title: The Eiger Sanction (film)

text: In a 1976 interview with author Patrick McGilligan for "Focus on Film", Eastwood described the essential problems with the novel: "The book has no ties. In other words, the character that is killed at the beginning has no relationship to anybody else. I just took it and tried to make the guy relate to the hero so the hero had some motivations. The way the book was written, he had no motivations for anything. He just went up there strictly for monetary gain, no other motivation, period." Believing that improvements could be made to the script, Eastwood contacted novelist Warren B. Murphy — known for his "The Destroyer" assassin series — in February 1974, and asked for his assistance, despite Murphy's having never read the book nor written for a film before. Murphy read the novel and agreed to write the script, but he was unhappy with the novel's tone, which he believed patronized readers. Murphy completed a draft in late March and a revised script a month later. Eastwood also felt that the authenticity of the climbing sequences he envisioned would compensate for the narrative's shortcomings. From the beginning, Eastwood planned to shoot the mountaineering scenes on location, and that he would do his own climbing without a stunt double. "The challenge of it for me," he would later explain, "was to actually shoot a mountain-type film on a mountain, not on sets. The only ones done in the past were all done on sets; the mountains were all "papier-mâché" mountains." In late May 1974 Universal announced that Eastwood would also direct the film, and that principal photography was scheduled to start on August 1, 1974, at the Eiger mountain in Switzerland. Universal vice president Jennings Lang would supervise the production.


title: The Eiger Sanction (film)

text: As soon as he signed on to the project, Eastwood took complete control of the production. He worked with soundman Peter Pilafian to develop lightweight, disposable batteries to power a specially adapted camera and sound equipment needed to film on the mountain. He also hired Mike Hoover to serve as climbing adviser for the film. Hoover had made an Academy Award-nominated documentary short titled "Solo" about his lone ascent of El Capitan in Yosemite National Park. Eastwood had seen and admired the documentary, and hired Hoover to train him on how to look professional during the climbing scenes, and to serve as principal cameraman on the more dangerous climbing sequences. Intent on doing his own climbing for the film, Eastwood accompanied Hoover to Yosemite in early July to train and climb the Lost Arrow Spire, a detached pillar in Yosemite Valley located adjacent to Upper Yosemite Falls. While he had done some rock climbing in his youth, 44-year-old Eastwood was not prepared for the levels of difficulty presented by the climb. Hoover later recalled, "He looked up at me and said, 'Gee, I don't think I can make it.' I said, 'Well, Clint, you really don't have much choice, do you?' Then he reacted characteristically—he got pissed off. He pulled in his chin and gritted his teeth and with absolutely no technique at all, just blood and guts, he mossed his way up. No skill, no brains, just pure muscle."


title: The Eiger Sanction (film)

text: Meanwhile, George Kennedy, who had recently finished filming "Thunderbolt and Lightfoot" with Eastwood, was cast as Ben Bowman, Hemlock's friend and former climbing partner. Jack Cassidy was cast as the colorful and flamboyantly gay assassin Miles Mellough. Thayer David was cast as the albino Dragon (named "Yurasis Dragon" in the novel). Just prior to the start of filming, Vonetta McGee was cast as the African-American female C2 operative, Jemima Brown. In late July 1974, Eastwood, Kennedy, Hoover, and a small crew traveled to Monument Valley—director John Ford's favorite location for his Westerns—on the Arizona-Utah border to film a sequence that would be used in the film as a practice climb by the main characters of the Totem Pole, a rock spire with an diameter. Located within the lands of the Navajo Nation, the Totem Pole had religious significance to the Navajos, who prohibited climbs on the formation. Hoover negotiated permission from the tribal authorities for his team to climb the Totem Pole to remove pitons and other climbing hardware embedded in the structure by previous climbers, restoring the monolith to pristine condition. The ascent was made by two climbers from Moab, Eric Bjornstad and Ken Wyrick, who were tasked with preparing the summit for the helicopter film crew and removing existing hardware. Upon attaining the summit, they were helicoptered off and Eastwood and Kennedy were lowered onto the 18-ft-wide summit for one of Eastwood's happiest film-making memories, watching the sun setting over Monument Valley where many classic Westerns were filmed.


title: The Eiger Sanction (film)

text: Principal photography began on August 12, 1974, in Grindelwald, Switzerland, with a team of climbing experts and advisers from the United States, Canada, Germany, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. The climbers were based at the Hotel Bellevue des Alpes at Kleine Scheidegg, located below and between the Eiger and Lauberhorn peaks in the Bernese Oberland region. At in elevation, the north face of the Eiger, which means "ogre" in German, is renowned for its treacherous climbing, earning the German nickname "Mordwand" or "murder wall". By 1974, 41 climbers had lost their lives trying to climb the forbidding edifice. Eastwood decided to take on the most dangerous work during the first two days of shooting. By mid-afternoon on August 13, as light began to fail, a wrap was called after shooting a rock-slide sequence. While the team was preparing to be helicoptered off the north face, Hoover remembered they had not taken any footage from the climbers' point of view of the boulders crashing down on them. With his handheld camera, Hoover and 26-year-old British climber David Knowles rappelled down to the ledge and took the needed footage. As they were gathering their gear, a huge rock broke free and smashed into the climbers, killing Knowles and leaving Hoover with a fractured pelvis and severely bruised muscles. Following an impromptu wake for Knowles, Eastwood considered cancelling the production, but the climbers persuaded him to continue, assuring him that they all knew the risks of their trade and did not want Knowles' death to be meaningless.


title: The Eiger Sanction (film)

text: Eastwood insisted on doing all his own climbing and stunts—a decision met with disapproval by the director of the International School of Mountaineering, Dougal Haston, who experienced the dangers of the Eiger first-hand, having been with American climber John Harlin when he fell to his death. Cameraman Frank Stanley also thought climbing the perilous mountain to shoot a film was unnecessary. While filming on the Eiger, Stanley fell and sustained injuries that forced him to use a wheelchair for some time. Stanley blamed Eastwood for the accident because of lack of preparation, describing him as a director and actor as a "very impatient man who doesn't really plan his pictures or do any homework". One of the most dangerous stunts that Eastwood ever attempted involved him hanging from a rope above the valley floor in the penultimate scene. The scene required him to cut himself free so he could be pulled to safety by his rescuers. As he cuts the rope supporting his weight, he drops precariously before being saved by a rigged cable. Eastwood later said, "I didn't want to use a stunt man, because I wanted to use a telephoto lens and zoom in slowly all the way to my face—so you could see it was really me." After 5 weeks at the Eiger, the production unit travelled to Zurich to film the opening scenes of the film around the area of the Grossmünster cathedral and the Limmat River, the Münsterbrücke bridge, the Café Bauschänzli, the Kirchgasse, the Napfgasse, and the Restaurant Karl der Grosse.


title: The Eiger Sanction (film)

text: Eastwood and company returned to the United States to the American Southwest, where filming resumed in Zion National Park in Utah; scenes were shot at Zion-Mount Carmel Highway, Zion Lodge, Checkerboard Mesa, the Narrows, the Hanging Gardens, the bridge over the Virgin River, and the Cave Route below the Cerberus Gendarme. Additional scenes were shot in Monument Valley at the Tyrolean Transfer, where a rope had been rigged by climber Eric Bjornstad, who noted that Eastwood was not only very fit, but also very capable when it came to performing physical stuntwork like this. Scenes were also shot at Rock Door mesa above Goulding's Lodge, where Eastwood and company stayed. After completing principal photography in late September 1974 in Carmel-by-the-Sea and Monterey in California, Eastwood hosted the cast and crew at his restaurant, the Hog's Breath Inn, for a wrap party. "The Eiger Sanction" was filmed in Technicolor, and was released to theaters with an aspect ratio of 2.35:1.


title: The Eiger Sanction (film)

text: Eastwood chose John Williams to compose the original music soundtrack for "The Eiger Sanction"—his only score in the spy thriller genre. A main theme presented initially on piano evokes a sense of sophistication and mystery, then gives a much jazzier or pop rendition reminiscent of Lalo Schifrin's material. The most impressive sections of the score are the grand orchestral cues composed for the mountain scenes—pieces such as "The Icy Ascent" and "The Top of the World" capture both the beauty of the alpine surroundings and the inherent dangers. The latter title presents the kind of rapturous orchestral celebration now commonly associated with Williams' music. The pseudo-baroque piece "Training with George" presents a lovely string arrangement "demonstrating Williams's remarkable versatility while retaining that musical signature that makes all of his scores so recognizably his", according to writer James Southall. The main theme is reprised in "George Sets the Pace" as a guitar solo with flute harmony. "Microfilm" is a low-key action piece, and "Up the Drainpipe" is pure suspense music—different in tone from the rest of the album. The album concludes with "The Eiger", a triumphant and beautiful finale. Although not considered among Williams' finest scores, "The Eiger Sanction" soundtrack has a certain stylish allure different from anything else he has done, and is "memorable in some places, beautiful and orchestral in others", according to Southall. The original soundtrack album was released in 1975 on the MCA label, and in 1991, it was issued as a CD on the Varèse Sarabande label.


title: The Eiger Sanction (film)

text: "The Eiger Sanction" received mixed reviews upon its theatrical release. The general reaction among many reviewers offered criticism for the story and screenplay, and praise for the climbing footage and action sequences. "Variety" concluded, "Eastwood ... manages fine suspense both in the Swiss and Monument Valley climbs, as well as delineation of character. His direction displays a knowledge that permits rugged action." "The New York Times" reviewer described the film as "a long, foolish but never boring suspense melodrama" that compensates for its plot shortcomings with "stunning" climbing sequences that look "difficult and very beautiful". In his review in the "Chicago Sun-Times", Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars, writing, "It has a plot so unlikely and confused that we can't believe it for much more than 15 seconds at a time, but its action sequences are so absorbing and its mountaintop photography so compelling that we don't care ... and so we get wrapped up in the situations, and we're seduced by the photography, and we enjoy the several pretty girls who happen along in the hero's path, and if the plot doesn't make any sense well, no movie's perfect." "Playboy" magazine described the film as "a James Bond reject." Some critics were less forgiving, such as Joy Gould Boyum of "The Wall Street Journal", who complained that the film "situates villainy in homosexuals and physically disabled men", and Pauline Kael of "New Yorker" magazine, who described the film as "a total travesty".


title: The Eiger Sanction (film)

text: More recent critics have treated the film and Eastwood's direction in a more positive light. Film critic David Sterritt, for example, concluded, "Eastwood's unsubtle directing hammers the story home effectively, with commendable attention to details of performance". In his review on the Combustible Celluloid website, Jeffrey M. Anderson gave the film three and a half out of four stars, calling it "surprisingly effective, even by today's standards". Anderson found the climbing footage "truly gripping" and that the film was "underrated, high-water mark for the great director". Christopher Granger in the "Tampa Bay Movie Examiner" gave the film four out of five stars, writing, "The scenery in the Alps is breathtaking and the action in this spy thriller is end-of-your-seat viewing." Jason Ivey in the "Tea Party Tribune" found the later sequences of the film "truly breathtaking" and wrote, "There's simply something more suspenseful, more dramatic, when you know you're watching Clint Eastwood hanging from a rope 1,000 feet above the rocky earth." Ivey concluded:


title: The Eiger Sanction (film)

text: Professional climber Alex Honnold considers one of the climbing scenes of the film (Eastwood climbing a desert tower) as "the most realistic in all of Hollywood climbing".


title: The Eiger Sanction (film)

text: "The Eiger Sanction" was first released in DVD format on December 15, 1998, by Universal Studios, with subsequent re-releases on April 14, 2003, February 10, 2009, and May 5, 2015. The film was released in Blu-ray format on November 10, 2015 by Universal.


title: Malingering

text: Malingering is the fabrication, feigning, or exaggeration of physical or psychological symptoms designed to achieve a desired outcome, such as relief from duty or work.


title: Malingering

text: Malingering is not a medical diagnosis, but may be recorded as a "focus of clinical attention" or a "reason for contact with health services". Malingering is categorized as distinct from other forms of excessive illness behavior such as somatization disorder and factitious disorder, although not all mental health professionals agree with this formulation.


title: Malingering

text: Failure to detect actual cases of malingering imposes an economic burden on health care systems, workers' compensation programs, and disability programs, such as Social Security Disability Insurance and veterans' disability benefits. False accusations of malingering often harm genuine patients or claimants.


title: Malingering

text: According to 1 Samuel in the Old Testament, King David feigned madness to Achish, the king of the Philistines. Some scholars believe this was not feigned but real epilepsy, and phrasing in the Septuagint supports that position.


title: Malingering

text: Malingering was recorded in Roman times by the physician Galen, who reported two cases: one patient simulated colic to avoid a public meeting, and another feigned an injured knee to avoid accompanying his master on a long journey.


title: Malingering

text: Various phases of malingering () are represented in the etchings and engravings of Jacques Callot (1592–1635).


title: Malingering

text: In his Elizabethan-era social-climbing manual, George Puttenham recommends a would-be courtier to have "sickness in his sleeve, thereby to shake off other importunities of greater consequence".


title: Malingering

text: Lady Flora Hastings was accused of adultery following court gossip about her abdominal pain. She refused to be physically examined by a man for reasons of modesty and so the physician assumed she was pregnant. She later died of liver cancer.


title: Malingering

text: In 1943, US Army General George S. Patton found a soldier in a field hospital with no wounds; the soldier claimed to be suffering from battle fatigue. Believing the patient was malingering, Patton flew into a rage and physically assaulted him. The patient had malarial parasites.


title: Malingering

text: Agnes Torres was the first subject of an in-depth discussion of transgender identity in sociology, published by Harold Garfinkel in 1967. In the 1950s, Torres feigned symptoms and lied about almost every aspect of her medical history. Garfinkel concluded that fearing she would be denied access to sexual reassignment surgery, she had avoided every aspect of her case which would have indicated gender dysphoria and hidden the fact that she had taken hormone therapy. Physicians observing her feminine appearance therefore concluded she had testicular feminization syndrome, which legitimized her request for the surgery.


title: Malingering

text: Malingering is a court-martial offense in the United States military under the Uniform Code of Military Justice, which defines the term as "feign[ing] illness, physical disablement, mental lapse, or derangement."


title: Malingering

text: According to the Texas Department of Insurance, fraud that includes malingering costs the US insurance industry approximately $150 billion each year. Other non-industry sources report it may be as low as $5.4 billion.


title: Bin packing problem

text: The bin packing problem is an optimization problem, in which items of different sizes must be packed into a finite number of bins or containers, each of a fixed given capacity, in a way that minimizes the number of bins used. The problem has many applications, such as filling up containers, loading trucks with weight capacity constraints, creating file backups in media and technology mapping in FPGA semiconductor chip design.


title: Bin packing problem

text: Computationally, the problem is NP-hard, and the corresponding decision problem - deciding if items can fit into a specified number of bins - is NP-complete. Despite its worst-case hardness, optimal solutions to very large instances of the problem can be produced with sophisticated algorithms. In addition, many approximation algorithms exist. For example, the first fit algorithm provides a fast but often non-optimal solution, involving placing each item into the first bin in which it will fit. It requires "Θ"("n" log "n") time, where "n" is the number of items to be packed. The algorithm can be made much more effective by first sorting the list of items into decreasing order (sometimes known as the first-fit decreasing algorithm), although this still does not guarantee an optimal solution, and for longer lists may increase the running time of the algorithm. It is known, however, that there always exists at least one ordering of items that allows first-fit to produce an optimal solution.


title: Bin packing problem

text: There are many variations of this problem, such as 2D packing, linear packing, packing by weight, packing by cost, and so on. The bin packing problem can also be seen as a special case of the cutting stock problem. When the number of bins is restricted to 1 and each item is characterised by both a volume and a value, the problem of maximizing the value of items that can fit in the bin is known as the knapsack problem.


title: Bin packing problem

text: A variant of bin packing that occurs in practice is when items can share space when packed into a bin. Specifically, a set of items could occupy less space when packed together than the sum of their individual sizes. This variant is known as VM packing since when virtual machines (VMs) are packed in a server, their total memory requirement could decrease due to pages shared by the VMs that need only be stored once. If items can share space in arbitrary ways, the bin packing problem is hard to even approximate. However, if the space sharing fits into a hierarchy, as is the case with memory sharing in virtual machines, the bin packing problem can be efficiently approximated.


title: Bin packing problem

text: Another variant of bin packing of interest in practice is the so-called online bin packing. Here the items of different volume are supposed to arrive sequentially, and the decision maker has to decide whether to select and pack the currently observed item, or else to let it pass. Each decision is without recall. In contrast, offline bin packing allows rearranging the items in the hope of achieving a better packing once additional items arrive. This of course requires additional storage for holding the items to be rearranged.


title: Bin packing problem

text: In "Computers and Intractability" Garey and Johnson list the bin packing problem under the reference [SR1]. They define its decision variant as follows.


title: Bin packing problem

text: Instance: Finite set formula_1 of items, a size formula_2 for each formula_3, a positive integer bin capacity formula_4, and a positive integer formula_5.


title: Bin packing problem

text: Question: Is there a partition of formula_1 into disjoint sets formula_7 such that the sum of the sizes of the items in each formula_8 is formula_4 or less?


title: Bin packing problem

text: Note that in the literature often an equivalent notation is used, where formula_10 and formula_11 for each formula_3. Furthermore, research is mostly interested in the optimization variant, which asks for the smallest possible value of formula_5. A solution is "optimal" if it has minimal formula_5. The formula_5-value for an optimal solution for a set of items formula_1 is denoted by formula_17 or just formula_18 if the set of items is clear from the context.


title: Bin packing problem

text: where formula_19 if bin formula_20 is used and formula_21 if item formula_22 is put into bin formula_20.


title: Bin packing problem

text: The bin packing problem is strongly NP-complete. This can be proven by reducing the strongly NP-complete 3-partition problem to bin packing.


title: Bin packing problem

text: Furthermore, there can be no approximation algorithm with absolute approximation ratio smaller than formula_24 unless formula_25. This can be proven by a reduction from the partition problem: given an instance of Partition where the sum of all input numbers is formula_26, construct an instance of bin-packing in which the bin size is . If there exists an equal partition of the inputs, then the optimal packing needs 2 bins; therefore, every algorithm with approximation ratio smaller than must return less than 3 bins, which must be 2 bins. In contrast, if there is no equal partition of the inputs, then the optimal packing needs at least 3 bins.


title: Bin packing problem

text: On the other hand, bin packing is solvable in pseudo-polynomial time for any fixed number of bins , and solvable in polynomial time for any fixed bin capacity .


title: Bin packing problem

text: To measure the performance of an approximation algorithm there are two approximation ratios considered in the literature. For a given list of items formula_27 the number formula_28 denotes the number of bins used when algorithm formula_29 is applied to list formula_27, while formula_31 denotes the optimum number for this list. The absolute worst-case performance ratio formula_32 for an algorithm formula_29 is defined as


title: Bin packing problem

text: Additionally, one can restrict the lists to those for which all items have a size of at most formula_39. For such lists, the bounded size performance ratios are denoted as formula_40 and formula_41.


title: Bin packing problem

text: In the online version of the bin packing problem, the items arrive one after another and the (irreversible) decision where to place an item has to be made before knowing the next item or even if there will be another one. A diverse set of offline and online heuristics for bin-packing have been studied by David S. Johnson on his Ph.D. thesis.


title: Bin packing problem

text: The algorithms differ in the criterion by which they choose the open bin for the new item in step 1 (see the linked pages for more information):


title: Bin packing problem

text: In order to generalize these results, Johnson introduced two classes of online heuristics called "any-fit algorithm" and "almost-any-fit" algorithm:


title: Bin packing problem

text: Better approximation ratios are possible with heuristics that are not AnyFit. These heuristics usually keep several classes of open bins, devoted to items of different size-ranges (see the linked pages for more information):


title: Bin packing problem

text: Yao proved 1980 that there can be no online algorithm with asymptotic competitive ratio smaller than formula_24. Brown and Liang improved this bound to . Afterward, this bound was improved to by Vliet. In 2012, this lower bound was again improved by Békési and Galambos to formula_93.


title: Bin packing problem

text: In the offline version of bin packing, the algorithm can see all the items before starting to place them into bins. This allows to attain improved approximation ratios.


title: Bin packing problem

text: Johnson proved that any AnyFit algorithm A that runs on a list ordered by descending size has an asymptotic approximation ratio offormula_94.Some algorithms in this family are (see the linked pages for more information):


title: Bin packing problem

text: Fernandez de la Vega and Lueker presented a PTAS for bin packing. For every formula_97, their algorithm finds a solution with size at most formula_98 and runs in time formula_99, where formula_100 denotes a function only dependent on formula_43. For this algorithm, they invented the method of "adaptive input rounding": the input numbers are grouped and rounded up to the value of the maximum in each group. This yields an instance with a small number of different sizes, which can be solved exactly using the configuration linear program.


title: Bin packing problem

text: The Karmarkar-Karp bin packing algorithm finds a solution with size at most formula_102, and runs in time polynomial in (the polynomial has a high degree - at least 8).


title: Bin packing problem

text: Hoberg and Rothvoss improved this algorithm to generate a solution with at most formula_104 bins. The algorithm is randomized, and its running-time is polynomial in .


title: Bin packing problem

text: Martello and Toth developed an exact algorithm for the 1-dimensional bin-packing problem, called MTP. A faster alternative is the Bin Completion algorithm proposed by Korf in 2002 and later improved.


title: Bin packing problem

text: A further improvement was presented by Schreiber and Korf in 2013. The new Improved Bin Completion algorithm is shown to be up to five orders of magnitude faster than Bin Completion on non-trivial problems with 100 items, and outperforms the BCP (branch-and-cut-and-price) algorithm by Belov and Scheithauer on problems that have fewer than 20 bins as the optimal solution. Which algorithm performs best depends on problem properties like number of items, optimal number of bins, unused space in the optimal solution and value precision.


title: Bin packing problem

text: A special case of bin packing is when there is a small number "d" of different item sizes. There can be many different items of each size. This case is also called "high-multiplicity bin packing", and It admits more efficient algorithms than the general problem.


title: Bin packing problem

text: There is a variant of bin packing in which there are cardinality constraints on the bins: each bin can contain at most "k" items, for some fixed integer "k".


title: Bin packing problem

text: In the bin packing problem, the "size" of the bins is fixed and their "number" can be enlarged (but should be as small as possible).


title: Bin packing problem

text: In contrast, in the multiway number partitioning problem, the "number" of bins is fixed and their "size" can be enlarged. The objective is to find a partition in which the bin sizes are as nearly equal is possible (in the variant called multiprocessor scheduling problem or minimum makespan problem, the goal is specifically to minimize the size of the largest bin).


title: Bin packing problem

text: In the inverse bin packing problem, both the number of bins and their sizes are fixed, but the item sizes can be changed. The objective is to achieve the minimum perturbation to the item size vector so that all the items can be packed into the prescribed number of bins.


title: Bin packing problem

text: In the maximum resource bin packing problem, the goal is to "maximize" the number of bins used, such that, for some ordering of the bins, no item in a later bin fits in an earlier bin. In a dual problem, the number of bins is fixed, and the goal is to minimize the total number or the total size of items placed into the bins, such that no remaining item fits into an unfilled bin.


title: Bin packing problem

text: In the bin covering problem, the bin size is bounded "from below": the goal is to "maximize" the number of bins used such that the total size in each bin is at least a given threshold.


title: Bin packing problem

text: In the fair indivisible chore allocation problem (a variant of fair item allocation), the items represents chores, and there are different people each of whom attributes a different difficulty-value to each chore. The goal is to allocate to each person a set of chores with an upper bound on its total difficulty-value (thus, each person corresponds to a bin). Many techniques from bin packing are used in this problem too.


title: Bin packing problem

text: In the guillotine cutting problem, both the items and the "bins" are two-dimensional rectangles rather than one-dimensional numbers, and the items have to be cut from the bin using end-to-end cuts.


title: Bin packing problem

text: There is also a variant of bin packing in which the cost that should be minimized is not the number of bins, but rather a certain concave function of the number of items in each bin.


title: Bin packing problem

text: Other variants are two-dimensional bin packing, three-dimensional bin packing, bin packing with delivery,


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: William Dalrymple (born William Hamilton-Dalrymple on 20 March 1965) is a Delhi-based Scottish historian and art historian, as well as a curator, photographer, broadcaster and critic. He is also one of the co-founders and co-directors of the world's largest writers festival, the annual Jaipur Literature Festival.


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: His books have won numerous awards and prizes, including the Wolfson Prize for History, the Duff Cooper Memorial Prize, the Hemingway, the Kapuściński, the Arthur Ross Medal of the US Council on Foreign Relations, the Thomas Cook Travel Book Award and the Sunday Times Young British Writer of the Year Award. He has been five times longlisted and once shortlisted for the Baillie Gifford Prize for non-fiction and was a Finalist for the Cundill Prize for History. The BBC television documentary on his pilgrimage to the source of the river Ganges, 'Shiva's Matted Locks', one of three episodes of his "Indian Journeys" series, which Dalrymple wrote and presented, won him the Grierson Award for Best Documentary Series at BAFTA in 2002.


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: In 2018, he was awarded the President's Medal of the British Academy, the Academy’s highest honour in its suite of prizes and medals awarded for "outstanding service to the cause of the humanities and social sciences."


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: Dalrymple was the curator of "Princes and Painters in Mughal Delhi 1707–1857", a major show of the late Mughal painting for the "Asia Society" in New York, which ran from February to May 2012. A catalogue of this exhibit co-edited by Dalrymple with Yuthika Sharma was published by Penguin in 2012 under the same name. More recently he curated the exhibition of Company style painting, "Forgotten Masters: Indian Painting for the East India Company", at the Wallace Collection in London.


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: In 2012, Dalrymple was appointed a Whitney J. Oates Visiting Fellow in the Humanities by Princeton University. In 2015, he was appointed the OP Jindal Distinguished Lecturer at Brown University. He is also since 2021 an Honorary Fellow of the Bodleian Library and will soon take up a position as Visiting Fellow at All Souls College, Oxford University He was named in the 2020 "Prospect" list of the top 50 thinkers for the COVID-19 era.


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: Dalrymple is the son of Sir Hew Hamilton-Dalrymple, 10th Baronet of North Berwick, and Lady Anne-Louise Keppel, a daughter of the 9th Earl of Albemarle. He is a great nephew of Virginia Woolf. His brother, Jock, was a first-class cricketer. He was educated at Ampleforth College and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was first a history exhibitioner and then a senior history scholar.


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: Dalrymple first went to Delhi on 26 January 1984, and has lived in India on and off since 1989 and spends most of the year at his Mehrauli farmhouse in the outskirts of Delhi, but summers in London and Edinburgh. His wife, Olivia, is an artist and comes from a family with long-standing connections to India. The couple have three children. Through his wife's side of the family, he is related to Scottish actress Rose Leslie.


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: Dalrymple's interests include the history and art of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, the Middle East, Hinduism, Buddhism, the Jains and early Eastern Christianity. Every one of his ten books have won literary prizes. His first three were travel books based on his journeys in the Middle East, India and Central Asia. His early influences included travel writers such as Robert Byron, Eric Newby, and Bruce Chatwin.


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: Dalrymple published a book of essays about current affairs in the Indian subcontinent, and four award-winning histories of the interaction between the East India Company and the peoples of India and Afghanistan between the eighteenth and mid-nineteenth century, his "Company Quartet". His books have been translated into more than 40 languages.


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: He is a regular contributor to "The New York Review of Books", "The Guardian", the "New Statesman" and "The New Yorker". He has also written many articles for "Time" magazine. He was the Indian Subcontinent correspondent of the "New Statesman" from 2004-2014.


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: He attended the inaugural Palestine Festival of Literature in 2008 – giving readings and taking workshops in Jerusalem, Ramallah and Bethlehem.


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: His 2009 book, "Nine Lives: In Search of the Sacred in Modern India", a study of some of the more esoteric forms of modern Indian, and especially Hindu, spirituality, was published by Bloomsbury, and like all his others, went to the number one slot on the Indian non-fiction best-seller list. Since its publication he has been touring the UK, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Australia, Holland and the US with a band consisting of some of the people featured in his book including Sufis, Fakirs, Bauls, Theveram hymn singers as well as a prison warder and part-time Theyyam dancer widely believed to incarnate the God Vishnu.


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: "Return of a King: The Battle for Afghanistan", a history of the First Afghan War 1839–42, was published in India in December 2012, in the UK in February 2013, and in the US in April 2013. Dalrymple's great-great-granduncle Colin Mackenzie fought in the war and was briefly detained by the Afghans. Following the publication of the book Dalrymple was called to brief both the Afghan President Hamid Karzai and the White House on the lessons to be learned from Afghan history.


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: His most recent book, published in 2019, is "The Anarchy", a history of the Indian Subcontinent during the period from 1739 to 1803, which saw the collapse of the Mughal imperial system, rise of the Maratha imperial confederacy, and the militarisation and rise of power of the East India Company. It was long listed for the Baillie Gifford Prize 2019, and short listed for the Duke of Wellington medal for Military History, the Tata Book of the Year (Non-fiction) and the Historical Writers Association Book Award 2020. It was a Finalist for the Cundill Prize for History and won the 2020 Arthur Ross Bronze Medal from the US Council on Foreign Relations.


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: Dalrymple has written and presented the six-part television series "Stones of the Raj" (Channel 4, August 1997), the three-part "Indian Journeys" (BBC, August 2002) and "Sufi Soul" (Channel 4, Nov 2005).


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: The six-part "Stones of the Raj" documents the stories behind some of British India's colonial architecture starting with "Lahore" (16 August 1997), "Calcutta" (23 August 1997), "The French Connection" (30 August 1997), "The Fatal Friendship" (6 September 1997), "Surrey in Tibet" (13 September 1997), and concluded with "The Magnificent Ruin" (20 September 1997).


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: The trilogy of "Indian Journeys" consists of three one-hour episodes starting with "Shiva’s Matted Locks" which while tracing the source of the Ganga, takes Dalrymple on a journey to the Himalayas. The second part, "City of Djinns", is based on his travel book of the same name, takes a look at Delhi's history, and last "Doubting Thomas", which takes Dalrymple to the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, where St Thomas, the Apostle of Jesus is closely associated.


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: He has done a six-part history series "The Long Search" for Radio 4. In this series Dalrymple searches to discover the spiritual roots of the British Isles. Dalrymple says "In the course of my travels I often came across the assumption that intense spirituality was somehow the preserve of what many call 'the mystic East'... it's a misconception that has always irritated me as I've always regarded our own indigenous British traditions of spirituality as especially rich."


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: The BBC broadcast a documentary on 3 September 2015 entitled "Love and Betrayal in India: The White Mughal", based on Dalrymple's book "White Mughals".


title: William Dalrymple (historian)

text: In 2022, Dalrymple teamed up with journalist Anita Anand to create the podcast "Empire", the first series of which examines the British East India Company and British involvement and influence on India. The pair had previously collaborated on the book "". The series went straight to the No.1 spot on both Apple and Spotify UK podcast charts, and had more than one third of a million downloads in its first fortnight.


title: Estonia national football team

text: The Estonia national football team () represents Estonia in international football matches and is controlled by the Estonian Football Association, the governing body for football in Estonia. Estonia's home ground is Lilleküla Stadium in Tallinn.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonia's first match was held against Finland in 1920, being a 6–0 defeat. The team participated in the 1924 Olympic Games tournament, their only participation. In 1940, Estonia was occupied by the Soviet Union and did not regain independence (and the possibility of a national football team) until 1991. Estonia's first FIFA recognised match as an independent nation after the break-up of the Soviet Union, was against Slovenia on 3 June 1992, a 1–1 draw in the Estonian capital city of Tallinn.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonia has never qualified for the FIFA World Cup or UEFA European Championship. The team has however reached the UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying play-offs, by finishing second in their qualifying group, before being drawn up against Ireland for a play-off tie, making 2011 the "Annus mirabilis" of Estonian football.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonia has also participated in the local sub-regional Baltic Cup championship, which takes place every two years between the countries of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Estonia has won the Baltic Cup tournament four times—most recently in 2020—which is the least of all three Baltic states.


title: Estonia national football team

text: The record for the most international caps by an international is held by Martin Reim with 157, who held the European record in 2009 until November of that year. The record for most goals is held by Andres Oper with 38.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonians were introduced to the game of football by English sailors in the first years of the 20th century, when the land was still part of the Russian Empire. The national team was formed after the war of independence (1918–1920). It played its first match on 17 October 1920 in Helsinki, Finland which ended in a 6–0 defeat. The game took place on a grass surface, which was a first for the Estonians. The Estonian Football Association was founded on 14 December 1921 and affiliated with FIFA in 1923 joining Yugoslavia, Latvia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Turkey and Uruguay.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonia's only participation in a major tournament took place at the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris. Estonians lost their only match in the tournament to the United States 1–0.


title: Estonia national football team

text: The Estonian league season usually lasted from the end of May to September. In 1928 the first Baltic football contest was held involving all three nations, it was held nine times during this period. Four of them were held in Latvia, two in Estonia and three in Lithuania. Estonia was particularly notable for winning the edition of the tournament in 1938. In the crucial meeting between them and Latvia at the Kadrioru Stadium, 2,000 out of the 12,000 spectators were Latvians.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonia's first FIFA World Cup qualifying match took place on 11 June 1933 in Stockholm, Sweden, which ended with a Swedish 6–2 win. This match was also the world's first FIFA world cup qualifying match. Since later on Sweden also defeated Lithuania, the match between Estonia and Lithuania was cancelled, because Sweden had already won the group.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonia's first points in the FIFA World Cup qualifying rounds were gained in 1938, playing the qualification matches in 1937, the third edition of the tournament. At the time teams would play each other once in each group. Estonia were in group one, drawn with Germany, Sweden and Finland. In their first match against Sweden, the team went 2–0 up even before the game reached five minutes of play, only to lose 7–2. This was then followed up with a 1–0 success against Finland in which Richard Kuremaa scored the only goal of the game in the 56th minute. Qualification was completed with a 4–1 defeat against Germany, despite a goal from Georg Siimenson taking the teams in at half time with a 1–0 lead for the Estonians. As a result, Estonia failed to qualify for the World Cup.


title: Estonia national football team

text: The team's biggest win came on 26 July 1928 which was a 6–0 success against Lithuania in Tallinn, meanwhile their biggest defeat came on 11 August 1922 which was a 10–2 loss to Finland. Out of the team's head coaches before the Second World War, seven of them were Hungarian with Antal Mally taking this position twice. There were four foreign coaches (three Hungarians and one Austrian), while the first Estonian national team was coached by Albert Vollrat in 1932. Coaches also played for several seasons, who also determined the composition of the football association.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Players were mostly in Tallinn clubs, such as TJK, Sport, Kalev and Tallinn Estonia. The republic's most capped players were goalkeeper Evald Tipner (67) and the outfield players Eugen Einmann (65), Eduard Ellman-Eelma (58) and Karl-Rudolf Silberg-Sillak (52). Top goal scorers were Ellman-Eelma (21 goals in 65 matches), Richard Kuremaa (18/42), Arnold Pihlak (17/44), Georg Siimenson (14/42) and Friedrich Karm (9/13). Players received small pay for their contributions – 5 Estonian krooni in 1938. The Baltic tournament victory was 50 krooni.


title: Estonia national football team

text: On 18 July 1940 the team played their last official game as an independent nation for more than half a century. The game was played at the Kadrioru Stadium and was a 2–1 victory against Latvia.


title: Estonia national football team

text: After Soviet occupation in August 1940, the national team demised along with the country. During German occupation (1941–1944), the team was revived and they played two unofficial friendlies (in Riga 0–4 and in Tallinn 1–8), but only few players remained from the pre-war era. When Soviet troops invaded Estonia again, some of the best footballers (Richard Kuremaa, Elmar Tepp, Valter Neeris, etc.) were mobilised; some fled to west. Many ex-nationals (Arnold Pihlak, Arnold Laasner, etc.) were in Estonia's team in Geislingen's refugee camp.


title: Estonia national football team

text: The clubs were renamed in the second half of the 1940s and the traditions started to fade. According to Uno Piir, the first national team manager after Estonia's re-independence, the reason for football's downfall in society was the inability to create a competitive Union-level club, hence the decrease in audience and the favouring of other sports by the governing bodies of sports. The Estonian SSR had its representative team, but because of the occupation it did not take part of international competitions. Between 1948 and 1976, the Baltic Cup was held 19 times, which The Belorussian SSR won a few times and the Estonian SSR five times. From 1969 to 1982, Estonia was the only Soviet state not participating in the Soviet Union's football league. During the 1970s, the game lost popularity in Estonia and the sport was mainly played by Russians.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonian football-life was relaunched in mid-70s by the attempts of Roman Ubakivi, who formed Estonian-language training groups. The most notable team was Lõvid () in 1980–1989, who were coached by Ubakivi and Olev Reim. Several players, such as Mart Poom and Martin Reim, became part of the national team later. Not a single Estonian reached the Soviet national team, but two Ubakivi's pupils, Ott Mõtsnik and Toomas Krõm, broke into the youth team.


title: Estonia national football team

text: The Singing Revolution, the pursuit to restore Estonian independence and to cool regional tensions, found its way to football as well. On 18 July 1990, an exhibition match was held between Estonian and Latvian footballers at Kadriorg Stadium, to remember the last official match between the two teams as independent nations 50 years previously. The principle of assembling the squad was controversial. 63 players made a public addressing (Päevaleht, 24 April 1990) calling out the football governing bodies to only select the descendants of Estonians, leaving out immigrants who came to Estonia after World War II.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonia regained its independence on 20 August 1991, and then came back to international football when the team debuted in Lithuania's organized Baltic tournament taking place in November. However, the first recognized match did not take place until June 1992 in Tallinn as a friendly against Slovenia (1–1). This historic meeting under the guidance of coach Uno Piir was overseen by a team consisting of Mart Poom, Urmas Hepner, Igor Prins, Urmas Kaljend, Meelis Lindmaa, Toomas Kallaste, Tarmo Linnumäe, Indro Olumets, Martin Reim, Sergei Ratnikov, Risto Kallaste, Viktor Alonen, Urmas Kirs, Marko Kristal and Aleksandr Puštov. Puštov was the scorer of the Estonian goal.


title: Estonia national football team

text: At that time the composition of the squad was influenced by the country's citizenship policy. There were disputes whether the national team should include players who lived in Estonia but had not acquired Estonian citizenship. Most of those players in question were of Russian origin. Approximately four months before the first official match against Slovenia, FC Flora presented the Estonian Football Association (EFA) an ultimatum signed by 25 players which stated that "only those who have acquired Estonian citizenship on the basis of legal continuity should be included in the national team". In July of the same year FIFA gave the right to represent Estonia to 97 non-citizens who were according to EFA born in Estonia and were in the process of acquiring Estonian citizenship. In October the board of EFA made a decision that after the date of 1 April 1993 non-citizens could no more debut in the national team.


title: Estonia national football team

text: The citizenship dispute heated up again in February 1993 when Estonia took part in a three team friendly tournament held in Finland. For the first time , non-citizen players Andrei Borissov and Sergei Bragin were allowed to represent Estonia in the national team. In a statement made on 23 February the government of Estonia urged the Estonian Central Sports Union to "consider manning Estonian sports teams only with Estonian citizens". On 11 March the local press published an open letter in which the signatories accused EFA and the head coach Uno Piir of using four "alien citizens" (Andrei Borissov, Sergei Bragin, Aleksandr Puštov, Sergei Hohlov-Simson) in games and using Russian as the working language of the national team. The signatories also noted that "most of the positions belonging to Estonians (in youth teams) were filled with non-citizens". According to Estonian press the EFA had also misled FIFA because most of those 97 players who had gotten the right to represent Estonia had not actually applied for citizenship.


title: Estonia national football team

text: On 5 December 1991 the EFA decided to take part in 1994 FIFA World Cup qualification tournament despite financial difficulties, the poor state of the Kadrioru Stadium and the inexperience of the national team. Estonia ended the qualification tournament in the last place of the group and with record of one goal scored and 27 conceded. The team lost nine games and drew once against Malta.


title: Estonia national football team

text: In the UEFA Euro 1996 qualifying tournament the team was coached by Roman Ubakivi. The qualification tournament ended without a single point and a goals record of three scored and 31 against. The biggest defeats came from abroad against Croatia (7–1) and Lithuania (5–0).


title: Estonia national football team

text: From 14 October 1993 to 5 October 1996 Estonia played without a victory for almost three years and by February 1996 the team had sunk to 135 in the FIFA World Rankings. Public interest was at a low. In the autumn of 1994 when Estonia hosted Italy at the Kadrioru Stadium only 3000 people came to watch.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Results improved with the arrival of the newly independent team's first foreign coach, Icelandic Teitur Thordarson. His first victory was achieved at the fifth attempt in October 1996, when they defeated Belarus at the Kadriorg Stadium in a 1998 World Cup qualifier with a goal from Hohlov-Simson. After the victory over the Belarusians, the Estonian team gained infamy on 9 October 1996, when a match against Scotland had to be rescheduled after the Estonian team failed to turn up for the game. For unclear reasons, the match was rescheduled to be played on neutral ground in Monaco after it was agreed at a FIFA meeting in Scotland on 7 November, leading to the rescheduled match to take place on 11 February 1997 ending in a 0–0 draw. Reasons for the original postponement of the game was that the Scottish team trained at the Kadriorg the night before, finding the floodlighting inadequate. This matter was raised with the officials who agreed with their concerns. In protest, the Estonians failed to show up, which kicked off only to be stopped seconds later.


title: Estonia national football team

text: At the end of qualifying, the Estonians finished fifth in a field of six teams on a total of four points ahead of Belarus. This was the first time the Belorussians finished last in a qualifying campaign, and had a weaker goal difference. Estonia scored four goals and conceded sixteen.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonia also entered the qualifying tournament for Euro 2000. This time round the Estonians recorded three wins and two draws in their group, with fifteen goals scored and seventeen conceded. The team also found themselves in the same group as Scotland, this time losing 3–2 away but drawing 0–0 at home. The Estonian magazine Sporditäht, placed the 1998 events between the pair in their top ten sporting events. On 31 March 1999 the Estonians defeated Lithuania 2–1 in Vilnius. Estonia remained a theoretical possibility to qualify for their first major tournament. Despite failing to qualify, they still set themselves a then team record of 11 points. Their meeting with Scotland on 8 September 1999 was a 5,000 sell-out at the Kadriorg.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Head coach Teitur Thordarson resigned at the end of 1999, leading the Estonian football association to look for a new coach. They were taken over this time by Tarmo Rüütli (who was replaced by caretaker Aivar Lillevere for two games), who was appointed until autumn 2000, and seen the team through their qualifying group for the 2002 FIFA World Cup. After the departure of Rüütli and Lillevere's two game stint as caretaker manager, the Estonian Football Association made an agreement with Dutchman Arno Pijpers.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Plans were later set by the football association to build a modern football home in Tallinn, which took place in 2000 and construction began outside of the Lilleküla railway line, giving it its original name of the Lilleküla Stadium. The arena opened on 2 June 2001, ahead of their 2002 World Cup qualifying game against the Netherlands (4–2 defeat). The 9,300 tickets on sale for the match sold out within six hours.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Their campaign for 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification, saw two victories over Andorra and two draws with Cyprus, which gave the team a total of eight points in the final table and fourth place with ten goals scored and 26 against, finishing ahead of those two teams. This was later matched in UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying, where they gained two more wins over Andorra and draws with Croatia and Bulgaria. The team's goals record was much more stronger defensively, only conceding six goals in their eight matches while scoring four.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonia then most successful tournament came in the qualifying rounds for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, under the supervision of Dutchman and assistant coach of Pijpers Jelle Goes, after Pijpers left the post in 2004. Five wins, two draws and five losses gave them 17 points in their qualification group and fourth place. The team were placed ahead of Latvia, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg. UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying was not as successful, which seen the team finish sixth in a field of seven teams, only ahead of Andorra who were also the only team they recorded wins against and gained a total of seven points. The Estonian FA shortly parted company with Goes in June 2007.


title: Estonia national football team

text: November 2007 saw the approval of a two-year contract for new head coach Tarmo Rüütli, who had overseen the national team in the 1999–2000 season, with this being the last time the team took on an Estonian coach, as Pijpers was the first of three foreign coaches between 2000 and 2007. Rüütli's main task in his second term was to lead the team through the 2010 World Cup qualifying matches. The team showed volatile form in friendly matches during 2008. In September, the Estonians lost 3–2 to Belgium in an away qualifying match, but fell to a low ebb after being beaten 7–0 by Bosnia also on their travels, and fell to an all-time low of 137th place in the FIFA World Rankings. The first home game of the campaign was a 3–0 loss to Spain, the reigning European champions. The team still picked up points during the qualification, which included holding Euro 2008 semi-finalists Turkey to a 0–0 draw. Further results were a 1–0 win over Armenia, and a 2–2 draw away from home before the campaign was completed with a 2–0 win against the Belgians. The team collected 8 points finishing fifth in a group of six.


title: Estonia national football team

text: 2009 was declared the 100th anniversary of Estonian football. The final matches for record cap holder Martin Reim (6 June versus Equatorial Guinea) and long-standing goalkeeper Mart Poom were held (against Portugal on 10 June). "Sajandi mäng" () was the first ever match versus Brazil, who had arrived in Tallinn as the FIFA World Rankings leaders, and also the five-time world champions, winning 1–0. Much attention was attracted the day after the international friendly, with the Estonian FA announcing that coach Rüütli's contract was to be extended to 2011.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonia later achieved one of its most famous victories, winning 3–1 in a 2012 European Championship away qualifier on 8 October 2010 against Serbia then ranked 15th in the FIFA rankings. The match took place four months after the Serbian team had competed in the World Cup.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Media attention came from a 2–2 friendly international result with Bulgaria. Two days before the friendly match, on 11 February 2011, bets were placed by officials regarding the outcome of the match. Suspicion of match manipulation was raised when a Hungarian referee gave four disputable penalties, being equally distributed between the two sides. The same team of officials also took charge of the game the day before, an international friendly involving Latvia and Bolivia which ended 2–1 in favour of the Latvians and had also seen three penalties awarded in the game, which were also all of the goals scored.


title: Estonia national football team

text: The Estonian team got an important victory in their next match, which was on 25 March at the Lilleküla Stadium over Uruguay in a friendly match. Former World Cup winners Uruguay had recently reached the semi-finals of the 2010 World Cup and were sitting at 7th place in the FIFA rankings at the time of the 2–0 victory. The captain Raio Piiroja earned his 100th international cap. On 29 March, the good performances continued with a 1–1 home draw against Serbia.


title: Estonia national football team

text: This was followed by a period of poor form, which began with an unofficial friendly game loss to the Basque Country, qualifying defeats to Italy and the Faroe Islands then followed, before a tour of South America saw the team lose to Chile and Uruguay. A 3–0 loss to Turkey in Istanbul then completed their friendly matches cycle before qualifying resumed. However, the "Sinisärgid" won away from home to Slovenia and at home to Northern Ireland, which lifted the team to 58th in the FIFA rankings, giving them their best position to date. This win completed their group matches in the Euro 2012 qualifying campaign.


title: Estonia national football team

text: The regular qualification phase for the Euro 2012 tournament was completed with a win in the final game away to Northern Ireland. Four days later, Serbia failed to beat Slovenia, thus Estonia entered a qualifying play-off against the Republic of Ireland with the first leg in Tallinn. Estonia lost the home game 0–4 but managed a 1–1 draw abroad. The Euro 2012 qualifying campaign was Estonia's best to date, with 16 points achieved out of a possible 30, and was the closest that Estonia came to qualifying for a major tournament.


title: Estonia national football team

text: On 5 June 2012, Estonia set a record for being the first team to have played all of UEFA fellow 52 members. Two more sides have been added since 2013 as full UEFA members. Estonia has played the 53rd member, Gibraltar, but has not yet taken on the newest member, Kosovo.


title: Estonia national football team

text: On 15 November 2014, Estonia became the first and so far only team to give up a point to San Marino in the European Championship qualifying tournament, when the two sides played to a 0–0 draw in San Marino.


title: Estonia national football team

text: On Tuesday, 28 March 2017, Estonia gained one of the most famous wins in their history as they beat Croatia 3–0 at home in an international friendly.


title: Estonia national football team

text: On 10 June 2021, Estonia won the Baltic Cup for the 4th time, beating Latvia 2–1 at home, and it's the first time after 83 years, since 1938.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Home games are played in Tallinn at the Lilleküla Stadium since 2001, its capacity is about 14,400. The stadium borrows its name from its sponsor A. Le Coq, a major Estonian brewery. The stadium was opened on 2 June 2001, for the sold-out World Cup qualifier versus the Netherlands. This is also Estonia's largest football stadium. Lilleküla Stadium is also the home of FC Flora.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Their previous home ground was the Kadrioru Stadium, which opened in June 1926 with a 3–1 victory over Lithuania. The Kadriorg holds 5,000 seats and in contrast to the Lilleküla Stadium, stages athletics events on a regular basis.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonia have also staged friendly matches away from Tallinn in Kohtla-Järve, Kuressaare, Narva, Pärnu, Rakvere, Tartu, Valga and Viljandi.


title: Estonia national football team

text: The kit of the Estonian national team (home games) traditionally consists of a blue shirt, black shorts and white socks, while a change strip (away games), is that of a white shirt, black shorts and blue socks. Before 1996, other colour combinations have been used. The goalkeeper usually wears a yellow jersey, black shorts and yellow socks. The kit design changes every two years to a new one. Since 1997 the team's supplier has been Nike, while between 1992 and 1997 it was supplied by Lotto. Below is a timeline of how the home kit colours have changed through time:


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonia's main supporters group of that of the "Jalgpallihaigla" (English: "Football Hospital"), with over 600 members. The group is committed to "Deal with all of your supporters issues from ticket distribution in a special fans section, and also with the fans as watchdogs for relations with the Estonian Football Association and their clubs". Home games see the group as the most vocal, situated in the Southern section of the Lilleküla Stadium.


title: Estonia national football team

text: A busy away journey took place in October 2007, when at Wembley Stadium for the European championship qualifier with England a crowd of two thousand Estonian fans were in attendance.


title: Estonia national football team

text: A large number of away fans have visited Tallinn. In 1938 which was the decisive meeting of the Baltic Cup tournament hosts and Latvia, a total of 12,000 spectators gathered at the Kadriorg Stadium of which 2,000 Latvians. In 2009 1,700 supporters of Bosnia and Herzegovina were at the Lilleküla Stadium.


title: Estonia national football team

text: Estonia's only participation in a major tournament was at the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris, France. Coached by Hungarian Ferenc Kónya, Estonia's participation was limited to a single match in the first round as the team lost 0–1 to the United States, with Andy Straden scoring the winning goal from the penalty spot in the 15th minute. Estonia were also given a penalty and a chance to equalise, but Elmar Kaljot's effort struck the crossbar in the 68th minute. After going out of the tournament, the Estonian team stayed on in Paris for three weeks, playing a friendly match against Ireland, which ended in a 1–3 defeat, and then went to Germany, playing friendly matches against various teams including a 2–2 draw against 1. FC Kaiserslautern.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963), was a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision in which the Court ruled that the Sixth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution requires U.S. states to provide attorneys to criminal defendants who are unable to afford their own. The case extended the right to counsel, which had been found under the Fifth and Sixth Amendments to impose requirements on the federal government, by imposing those requirements upon the states as well.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: Between midnight and 8:00 a.m. on June 3, 1961, a burglary occurred at the Bay Harbor Pool Room in Panama City, Florida. An unknown person broke a door, smashed a cigarette machine and a record player, and stole money from a cash register. Later that day, a witness reported that he had seen Clarence Earl Gideon in the poolroom at around 5:30 that morning, leaving with a wine bottle, Coca-Cola, and change in his pockets. Based on this accusation alone, the police arrested Gideon and charged him with breaking and entering with intent to commit petty larceny.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: Gideon appeared in court alone as he was too poor to afford counsel, whereupon the following conversation took place:


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: The trial court declined to appoint counsel for Gideon. As a result, he was forced to act as his own counsel and conduct his own defense in court, emphasizing his innocence in the case. At the conclusion of the trial, the jury returned a guilty verdict. The court sentenced Gideon to serve five years in the state prison.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: Gideon first filed a petition for a writ of "habeas corpus" in the Supreme Court of Florida. In his petition, he claimed his Sixth Amendment right had been violated because the judge refused to appoint counsel. The Florida Supreme Court denied Gideon's petition. Later, from his cell at the Florida State Prison in Raiford, making use of the prison library and writing in pencil on prison stationery, Gideon appealed to the United States Supreme Court in a suit against the Secretary of the Florida Department of Corrections, H. G. Cochran. Cochran retired and was replaced by Louie L. Wainwright before the Supreme Court heard the case. Gideon argued in his appeal that he had been denied counsel and therefore that his Sixth Amendment rights, as applied to the states by the Fourteenth Amendment, had been violated.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: The Supreme Court assigned Gideon a prominent Washington, D.C., attorney, future Supreme Court justice Abe Fortas of the law firm Arnold, Fortas & Porter. Fortas was assisted by longtime Arnold, Fortas & Porter partner Abe Krash and future famed legal scholar John Hart Ely, then a third-year student at Yale Law School. Bruce Jacob, who later became Dean of the Mercer University School of Law and Dean of Stetson University College of Law, argued the case for Florida.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: During oral arguments before the Supreme Court, Fortas repeatedly asserted that the existing framework for a state trial court to appoint counsel was unworkable. Under the existing framework, a magistrate in a preliminary hearing determined whether there were "special circumstances" in the case meriting that the defendant receive counsel. But as Fortas highlighted, that determination occurred too early in the case to be of any use. For example, whether a witness's statement should be barred because it was hearsay is an extremely complicated issue that no layman could readily confront, and such a situation arises only during a trial.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: As a second point, Fortas presented during oral argument that it was widely accepted in the legal community that the first thing any reputable lawyer does when accused of a crime is hire an attorney. As an example, Fortas noted that when Clarence Darrow, who was widely known as the greatest criminal attorney in the United States, was charged with jury tampering and suborning perjury, the first thing he did was get an attorney to represent him. Fortas suggested that if a lawyer as prominent as Darrow needed an attorney to represent him in criminal proceedings, then a man without a legal education, or any education for that matter, needed a lawyer too. Fortas's former Yale Law School professor, longtime friend and future Supreme Court colleague Justice William O. Douglas praised his argument as "probably the best single legal argument" in his 36 years on the court.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: The Supreme Court's decision was announced on March 18, 1963, and delivered by Justice Hugo Black. The decision was announced as being unanimous in favor of Gideon. Two concurring opinions were written by Justices Clark and Harlan. Justice Douglas wrote a separate opinion. The Supreme Court decision specifically cited its previous ruling in "Powell v. Alabama" (1932). Whether the decision in "Powell v. Alabama" applied to non-capital cases had sparked heated debate. "Betts v. Brady" (1942) had earlier held that, unless certain circumstances were present, such as illiteracy or low intelligence of the defendant, or an especially complicated case, there was no need for a court-appointed attorney in state court criminal proceedings. "Betts" had thus provided the selective application of the Sixth Amendment right to counsel to the states, depending on the circumstances, as the Sixth Amendment had only been held binding in federal cases. "Gideon" overruled "Betts", holding that the assistance of counsel, if desired by a defendant who could not afford to hire counsel, was a fundamental right under the United States Constitution, binding on the states, and essential for a fair trial and due process of law regardless of the circumstances of the case. The Court explained its rationale in these words:


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: Clark's concurring opinion stated that the Sixth Amendment does not distinguish between capital and non-capital cases, so legal counsel must be provided for an indigent defendant in all cases. Harlan's concurring opinion stated that the mere existence of a serious criminal charge in itself constituted special circumstances requiring the services of counsel at trial.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: "Gideon v. Wainwright" was one of a series of Supreme Court decisions that confirmed the right of defendants in criminal proceedings, upon request, to have counsel appointed both during the trial and on appeal. In the subsequent cases "Massiah v. United States," 377 U.S. 201 (1964), and "Miranda v. Arizona" 384 U.S. 436 (1966), the Supreme Court further extended the rule to apply during police interrogation.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: About 2,000 people were freed in Florida alone as a result of the "Gideon" decision. The decision did not directly result in Gideon being freed; instead, he received a new trial with the appointment of defense counsel at the government's expense.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: Gideon chose W. Fred Turner to be his lawyer in his second trial. The retrial took place on August 5, 1963, five months after the Supreme Court ruling. During the trial, Turner picked apart the testimony of eyewitness Henry Cook. In his opening and closing statements, Turner suggested that Cook likely had been a lookout for a group of young men who broke into the poolroom to steal beer and then grabbed the coins while they were there. Turner also obtained a statement from a cab driver who had taken Gideon from Bay Harbor to a bar in Panama City, stating that Gideon was carrying neither wine, beer, nor Coca-Cola when he picked him up, even though Cook testified that he had watched Gideon walk from the pool hall to a payphone and then wait for a cab. This testimony completely discredited Cook.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: The jury acquitted Gideon after one hour of deliberation. After his acquittal, Gideon resumed his previous life and married sometime later. He died of cancer in Fort Lauderdale on January 18, 1972, at age 61. Gideon's family in Missouri accepted his body and laid him to rest in an unmarked grave. A granite headstone was added later. It was inscribed with a quote from a letter Gideon wrote to Abe Fortas, the attorney appointed to represent him in the Supreme Court: "Each era finds an improvement in law for the benefit of mankind."


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: The former "incorrect trial" rule, where the government was given a fair amount of latitude in criminal proceedings as long as there were no "shocking departures from fair procedure", was discarded in favor of a firm set of "procedural guarantees" based on the Constitution. The court reversed "Betts" and adopted rules that did not require a case-by-case analysis, but instead established the requirement of appointed counsel as a matter of right, without a defendant's having to show "special circumstances" that justified the appointment of counsel. In this way, the case helped to refine "stare decisis": when a prior appellate court decision should be upheld and what standard should be applied to test a new case against case precedent to achieve acceptable practice and due process of law.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: Many changes have been made in the prosecution and legal representation of indigent defendants since the "Gideon" decision. The decision created and then expanded the need for public defenders, which had previously been rare. For example, immediately following the decision, Florida required public defenders in all of its circuit courts.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: The need for more public defenders also led to a need to ensure that they were properly trained in criminal defense, in order to allow defendants to receive as fair a trial as possible. Several states and counties followed suit. Washington, D.C., for instance, has created a training program for their public defenders, who must receive rigorous training before they are allowed to represent defendants, and must continue their training in order to remain current in criminal law, procedure, and practices. In 2010, a public defender's office in the South Bronx, The Bronx Defenders, created the Center for Holistic Defense, which has helped many state public defender offices and developed a model of public defense called holistic defense or holistic advocacy. In it, criminal defense attorneys work on interdisciplinary teams, alongside civil attorneys, social workers, and legal advocates to help clients with not only direct but also collateral aspects of their criminal cases. More recently the American Bar Association and the National Legal Aid and Defender Association have set minimum training requirements, caseload levels, and experience requirements for defenders.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: There is often controversy about whether public defenders' caseloads give them enough time to defend their clients adequately. Some criticize public defenders for encouraging their clients to plead guilty. Some defenders say this is intended to lessen their own workload, while others say it is intended to obtain a lighter sentence by negotiating a plea bargain as compared with going to trial and risking a harsher sentence. Tanya Greene, an ACLU lawyer, has said that that is why 90% to 95% of defendants plead guilty: "You've got so many cases, limited resources, and there's no relief. You go to work, you get more cases. You have to triage."


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: "Gideon v. Wainwright" marked a key transition in legal aid in the United States. Before "Gideon", civil litigants were able to access counsel only based on the following three stringent criteria: whether the case had implications for a private corporation; whether their not receiving counsel would render the trial unfair or in some way compromised in procedure; and whether the case affected the government's interests.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: After "Gideon", and amid growing concern about the paucity of resources for poverty lawyering and the resource burden of case-by-case counsel determinations, state judges and legislators saw the benefit of ensuring the right to counsel for civil litigants just as Gideon provided for criminal defendants. Additionally, an influential 1997 article by a federal district court judge helped revitalize the conversation about the need and justification for a right to counsel in civil cases.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: In contrast to the self-representation movement, the historical civil right to counsel movement was founded on the premise that systemic representation by counsel "ensures more accurate outcomes in civil cases". Proponents of the movement also argue that a right to counsel "saves federal and state government money by helping to avoid the negative externalities caused by litigants wrongly losing their civil cases (such as increased use of shelters, emergency medical care, foster care, police, and public benefits), and increases the public's faith and investment in the judicial process".


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: While the movement has gained substantial traction over time (for instance, 18 jurisdictions enacted a right to counsel for tenants facing eviction between 2017 and 2022), some of its opponents have argued that it places an unreasonable financial burden on states that have an inadequate understanding of the costs and resources needed for civil counsel. Others argue that the right may lead to constitutionally inadequate representation, as has happened in criminal cases. One judge said that, post-"Gideon", "many defendants were represented only by 'walking violations of the Sixth Amendment' [...] No constitutional right is celebrated so much in the abstract and observed so little in reality as the right to counsel". Since publicly financed counsel is not supported financially by the client, there is no guarantee that the appointed counsel will be adequately trained and experienced in the legal domain they are representing.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: The movement along with the strong correlation between representation and equitable outcomes for low-income litigants in poverty lawyership scholarship has significantly influenced the policies surrounding legal representation. For example, in 2006, the American Bar Association adopted Resolution 112A, urging jurisdictions to provide legal counsel "as a matter of right at public expense to low-income persons in those categories of adversarial proceedings where basic human needs are at stake". Outside of influencing policy, the civil right to counsel movement has fueled approaches to legal aid that aim to alleviate the financial burden civil litigants face. Aid through lawyer substitutes has become more prevalent, involving non-lawyer professionals who can assist clients in legal matters without the supervision of a certified attorney. Similarly, pro bono legal aid, which involves providing legal services without fees in order to promote public good, has gained prominence.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: "Doughty v. Maxwell" demonstrates the differences between how states and the federal government address standards for waiver of the right to counsel. In this case, the Supreme Court granted certiorari and reversed the decision of the Ohio court in "Doughty", which held that regardless of "Gideon", the defendant waived their right to appointed counsel by entering a plea of guilty. The underlying alleged crime and trial in "Doughty" took place in Ohio, which had its own way of interpreting the right to counsel, as do many states. Pennsylvania and West Virginia also deemed that the right to counsel was waived when a plea of guilty was entered. Depending upon one's viewpoint, rules such as these could be seen as an attempt by a state to establish reasonable rules in criminal cases or as an attempt to save money even at the expense of denying a defendant due process. This varies a great deal from federal law, which generally has stricter guidelines for waiving the right to counsel. An analogous area of criminal law is the circumstances under which a criminal defendant can waive the right to trial. Under federal law, the defendant can only waive their right to trial if it is clear that the defendant understands the "charges, the consequences of the various pleas, and the availability of counsel". State laws on the subject are often less strict, making it easier for prosecutors to obtain a defendant's waiver of the right to trial.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

text: In "Garza v. Idaho", Justice Clarence Thomas, joined by Justice Neil Gorsuch, filed a dissenting opinion suggesting "Gideon" was wrongly decided and should be overruled. Justice Samuel Alito joined part of the dissent, but did not join the call to overturn "Gideon".


title: Paula Pell

text: Paula Pell (born April 15, 1963) is an American comedy writer, producer, and actress, best known for her work writing for the sketch series "Saturday Night Live," being recognized with a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Variety, Music or Comedy Program and seven Writers Guild of America Awards. In 2019 Pell was honored with the Herb Sargent Award for Comedy Excellence.


title: Paula Pell

text: Pell has produced, written, and performed in numerous TV series, including "30 Rock, A.P. Bio, "Love", and Mapleworth Murders," and has worked as a writer for awards ceremonies like the Academy Awards, the Golden Globes and the MTV Video Music Awards. As a voiceover artist, she has voiced characters in "Inside Out", "Big Mouth", and "Bless the Harts." Pell has also appeared in several films and TV series, including "Sisters", "Other People", and "Wine Country". Since 2021, Pell has been a main cast member on the Peacock original series "Girls5eva".


title: Paula Pell

text: Born in Joliet, Illinois, Pell wanted to be an actor from an early age. She studied acting and visual art at Orlando's Seminole Community College and the University of Tennessee at Knoxville. She took a job at Walt Disney World, working in the nightclubs of the resort's adults-only Pleasure Island section.


title: Paula Pell

text: Pell was a writer for "Saturday Night Live" from 1995 to 2013. She is credited with creating some of its memorable characters such as Debbie Downer, the Culps, Justin Timberlake's Omeletteville mascot, and the Spartan Cheerleaders, among others. She also was a producer and writer for the sitcom "30 Rock", and is credited with writing the episodes "Argus" and "Floyd". In 2006, a pilot she wrote, "Thick and Thin", was picked up by NBC for 13 episodes, with Pell as executive producer, but it never aired in the United States. Pell has worked with Judd Apatow providing additional writing for the films "Bridesmaids" and "This is 40".


title: Paula Pell

text: As an actress, Pell appeared in several episodes of "30 Rock" as the wife of Pete Hornberger, and played the mother of Ron Swanson in a 2011 episode of "Parks and Recreation". She has also appeared as an extra or in bit parts in dozens of SNL sketches. She voices Gadget Gal in the Hulu original series "The Awesomes".


title: Paula Pell

text: She has a small cameo in the 2013 comedy film "". She co-created web series "Hudson Valley Ballers" with fellow "SNL" writer and long time friend James Anderson with whom she also co-stars. Tina Fey produced and starred in Pell's first feature screenplay, "Sisters" (2015). Pell also played the dream producer and Mom's Anger in the 2015 Pixar film "Inside Out". In 2016–2018, she guest-starred in the TV series "Love" as Erika. She also played a character based on Elaine Stritch in the mockumentary musical episode Co-op on "Documentary Now!" She appeared in one episode of Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt in 2017, season 3 episode 10. She plays Helen Henry DeMarcus on the show, "A.P. Bio". She also plays Aunt Mo in the Showtime series "SMILF".


title: Paula Pell

text: Pell co-starred alongside several other "Saturday Night Live" alumnae in the 2019 Netflix original comedy "Wine Country".


title: Paula Pell

text: On August 10, 2020, the comedy-mystery "Mapleworth Murders", which she also co-wrote and executive produced, aired on Quibi. Pell was nominated at the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Actress in a Short Form Comedy or Drama Series for her performance. Between 2020 and 2021, Pell voiced several characters in the animated series "Bless the Harts".


title: Paula Pell

text: Pell is openly gay. She was married for 17 years before getting divorced. She later married Janine Brito on November 13, 2020.


title: Sunburn

text: Sunburn is a form of radiation burn that affects living tissue, such as skin, that results from an overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, usually from the Sun. Common symptoms in humans and animals include: red or reddish skin that is hot to the touch or painful, general fatigue, and mild dizziness. Other symptoms include blistering, peeling skin, swelling, itching, and nausea. Excessive UV radiation is the leading cause of (primarily) non-malignant skin tumors, and in extreme cases can be life-threatening. Sunburn is an inflammatory response in the tissue triggered by direct DNA damage by UV radiation. When the cells' DNA is overly damaged by UV radiation, type I cell-death is triggered and the tissue is replaced.


title: Sunburn

text: Sun protective measures including sunscreen and sun protective clothing are widely accepted to prevent sunburn and some types of skin cancer. Special populations, including children, are especially susceptible to sunburn and protective measures should be used to prevent damage.


title: Sunburn

text: Typically, there is initial redness, followed by varying degrees of pain, proportional in severity to both the duration and intensity of exposure.


title: Sunburn

text: Other symptoms can include blistering, swelling (edema), itching (pruritus), peeling skin, rash, nausea, fever, chills, and fainting (syncope). Also, a small amount of heat is given off from the burn, caused by the concentration of blood in the healing process, giving a warm feeling to the affected area. Sunburns may be classified as superficial, or partial thickness burns. Blistering is a sign of second degree sunburn.


title: Sunburn

text: Minor sunburns typically cause nothing more than slight redness and tenderness to the affected areas. In more serious cases, blistering can occur. Extreme sunburns can be painful to the point of debilitation and may require hospital care.


title: Sunburn

text: Sunburn can occur in less than 15 minutes, and in seconds when exposed to non-shielded welding arcs or other sources of intense ultraviolet light. Nevertheless, the inflicted harm is often not immediately obvious.


title: Sunburn

text: After the exposure, skin may turn red in as little as 30 minutes but most often takes 2 to 6 hours. Pain is usually strongest 6 to 48 hours after exposure. The burn continues to develop for 1 to 3 days, occasionally followed by peeling skin in 3 to 8 days. Some peeling and itching may continue for several weeks.


title: Sunburn

text: Ultraviolet radiation causes sunburns and increases the risk of three types of skin cancer: melanoma, basal-cell carcinoma and squamous-cell carcinoma. Of greatest concern is that the melanoma risk increases in a dose-dependent manner with the number of a person's lifetime cumulative episodes of sunburn. It has been estimated that over 1/3 of melanomas in the United States and Australia could be prevented with regular sunscreen use.


title: Sunburn

text: Sunburn is caused by UV radiation from the sun, but "sunburn" may result from artificial sources, such as tanning lamps, welding arcs, or ultraviolet germicidal irradiation. It is a reaction of the body to direct DNA damage from UVB light. This damage is mainly the formation of a thymine dimer. The damage is recognized by the body, which then triggers several defense mechanisms, including DNA repair to revert the damage, apoptosis and peeling to remove irreparably damaged skin cells, and increased melanin production to prevent future damage.


title: Sunburn

text: Melanin readily absorbs UV wavelength light, acting as a photoprotectant. By preventing UV photons from disrupting chemical bonds, melanin inhibits both the direct alteration of DNA and the generation of free radicals, thus indirect DNA damage. However, human melanocytes contain over 2,000 genomic sites that are highly sensitive to UV, and such sites can be up to 170-fold more sensitive to UV induction of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers than the average site These sensitive sites often occur at biologically significant locations near genes.


title: Sunburn

text: Sunburn causes an inflammation process, including production of prostanoids and bradykinin. These chemical compounds increase sensitivity to heat by reducing the threshold of heat receptor (TRPV1) activation from to . The pain may be caused by overproduction of a protein called CXCL5, which activates nerve fibers.


title: Sunburn

text: Skin type determines the ease of sunburn. In general, people with lighter skin tone and limited capacity to develop a tan after UV radiation exposure have a greater risk of sunburn. The Fitzpatrick's Skin phototypes classification describes the normal variations of skin responses to UV radiation. Persons with type I skin have the greatest capacity to sunburn and type VI have the least capacity to burn. However, all skin types can develop sunburn.


title: Sunburn

text: Age also affects how skin reacts to sun. Children younger than six and adults older than sixty are more sensitive to sunlight.


title: Sunburn

text: There are certain genetic conditions, for example xeroderma pigmentosum, that increase a person's susceptibility to sunburn and subsequent skin cancers. These conditions involve defects in DNA repair mechanisms which in turn decreases the ability to repair DNA that has been damaged by UV radiation.


title: Sunburn

text: The risk of a sunburn can be increased by pharmaceutical products that sensitize users to UV radiation. Certain antibiotics, oral contraceptives, antidepressants, acne medications, and tranquillizers have this effect.


title: Sunburn

text: The UV Index indicates the risk of getting a sunburn at a given time and location. Contributing factors include:


title: Sunburn

text: Because of variations in the intensity of UV radiation passing through the atmosphere, the risk of sunburn increases with proximity to the tropic latitudes, located between 23.5° north and south latitude. All else being equal (e.g., cloud cover, ozone layer, terrain, etc.), over the course of a full year, each location within the tropic or polar regions receives approximately the same amount of UV radiation. In the temperate zones between 23.5° and 66.5°, UV radiation varies substantially by latitude and season. The higher the latitude, the lower the intensity of the UV rays. Intensity in the northern hemisphere is greatest during the months of May, June and Julyand in the southern hemisphere, November, December and January. On a minute-by-minute basis, the amount of UV radiation is dependent on the angle of the sun. This is easily determined by the height ratio of any object to the size of its shadow (if the height is measured vertical to the earth's gravitational field, the projected shadow is ideally measured on a flat, level surface; furthermore, for objects wider than skulls or poles, the height and length are best measured relative to the same occluding edge). The greatest risk is at solar noon, when shadows are at their minimum and the sun's radiation passes most directly through the atmosphere. Regardless of one's latitude (assuming no other variables), equal shadow lengths mean equal amounts of UV radiation.


title: Sunburn

text: The skin and eyes are most sensitive to damage by UV at 265–275 nm wavelength, which is in the lower UVC band that is almost never encountered except from artificial sources like welding arcs. Most sunburn is caused by longer wavelengths, simply because those are more prevalent in sunlight at ground level.


title: Sunburn

text: In recent decades, the incidence and severity of sunburn have increased worldwide, partly because of chemical damage to the atmosphere's ozone layer. Between the 1970s and the 2000s, average stratospheric ozone decreased by approximately 4%, contributing an approximate 4% increase to the average UV intensity at the earth's surface. Ozone depletion and the seasonal "ozone hole" have led to much larger changes in some locations, especially in the southern hemisphere.


title: Sunburn

text: Suntans, which naturally develop in some individuals as a protective mechanism against the sun, are viewed by most in the Western world as desirable. This has led to an overall increase in exposure to UV radiation from both the natural sun and tanning lamps. Suntans can provide a modest sun protection factor (SPF) of 3, meaning that tanned skin would tolerate up to three times the UV exposure as pale skin.


title: Sunburn

text: The World Health Organization, American Academy of Dermatology, and the Skin Cancer Foundation recommend avoiding artificial UV sources such as tanning beds, and do not recommend suntans as a form of sun protection.


title: Sunburn

text: The differential diagnosis of sunburn includes other skin pathology induced by UV radiation including photoallergic reactions, phototoxic reactions to topical or systemic medications, and other dermatologic disorders that are aggravated by exposure to sunlight. Considerations for diagnosis include duration and intensity of UV exposure, use of topical or systemic medications, history of dermatologic disease, and nutritional status.


title: Sunburn

text: Additionally, since sunburn is a type of radiation burn, it can initially hide a severe exposure to radioactivity resulting in acute radiation syndrome or other radiation-induced illnesses, especially if the exposure occurred under sunny conditions. For instance, the difference between the erythema caused by sunburn and other radiation burns is not immediately obvious. Symptoms common to heat illness and the prodromic stage of acute radiation syndrome like nausea, vomiting, fever, weakness/fatigue, dizziness or seizure can add to further diagnostic confusion.


title: Sunburn

text: The most effective way to prevent sunburn is to reduce the amount of UV radiation reaching the skin. The World Health Organization, American Academy of Dermatology, and Skin Cancer Foundation recommend the following measures to prevent excessive UV exposure and skin cancer:


title: Sunburn

text: The strength of sunlight is published in many locations as a UV Index. Sunlight is generally strongest when the sun is close to the highest point in the sky. Due to time zones and daylight saving time, this is not necessarily at 12 noon, but often one to two hours later. Seeking shade including using umbrellas and canopies can reduce the amount of UV exposure, but does not block all UV rays. The WHO recommends following the shadow rule: "Watch your shadow – Short shadow, seek shade!"


title: Sunburn

text: A 2022 study found that eating 60 grapes a day can stop you getting sunburn. Scientists found people who ate three-quarters of a punnet every day for two weeks were better protected against damage to the skin from ultraviolet light. Polyphenols found naturally in the fruits are thought to be responsible for the resistance.


title: Sunburn

text: Commercial preparations are available that block UV light, known as sunscreens or sunblocks. They have a sun protection factor (SPF) rating, based on the sunblock's ability to suppress sunburn: The higher the SPF rating, the lower the amount of direct DNA damage. The stated protection factors are correct only if 2 mg of sunscreen is applied per square cm of exposed skin. This translates into about 28 mL (1 oz) to cover the whole body of an adult male, which is much more than many people use in practice. Sunscreens function as chemicals such as oxybenzone and dioxybenzone (organic sunscreens) or opaque materials such as zinc oxide or titanium oxide (inorganic sunscreens) that both mainly absorb UV radiation. Chemical and mineral sunscreens vary in the wavelengths of UV radiation blocked. Broad-spectrum sunscreens contain filters that protect against UVA radiation as well as UVB. Although UVA radiation does not primarily cause sunburn, it does contribute to skin aging and an increased risk of skin cancer.


title: Sunburn

text: Sunscreen is effective and thus recommended for preventing melanoma and squamous cell carcinoma. There is little evidence that it is effective in preventing basal cell carcinoma. Typical use of sunscreen does not usually result in vitamin D deficiency, but extensive usage may.


title: Sunburn

text: Research has shown that the best sunscreen protection is achieved by application 15 to 30 minutes before exposure, followed by one reapplication 15 to 30 minutes after exposure begins. Further reapplication is necessary only after activities such as swimming, sweating, and rubbing. This varies based on the indications and protection shown on the labelfrom as little as 80 minutes in water to a few hours, depending on the product selected. The American Academy of Dermatology recommends the following criteria in selecting a sunscreen:


title: Sunburn

text: The eyes are also sensitive to sun exposure at about the same UV wavelengths as skin; snow blindness is essentially sunburn of the cornea. Wrap-around sunglasses or the use by spectacle-wearers of glasses that block UV light reduce the harmful radiation. UV light has been implicated in the development of age-related macular degeneration, pterygium and cataract. Concentrated clusters of melanin, commonly known as freckles, are often found within the iris.


title: Sunburn

text: The lips can become chapped (cheilitis) by sun exposure. Sunscreen on the lips does not have a pleasant taste and might be removed by saliva. Some lip balms (ChapSticks) have SPF ratings and contain sunscreens.


title: Sunburn

text: The skin of the feet is often tender and protected, so sudden prolonged exposure to UV radiation can be particularly painful and damaging to the top of the foot. Protective measures include sunscreen, socks, and swimwear or swimgear that covers the foot.