates from two stores situated across the street from each other at Fifth Avenue between 57th Street and 58th Streets. The main store, which opened at its current location in 1928, is located on the west side of Fifth Avenue. A separate men's store, established in 1990, is located on the east side of Fifth Avenue, directly across the street.


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: Bergdorf Goodman is a subsidiary of Neiman Marcus, which is owned by the private equity firm Ares Management.


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: The company traces its origins to 1899 when Herman Bergdorf, an immigrant from Alsace, opened a tailor shop just above Union Square in downtown Manhattan.


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: Edwin Goodman, a 23-year-old American Jewish merchant, based in Lockport, New York, moved to New York City to work as an apprentice for Bergdorf. Within two years, Goodman had raised enough money to purchase an interest in the business, which was renamed Bergdorf Goodman in 1901. In 1906, Bergdorf Goodman moved to a new location on 32nd Street, just west of Fifth Avenue and "Ladies' Mile". While Bergdorf preferred the less expensive side street location, Goodman prevailed with the new location and bought Bergdorf's interest in the company. Bergdorf would retire to Paris.


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: Although Goodman had developed a good business as a ladies' tailor on 32nd Street, he decided to move uptown in 1914. Goodman constructed a five-story building at 616 Fifth Avenue, on the site of what is today Rockefeller Center. In 1914, Goodman became the first couturier to introduce ready-to-wear, making Bergdorf Goodman a destination for American and French fashion.


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: The store moved to its present location at Fifth Avenue and 58th Street in 1928, building its Beaux-Arts style Bergdorf Goodman Building on the site of the Cornelius Vanderbilt II House. He was unsure of the success of the new store's location, as he was uncertain whether customers would follow the store uptown. So, Goodman designed the new store so that it could be subdivided into sections with storefronts that could be rented out if needed. Early tenants included Van Cleef & Arpels, the and Dobbs the Hatter. During the Great Depression, however, Goodman thrived, buying the entire building. Throughout the 1930s, Goodman purchased the mortgages of the surrounding businesses, eventually acquiring the entire block. During this period, Bergdorf Goodman was successful enough to have merited an expansion beyond the single store. However, Goodman preferred to operate in a single location where he would be able to personally maintain the quality of the merchandise and service.


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: Goodman's son, Andrew, assumed the role of president in 1951 and succeeded as head of the company in 1953, following the death of his father. Andrew was responsible for enhancing Bergdorf's reputation and expanding its range of merchandise and services.


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: During Andrew's tenure as chairman, Bergdorf opened a fur salon (headed by Emeric Partos from 1955-1975), developed the successful Bergdorf Goodman Number Nine perfume ("Love Potion Number Nine"), and created Miss Bergdorf, a ready-to-wear line for younger customers.


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: The Bergdorf Goodman Building began a $1 million expansion in 1959 ($ million today) into two adjacent buildings. The Boys and Girls gift shop expanded into a whole floor, and the beauty salon and bridal, fur and men's departments also expanded. Eight years later, a $2.5 million expansion in 1967 ($ million today) nearly doubled the store's area, to .


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: In 1972, Andrew Goodman sold Bergdorf Goodman to Broadway-Hale Stores, which would become Carter Hawley Hale Stores (CHH) for $12.5 million ($ million today). CHH had acquired Neiman Marcus, a three-unit operation at the time, in 1969. By the time of the sale, Bergdorf Goodman was the only large high-quality specialty store in the U.S. that remained independently owned. However, its decision not to build suburban branches left it with a relatively modest profit margin. Goodman remained the landlord of the store and kept a penthouse apartment on the building's top floor.


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: At first, CHH considered building branch locations, ultimately only constructing one location, in nearby White Plains, New York, in 1972. This location eventually became a Neiman Marcus branch in 1981. To combat its image difficulties, the company hired Dawn Mello in 1975 as vice president of fashion. She was successful in reinvigorating the conservative store and became president in 1984. She left her post in 1989 to work for the floundering Italian fashion house Gucci, though she returned to her post as president in 1994.


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: Bergdorf Goodman's parent company became the object of takeover bids in the 1980s. As a way to maintain its independence, Carter Hawley completed a major financial restructuring. In 1987, Bergdorf Goodman was spun-off, together with Neiman Marcus and Contempo Casuals, to form Neiman Marcus Group. The new company was headquartered in Dallas, Texas, where the significantly larger Neiman Marcus had been based for 80 years.


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: Chairman and CEO Ira Neimark expanded the women's store three times in the 1990s. He moved the men's store across the street to the former FAO Schwarz space at 745 Fifth Avenue in 1990. This move allowed more space for women's fashions. In 1997, the former Goodman family apartment on the building's ninth floor became the John Barrett Salon and Susan Ciminelli Day Spa. In 1999, the Beauty Level opened directly below the main floor, offering a luxury spa and Goodman's Café, serving lunch and afternoon tea.


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: In 2002, the Bergdorf Goodman Building underwent a major restoration, including a restoration of the main floor of the women's store. In 2003, the store introduced new boutiques for Chanel, Giorgio Armani, Gucci, Versace, and Yves Saint Laurent. The Bergdorf Goodman Men's store features exclusive brands such as Loro Piana, Kiton, Brunello Cucinelli, John Lobb, Thom Browne, Bontoni, Tom Ford, and Charvet.


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: On May 2, 2005, two private equity firms, Texas Pacific Group and Warburg Pincus, acquired the Neiman Marcus Group and its Bergdorf subsidiary, in a leveraged buyout (LBO).


title: Bergdorf Goodman

text: The store has been the subject of two documentary films: the 2001 film "Dita and the Family Business", exploring the store from the point of view of its owners, and the 2013 feature documentary "Scatter My Ashes at Bergdorf's", which features many testimonials from designers and celebrities. In 1953’s movie "How to Marry a Millionaire", Lauren Bacall, Betty Grable, and Marilyn Monroe consider “the mink department at Bergdorf’s” the ideal location to meet men. Cary Grant sent Doris Day on a shopping spree at the store in the 1962 movie "That Touch of Mink". The store has also made several appearances in the cartoon Neo Yokio. The protagonist, Kaz Kaan, and his rival, Arcangelo, both buy their suits from Bergdorf's. Most recently, Bergdorf Goodman was featured in a scene of the film "Ocean's 8" in which Sandra Bullock's character steals cosmetics from the store. In 2019, news journalist E. Jean Carroll alleged that Donald Trump had sexually assaulted her in a Bergdorf Goodman dressing room in the 1990s. The store was prominently featured in the film "Arthur" in 1981. The store was featured in the Miss Piggy/ Joan Rivers scene of "The Muppets Take Manhattan". The store was also featured in Sex and the City as a favorite shopping location of central character Carrie Bradshaw. It was particularly featured in the Sex and the City 2 movie.


title: Isabella Summers

text: Isabella Janet Florentina Summers (born October 31, 1980) is an English musician, songwriter, producer, remixer and composer. She is a founding member of English indie rock band Florence and the Machine.


title: Isabella Summers

text: Summers lived her first nine years in Hackney, London, and met Florence Welch as the young Summers would babysit Welch's younger sister Grace. When Summers was nine, her family moved to Aldeburgh, Suffolk. There Summers attended Woodbridge School, had piano lessons and grew an interest in music, crediting some influence from mixtapes made by her father with a very eclectic mixture of everything and anything from Beethoven to Bob Dylan, rarities, poetry, even the Shipping forecast". Hip-hop was a preferred genre, as her neighbours gave her a tape with Snoop Dogg's "Doggystyle" (1993) and "6 Feet Deep" (1994) by Gravediggaz, and she would also spend evenings with fishermen's sons "who smoked loads of weed and listened to hard American rap."


title: Isabella Summers

text: For her university years, Summers moved back to London in East Dulwich, where she would get a fine arts degree at Central Saint Martins. In the meantime she bought a set of DJ mixers to learn how to mix, while also doing side jobs such as being a runner for "Top of the Pops" and transcriptions and film digitizing for Alan Parker. Soon she was working with Dan Greenpeace on his 'All City Show' radio show on XFM London, an experience that led Summers to buy her first MPC which was installed at the cupboard of her shared flat. With the help of a friend she started a studio in a former plastics factory at Crystal Palace, and began making hip hop. During this time, Summers worked with, amongst others, Kashmere, The Iguana Man, IRS Crew, MBC Crew, Inja and The Last Skeptik. She would also have meetings with Welch during DJ work and art school, as Welch was attending the Camberwell College of Arts.


title: Isabella Summers

text: As Summers was hired to remix songs by the band Ludes, Welch became a more common sight at her studio given she was dating Ludes' guitarist Matt Alchin, and even impressed Summers with her singing. One day, as Summers got into a creative rut, which she described as getting "sick of boys telling me what to do", she thought of writing pop music with a woman, and invited Welch to make songs with her. Following a day joining Summers' beats with Welch's lyrics, soon they were creative partners, with Welch nicknaming Summers "Isabella Machine" for her electronic music skills. This led to their performing together for a time under the name Florence Robot/Isa Machine. The project was renamed Florence and the Machine as according to Welch "that name was so long it'd drive me mad." Summers had only thought of being a producer but ended up as the group's keyboardist, with her second gig being right at the 2007 Glastonbury Festival. Summers has writing and producing credits in Florence and the Machine's first three albums "Lungs" (2009), "Ceremonials" (2011) and "How Big, How Blue, How Beautiful" (2015), where she also played piano and percussion.


title: Isabella Summers

text: Summers has also written, produced and remixed tracks for artists including Beyoncé, Juliette Lewis, Jennifer Hudson, Jasmine Thompson, Cara Delevingne, Chloe x Halle, Flux Pavilion, Rita Ora, Judith Hill, LP and The Game.


title: Isabella Summers

text: Summers had created the main title song "Was It Love" for the Sky Atlantic series "Riviera", and provided her friend Sam Levinson the song "Rage" for his film "Assassination Nation" (2018), when right after finishing the High as Hope Tour, that film's music supervisor Mary Ramos invited Summers for her first composing gig in a team-up with Mark Isham, scoring the Hulu miniseries "Little Fires Everywhere", which won her a Primetime Emmy Award nomination. Summers followed it by composing the score for the Prime Video series "Panic" alongside Brian H. Kim, and Netflix's "Sex/Life" in another collaboration with Isham. Her first solo composing gig was the Apple TV show "Physical", whose 1980s setting led to a score full of "crazy synths and over-the-top guitar solos". Afterwards Summers scored her first movie, "Call Jane" (2022), and the Paramount+ show "The Offer".


title: Isabella Summers

text: Summers is working on her first solo album which is set for release in spring 2022. It will feature multiple guest vocalists.


title: Grytviken

text: Grytviken ( ) is a settlement on South Georgia in the South Atlantic and formerly a whaling station and the largest settlement on the island. It is located at the head of King Edward Cove within the larger Cumberland East Bay, considered the best harbour on the island. The location's name, meaning "pot bay", was coined in 1902 by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition and documented by the surveyor Johan Gunnar Andersson, after the expedition found old English try pots used to render seal oil at the site. Settlement was re-established on 16 November 1904 by Norwegian Antarctic explorer Carl Anton Larsen on the long-used site of former whaling settlements.


title: Grytviken

text: Grytviken is built on a substantial area of sheltered, flat land and has a good supply of fresh water. Although it was the largest settlement on South Georgia, the island's administration was based at the nearby British Antarctic Survey research station at King Edward Point. The whaling station closed in December 1966 when dwindling whale stocks made it uneconomical.


title: Grytviken

text: Grytviken no longer has permanent residents but occasionally accommodates researchers and British administrative and military personnel. It is also temporarily inhabited during summer months by a few staff who manage the South Georgia Museum. The settlement has become a popular attraction for Antarctic cruise lines, with many tourists visiting the resting places of polar explorers Sir Ernest Shackleton and Frank Wild in Grytviken's graveyard.


title: Grytviken

text: The settlement at Grytviken was established on 16 November 1904 by the Norwegian sea captain Carl Anton Larsen, as a whaling station for his "Compañía Argentina de Pesca" (Argentine Fishing Company). It was successful, with 195 whales taken in the first season. The whalers used every part of the animals – the blubber, meat, bones and viscera were rendered to extract the oil, and the bones and meat were turned into fertiliser and fodder. Elephant seals were also hunted for their blubber. Around 300 men worked at the station during its heyday, operating during the southern summer from October to March. A few remained over the winter to maintain the boats and factory. Every few months a transport ship would bring essential supplies to the station and take away the oil and other produce. The following year the Argentine Government established a meteorological station.


title: Grytviken

text: Carl Anton Larsen, the founder of Grytviken, was a naturalised Briton born in Sandefjord, Norway. In his application for British citizenship, filed with the magistrate of South Georgia and granted in 1910, Captain Larsen wrote: "I have given up my Norwegian citizen's rights and have resided here since I started whaling in this colony on the 16 November 1904 and have no reason to be of any other citizenship than British, as I have had and intend to have my residence here still for a long time." His family in Grytviken included his wife, three daughters and two sons.


title: Grytviken

text: As the manager of Compañía Argentina de Pesca, Larsen organised the construction of Grytviken, a remarkable undertaking accomplished by a team of sixty Norwegians between their arrival on 16 November and commencement of production at the newly built whale-oil factory on 24 December 1904.


title: Grytviken

text: Larsen chose the whaling station's site during his 1902 visit while in command of the ship "Antarctic" of the Swedish Antarctic Expedition (1901–03) led by Otto Nordenskjöld. On that occasion, the name Grytviken ("The Pot Cove") was given by the Swedish archaeologist and geologist Johan Gunnar Andersson who surveyed part of Thatcher Peninsula and found numerous artefacts and features from sealers’ habitation and industry, including a shallop (a type of small boat) and several try-pots used to boil seal oil. One of those try-pots, having the inscription ‘Johnson and Sons, Wapping Dock, London’ is preserved at the South Georgia Museum in Grytviken.


title: Grytviken

text: Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often had their families living together with them. Among them was Fridthjof Jacobsen whose wife Klara Olette Jacobsen gave birth to two of their children in Grytviken; their daughter Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen was the first child ever born and raised south of the Antarctic Convergence, on 8 October 1913. Several more children have been born on South Georgia: recently even aboard visiting private yachts.


title: Grytviken

text: The whale population in the seas around the island was substantially reduced over the following sixty years until the station closed in December 1966, by which time the whale stocks were so low that their continued exploitation was unviable. Even now, the shore around Grytviken is littered with whale bones and the rusting remains of whale oil processing plants and abandoned whaling ships.


title: Grytviken

text: Grytviken is closely associated with the explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton. Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition set out from London on 1 August 1914, to reach the Weddell Sea on 10 January 1915, where the pack ice closed in on their ship, . The ship was broken by the ice on 27 October 1915. The 28 crew members managed to flee to Elephant Island off Antarctica, bringing three small boats with them. Shackleton and five other men managed to reach the southern coast of South Georgia in . They arrived at Cave Cove, and camped at Peggotty Bluff, from where they trekked to Stromness on the northeast coast. From Grytviken, Shackleton organised a rescue operation to bring home the remaining men.


title: Grytviken

text: He again returned to Grytviken during the Shackleton-Rowett Expedition and this is where he died, shortly after New Year's Day, prior to the expedition heading south to Antarctica. His widow chose South Georgia as his final resting place so this is where he remained. His grave is located south of Grytviken, alongside those of whalers who had died on the island.


title: Grytviken

text: On 27 November 2011, the ashes of Frank Wild, Shackleton's "right-hand man," were interred on the right side of Shackleton's grave-site. The inscription on the rough-hewn granite block set to mark the spot reads "Frank Wild 1873–1939, Shackleton's right-hand man." Wild's relatives and Shackleton's only granddaughter, Alexandra Shackleton, attended a service conducted by Richard Hines, rector of the Falkland Islands. The writer Angie Butler discovered the ashes in the vault of Braamfontein Cemetery, Johannesburg, while researching her book "The Quest for Frank Wild". She said "His ashes will now be where they were always supposed to be. It just took them a long time getting there."


title: Grytviken

text: During the Falklands War, Grytviken was captured by Argentine forces in early April 1982 following a brief battle with Royal Marines. The Royal Marines, SAS and SBS retook the settlement three weeks later without a shot being fired in return.


title: Grytviken

text: Supported by the corvette on 3 April 1982, ARA "Bahía Paraíso" landed a party of Argentine marines who attacked the platoon of 22 Royal Marines deployed at Grytviken. The two-hour battle resulted in ARA "Guerrico" being damaged and an Argentine Puma helicopter shot down. The Argentine forces sustained three men killed and a similar number of wounded, with one wounded on the British side. The British commanding officer Lieutenant Keith Mills was awarded a Distinguished Service Cross for the defence of South Georgia.


title: Grytviken

text: While the British magistrate and other civilians and military present in Grytviken were removed from South Georgia, another 15 Britons remained beyond Argentine reach. The losses suffered at Grytviken prevented Argentina from occupying the rest of the island, with Bird Island base, and field camps at Schlieper Bay, Lyell Glacier and St. Andrew's Bay remaining under British control.


title: Grytviken

text: On 25 April, the Royal Navy damaged and captured the Argentine submarine at South Georgia. The Argentine garrison in Grytviken surrendered without returning fire. The following day the detachment in Leith Harbour commanded by Captain Alfredo Astiz also surrendered. One prisoner, Felix Artuso, was shot when guards mistakenly believed he was trying to sabotage "Santa Fe", and was buried at Grytviken Cemetery. The Argentine personnel were removed from the South Sandwich Islands by HMS "Endurance" on 20 June. Due to evidence of an unauthorised visit, the closed station Corbeta Uruguay was destroyed in January 1983.


title: Grytviken

text: Along with the surrounding area, the station has been declared an Area of Special Tourist Interest (ASTI).


title: Grytviken

text: Grytviken is a popular stop for cruise ships visiting Antarctica, and tourists usually land to visit Shackleton's grave. The South Georgia Museum is housed in the manager's house of the former whaling station, and is open during the summer tourist season.


title: Grytviken

text: The station's church is the only building which retains its original purpose; it is still used occasionally for services. There have been several marriages in Grytviken, the first being registered on 24 February 1932, between A.G.N. Jones and Vera Riches.


title: Grytviken

text: On 28 January 2007, a service was conducted in remembrance of Anders Hansen (a Norwegian whaler buried at Grytviken Cemetery in 1943) and to celebrate his great-great-grandson Axel Wattø Eide's baptism occurring in Oslo the same day.


title: Grytviken

text: Multiple wrecks dot Grytviken, and its environs. The ships , and were beached, and left to rust, after decades of service.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: Dona Maria I (17 December 1734 – 20 March 1816) was Queen of Portugal from 24 February 1777 until her death in 1816. Known as Maria the Pious in Portugal and Maria the Mad in Brazil, she was the first undisputed queen regnant of Portugal and the first monarch of Brazil.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: Maria was the eldest daughter of King Dom José I (Joseph I) of Portugal and Infanta Doña Mariana Victoria of Spain. As the heir to the throne, she held the titles of Princess of Brazil and Duchess of Braganza. She married her uncle Infante Dom Pedro (Peter) in 1760. They had six children, of whom three survived infancy: Dom José (Joseph), Prince of Brazil; King Dom João VI (John VI) of Portugal; and Infanta Mariana Vitória. The death of King José in 1777 placed Maria, then 42 years old, on the throne. Her husband Pedro was nominally king alongside her as Dom Pedro III.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: Upon ascending the throne, Maria dismissed her father's powerful chief minister, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal. The early part of Maria's reign witnessed growth in Portugal's economy. Maria had a number of national buildings constructed and renovated, leading to the completion of the Palace of Queluz and the inauguration of the Palace of Ajuda and other new monuments. The death of her husband in 1786, followed by the deaths in 1788 of her eldest son José and her confessor Inácio de São Caetano, caused the queen to develop clinical depression. Her second son, João, then served as prince regent. With Napoleon's European conquests, Maria and her court moved to the Portuguese colony of Brazil in 1807. After Brazil was elevated to a kingdom in 1815, Maria became Queen of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Upon her death in 1816, her son succeeded her as King Dom João VI.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: Maria was born at the Ribeira Palace in Lisbon and baptized Maria Francisca Isabel Josefa Antónia Gertrudes Rita Joana. She was the eldest of four daughters born to Dom José (Joseph), Prince of Brazil (later King Dom José I of Portugal), and Infanta Mariana Victoria of Spain. Her father José was the son of the reigning King Dom João V (John V) of Portugal and his wife Maria Anna of Austria. Her mother, Mariana Victoria, was the eldest daughter of King Don Felipe V (Philip V) of Spain and Queen Elisabeth Farnese. King João appointed his granddaughter Maria as the Princess of Beira on the day of her birth.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: Maria's grandfather João V died on 31 July 1750. Her father, Prince José, then succeeded to the throne as Dom José I. As José's eldest child, Maria became his heir presumptive and was given the traditional titles of Princess of Brazil and Duchess of Braganza.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: King José's government was dominated completely by Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal. The king would often retire to the Palace of Queluz, which he later gave to his daughter, Princess Maria, and his brother and son-in-law, Infante Pedro (Peter). The Marquis of Pombal secured control of the government after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, in which around 100,000 people lost their lives. The palace of Maria's birth was also destroyed in the disaster.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: After the earthquake, King José was often uncomfortable at the thought of staying in enclosed spaces, and later experienced claustrophobia. The king had a palace built in Ajuda, away from the city centre. This palace became known as Real Barraca de Ajuda (Royal Hut at Ajuda) because it was made of wood. The family spent much time at the large palace. (The palace was the birthplace of Maria's first child, José, .) In 1794 the palace burned to the ground and the Palace of Ajuda was built in its place.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: On 6 June 1760 Maria married the king's younger brother, her uncle Pedro (later King Dom Pedro III of Portugal). Maria and Pedro had six children: José, João Francisco, João (later King Dom João VI), Mariana Vitória, Maria Clementina, and Maria Isabel. Only José, João, and Mariana Vitória survived to adulthood. Maria also delivered a stillborn boy in 1762.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: King José died on 24 February 1777. His daughter, Maria, then became the first undisputed queen regnant of Portugal. With Maria's accession, her husband became nominal king as Dom Pedro III, but the actual regal authority was vested solely in Maria, as she was the lineal heir of the crown. Also, as Pedro's kingship was "jure uxoris" only, his reign would cease in the event of Maria's death, and the crown would pass to Maria's descendants. However, Pedro predeceased his wife in 1786. Maria is considered to have been a good ruler in the period prior to her madness. Her first act as queen was to dismiss the popular secretary of state of the kingdom, the Marquis of Pombal, who had broken the power of the reactionary aristocracy via the Távora affair, partially because of his Enlightenment, anti-Jesuit policies. Noteworthy events of this period include Portugal's membership in the League of Armed Neutrality (July 1782) and the 1781 cession of Delagoa Bay from Austria to Portugal. However, the queen had religious mania and melancholia and this would take a toll on her health. This acute mental illness (perhaps due to porphyria) made her incapable of handling state affairs after 1792.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: On January 5, 1785, the queen issued a charter imposing heavy restrictions on industrial activity in Brazil; how, for example, it prohibited the manufacture of fabrics and other products, extinguishing all textile manufactures in the colony, except the industry of coarse cloth for the use of slaves and workers; since the Portuguese colonial administration did not look favorably on the development of industrial activities in Brazil for fear of economic and, perhaps, political independence. During her reign, the trial, conviction and execution of ensign Joaquim José da Silva Xavier, known as Tiradentes, took place in 1789.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: Maria's madness was first officially noticed in 1786, when she had to be carried back to her apartments in a state of delirium. Afterward, the queen's mental state became increasingly worse. On 25 May 1786, her husband died; Maria was devastated and forbade any court entertainments. According to a contemporary account, state festivities began to resemble religious ceremonies. The queen's eldest son and heir, Prince Dom José, died aged 27 from smallpox on 11 September 1788, and her confessor Inácio de São Caetano, Titular Archbishop of Salonica, died in November that year. These deaths may have resulted in Queen Maria developing major depressive disorder. Another potential cause was her incestuous ancestry; this is substantiated by two of her sisters having had similar conditions.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: In February 1792, Maria was deemed insane and was treated by Francis Willis, the same physician who attended the British king George III. Willis wanted to take her to England, but the plan was refused by the Portuguese court. Potentially as a result of Willis' more advisory role in Maria's care, rather than the hands-on care of King George III, Willis deemed the queen incurable. Maria's second son, Dom João (John), now Prince of Brazil, took over the government in her name, even though he only took the title of Prince Regent in 1799. When the Real Barraca de Ajuda burnt down in 1794, the court was forced to move to Queluz, where the ill queen would lie in her apartments all day. Visitors would complain of terrible screams that would echo throughout the palace.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: In 1801 Spanish Prime Minister Manuel de Godoy sent an army to invade Portugal with backing from the French leader Napoleon, resulting in the War of the Oranges. Though the Spanish ended their invasion, the Treaty of Badajoz on 6 June 1801 forced Portugal to cede Olivença and other border towns to Spain. (This cession is not recognized by the present Portuguese government, and the country officially considers those territories still to be Portuguese possessions.) On 29 September 1801 Prince Dom João signed the Treaty of Madrid (1801), ceding half of Portuguese Guyana to France, which became French Guiana.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: The refusal of the Portuguese government to join the French-sponsored Continental Blockade against Britain culminated in the late 1807 Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal led by General Jean-Andoche Junot. The ultimate Napoleonic plan for Portugal was to split it into three sections. The northern parts of Portugal, from the Douro to the Minho, would become the Kingdom of Northern Lusitania, and its throne was promised to King Louis II of Etruria. The Alentejo Province and Kingdom of the Algarve would be merged to form the "Principality of the Algarves", of which Manuel de Godoy would be sovereign. The remaining portion of Portugal would have been directly ruled by France.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: At the urging of the British government, the entire House of Braganza decided to flee on 29 November 1807 to establish a government in exile in the Portuguese Viceroyalty of Brazil. Along with the royal family, Maria was transported aboard the carrack "Príncipe Real". During her move from the royal palace to the docks she was heard screaming throughout the trip, in the middle of the crowd and in the carriage. The queen's dementia was so great that she feared that she was going to be tortured or robbed during her movement by her servants.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: In January 1808 Prince Regent João and his court arrived in Salvador da Bahia. Under pressure by local aristocracy and the British, the prince regent signed a commercial regulation after his arrival that opened commerce between Brazil and friendly nations, which in this case represented the interests of Great Britain above all. This law broke an important colonial pact that had previously allowed Brazil to maintain direct commercial relations only with Portugal.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: On 1 August 1808 British General Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) landed a British army in Lisbon to initiate the Peninsular War. The impact of Wellesley's initial victory over Junot at the Battle of Vimeiro (21 August 1808) was wiped out by his superiors in the Convention of Cintra (30 August 1808), which allowed the defeated French troops to evacuate peacefully from Portugal.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: Wellesley (soon to be made Lord Wellington) returned to Portugal on 22 April 1809 to recommence the campaign. Portuguese forces under British command distinguished themselves in the defence of the Lines of Torres Vedras (1809–1810) and in the subsequent invasion of Spain and France. In 1815 Prince João's government elevated Brazil to the status of a kingdom, and Maria was proclaimed Queen of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. When Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815, Maria and her family remained in Brazil.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: Maria lived in Brazil for a total of eight years, always in a state of incapacitation. In 1816, she died at the Carmo Convent in Rio de Janeiro at the age of 81. After her death, the prince regent was acclaimed as King Dom João VI. In 1821, Maria's body was returned to Lisbon to be interred in a mausoleum in the Estrela Basilica (), which she had helped found.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: Maria is a greatly admired figure in both Brazil and Portugal due to the tremendous changes and events that took place during her reign. In Portugal, she is celebrated as a strong female figure. Her legacy shines at Portugal's Queluz Palace, a baroque-roccoco masterpiece that she helped conceive. A large statue of her stands in front of the palace, and a pousada near the palace is named in her honour. A large marble statue of the queen was erected at the Portuguese National Library in Lisbon by the students of Joaquim Machado de Castro.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: In Brazil, Maria is admired as a key figure in the eventual independence of Brazil. It was during her reign, albeit through the government of her son's regency, that many of the national institutions and organizations in Brazil were created. These institutions were the precursors to their modern-day equivalents and granted large degree of power to the Brazilian colonials. While she is often called "A Louca" (the Mad) in Brazil, Brazilian and Portuguese historians hold her in high esteem.


title: Maria I of Portugal

text: Maria married her uncle Pedro on 6 June 1760. At the time of their marriage, Maria was 25 and Pedro was 42. Despite the age gap, the couple had a happy marriage. Upon Maria's accession in 1777, her husband became the nominal King Dom Pedro III of Portugal.


title: Religion in Poland

text: Poland has historically been one of the most religious countries in Europe, although surveys have found rapid and accelerating secularization. A 2018 survey by "Pew Research Center" found that, among those under the age of 45, the nation was the fastest secularizing among 106 nations measured. Though varied religious communities exist in Poland, most Poles adhere to Christianity. Within this, the largest grouping is the Roman Catholic Church: 91.9% of the population identified themselves with that denomination in 2018 and, according to the Institute for Catholic Church Statistics, 36.7% of Polish Catholic believers attended Sunday Mass in 2015. Poland has historically been one of the most Catholic countries in the world; Neal Pease describes Poland as "Rome's Most Faithful Daughter."


title: Religion in Poland

text: Roman Catholicism continues to be important in the lives of many Poles, and the Catholic Church in Poland enjoys social prestige and political influence. Its members regard it as a repository of Polish heritage and culture. Poland lays claim to having the highest proportion of Roman Catholic citizens of any country in Europe except Malta and San Marino (higher than in Italy, Spain, and Ireland, all countries in which the Roman Catholic Church has been the sole established religion).


title: Religion in Poland

text: The current extent of this numerical dominance results largely from The Holocaust of Jews living in Poland carried out by Nazi Germany and the World War II casualties among Polish religious minorities, as well as the flight and expulsion of Germans, many of whom were not Roman Catholics, at the end of World War II.


title: Religion in Poland

text: The rest of the population consists mainly of Eastern Orthodox (Polish Orthodox Church – approximately 507,196 believers), various Protestant churches (the largest of which is the Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Poland, with 61,217 members) and Jehovah's Witnesses (116,935). There are about 55,000 Greek Catholics in Poland. Other religions practiced in Poland, by less than 0.1% of the population, include Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism.


title: Religion in Poland

text: According to 2018 statistics assembled by Statistics Poland, 93.5% of the population is affiliated with a religion; 3.1% do not belong to any religion. The most practiced religion was Roman Catholicism, whose followers comprised the 91.9% of the population, followed by the Eastern Orthodox with 0.9% (rising from 0.4% in 2011, caused in part by recent immigration from Ukraine), Jehovah's Witnesses with 0.2%, and various Protestant denominations comprising 0.3% of the Polish population and 0.1 of Greek Catholic Churches. In 2015, 61.1% of the population gave religion high to very high importance whilst 13.8% regarded religion as of little or no importance. The percentage of believers is much higher in the eastern parts of Poland.


title: Religion in Poland

text: For centuries the ancient West Slavic and Lechitic peoples inhabiting the lands of modern-day Poland have practiced various forms of paganism known as Rodzimowierstwo (“"native faith"”). From the beginning of its statehood, different religions coexisted in Poland. With the baptism of Poland in 966, the old pagan religions were gradually eradicated over the next few centuries during the Christianization of Poland. However, this did not put an end to pagan beliefs in the country. The persistence was demonstrated by a series of rebellions known as the Pagan reaction in the first half of the 11th century, which also showed elements of a peasant uprising against landowners and feudalism, and led to a mutiny that destabilized the country. By the 13th century Catholicism had become the dominant religion throughout the country. Nevertheless, Christian Poles coexisted with a significant Jewish segment of the population.


title: Religion in Poland

text: In the 15th century, the Hussite Wars and the pressure from the papacy led to religious tensions between Catholics and the emergent Hussite and subsequent Protestant community, particularly after the Edict of Wieluń (1424). The Protestant movement gained a significant following in Poland and, though Roman Catholicism retained a dominant position within the state, the liberal Warsaw Confederation (1573) guaranteed wide religious tolerance. But the reactionary movement succeeded in reducing the scope for tolerance by the late 17th and early 18th century – as evidenced by events such as the Tumult of Toruń (1724).


title: Religion in Poland

text: When Poland was divided between its neighbors in the late eighteenth century, some Poles were subjected to religious discrimination in the newly expanded German Prussia and Russia.


title: Religion in Poland

text: Prior to the Second World War, some 3,500,000 Polish Jews (about 10% of the national population) lived in the Polish Second Republic, largely in cities. Between the Germano-Soviet invasions of Poland and the end of World War II, over 90% of Jews in Poland perished. The Holocaust (called the "Shoah" in Hebrew) took the lives of more than three million mostly Ashkenazi Jews in Poland. Comparatively few managed to survive the German occupation or to escape eastward into the territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union, beyond the reach of the Nazi Germany. As elsewhere in Europe during the interwar period, there was both official and popular anti-Semitism in Poland, at times encouraged by the Roman Catholic Church and by some political parties (particularly the right-wing "endecja" and small ONR groups and factions), but not directly by the Polish government itself.


title: Religion in Poland

text: According to a 2011 survey by Ipsos MORI, 85% of the Poles remain Christians; 8% are irreligious, atheist, or agnostic; 2% adhere to unspecified other religions; and 5% did not answer the question.


title: Religion in Poland

text: The Polish Constitution assures freedom of religion for all. The Constitution also grants national and ethnic minorities the rights to establish educational and cultural institutions and institutions designed to protect religious identity, as well as to participate in the resolution of matters connected with their cultural identities.


title: Religion in Poland

text: Religious organizations in the Republic of Poland can register their institution with the Ministry of Interior and Administration, creating a record of churches and other religious organizations which operate under separate Polish laws. This registration is not necessary, but it does serve the laws guaranteeing freedom of religious practice.


title: Religion in Poland

text: Slavic Rodzimowiercy groups registered with the Polish authorities in 1995 are the Native Polish Church (Rodzimy Kościół Polski), which represents a pagan tradition which goes back to pre-Christian faiths and continues Władysław Kołodziej's 1921 Holy Circle of Worshipper of Światowid (Święte Koło Czcicieli Światowida), and the Polish Slavic Church (Polski Kościół Słowiański). This native Slavic religion is promoted also by the Native Faith Association (Zrzeszenie Rodzimej Wiary, ZRW), and the Association for Tradition founded in 2015.


title: Religion in Poland

text: Around 125 faith groups and minor religions are registered in Poland. Data for 2018 provided by Główny Urząd Statystyczny, Poland's Central Statistical Office.


title: Religion in Poland

text: According to an opinion poll conducted in "a representative group of 1,000 people" by the Centre for Public Opinion Research (CBOS), published in 2015, 39% of Poles claim they are "believers following the Church's laws", while 52% answered that they are "believers in their own understanding and way", and 5% stated that they are atheists.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: A number of hypotheses exist on many of the key issues regarding the domestication of the horse. Although horses appeared in Paleolithic cave art as early as 30,000 BCE, these were wild horses and were probably hunted for meat.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: How and when horses became domesticated has been disputed. The clearest evidence of early use of the horse as a means of transport is from chariot burials dated c. 2000 BCE. However, an increasing amount of evidence began to support the hypothesis that horses were domesticated in the Eurasian Steppes in approximately 3500 BCE.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Discoveries in the context of the Botai culture had suggested that Botai settlements in the Akmola Province of Kazakhstan are the location of the earliest domestication of the horse. Warmouth et al. (2012) pointed to horses having been domesticated around 3,000 BC in what is now Ukraine and Western Kazakhstan.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Genetic evidence indicates that domestication of the modern horse's ancestors likely occurred in an area known as the Volga-Don, in the Pontic–Caspian steppe region of Western Eurasia, around 2200 BCE. From there, use of horses spread across Eurasia for transportation, agricultural work, and warfare. Scientists have linked the successful spread of domesticated horses to observed genetic changes. They speculate that stronger backs (GSDMC gene) and increased docility (ZFPM1 gene) may have made horses more suitable for riding.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: The date of the domestication of the horse depends to some degree upon the definition of "domestication". Some zoologists define "domestication" as human control over breeding, which can be detected in ancient skeletal samples by changes in the size and variability of ancient horse populations. Other researchers look at the broader evidence, including skeletal and dental evidence of working activity; weapons, art, and spiritual artifacts; and lifestyle patterns of human cultures. There is evidence that horses were kept as a source of meat and milk before they were trained as working animals.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Attempts to date domestication by genetic study or analysis of physical remains rest on the assumption that there was a separation of the genotypes of domesticated and wild populations. Such a separation appears to have taken place, but dates based on such methods can only produce an estimate of the latest possible date for domestication without excluding the possibility of an unknown period of earlier gene flow between wild and domestic populations (which will occur naturally as long as the domesticated population is kept within the habitat of the wild population).


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Whether one adopts the narrower zoological definition of domestication or the broader cultural definition that rests on an array of zoological and archaeological evidence affects the time frame chosen for the domestication of the horse. The date of 4000 BCE is based on evidence that includes the appearance of dental pathologies associated with bitting, changes in butchering practices, changes in human economies and settlement patterns, the depiction of horses as symbols of power in artifacts, and the appearance of horse bones in human graves. On the other hand, measurable changes in size and increases in variability associated with domestication occurred later, about 2500–2000 BCE, as seen in horse remains found at the site of Csepel-Haros in Hungary, a settlement of the Bell Beaker culture.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Use of horses spread across Eurasia for transportation, agricultural work and warfare. Horses and mules in agriculture used a breastplate type harness or a yoke more suitable for oxen, which was not as efficient at utilizing the full strength of the animals as the later-invented padded horse collar that arose several millennia later.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: A 2005 study analyzed the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of a worldwide range of equids, from 53,000-year-old fossils to contemporary horses. Their analysis placed all equids into a single clade, or group with a single common ancestor, consisting of three genetically divergent species: the South American "Hippidion", the North American New World stilt-legged horse, and "equus", the true horse. The true horse included prehistoric horses and the Przewalski's horse, as well as what is now the modern domestic horse, belonged to a single Holarctic species.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: The true horse migrated from the Americas to Eurasia via Beringia, becoming broadly distributed from North America to central Europe, north and south of Pleistocene ice sheets. It became extinct in Beringia around 14,200 years ago, and in the rest of the Americas around 10,000 years ago. This clade survived in Eurasia, however, and it is from these horses which all domestic horses appear to have descended. These horses showed little phylogeographic structure, probably reflecting their high degree of mobility and adaptability.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Therefore, the domestic horse today is classified as "Equus ferus caballus". No genetic originals of native wild horses currently exist. The Przewalski diverged from the modern horse before domestication. It has 66 chromosomes, as opposed to 64 among modern domesticated horses, and their Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) forms a distinct cluster. Genetic evidence suggests that modern Przewalski's horses are descended from a distinct regional gene pool in the eastern part of the Eurasian steppes, not from the same genetic group that gave rise to modern domesticated horses. Nevertheless, evidence such as the cave paintings of Lascaux suggests that the ancient wild horses that some researchers now label the "Tarpan subtype" probably resembled Przewalski horses in their general appearance: big heads, dun coloration, thick necks, stiff upright manes, and relatively short, stout legs.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: The horses of the Ice Age were hunted for meat in Europe and across the Eurasian steppes and in North America by early modern humans. Numerous kill sites exist and many cave paintings in Europe indicate what they looked like. Many of these Ice Age subspecies died out during the rapid climate changes associated with the end of the last Ice Age or were hunted out by humans, particularly in North America, where the horse became completely extinct.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Classification based on body types and conformation, before the availability of DNA for research, once suggested that there were roughly four basic wild prototypes, thought to have developed with adaptations to their environment before domestication. There were competing theories: some argued that the four prototypes were separate species or subspecies, while others suggested that the prototypes were physically different manifestations of the same species. However, more recent study indicates that there was only one wild species and all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding or landrace adaptation after domestication. Either way, the most common theories of prototypes include four base prototypes:


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Two "wild" groups, that were believed to be never-domesticated, survived into historic times: Przewalski's horse ("Equus ferus przewalski"), and the Tarpan ("Equus ferus ferus"). The Tarpan became extinct in the late 19th century and Przewalski's horse is endangered; it became extinct in the wild during the 1960s, but was re-introduced in the late 1980s to two preserves in Mongolia. Although researchers such as Marija Gimbutas theorized that the horses of the Chalcolithic period were Przewalski's, more recent genetic studies indicate that Przewalski's horse is not an ancestor to modern domesticated horses.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: A 2014 study compared DNA from ancient horse bones that predated domestication and compared them to DNA of modern horses, discovering 125 genes that correlated to domestication. Some were physical, affecting muscle and limb development, cardiac strength and balance. Others were linked to cognitive function and most likely were critical to the taming of the horse, including social behavior, learning capabilities, fear response, and agreeableness. The DNA used in this study came from horse bones 16,000 to 43,000 years ago, and therefore the precise changes that occurred at the time of domestication have yet to be sequenced.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: The domestication of stallions and mares can be analyzed separately by looking at those portions of the DNA that are passed on exclusively along the maternal (mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA) or paternal line (Y-chromosome or Y-DNA). DNA studies indicate that there may have been multiple domestication events for mares, as the number of female lines required to account for the genetic diversity of the modern horse suggests a minimum of 77 different ancestral mares, divided into 17 distinct lineages. On the other hand, genetic evidence with regard to the domestication of stallions points at a single domestication event for a limited number of stallions combined with repeated restocking of wild females into the domesticated herds.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: A study published in 2012 that performed genomic sampling on 300 work horses from local areas as well as a review of previous studies of archaeology, mitochondrial DNA, and Y-DNA suggested that horses were originally domesticated in the western part of the Eurasian steppe. Both domesticated stallions and mares spread out from this area, and then additional wild mares were added from local herds; wild mares were easier to handle than wild stallions. Most other parts of the world were ruled out as sites for horse domestication, either due to climate unsuitable for an indigenous wild horse population or no evidence of domestication.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Genes located on the Y-chromosome are inherited only from sire to its male offspring and these lines show a very reduced degree of genetic variation (aka genetic homogeneity) in modern domestic horses, far less than expected based on the overall genetic variation in the remaining genetic material. This indicates that a relatively few stallions were domesticated and that it is unlikely that many male offspring originating from unions between wild stallions and domestic mares were included in early domesticated breeding stock.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Genes located in the mitochondrial DNA are passed on along the maternal line from the mother to her offspring. Multiple analyses of the mitochondrial DNA obtained from modern horses as well as from horse bones and teeth from archaeological and palaeological finds consistently shows an increased genetic diversity in the mitochondrial DNA compared to the remaining DNA, showing that a large number of mares has been included into the breeding stock of the originally domesticated horse.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Variation in the mitochondrial DNA is used to determine so-called haplogroups. A haplogroup is a group of closely related haplotypes that share the same common ancestor. In horses, eighteen main haplogroups are recognized (A-R). Several haplogroups are unequally distributed around the world, indicating the addition of local wild mares to the domesticated stock.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: In 2018, genomic comparison of 42 ancient-horse genomes, 20 of which were from Botai, with 46 published ancient and modern-horse genomes yielded surprising results. It was found that modern domestic horses are not closely related to the horses at Botai. Rather, Przewalski’s horses were identified as feral descendants of horses herded at Botai. Evidence suggested that "a massive genomic turnover" had occurred along with the domestication of horses and large-scale human population expansion in the Early Bronze Age.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Subsequent research showed that horse lineages from Iberia and Siberia, also associated with early domestication, had little influence on the genetics of modern domestic horses.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: More than 150 scientists collaborated in gathering 264 ancient horse genomes from across Eurasia, dating from 50,000 to 200 B.C.E. In October 2021, results of the analysis were published in "Nature". They indicated that domestication of the modern horse's ancestors likely occurred in the Volga-Don region of the Pontic–Caspian steppe grasslands of Western Eurasia. Both tarpan and Przewalski’s horse were related to different ancestral populations than those underlying the modern domestic horses (DOM2).


title: Domestication of the horse

text: In addition, researchers were able to map population changes over time as modern domestic horses expanded rapidly across Eurasia and displaced other local populations, from about 2000 BCE onwards. The genetic profile for DOM2 horses is associated with horses buried in Sintashta kurgans with early spoke-wheeled chariots, and with horses in Central Anatolia where two-wheeled vehicles were depicted. DOM2 horses also occur in some areas prior to the earliest evidence for chariots, suggesting that both horseback riding and chariot use were factors in expansion.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Genetic data may also provide clues as to why this particular domestication event had far more widespread impact than other domestication events in Botai, Iberia, SIberia and Anatolia. The genetic lineage that leads to modern domestic horses shows evidence of strong selection for locomotor and behavioural adaptations. Changes relate to the GSDMC gene and the ZFPM1 gene. The GSDMC gene is linked to back problems in people, and scientists speculate that changes may have made horses' backs stronger. The ZFPM1 gene is related to mood regulation, and scientists speculate that this may have made horses more docile and easier to tame and manage. Strength and docility would have made horses more suitable for riding and other uses.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from three kinds of sources: 1) changes in the skeletons and teeth of ancient horses; 2) changes in the geographic distribution of ancient horses, particularly the introduction of horses into regions where no wild horses had existed; and


title: Domestication of the horse

text: 3) archaeological sites containing artifacts, images, or evidence of changes in human behavior connected with horses.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Examples include horse remains interred in human graves; changes in the ages and sexes of the horses killed by humans; the appearance of horse corrals; equipment such as bits or other types of horse tack; horses interred with equipment intended for use by horses, such as chariots; and depictions of horses used for riding, driving, draught work, or symbols of human power.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Few of these categories, taken alone, provide irrefutable evidence of domestication, but the cumulative evidence becomes increasingly more persuasive.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: The least ancient, but most persuasive, evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse leg bones and skulls, probably originally attached to hides, were interred with the remains of chariots in at least 16 graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures. These were located in the steppes southeast of the Ural Mountains, between the upper Ural and upper Tobol Rivers, a region today divided between southern Russia and northern Kazakhstan. Petrovka was a little later than and probably grew out of Sintashta, and the two complexes together spanned about 2100–1700 BCE. A few of these graves contained the remains of as many as eight sacrificed horses placed in, above, and beside the grave.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: In all of the dated chariot graves, the heads and hooves of a pair of horses were placed in a grave that once contained a chariot. Evidence of chariots in these graves was inferred from the impressions of two spoked wheels set in grave floors 1.2–1.6m apart; in most cases the rest of the vehicle left no trace. In addition, a pair of disk-shaped antler "cheekpieces," an ancient predecessor to a modern bit shank or bit ring, were placed in pairs beside each horse head-and-hoof sacrifice. The inner faces of the disks had protruding prongs or studs that would have pressed against the horse's lips when the reins were pulled on the opposite side. Studded cheekpieces were a new and fairly severe kind of control device that appeared simultaneously with chariots.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: All of the dated chariot graves contained wheel impressions, horse bones, weapons (arrow and javelin points, axes, daggers, or stone mace-heads), human skeletal remains, and cheekpieces. Because they were buried in teams of two with chariots and studded cheekpieces, the evidence is extremely persuasive that these steppe horses of 2100–1700 BCE were domesticated. Shortly after the period of these burials, the expansion of the domestic horse throughout Europe was little short of explosive. In the space of possibly 500 years, there is evidence of horse-drawn chariots in Greece, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. By another 500 years, the horse-drawn chariot had spread to China.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Some researchers do not consider an animal to be "domesticated" until it exhibits physical changes consistent with selective breeding, or at least having been born and raised entirely in captivity. Until that point, they classify captive animals as merely "tamed". Those who hold to this theory of domestication point to a change in skeletal measurements detected among horse bones recovered from middens dated about 2500 BCE in eastern Hungary in Bell-Beaker sites, and in later Bronze Age sites in the Russian steppes, Spain, and Eastern Europe. Horse bones from these contexts exhibited an increase in variability, thought to reflect the survival under human care of both larger and smaller individuals than appeared in the wild; and a decrease in average size, thought to reflect penning and restriction in diet. Horse populations that showed this combination of skeletal changes probably were domesticated. Most evidence suggests that horses were increasingly controlled by humans after about 2500 BCE. However, more recently there have been skeletal remains found at a site in Kazakhstan which display the smaller, more slender limbs characteristic of corralled animals, dated to 3500 BCE.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Some of the most intriguing evidence of early domestication comes from the Botai culture, found in northern Kazakhstan. The Botai culture was a culture of foragers who seem to have adopted horseback riding in order to hunt the abundant wild horses of northern Kazakhstan between 3500 and 3000 BCE. Botai sites had no cattle or sheep bones; the only domesticated animals, in addition to horses, were dogs. Botai settlements in this period contained between 50 and 150 pit houses. Garbage deposits contained tens to hundreds of thousands of discarded animal bones, 65% to 99% of which had come from horses. Also, there has been evidence found of horse milking at these sites, with horse milk fats soaked into pottery shards dating to 3500 BCE. Earlier hunter-gatherers who lived in the same region had not hunted wild horses with such success, and lived for millennia in smaller, more shifting settlements, often containing less than 200 wild animal bones.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Entire herds of horses were slaughtered by the Botai hunters, apparently in hunting drives. The adoption of horseback riding might explain the emergence of specialized horse-hunting techniques and larger, more permanent settlements. Domesticated horses could have been adopted from neighboring herding societies in the steppes west of the Ural Mountains, where the Khvalynsk culture had herds of cattle and sheep, and perhaps had domesticated horses, as early as 4800 BCE.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Other researchers have argued that all of the Botai horses were wild, and that the horse-hunters of Botai hunted wild horses on foot. As evidence, they note that zoologists have found no skeletal changes in the Botai horses that indicate domestication. Moreover, because they were hunted for food, the majority of the horse remains found in Botai-culture settlements indeed probably were wild. On the other hand, any domesticated riding horses were probably the same size as their wild cousins and cannot now be distinguished by bone measurements. They also note that the age structure of the horses slaughtered at Botai represents a natural demographic profile for hunted animals, not the pattern expected if they were domesticated and selected for slaughter. However, these arguments were published before a Copper Age corral was discovered at Krasnyi Yar in 2006 and mats of horse-dung at two other Botai sites.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: A study in 2018 revealed that the Botai horses did not contribute significantly to the genetics of modern domesticated horses, and that therefore a subsequent and separate domestication event must have been responsible for the modern domestic horse. Genetic evidence also connects Botai horses with Przewalski's horse in Mongolia, which has led to debates over whether Przewalski's horses should be considered a never-domesticated population or feral descendants of domesticated Botai horses.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: The presence of bit wear is an indicator that a horse was ridden or driven, and the earliest of such evidence from a site in Kazakhstan dates to 3500 BCE. The absence of bit wear on horse teeth is not conclusive evidence against domestication because horses can be ridden and controlled without bits by using a noseband or a hackamore, but such materials do not produce significant physiological changes nor are they apt to be preserved for millennia.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: The regular use of a bit to control a horse can create wear facets or bevels on the anterior corners of the lower second premolars. The corners of the horse's mouth normally keep the bit on the "bars" of the mouth, an interdental space where there are no teeth, forward of the premolars. The bit must be manipulated by a human or the horse must move it with its tongue for it to touch the teeth. Wear can be caused by the bit abrading the front corners of the premolars if the horse grasps and releases the bit between its teeth; other wear can be created by the bit striking the vertical front edge of the lower premolars, due to very strong pressure from a human handler.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Modern experiments showed that even organic bits of rope or leather can create significant wear facets, and also showed that facets 3mm (.118 in) deep or more do not appear on the premolars of wild horses. However, other researchers disputed both conclusions.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Wear facets of 3 mm or more were found on seven horse premolars in two sites of the Botai culture, Botai and Kozhai 1, dated about 3500–3000 BCE. The Botai culture premolars are the earliest reported multiple examples of this dental pathology in any archaeological site, and preceded any skeletal change indicators by 1,000 years. While wear facets more than 3 mm deep were discovered on the lower second premolars of a single stallion from Dereivka in Ukraine, an Eneolithic settlement dated about 4000 BCE, dental material from one of the worn teeth later produced a radiocarbon date of 700–200 BCE, indicating that this stallion was actually deposited in a pit dug into the older Eneolithic site during the Iron Age.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Soil scientists working with Sandra Olsen of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History at the Chalcolithic (also called Eneolithic, or "Copper Age") settlements of Botai and Krasnyi Yar in northern Kazakhstan found layers of horse dung, discarded in unused house pits in both settlements. The collection and disposal of horse dung suggests that horses were confined in corrals or stables. An actual corral, dated to 3500–3000 BCE was identified at Krasnyi Yar by a pattern of post holes for a circular fence, with the soils inside the fence yielding ten times more phosphorus than the soils outside. The phosphorus could represent the remains of manure.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: The appearance of horse remains in human settlements in regions where they had not previously been present is another indicator of domestication. Although images of horses appear as early as the Upper Paleolithic period in places such as the caves of Lascaux, France, suggesting that wild horses lived in regions outside of the Eurasian steppes before domestication and may have even been hunted by early humans, concentration of remains suggests animals being deliberately captured and contained, an indicator of domestication, at least for food, if not necessarily use as a working animal.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Around 3500–3000 BCE, horse bones began to appear more frequently in archaeological sites beyond their center of distribution in the Eurasian steppes and were seen in central Europe, the middle and lower Danube valley, and the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia. Evidence of horses in these areas had been rare before, and as numbers increased, larger animals also began to appear in horse remains. This expansion in range was contemporary with the Botai culture, where there are indications that horses were corralled and ridden. This does not necessarily mean that horses were first domesticated in the steppes, but the horse-hunters of the steppes certainly pursued wild horses more than in any other region.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: European wild horses were hunted for up to 10% of the animal bones in a handful of Mesolithic and Neolithic settlements scattered across Spain, France, and the marshlands of northern Germany, but in many other parts of Europe, including Greece, the Balkans, the British Isles, and much of central Europe, horse bones do not occur or occur very rarely in Mesolithic, Neolithic or Chalcolithic sites. In contrast, wild horse bones regularly exceeded 40% of the identified animal bones in Mesolithic and Neolithic camps in the Eurasian steppes, west of the Ural Mountains.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: Horse bones were rare or absent in Neolithic and Chalcolithic kitchen garbage in western Turkey, Mesopotamia, most of Iran, South and Central Asia, and much of Europe. While horse bones have been identified in Neolithic sites in central Turkey, all equids together totaled less than 3% of the animal bones. Within this three percent, horses were less than 10%, with 90% or more of the equids represented by onagers ("Equus hemionus") or another ass-like equid that later became extinct, "Equus hydruntinus". Onagers were the most common native wild equids of the Near East. They were hunted in Syria, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Iran, and Central Asia; and domesticated asses ("Equus asinus") were imported into Mesopotamia, probably from Egypt, but wild horses apparently did not live there.


title: Domestication of the horse

text: In Northern Caucasus, the Maikop culture settlements and burials of c. 3300 BC contain both horse bones and images of horses. A frieze of nineteen horses painted in black and red colors is found in one of the Maikop graves. The widespread appearance of horse bones and images in Maikop sites suggest to some observers that horseback riding began in the Maikop period.