title: Drug metabolism

text: In general, drugs are metabolized more slowly in fetal, neonatal and elderly humans and animals than in adults.


title: Drug metabolism

text: With N-acetyltransferases (involved in "Phase II" reactions), individual variation creates a group of people who acetylate slowly ("slow acetylators") and those who acetylate quickly, split roughly 50:50 in the population of Canada.


title: Drug metabolism

text: This variation may have dramatic consequences, as the slow acetylators are more prone to dose-dependent toxicity.


title: Drug metabolism

text: Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase system enzymes can also vary across individuals, with deficiencies occurring in 1 – 30% of people, depending on their ethnic background.


title: Drug metabolism

text: Dose, frequency, route of administration, tissue distribution and protein binding of the drug affect its metabolism.


title: Drug metabolism

text: "Pathological factors" can also influence drug metabolism, including liver, kidney, or heart diseases.


title: Drug metabolism

text: "In silico" modelling and simulation methods allow drug metabolism to be predicted in virtual patient populations prior to performing clinical studies in human subjects. This can be used to identify individuals most at risk from adverse reaction.


title: Drug metabolism

text: Studies on how people transform the substances that they ingest began in the mid-nineteenth century, with chemists discovering that organic chemicals such as benzaldehyde could be oxidized and conjugated to amino acids in the human body. During the remainder of the nineteenth century, several other basic detoxification reactions were discovered, such as methylation, acetylation, and sulfonation.


title: Drug metabolism

text: In the early twentieth century, work moved on to the investigation of the enzymes and pathways that were responsible for the production of these metabolites. This field became defined as a separate area of study with the publication by Richard Williams of the book "Detoxication mechanisms" in 1947. This modern biochemical research resulted in the identification of glutathione "S"-transferases in 1961, followed by the discovery of cytochrome P450s in 1962, and the realization of their central role in xenobiotic metabolism in 1963.


title: Punit Renjen

text: Punit Renjen (born 1961) is an Indian-American businessman who has been chief executive officer of the multinational professional services firm Deloitte since June 1, 2015. Previously, Renjen was chairman and CEO of Deloitte Consulting LLP, and later, held the role of chairman of Deloitte LLP (United States) from 2011 to 2015. Effective December 31, 2022,  Renjen will become Global CEO Emeritus of Deloitte.


title: Punit Renjen

text: Renjen was raised in Rohtak, North India in the state of Haryana. After earning an MBA in management from Oregon's Willamette University, he was hired by Touche Ross, which merged into Deloitte in 1989. He has worked at Deloitte and lived in the US ever since.


title: Punit Renjen

text: Renjen is on the "Wall Street Journal"s Council of CEOs and has been on the boards of directors at Catlin Gabel School, United Way Worldwide, the U.S.-India Business Council, and his alma mater. He lives in Portland, Oregon.


title: Punit Renjen

text: Renjen grew up in Rohtak, a city in Haryana's Rohtak district, in India, where his father had established an electrical switchgear factory. Around age seven, Renjen was sent to The Lawrence School, Sanawar, an autonomous public co-educational boarding school near Shimla, because his parents were seeking a better education for him than he was receiving in Rohtak. When Renjen was approximately fourteen years old, his father's business encountered financial difficulty, and the family's inability to continue paying for boarding school forced Renjen to return to Rohtak and work at the family factory part time.


title: Punit Renjen

text: Renjen attended a local college, where he earned his Bachelor's degree in economics. After graduating, Renjen worked for the Delhi-based home appliance company Usha International. In 1984, he earned a Rotary Foundation Scholarship, affording him airfare to the United States and a full scholarship to Salem, Oregon's Willamette University. He earned his Master of Management from Willamette's Atkinson Graduate School of Management in 1986, and has lived in the United States ever since.


title: Punit Renjen

text: After graduating from Willamette, Renjen began interviewing at American firms. In the late 1980s, a partner at Touche Ross invited him to interview with the company after reading on a flight a local magazine that profiled Renjen and nine other students. He was initially hired as an associate consultant and has worked at Deloitte for 32 years since that time.


title: Punit Renjen

text: His work at Deloitte has included advising multinational companies on divestitures, mergers and acquisitions, operations, post-merger integration, and strategy. Renjen later served as chairman and CEO of Deloitte Consulting LLP, which is a United States member firm, then as chairman of Deloitte LLP (United States) for four years beginning in June 2011.


title: Punit Renjen

text: Renjen currently serves as the CEO of Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (Deloitte Global). The company announced Renjen's confirmation on February 16, 2015, following an election and nearly unanimous ratification by thousands of Deloitte's partners. When Renjen's four-year term as CEO began on June 1, 2015, he became the first Asia-born person to head one of the Big Four global professional services firms. In June 2019, he was elected to a second, four-year term as Deloitte Global CEO. During that time, Deloitte announced that their fiscal year numbers for 2021 reached $50.2 billion and their workforce expanded to 345,000, making them the first big 4 firm to clear $50 billion in global revenue.


title: Punit Renjen

text: In February 2018, Punit launched World"Class," Deloitte’s global initiative designed to advance education and skills for communities at risk. In 2019, the program was launched in India with the goal of supporting 10 million girls and women by 2030 there through education and skills development.


title: Punit Renjen

text: In May 2021, the Haryana government and Deloitte launched a COVID-19 project called Senjeevani Pariyojana to treat patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 symptoms in their homes. Renjen led the design of the program which is being supported by the Public Health Foundation of India and the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Science.


title: Punit Renjen

text: In addition to serving on Deloitte Global's boards of directors as part of his current role, Renjen is a member of The "Wall Street Journal" CEO Council, United Way Worldwide, the U.S.-India Business Council, and the Business Roundtable. He also serves as a member of the boards of trustees at Catlin Gabel School, United States Council for International Business and Willamette University. In 2015, the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business International (AACSB) included Renjen on their inaugural "Influential Leaders" list, which recognizes "100 AACSB-member-school alumni who inspire others with their professional and volunteer work". He has co-authored articles for "Chief Executive" and "The Journal of Business Strategy", and has been featured in interviews with "Bloomberg Businessweek", "Consulting", "Investor's Business Daily", and "The Wall Street Journal".


title: Punit Renjen

text: In 2007, Renjen was listed as one of "Consulting" magazine's "Top 25 Most Influential Consultants". In 2012, 2013, and 2014, he was named an honoree to the National Association of Corporate Directors (NACD) "Directorship 100". In 2015, the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business International (AACSB) included Renjen on their inaugural "Influential Leaders" list, which recognizes "100 AACSB-member-school alumni who inspire others with their professional and volunteer work". In 2017, he was honored with the "Gaurav Samman" by the Government of Haryana. The award was given to people of Haryanvi origin residing outside of Haryana who have made significant contributions in various fields. In May 2019, he received an honorary degree from Willamette University.


title: Punit Renjen

text: Renjen received the 2020 Oregon History Makers Medal in the category of "Visionary Business Leader." Also in 2020, he was named one of the EMpower Top 100 Ethnic Minority Executive Role Models, an honor given to recognize senior executives of color who are removing barriers to success for other ethnic minority employees and are leading by example. The Indiaspora Business Leaders List recognized Renjen as one of over 50 executives from the Indian diaspora of top-tier international corporations in 2020. In 2021, the US-India Strategic Partnership Forum (USISPF) recognized Punit with the USISPF Global Achievement Award in honor of his corporate leadership in fighting Covid-19 during India's second wave. In 2022, Punit was recognized by "The Economic Times" as "Global Indian of the Year."


title: Punit Renjen

text: Renjen lives in Portland, Oregon. He is a sports fan, with a particular affinity for cricket and American football, and a runner. He is married and has a son.


title: Sexualization

text: Sexualization (or sexualisation) is to make something sexual in character or quality or to become aware of sexuality, especially in relation to men and women. Sexualization is linked to sexual objectification. According to the American Psychological Association, sexualization occurs when "individuals are regarded as sex objects and evaluated in terms of their physical characteristics and sexiness." "In study after study, findings have indicated that women more often than men are portrayed in a sexual manner (e.g., dressed in revealing clothing, with bodily postures or facial expressions that imply sexual readiness) and are objectified (e.g., used as a decorative object, or as body parts rather than a whole person). In addition, a narrow (and unrealistic) standard of physical beauty is heavily emphasized. These are the models of femininity presented for young girls to study and emulate." According to the Media Education Foundation's, "Killing Us Softly 4: Advertising's Image of Women", the sexualization of girls in media and the ways women are portrayed in the dominant culture are detrimental to the development of young girls as they are developing their identities and understanding themselves as sexual beings.


title: Sexualization

text: Reports have found that sexualization of younger children is becoming increasingly more common in advertisements. Research has linked the sexualization of young girls to negative consequences for girls and society as a whole, finding that the viewing of sexually objectifying material can contribute to body dissatisfaction, eating disorders, low self-esteem, depression, and depressive affect. Medical and social science researchers generally deployed "sexualization" to refer to a liminal zone between sexual abuse and normal family life, in which the child's relationship with their parents was characterized by an "excessive", improper sexuality, even though no recognizable forms of abuse had occurred. American Psychological Association also argues that the sexualization of young girls contributes to sexist attitudes within society and a societal tolerance of sexual violence as well as that consumerism and globalization have led to the sexualization of girls occurring across all advanced economies, in media and advertisements, to clothing and toys marketed for young girls.


title: Sexualization

text: The term "sexualization" itself only emerged in Anglophone discourse in recent decades. Beginning in the mid-nineteenth century, the term was infrequently drawn upon by English-language writers to refer the assignation of a gendered frame to a particular object, such as the gendering of nouns (e.g., de Quincey [1839]1909, 195). In contrast, the term "asexualization" saw greater use, as a synonym for sterilization in eugenics discourse from around the turn of the twentieth century (e.g., Lydston 1904). The opposite or antonym to sexualization is desexualization.


title: Sexualization

text: In 2006, an Australian report called "Corporate paedophilia: sexualisation of children in Australia" was published. The Australian report summarises its conclusion as follows:


title: Sexualization

text: In 2007, the American Psychological Association published a report titled "Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls", discussed below.


title: Sexualization

text: In 2010, the American Psychological Association published an additional report titled "Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls", which performed a study where college students were asked to try on and evaluate either a swimsuit or a sweater. While they waited for 10 minutes wearing the garment, they completed a math test. The results revealed that young women in swimsuits performed significantly worse on the math problems than did those wearing sweaters. The hypothesis is that individuals about to try on the sweaters had less pressure to look beautiful because they were not wearing revealing clothing therefore they performed better.


title: Sexualization

text: In 2012, an American study found that self-sexualization was common among 6–9-year-old girls. Girls overwhelmingly chose the sexualized doll over the non-sexualized doll for their ideal self and as popular. However other factors, such as how often mothers talked to their children about what is going on in television shows and maternal religiosity, reduced those odds. Surprisingly, the mere quantity of girls' media consumption (television and movies) was unrelated to their self-sexualization for the most part; rather, maternal self-objectification and maternal religiosity moderated its effects.


title: Sexualization

text: However, in 2010, the Scottish Executive released a report titled "External research on sexualised goods aimed at children". The report considers the drawbacks of the United States and Australian reviews, concluding:


title: Sexualization

text: It also notes that previous coverage "rests on moral assumptions … that are not adequately explained or justified."


title: Sexualization

text: Letting Children be Children: Report of an Independent Review of the Commercialisation and Sexualisation of Childhood (UK)


title: Sexualization

text: The report 'Letting Children Be Children', also known as the Bailey Report, is a report commissioned by the UK government on the subject of the commercialisation and sexualisation of childhood. The report was published in June 2011 and was commissioned as a result of concerns raised as to whether children's lives are negatively affected by the effects of commercialisation and sexualisation.


title: Sexualization

text: The Bailey Report is so-called as it was researched and compiled by Reg Bailey, the Chief Executive of the Mothers' Union, a "charity supporting parents and children in 83 countries in the world". The report asked for contributions from parents; children; organisations; businesses and the general public in order to consider their views and inform their recommendations and identified four themes that were of particular concern to parents and the wider public. These themes were:


title: Sexualization

text: The report returned recommendations based on the research from interested parties, on each of the key themes, in the form of "what we would like to see". On the theme of "the wallpaper of children's lives" it said that it would like to see that sexualised images used in public places should be more in line with what parents find acceptable, to ensure that images in public spaces becomes more child friendly. On theme two "clothing, products and services for children" the Bailey report said that it would like to see retailers no longer selling or marketing inappropriate clothing, products or services for children. What they would like to see on theme three "children as consumers" is comprehensive regulation protecting children from excessive commercial pressures across all media in-line with parental expectations; that marketers are ethical and do not attempt to exploit gaps in the market to influence children into becoming consumers and to ensure that parents and children have an awareness of marketing techniques and regulations. Finally in terms of "making parents voices heard", it would like to see parents finding it easier to voice their concerns to, and be listened to by, businesses and regulators.


title: Sexualization

text: There is a motion for a European Parliament resolution going through which gives the following definition of sexualization:


title: Sexualization

text: The sexualization of women of color is different from the sexualization of white women. The media plays a significant role in this sexualization. "The media are likely to have powerful effects if the information is presented persistently, consistently, and corroborated among forms. As a media affect, stereotypes rely on the repetition to perpetuate and sustain them." According to Celine Parrenas Shimizu, "To see race is to see sex, and vice versa."


title: Sexualization

text: Many scholars trace the sexualization of Black women back to slavery, where certain stereotypes were invented as a way to dehumanize Black women. These stereotypes include the "Jezebel", seen as a light skin overly sexual Black woman with no control over her desires; the "Mammy", a dark-skinned fat Black woman who was asexual in nature and whose sole purpose was to cook for a white family; the "Sapphire", first shown on the Radio/Television show "Amos n' Andy," she was a loud, crude, jealous woman, who took joy in emasculating men. These stereotypes have carried over to the way black girls view themselves and how society views them. The Jezebel stereotype, in particular, has reemerged in the form of hip-hop "video vixens". These images seen in music videos have two effects: they influence how black women are viewed in society and they also shape how black women view themselves.


title: Sexualization

text: "Representations of black girlhood in the media and popular culture suggest that black girls face a different set of rules when it comes to sex, innocence, and blame", the consequences of the sexualization of Black girls can be seen through the 2004 trial of R. Kelly. The immediate response from the public cleared R. Kelly of any wrongdoing while subsequently blaming the young girl for her abuse. One respondent to a "Village Voice" article claimed that she wasn't disturbed by the video because in her words, "It wasn't like she was new to the act. [She--the respondent] heard she [the victim] worked it like most of [her] 30 something-year-old friends have yet to learn how to do". This desensitization is directly linked to a music industry—and subsequent fans—who value the artist over their potential victims.” Instead of being correctly labeled as victims these women are instead turned into "groupies, hoochies, and chickenheads". One of the jurors on the R. Kelly case noted that he believed the defense because her body "appeared to developed". Sika A. Dagbovie-Mullins acknowledged that  "this harmful and skewed reasoning reflects a national troubling tendency to view black adolescent females as sexually savvy and therefore responsible themselves for the sexualization and exploitation of their bodies".


title: Sexualization

text: Dagbovie-Mullins introduced new problems in regards to the sexualization of Black girls, completely dichotomous to the sexualization of Black girls is the infantilization of Black women. Both of these problems are caused by denying the agency of Black women. Both the infantilization of Black women and the sexualization of Black girls are about looking at Black women purely through the lens of their sexuality, without regard to their agency. There is a link between the images of a submissive woman being portrayed by a girl and a willingness for people to believe that young black girls can give consent. This is a narrative that is supported by the sexy school girl image portrayed in media. The image girls off the illusion of being unavailable—both from a moral and legal standpoint—while at the same time being available. "Music, music videos, and images play a pivotal role in the messages individuals hear and see. These messages can be positive or negative, and they can influence how consumers and producers respond to and interrogate them critically, socially, physically, and emotionally".


title: Sexualization

text: The images portrayed "in both African American and mainstream American culture reinforce the lenses through which the everyday experiences and ideal for adolescent African American women are viewed". Shows like the "Flavor of Love" which rely on the stereotype of the Black pimp and the submissive women, where Flavor Flav strip women of their real name and gives them nicknames such as "Thing 1" and "Thing 2" showcase the denial of the agency of Black women. This denial of agency makes it easier for people to see them as little more than sex symbols.  Infantilizing them and stripping them of all things that make them individuals creates a culture in which Black women are no longer seen as people, but objects used for individual male pleasure. Making it easier to side with men when Black women accuse them of assault because Black Women can't be assaulted when all they want is sex.


title: Sexualization

text: Along with a deflated sense of self-worth, these stereotypes can also influence Black girls—notably poor ones—that their sense of worth and an escape from poverty can be found through their sexualization.  The more modern version of the Jezebel—a black woman who is highly sexual and materialistic—may also have the most importance to inner-city Black girls, "The sexual links to poverty and its relevance to survival are clear. Their lives have been called ‘ghetto fabulous,’ where they are socially embedded in a culture of poverty, yet have the economic means to procure middle-class goods".


title: Sexualization

text: Even women are guilty of the sexualization, Nicki Minaj who made the phrase "Barbie Bitch" popular and raps about how she only "fuck[s] with ballers" draw on stereotypes such as the gold digger in order to promote her brand. While the "Bad Bitch Barbie" character was developed out of a history of over-sexualizing the bodies of Black women, it has also been used as a way of Black women to reconquer their sexuality. No longer is it men using their bodies for the enjoyment of other men, but it is they themselves who are showcasing their features as a way of uplifting who they are. Hence, duality is created within hip-hop culture the sexualization of Black women is still being seen, but with the emergence of female artists, we also see an emergence of a counter-culture reclaiming the sexuality of Black Women as their own. While are the same time the "Bad Bitch Barbie" still creates unrealistic images for black girls to compare themselves to. By reclaiming the sexuality that was robbed of them by men, they have introduced a new problem of body dimorphism as Black girls face the pressures to recreate themselves in the images being presented.


title: Sexualization

text: In an NPR interview with Professor Herbert Samuels at LaGuardia Community College in New York and Professor Mireille Miller-Young at UC Santa Barbara, they talk about sexual stereotypes of black bodies in America and how even in sex work, already a dangerous job, black women are treated much worse than their counterparts due to the effects of their over-sexualization and objectification in society. Black women's bodies are either invisible or hypervisible. In the 1800s, a South African woman named Sarah Baartman was known as "Hottentot Venus" and her body was paraded around in London and Paris where they looked at her exotic features such as large breasts and behind. Her features were deemed lesser and over sexual.


title: Sexualization

text: The image of Asian women in Hollywood cinema is directly linked to sexuality as essential to any imagining about the roles they play as well as her actual appearance in popular culture. Asian female fatale's hypersexualized subjection is derived from her sexual behavior that is considered as natural to her particular race and culture. Two types of Asian stereotypes that are commonly found in media are the Lotus Flower and the Dragon Lady. The Lotus Flower archetype is the "self-sacrificing, servile, and suicidal Asian woman." The dragon lady archetype is the opposite of the lotus flower, a "self-abnegating Asian woman…[who] uses her 'Oriental' femininity, associated with seduction and danger to trap white men on behalf of conniving Asian males." According to film-maker and film scholar, Celine Shimizu, "The figure of the Asian American femme fatale signifies a particular deathly seduction. She attracts with her soft, unthreatening, and servile femininity while concealing her hard, dangerous, and domineering nature."


title: Sexualization

text: Starting from the time of white colonization of Native American land, some Native American women have been referred to as "squaw", an Algonquin word for vagina. "The 'squaw' [stereotype] is the dirty, subservient, and abused tribal female who is also haggard, violent, and eager to torture tribal captives." Another stereotype is the beautiful Indian princess who leaves her tribe and culture behind to marry a white man.


title: Sexualization

text: Latina characters that embody the "hot Latina" stereotype in film and television are marked by easily identifiable behavioral characteristics such as "'addictively romantic, sensual, sexual and even exotically dangerous', self-sacrificing, dependent, powerless, sexually naive, childlike, pampered, and irresponsible". Stereotypical Latina physical characteristics include "red lips, big bottoms, large hips, voluptuous bosoms, and small waists" and "high heels, huge hoop earrings, seductive clothing." Within the "hot Latina" stereotype lies three categories of representation: the Cantina Girl, the Faithful, self-sacrificing señorita, and the vamp. The Cantina Girl markers are "'great sexual allure', teasing, dancing, and 'behaving in an alluring fashion.'" The faithful, self-sacrificing Señorita starts out as a good girl and turns bad by the end. The Señorita, in an attempt to save her Anglo love interest, utilizes her body to protect him from violence. The Vamp representation "uses her intellectual and devious sexual wiles to get what she wants." The media represents Latinas "as either [a] hot-blooded spitfire" or "[a] dutiful mother". The sexual implications of the "hot-blooded" Latina has become an overgeneralized representation of Latin people. This has led many to see the Latin people as "what is morally wrong" with the United States. Some believe it to be wrong simply because the interpretation of this culture seems to go against white, Western culture. Culturally, the Latina is expected to dress "as a proper señorita" in order to be respected as a woman which conflicts with the Western ideals that a girl is sexual if she dresses "too 'mature' for [her] age". Even in the business world this stereotype continues; "tight skirts and jingling bracelets [are misinterpreted] as a come-on". This sexualization can also be linked to certain stereotypical jobs. The image of the Latina woman often is not in the business world but in the domestic. The sexualization of Latina women sexualizes the positions that they are expected to occupy. Domestic servants, maids, and waitresses are the typical "media-engendered" roles that make it difficult for Latinas to gain "upward mobility" despite the fact that many hold PhDs.


title: Sexualization

text: In the Dominican Republic, women are frequently stereotyped as sultry and sexual as the reputation of Dominican sex workers grows. Many poor women have resorted to sex work because the demand is high and the hours and pay are often dictated by the workers themselves. White European and American men "exoticize dark-skinned 'native' bodies" because "they can buy sex for cut-rate prices". This overgeneralizing of the sexuality of Dominican women can also carry back to the women's homes. Even "women who...worked in Europe have become suspect..." even if they had a legal job. They have become "exports" instead of people because of their sexualization.


title: Sexualization

text: Throughout the years, the feminist movement has worked to make sex work less oppressive and maintain more agency within the worker's rights. The sex industry inherently sexualizes the women that take part in it as a source of income, but women of color tend to face unequal conditions and fall prey to stereotypes placed on them. Sexual objectification and power imbalances are more likely to occur due to the transaction between the client and sex worker because of the dependency of the worker on the money holder. In environments such as these, it is still important to maintain respect for individuals whether the service provider or client. Though, race discrimination does happen within the workplace. Just as well, so does sexual harassment since these two events are not exclusive to one another and intersect. In the sex industry as a whole, we can see that the view of sex work people tend to reflect on the way they believe women should be treated, especially their racial attitudes and biases. But completely banning people from working in these industries does not resolve the need for change and respect upheld for both White exotic dancers and exotic dancers of color. Though, these women are still subjected to certain stereotypes that are glorified in the sex industry.


title: Sexualization

text: There is still a large gap in the stratification of gender and race and how that affects the oppressive environments some workers deal with every day. For exotic dancers, differences are weighed by the wage gap based on skin color, general treatment, and the violence they experience in their environments. Clients oftentimes associate a sense of refinement and class to people who advertise themselves as a mix of White and drop their racial background of Black. In terms of hiring differences, women who work at certain clubs are reflective of the crowds they are catering to. White women are usually used in order to attract middle-class businessmen, while women of color, specifically women of darker skin tones, are hired to attract working-class customers. This essentially labels women as a certain product to be sold and creates a rank order who will earn more. The exotic dancers of the clubs highly reflect the Women of darker skin tones also have fewer body restrictions, focusing more on their "voluptuous" curvature, and have to be more creative with how they present themselves to their audience just to earn a little extra. For instance, some women of color earn a large difference of $100 to $300 in tips compared to White women. This alludes to a certain sense of quality placed on the dancers dependent on race, seeing as White women are offered more. Women of color tend to have to go through more extreme lengths in order to accommodate the lower amounts of money they are tipped. Many dancers of color are willing to perform sex acts in order to make a higher profit from their work.


title: Sexualization

text: This brings into question the overall safety of the dancers in lower-income places whose only option is to appeal to more working-class people just because that is their only audience. Customers tend to hypersexualize women of color and as a result of that direct objectification, they tend to spend less money for their services. This is how customers lure exotic dancers into desperately needing more money to make their wages, making them perform illegal and unsafe sex acts in return. From these illegal services, we can see that many strippers of color, or strippers in general, begin to sell their bodies for money, which is illegal in some countries. Though this is not the only unsafe aspect of selling their body. Some women are asked to insert foreign objects into their bodies, to do amusing dances or other acts that continuously humiliate the dancer. From this, we can see that the client keeps a certain power over the dancer. They not only hold monetary promises over the dancer, but they also separate themselves from simple pleasure into more humiliation based acts. This might be the separation between "I do not like darker-skinned women" in a physical sexual sense, and lets the client who does not particularly like dark-skinned women to receive some sort of pleasure in the end. Though the dissonance is there, they get a power high.


title: Sexualization

text: The American Psychological Association (APA) in its 2007 Report looked at the cognitive and emotional consequences of sexualization and the consequences for mental and physical health, and impact on development of a healthy sexual self-image. The report considers that a person is sexualized in the following situations:


title: Sexualization

text: According to models of objectification, viewing someone as a body induces de-mentalization, stripping away their psychological traits. Another model suggests instead a body focus strips a person of agency (self-control and action) and competence and increases perceptions of experience (emotion and sensation).


title: Sexualization

text: Some cultural critics have postulated that over recent decades children have evidenced a level of sexual knowledge or sexual behaviour inappropriate for their age group.


title: Sexualization

text: The causes of this premature sexualization that have been cited include portrayals in the media of sex and related issues, especially in media aimed at children; the lack of parental oversight and discipline; access to adult culture via the internet; and the lack of comprehensive school sex education programs.


title: Sexualization

text: For girls and young women in particular, the APA reports that studies have found that sexualization has a negative impact on their "self-image and healthy development".


title: Sexualization

text: The APA additionally further references the teen magazine market by citing a study by Roberts "et al" that found that "47% of 8- to 18-year-old [girls] reported having read at least 5 minutes of a magazine the previous day." A majority of these magazines focused on a theme of presenting oneself as sexually desirable to men, a practice which is called "costuming for seduction" in a study by Duffy and Gotcher.


title: Sexualization

text: Studies have found that thinking about the body and comparing it to sexualized cultural ideals may disrupt a girl's mental concentration, and a girl's sexualization or objectification may undermine her confidence in and comfort with her own body, leading to emotional and self-image problems, such as shame and anxiety.


title: Sexualization

text: Research has linked sexualization with three of the most common mental health problems diagnosed in girls and women: eating disorders, low self-esteem, and depression or depressed mood.


title: Sexualization

text: Research suggests that the sexualization of girls has negative consequences on girls' ability to develop a healthy sexual self-image.


title: Sexualization

text: A result of the sexualization of girls in the media is that young girls are "learning how to view themselves as sex objects". When girls fail to meet the thin ideal and dominant culture's standard of beauty they can develop anxieties. Sexualization is problematic for young children who are developing their sexual identity as they may think that turning themselves into sex objects is empowering and related to having sexual agency.


title: Sexualization

text: Some commercial products seen as promoting the sexualization of children have drawn considerable media attention:


title: Sexualization

text: The Scottish Executive report surveyed 32 High street UK retailers and found that many of the larger chains, including Tesco, Debenhams, JJ Sports, and Marks & Spencer did not offer sexualized goods aimed at children. The report noted that overall prevalence was limited but this was based on a very narrow research brief. Whilst this shows that not all High street retailers were aiming products deemed sexualized by the researchers, the research cannot be taken out of context and used to say that there is not an issue of sexualization.


title: Sexualization

text: Sexualization has also been a subject of debate for academics who work in media and cultural studies. Here, the term has not been used to simply to label what is seen as a social problem, but to indicate the much broader and varied set of ways in which sex has become more visible in media and culture. These include;


title: Sexualization

text: the growth of sexual media of all kinds; for example, erotica, slash fiction, sexual self-help books and the many genres of pornography;


title: Sexualization

text: the emergence of new forms of sexual experience, for example instant message or avatar sex made possible by developments in technology;


title: Sexualization

text: a public concern with the breakdown of consensus about regulations for defining and dealing with obscenity;


title: Sexualization

text: The terms "pornification" and "pornographication" have also been used to describe the way that aesthetics that were previously associated with pornography have become part of popular culture, and that mainstream media texts and other cultural practices "citing pornographic styles, gestures and aesthetics" have become more prominent. This process, which Brian McNair has described as a "pornographication of the mainstream". has developed alongside an expansion of the cultural realm of pornography or "pornosphere" which itself has become more accessible to a much wider variety of audiences. According to McNair, both developments can be set in the context of a wider shift towards a "striptease culture" which has disrupted the boundaries between public and private discourse in late modern Western culture, and which is evident more generally in cultural trends which privilege lifestyle, reality, interactivity, self-revelation and public intimacy.


title: Sexualization

text: Children and adolescents spend more time engaging with media than any other age group. This is a time in their life that they are more susceptible to information that they receive. Children are getting sex education from the media, little kids are exposed to sexualized images and more information than ever before in human history but are not able to process the information, they are not developmentally ready to process it, and this impacts their development and behavior.


title: Sexualization

text: Sexualization of young girls in the media and infantilization of women creates an environment where it becomes more acceptable to view children as "seductive and sexy". It makes having healthy sexual relationships more difficult for people and creates sexist attitudes.


title: Sexualization

text: The Australian writers, Catharine Lumby and Kath Albury (2010) have suggested that sexualization is "a debate that has been simmering for almost a decade" and concerns about sex and the media are far from new. Much of the recent writing on sexualization has been the subject of criticism that because of the way that it draws on "one-sided, selective, overly simplifying, generalizing, and negatively toned" evidence and is "saturated in the languages of concern and regulation". In these writings and the widespread press coverage that they have attracted, critics state that the term is often used as "a non-sequitur causing everything from girls flirting with older men to child sex trafficking" They believe that the arguments often ignore feminist work on media, gender and the body and present a very conservative and negative view of sex in which only monogamous heterosexual sexuality is regarded as normal. They say that the arguments tend to neglect any historical understanding of the way sex has been represented and regulated, and they often ignore both theoretical and empirical work on the relationship between sex and media, culture and technology.


title: Sexualization

text: The sexualization of women being influenced by society is a problem that should be avoided due to its impact on how women value and present themselves. The way society shapes ones personal interest is presented in a book review of "Girls Gone Skank" by Patrice Oppliger, Amanda Mills states that "consequently, girls are socialized to participate in their own abuse by becoming avid consumers of and altering their behavior to reflect sexually exploitative images and goods." The belief that women are powerful and fully capable as men is stated in the text "Uses of the Erotic: The Erotic As Power" by Audre Lorde stating that the suppression of the erotic of women has led them feeling superior to men "the superficially, erotic had been encouraged as a sign of female inferiority on the other hand women have been made to suffer and to feel opposed contemptible and suspect by virtue of its existence".


title: Franz Reichelt

text: Franz Reichelt (16 October 1878 – 4 February 1912), also known as Frantz Reichelt or François Reichelt, was an Austrian-born French tailor, inventor and parachuting pioneer, now sometimes referred to as the Flying Tailor, who is remembered for jumping to his death from the Eiffel Tower while testing a wearable parachute of his own design. Reichelt had become fixated on developing a suit for aviators that would convert into a parachute and allow them to survive a fall should they be forced to leave their aircraft in mid-air. Initial experiments conducted with dummies dropped from the fifth floor of his apartment building had been successful, but he was unable to replicate those early successes with any of his subsequent designs.


title: Franz Reichelt

text: Believing that a suitably high test platform would prove his invention's efficacy, Reichelt repeatedly petitioned the Parisian Prefecture of Police for permission to conduct a test from the Eiffel Tower. He finally received permission in 1912, but when he arrived at the tower on 4February he made it clear that he intended to jump personally rather than conduct an experiment with dummies. Despite attempts to dissuade him, he jumped from the first platform of the tower wearing his invention. The parachute failed to deploy and he plummeted to his death. The next day, newspapers were full of illustrated stories about the death of the "reckless inventor", and the jump was shown in newsreels.


title: Franz Reichelt

text: Reichelt was born in Wegstädtl, in the Kingdom of Bohemia, part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (today, Štětí, Czech Republic) in 1878 and moved to Paris in 1898. He obtained French nationality in 1909, adopting the first name François (the French equivalent of the Germanic "Franz"). One of his sisters may have also come to France and been married to a jeweller there, but newspaper reports differed on the details of his family life, with most reporting that his sisters stayed in Vienna. Reichelt himself was unmarried. He took an apartment on the third floor at 8 rue Gaillon near the Avenue de l'Opéra from 1907 (which he rented for 1500 francs a year) and opened what was to become a successful dressmaking business, catering mostly to Austrians on trips to Paris.


title: Franz Reichelt

text: From July 1910, Reichelt began to develop a "parachute-suit": a suit that was not much more bulky than one normally worn by an aviator, but with the addition of a few rods, a silk canopy and a small amount of rubber that allowed it to fold out to become what Reichelt hoped would be a practical and efficient parachute.


title: Franz Reichelt

text: The dawn of the aviation age brought inevitable accidents coupled with a growing interest in safety measures, most notably in the development of an effective parachute. Early parachuting successes, such as those of Louis-Sébastien Lenormand (in 1783), and balloonist Jean-Pierre Blanchard had successfully used fixed-canopy parachutes (already "open" before the jump began), and André-Jacques Garnerin had invented a frameless parachute suitable for use from high altitudes, but by 1910 there was still no parachute suitable for use in jumping from a plane or at low altitude.


title: Franz Reichelt

text: Reichelt seems to have become interested in parachute design after hearing some of the stories of fatal accidents among the early aeronauts and aviators. His early tests were successful: dummies equipped with foldable silk "wings" touched down lightly when dropped from the fifth floor, but converting the prototypes into a wearable "suit" proved difficult. His original design used of material and weighed around . He presented his design to the leading aeronautic organization, La Ligue Aérienne at the Aéro-Club de France, hoping that they would test it, but they rejected his designs on the grounds that the construction of the canopy was too weak, and they attempted to dissuade him from spending further time on development. Reichelt nevertheless persevered and conducted experimental drops with dummies from the courtyard of his building at rue Gaillon. None of his tests proved successful.


title: Franz Reichelt

text: In 1911, a Colonel Lalance wrote to the Aéro-Club de France, offering a prize of 10,000 francs for a safety parachute for aviatorsdouble the prize he had offered the year before. The competition was open for three years and stipulated that the parachute must weigh no more than . Reichelt refined his design, reducing the weight while increasing the surface area of the material until it reached . But his tests were still unsuccessful and his dummies invariably fell heavily to earth. "" reported that in 1911 he had personally jumped from a height of at Joinville; the attempt failed but a pile of straw helped him escape injury. "Le Matin" reported an attempt at Nogent from a height of that resulted in a broken leg. "Le Petit Journal" suggested that he also made at least two apparently inconclusive tests with dummies from the first deck of the Eiffel Tower during 1911, but an interview with one of Reichelt's friends in "La Presse" made it clear that he had been unsuccessfully applying for permission to conduct a test from the Eiffel Tower for over a year before he finally received the authorization for the final jump. There had been other tests from the tower during 1910 and 1911 though; Gaston Hervieu, who employed a dummy aircraft and mannequins in his experiments, was attempting to perfect a parachute design to ensure the safe landing of a pilot with all or part of a damaged aircraft. Reichelt attributed the failures of his designs at least in part to the short drop distances over which he had conducted his tests, so he was keen to receive permission to experiment from the Eiffel Tower.


title: Franz Reichelt

text: Reichelt announced to the press in early February 1912 that he had finally received permission and would shortly conduct an experiment from the Eiffel Tower to prove the value of his invention.


title: Franz Reichelt

text: On Sunday, 4 February, at 7:00 a.m., he arrived at the tower by car with two friends. He was already wearing his parachute suit. The news footage of his jump shows him modelling his invention in its folded form, which "Le Gaulois" described as "... only a little more voluminous than ordinary clothing ..." (""). The suit did not restrict the wearer's movements when the parachute was packed, and "Le Petit Parisien" described the method of deploying the parachute as being as simple as extending the arms out to form a cross with the body. Once extended, the outfit resembled "a sort of cloak fitted with a vast hood of silk" ("") according to "Le Temps". "L'Action Française" reported that Reichelt stated the surface area of the final design to be with a canopy height of , while "Le Figaro" judged the surface area might have reached . "La Croix" claimed that the suit may have weighed as little as . The weather was cold, with temperatures below , and there was a stiff breeze blowing across the Champ de Mars.


title: Franz Reichelt

text: There were some police officers present to maintain order, as the Parisian Prefecture of Police had given Reichelt permission to proceed. After Reichelt's death, Louis Lépine who, as the Prefect of Police (), was ultimately responsible for the permission being granted, issued a statement making it clear that while the police routinely gave permission for experiments to be performed from the Eiffel Tower, it was understood in these cases that dummies would be used. They had given permission in Reichelt's case only on the basis that he would be conducting dummy drops, and that under no circumstances would they have allowed him to proceed if they had known he would be making the jump himself. Lépine assured "La Croix" that he had never signed an order that allowed a live jump. From his arrival at the tower, however, Reichelt made it clear that he intended to jump himself. According to a later interview with one of the friends who accompanied him up the tower, this was a surprise to everybody, as Reichelt had concealed his intention until the last moment. His friends tried to persuade him to use dummies in the experiment, assuring him that he would have other opportunities to make the jump himself. When this failed to make an impression on him, they pointed to the strength of the wind and said he should call off the test on safety grounds, or at least delay until the wind dropped. They were unable to shake his resolve; seemingly undeterred by the failure of his previous tests, he told journalists from "Le Petit Journal" that he was totally convinced that his apparatus would work, and work well. When questioned as to whether he planned to take any additional precautions, such as using a safety rope, he replied that he would not, since he intended to trust his life entirely to his parachute:


title: Franz Reichelt

text: Hervieu, who was present to witness the demonstration, also attempted to dissuade him from making the jump. He was concerned that the parachute needed longer to fully open than the few seconds the drop from the first platform would allow, and he also presented other technical objections to which Reichelt could not provide a satisfactory response. Reichelt finally replied that:


title: Franz Reichelt

text: Ropes had been suspended between the legs of the tower by the police at Reichelt's request to prevent the crowds from spilling onto the landing zone, and he spent some time discussing the arrangements with the marshals and ensuring that there was sufficient space for his landing before going to the stairs to climb to the first platform.


title: Franz Reichelt

text: According to "Le Petit Parisien", Reichelt's initial attempt to ascend to the first stage of the tower was blocked by a guard named Gassion, who had witnessed previous unsuccessful dummy drops and feared that Reichelt's attempt would end in disaster, though "Le Figaro" reported that he had merely not received a copy of the order and had to wait for telephone confirmation from his superiors. Despite the guard's resistance, by 8:00 a.m. the matter had been resolved: Reichelt, who was visibly shaken by his argument with the guard, was allowed to mount the tower with his two friends and a cinematographer (another was stationed near the foot of the tower to record the jump from below). As he climbed the stairs he paused, turned back to the crowd, raised his hand and wished them a cheery "". (See you soon). His friends continued to try to talk him out of the jump, but Reichelt was quite determined. At 8:22 a.m., observed by a crowd of about 30 journalists and curious onlookers, he readied himself – facing towards the Seine – on a stool placed on a restaurant table next to the interior guardrail of the tower's first deck, a little more than above the ground. After adjusting his apparatus with the assistance of his friends and checking the wind direction by throwing a piece of paper taken from a small book, he placed one foot on the guardrail, hesitated for about 40 seconds, then leapt outwards. According to "Le Figaro", he was calm and smiling just before he jumped. His parachute, which had seemed to be only half-open, folded around him almost immediately and he fell for a few seconds before striking the frozen soil at the foot of the tower.


title: Franz Reichelt

text: "Le Petit Parisien" reported that his right leg and arm were crushed, his skull and spine broken, and that he was bleeding from his mouth, nose and ears. "Le Figaro" noted that his eyes were wide open and dilated. He was already dead by the time the onlookers rushed to his body, but he was taken to the Necker Hospital where he was officially pronounced dead, and then on to a police station in the rue Amélie before being returned to his home in rue Gaillon. Édouard Launet, writing in the Summer supplement of "Libération" in 2009, mentioned that an autopsy concluded that Reichelt had died of a heart attack during his fall.


title: Franz Reichelt

text: The next day's newspapers were full of the story of Reichelt's "tragic experiment" ("") complete with photographs; at least four newspapers, "Le Petit Parisien", "L'Humanité", "Le Matin" and "La Croix", showed images of the fatal jump. Film of the attempt, including footage of Reichelt's body being removed and the onlookers measuring the depth of the hole created by his impact (15 centimetres; 5.9 in), was distributed by news organizations. Initial reports speculated on Reichelt's state of mind: none assumed he had been suicidal, but many called him reckless or foolish. A journalist in "Le Gaulois" suggested that only half the term "mad genius" applied to Reichelt – although the same report included an interview with one of Reichelt's friends, who claimed that the tailor had felt pressured into giving a dramatic demonstration to attract sponsors, without whom he could not expect to make a profit before any patent expired. Reichelt's death was the first to result from a parachuting accident since Charles Leroux died giving a demonstration in Tallinn in 1889. In fact, on 2 February 1912 – two days prior to Reichelt's fatal jump – an American steeplejack, Frederick R. Law, had successfully parachuted from the viewing platform of the torch of the Statue of Liberty ( above sea level and from the base of the statue), seemingly on a whim. On 6 February, "La Croix" added a footnote to the report on Reichelt's death: another parachuting experiment was to take place on 18 or 25 February at Juvisy-sur-Orge, in which the aviator Camille Guillaume planned to leap from his Blériot monoplane at a height of to test a parachute design (the plane would be allowed to crash).


title: Franz Reichelt

text: After Reichelt's death, the authorities became wary of granting permission for any further parachute experiments using the Eiffel Tower. Though they continued to grant permissions for parachute dummy drops, some hopeful inventors – such as a man named Damblanc, who wished to try his "helicopter parachute" from the second platform – were refused permission to conduct tests, and even applications for aviation experiments not involving the tower came under renewed scrutiny. More recently, the tower has been the scene of a number of illicit base jumps. A Norwegian man died in 2005 after losing his canopy while attempting a promotional jump for a clothing firm – the first parachuting death at the tower since Reichelt. A sanctioned stunt jump for the 1985 James Bond film "A View to a Kill" was successful.


title: Franz Reichelt

text: Reichelt came momentarily to prominence again in the 1940s in the United States, when his likeness was claimed as the model for one of the figures that were "strangely un-American in expression and garb" in the WPA-funded mural at Floyd Bennett Field in Brooklyn. In an incident reminiscent of the 1933 controversy over Diego Rivera's "Man at the Crossroads" mural at the Rockefeller Center in New York City, a furore erupted over an image depicting two minor leftist aviators, supposedly flanking a central portrait of Joseph Stalin. The WPA already had an unwanted reputation as sympathetic to the left, and despite the artist August Henkel's "glib" explanation of the "accidental" inclusion of a Soviet red star and his claim that the image identified as Stalin was actually of Reichelt, the murals were taken down and three of the four panels burned. The story of Reichelt's misadventure was also the subject of a 1993 French short, , written and directed by Pablo Lopez Paredes and starring Bruce Myers in the title role.


title: Franz Reichelt

text: Although there were no viable parachuting solutions for use in aeroplanes when Reichelt began developing his suit, a patent for a packable parachute had been applied for by Gleb Kotelnikov.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: Olbers's paradox, also known as the dark night sky paradox, is an argument in astrophysics and physical cosmology that says that the darkness of the night sky conflicts with the assumption of an infinite and eternal static universe. In the hypothetical case that the universe is static, homogeneous at a large scale, and populated by an infinite number of stars, any line of sight from Earth must end at the surface of a star and hence the night sky should be completely illuminated and very bright. This contradicts the observed darkness and non-uniformity of the night.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: The darkness of the night sky is one of the pieces of evidence for a dynamic universe, such as the Big Bang model. That model explains the observed non-uniformity of brightness by invoking expansion of the universe, which increases the wavelength of visible light originating from the Big Bang to microwave scale via a process known as "redshift". The resulting microwave radiation background has wavelengths much longer (millimeters instead of nanometers), which appears dark to the naked eye and bright for a radio receiver.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: Other explanations for the paradox have been offered, but none have wide acceptance in cosmology. Although he was not the first to describe it, the paradox is popularly named after the German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers (1758–1840).


title: Olbers' paradox

text: The first one to address the problem of an infinite number of stars and the resulting heat in the Cosmos was Cosmas Indicopleustes, a 6th-century Greek monk from Alexandria, who states in his "Topographia Christiana": "The crystal-made sky sustains the heat of the Sun, the moon, and the infinite number of stars; otherwise, it would have been full of fire, and it could melt or set on fire."


title: Olbers' paradox

text: Edward Robert Harrison's "Darkness at Night: A Riddle of the Universe" (1987) gives an account of the dark night sky paradox, seen as a problem in the history of science. According to Harrison, the first to conceive of anything like the paradox was Thomas Digges, who was also the first to expound the Copernican system in English and also postulated an infinite universe with infinitely many stars. Kepler also posed the problem in 1610, and the paradox took its mature form in the 19th-century work of Halley and Cheseaux. The paradox is commonly attributed to the German amateur astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers, who described it in 1823, but Harrison shows convincingly that Olbers was far from the first to pose the problem, nor was his thinking about it particularly valuable. Harrison argues that the first to set out a satisfactory resolution of the paradox was Lord Kelvin, in a little known 1901 paper, and that Edgar Allan Poe's essay "" (1848) curiously anticipated some qualitative aspects of Kelvin's argument:


title: Olbers' paradox

text: The paradox is that a static, infinitely old universe with an infinite number of stars distributed in an infinitely large space would be bright rather than dark.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: To show this, we divide the universe into a series of concentric shells, 1 light year thick. A certain number of stars will be in the shell 1,000,000,000 to 1,000,000,001 light years away. If the universe is homogeneous at a large scale, then there would be four times as many stars in a second shell, which is between 2,000,000,000 and 2,000,000,001 light years away. However, the second shell is twice as far away, so each star in it would appear one quarter as bright as the stars in the first shell. Thus the total light received from the second shell is the same as the total light received from the first shell.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: Thus each shell of a given thickness will produce the same net amount of light regardless of how far away it is. That is, the light of each shell adds to the total amount. Thus the more shells, the more light; and with infinitely many shells, there would be a bright night sky.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: While dark clouds could obstruct the light, these clouds would heat up, until they were as hot as the stars, and then radiate the same amount of light.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: Kepler saw this as an argument for a finite observable universe, or at least for a finite number of stars. In general relativity theory, it is still possible for the paradox to hold in a finite universe: though the sky would not be infinitely bright, every point in the sky would still be like the surface of a star.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: The poet Edgar Allan Poe suggested that the finite size of the observable universe resolves the apparent paradox. More specifically, because the universe is finitely old and the speed of light is finite, only finitely many stars can be observed from Earth (although the whole universe can be infinite in space). The density of stars within this finite volume is sufficiently low that any line of sight from Earth is unlikely to reach a star.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: However, the Big Bang theory seems to introduce a new problem: it states that the sky was much brighter in the past, especially at the end of the recombination era, when it first became transparent. All points of the local sky at that era were comparable in brightness to the surface of the Sun, due to the high temperature of the universe in that era; and most light rays will originate not from a star but the relic of the Big Bang.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: This problem is addressed by the fact that the Big Bang theory also involves the expansion of space, which can cause the energy of emitted light to be reduced via redshift. More specifically, the extremely energetic radiation from the Big Bang has been redshifted to microwave wavelengths (1100 times the length of its original wavelength) as a result of the cosmic expansion, and thus forms the cosmic microwave background radiation. This explains the relatively low light densities and energy levels present in most of our sky today despite the assumed bright nature of the Big Bang. The redshift also affects light from distant stars and quasars, but this diminution is minor, since the most distant galaxies and quasars have redshifts of only around 5 to 8.6.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: The redshift hypothesised in the Big Bang model would by itself explain the darkness of the night sky even if the universe were infinitely old. In the Steady state theory the universe is infinitely old and uniform in time as well as space. There is no Big Bang in this model, but there are stars and quasars at arbitrarily great distances. The expansion of the universe causes the light from these distant stars and quasars to redshift, so that the total light flux from the sky remains finite. Thus the observed radiation density (the sky brightness of extragalactic background light) can be independent of finiteness of the universe. Mathematically, the total electromagnetic energy density (radiation energy density) in thermodynamic equilibrium from Planck's law is


title: Olbers' paradox

text: e.g. for temperature 2.7 K it is 40 fJ/m ... 4.5×10 kg/m and for visible temperature 6000 K we get 1 J/m ... 1.1×10 kg/m. But the total radiation emitted by a star (or other cosmic object) is at most equal to the total nuclear binding energy of isotopes in the star. For the density of the observable universe of about 4.6×10 kg/m and given the known abundance of the chemical elements, the corresponding maximal radiation energy density of 9.2×10 kg/m, i.e. temperature 3.2 K (matching the value observed for the optical radiation temperature by Arthur Eddington). This is close to the summed energy density of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) and the cosmic neutrino background. The Big Bang hypothesis predicts that the cosmic background radiation (CBR) should have the same energy density as the binding energy density of the primordial helium, which is much greater than the binding energy density of the non-primordial elements; so it gives almost the same result. However, the steady-state model does not predict the angular distribution of the microwave background temperature accurately (as the standard ΛCDM paradigm does). Nevertheless, the modified gravitation theories (without metric expansion of the universe) cannot be ruled out by CMB and BAO observations.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: Stars have a finite age and a finite power, thereby implying that each star has a finite impact on a sky's light field density. Edgar Allan Poe suggested that this idea could provide a resolution to Olbers's paradox; a related theory was also proposed by Jean-Philippe de Cheseaux. However, stars are continually being born as well as dying. As long as the density of stars throughout the universe remains constant, regardless of whether the universe itself has a finite or infinite age, there would be infinitely many other stars in the same angular direction, with an infinite total impact. So the finite age of the stars does not explain the paradox.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: Suppose that the universe were not expanding, and always had the same stellar density; then the temperature of the universe would continually increase as the stars put out more radiation. Eventually, it would reach 3000 K (corresponding to a typical photon energy of 0.3 eV and so a frequency of 7.5×10 Hz), and the photons would begin to be absorbed by the hydrogen plasma filling most of the universe, rendering outer space opaque. This maximal radiation density corresponds to about eV/m = , which is much greater than the observed value of . So the sky is about five hundred billion times darker than it would be if the universe was neither expanding nor too young to have reached equilibrium yet. However, recent observations increasing the lower bound on the number of galaxies suggest UV absorption by hydrogen and reemission in near-IR (not visible) wavelengths also plays a role.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: A different resolution, which does not rely on the Big Bang theory, was first proposed by Carl Charlier in 1908 and later rediscovered by Benoît Mandelbrot in 1974. They both postulated that if the stars in the universe were distributed in a hierarchical fractal cosmology (e.g., similar to Cantor dust)—the average density of any region diminishes as the region considered increases—it would not be necessary to rely on the Big Bang theory to explain Olbers's paradox. This model would not rule out a Big Bang, but would allow for a dark sky even if the Big Bang had not occurred.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: Mathematically, the light received from stars as a function of star distance in a hypothetical fractal cosmos is


title: Olbers' paradox

text: The function of luminosity from a given distance "L"("r")"N"("r") determines whether the light received is finite or infinite. For any luminosity from a given distance proportional to "r", formula_3 is infinite for "a" ≥ −1 but finite for "a" < −1. So if is proportional to "r", then for formula_3 to be finite, must be proportional to "r", where "b" < 1. For "b" = 1, the numbers of stars at a given radius is proportional to that radius. When integrated over the radius, this implies that for "b" = 1, the "total" number of stars is proportional to "r". This would correspond to a fractal dimension of 2. Thus the fractal dimension of the universe would need to be less than 2 for this explanation to work.


title: Olbers' paradox

text: This explanation is not widely accepted among cosmologists, since the evidence suggests that the fractal dimension of the universe is at least 2. Moreover, the majority of cosmologists accept the cosmological principle, which assumes that matter at the scale of billions of light years is distributed isotropically. Contrarily, fractal cosmology requires anisotropic matter distribution at the largest scales.


title: Warwick

text: Warwick ( ) is a market town, civil parish and the county town of Warwickshire in the Warwick District in England, adjacent to the River Avon. It is south of Coventry, and south-east of Birmingham. It is adjoined with Leamington Spa and Whitnash.


title: Warwick

text: It has ancient origins and an array of historic buildings, notably from the Medieval, Stuart and Georgian eras. It was a major fortified settlement from the early Middle Ages, the most notable relic of this period being Warwick Castle, a major tourist attraction. Much was destroyed in the Great Fire of Warwick in 1694 and then rebuilt with fine 18th century buildings, such as the Collegiate Church of St Mary and the Shire Hall. The population was estimated at 37,267 at the 2021 Census.


title: Warwick

text: Human activity on the site dates back to the Neolithic, when it appears there was a sizable settlement on the Warwick hilltop. Artifacts found include more than 30 shallow pits containing early Neolithic flints and pottery and a number of small post holes indicating rectangular buildings. These are believed to have been created by Early European Farmers originating from Anatolia, sometime between 4000-2351 BC. An arrowhead from the Bell Beaker culture was likewise found, believed to date from 2500-1700 BC.


title: Warwick

text: Archaeological work on the site of Warwick School in 2017–2018 revealed the footings of a sizeable Roman barn from the 2nd century AD. Roman rule in Britain begin to break down with the Great Conspiracy in 367-368, the withdrawal of Roman troops from Britain from 383-406 and the barbarian raids of 408.


title: Warwick

text: From the 5th century onwards, Warwick was continuously inhabited. The town's Old English name, Wæringwīc, is composed of "Wæring", which is a clan name or patronymic, and the suffix "wīc," meaning a 'settlement characterised by extensive artisanal activity and trade.' Alternatively, it may be derived from "wering," meaning a 'fortification' or a 'weir,' the latter implying that the original settlement was located by a natural weir over the River Avon, possibly on the south side of the river, which offered easily cultivable land.


title: Warwick

text: The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" for the year 914 reports that the Anglo-Saxon Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, daughter of king Alfred the Great and sister of king Edward the Elder of Wessex, built a burh or fortified dwelling there on a hilltop site overlooking the earlier riverside settlement, as one of ten to defend Mercia from the Vikings. Warwick was chosen as a site for the burh because the local outcrop of sandstone alongside the Avon provided an easily defensible position at a strategic site by the river crossing, with a good source of water and building material.


title: Warwick

text: In the early 10th century, a shire was founded with Warwick as its county town. During the reign of Æthelstan (924-939) a royal mint was established at Warwick. This was one of two established in Warwickshire at the time, the other being at Tamworth. The Warwick mint continued until the mid-12th century. In 1016 the Danes invaded Mercia and burned down much of Warwick including a nunnery, which stood on the site of today's St Nicholas Church.


title: Warwick

text: William the Conqueror founded Warwick Castle in 1068, while on his way to Yorkshire to deal with rebellion in the north. Building it involved pulling down four houses. The castle stood within the larger Anglo-Saxon burh and a new town wall was created close to the burh ramparts.


title: Warwick

text: The prosperity of medieval Warwick rested on its status as an administrative and military centre, however it was poorly positioned from the point of view of trade, and was consequently never a commercial or industrial centre of more than local significance in medieval times. Medieval Warwick was controlled by various Earls of Warwick, mostly of the Beauchamp family. It became a walled town. It is unknown quite when the town wall was built, but references to it are found as early as the 12th century. It had mostly been demolished by the early 16th century.


title: Warwick

text: Today the only remains are the east and west gatehouses, there was previously also a north gatehouse, but this was demolished. On the south side, the bridge over the Avon was said to fulfil the role of a gatehouse, and likely had a barrier. The west gate was first recorded in 1129, and had a chapel of St James above it, which was reconstructed in the 14th century and extensively restored in 1863–1865. The east gate was rebuilt in the 15th century with the Chapel of St Peter above it. It was rebuilt again in 1788 and was once used as part of The King's High School, but is now a holiday home.


title: Warwick

text: The town's Priory was founded in around 1119 by Henry de Beaumont, the first Earl of Warwick. It was later destroyed during the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536, it stood on the site of the current Priory Park. Henry de Beaumont also founded the Hospital of St John near the east town gate. It is now the site of the 17th century St John's House. Relatively few medieval buildings survive in Warwick, however one of the most notable examples is the Lord Leycester Hospital on the High Street, whose oldest parts date from 1383. Warwick was not incorporated as a borough until 1545.


title: Warwick

text: During the English Civil War the town and castle were garrisoned for Parliament under Sir Edward Peyto. In 1642 the castle underwent a two-week siege by the Royalists commanded by the Earl of Northampton, however, the besiegers lacked any cannons powerful enough to damage the castle. The siege collapsed when, on hearing of the approach of the Earl of Essex to Southam, Lord Northampton marched his force away towards Worcester. Major John Bridges was appointed governor of the castle in 1643, and a garrison was maintained there with artillery and other stores until 1659, which at its height in 1645 consisted of 302 soldiers.


title: Warwick

text: The mid-17th century saw the founding of Castle Hill Baptist Church, one of the oldest Baptist churches in the world.


title: Warwick

text: Much of the medieval town centre was destroyed in the Great Fire of Warwick on 5 September 1694, which, within five hours destroyed 460 buildings and left 250 families homeless. Thus most of the town-centre buildings are of late 17th and early 18th-century origin, although some medieval timber-framed buildings survive, especially around the edges of the town centre.


title: Warwick

text: One of the aims of the rebuilding of Warwick following the fire, was to encourage the gentry and professional men to settle in the town, and so impetus was given to rebuilding the town in the then contemporary Georgian style. Many of the buildings in the rebuilt town were designed by the architects Francis Smith, and later William and David Hiorne, who gave Warwick its 18th century appearance. Daniel Defoe gave his opinion that Warwick had been 'rebuilt in so noble and so beautiful a manner that few towns in England make so fine an appearance'.


title: Warwick

text: The fire burnt down much of the medieval church of St Mary. However, the chancel and the Beauchamp Chapel survived, the latter having been built between 1443 and 1464 according to the wishes of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, who had died in Rouen in 1439. A full-size reclining copper-gilt effigy of him lies on his Purbeck marble tomb – a fine piece of medieval metalwork cast in 1459.


title: Warwick

text: In 1788 the Earl of Warwick obtained an Act of Parliament to enable him to build a new bridge over the Avon: Castle Bridge, which consists of a single sandstone arch was opened in 1793. It replaced an older 14th century bridge further downstream, known as Old Castle Bridge, which fell into ruin, although remains of it can still be seen. The Warwick and Birmingham and Warwick and Napton canals were both opened through Warwick in 1800. They now form parts of the Grand Union Canal.


title: Warwick

text: The Borough of Warwick was reformed under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, which reconstituted it as a municipal borough with an elected Town Council.


title: Warwick

text: The railway arrived in Warwick in 1852 when the Great Western Railway opened its man line between Birmingham, Oxford and London through the town, along with Warwick railway station. However, the train service proved to be a disappointment to Warwick, as no express trains served the town, stopping at nearby Leamington Spa railway station instead. Warwick was largely bypassed by the industrial revolution; during the early 19th century, only minor industrial activities developed in the town, such as hat making. By the early 20th century, some engineering industry had been established locally.


title: Warwick

text: The Warwick Pageant was a major festival in the grounds of Warwick Castle in 1906, organised by Louis N. Parker from a house in Jury Street. As Pageant House, this subsequently served as the offices of Warwick Borough Council, until the enlarged Warwick District Council was formed in Leamington Spa in 1974.


title: Warwick

text: The Leamington & Warwick Tramways & Omnibus Company was established in 1881, and operated a tramway service between Warwick and Leamington Spa until 1930.


title: Warwick

text: In 2021 it was announced that Warwick had entered a competition with 38 other contenders to be awarded city status as part of the Platinum Jubilee Civic Honours. However, it was not among the eight winners ultimately chosen in May 2022.


title: Warwick

text: Populations before the 1801 census can be based on indirect measures. Historians suggest that Warwick had a population of about 1,500 in 1086. Indicators for ensuing centuries are sparse, but by the mid-16th century it is thought to have been about 2,000, which increased by the late 17th century to over 3,000. At the time of the first national census in 1801, Warwick had 5,592 inhabitants. This population nearly doubled by 1851, when it reached 10,952, but thereafter growth was slower for more than a century, reaching 15,349 in 1951 and 16,051 in 1961. Since then it has almost doubled, to 31,315 in 2011.


title: Warwick

text: Population growth has led to Warwick adjoining its larger and younger neighbour Leamington Spa and also Whitnash as part of a conurbation of some 95,000 inhabitants. Along with Kenilworth, they are administered as part of the Warwick District, which has its headquarters in Leamington, although each is a separate civil parish and retains its own town council. Warwickshire County Council is based in Warwick itself.


title: Warwick

text: Warwick is represented in Parliament as part of the Warwick and Leamington constituency, seat of Anthony Eden, Prime Minister 1955-7, from 1923-57. It has been held by the Labour Party since the 2017 general election, when Matt Western was elected as the constituency's MP. From the 1945 general election until 1997 the constituency elected a Conservative MP. In the 1997 United Kingdom general election a Labour MP was elected and held the seat until 2010 when Chris White was elected for the Conservatives. White lost his seat when Theresa May called a snap election in 2017.


title: Warwick

text: The 17th-century antiquarian William Dugdale wrote that Warwick was "standing upon a rocky ascent from every side, and in a dry and fertile soil, having... rich and pleasant meadows on the south part... and... woodland on the north." Two factors have affected Warwick's built environment: the Great Fire of 1694 and the lack of industrialisation. In the 19th century, the widespread industrialisation of England largely passed Warwick by. One reason was that the town did not lie on important roads and the River Avon was not navigable as far as Warwick.


title: Warwick

text: Suburbs of Warwick include Bridge End, Cliff Hill, Emscote, Woodloes Park, Forbes, Myton (connecting Warwick with Leamington Spa), Packmores, The Cape, The Percy, Warwick Gates, Chase Meadow and Myton Green. Warwick Gates is a housing estate and business park in Heathcote, south-east Warwick, which was built in the late 1990s. Although separated from Warwick town centre by open fields, Warwick Gates falls within the Warwick South and Bishops Tachbrook parish.


title: Warwick

text: It is adjacent to Whitnash, a small town near Leamington Spa, and the village of Bishops Tachbrook. The Tachbrook Park and Heathcote industrial estates are also nearby. The NHS Leamington Spa Hospital is adjacent to Warwick Gates. In the early 2010s another new estate, Chase Meadow, was built to the south-west of the town next to Warwick Racecourse. Its amenities include a public house, a Chinese takeaway and a fish and chip shop. Ten year later a new estate south of Myton, named Myton Green was built.


title: Warwick

text: Warwick experiences the usual English maritime climate, marked by a narrow temperature range, mild winters and cool summers. The nearest official Met Office weather station is at Wellesbourne, about 6 miles (10 km) south of the town centre and at a similar elevation. The absolute maximum temperature (also the absolute maximum for the county of Warwickshire) stands at recorded in August 1990. During a typical year, the warmest day should reach , and 16.5 days should report a maximum of or higher. The lowest recorded temperature is , recorded in January 1982. Typically, 53.3 air frosts are recorded in an "average" year. Rainfall averages out at per year, with over 114 days seeing or more falling. All averages refer to the 1971–2000 period.


title: Warwick

text: At the 2011 census, there were 31,345 residents in Warwick in 14,226 households, and the median age of Warwick residents was 39. In terms of ethnicity:


title: Warwick

text: In terms of religion, 58.0% of Warwick residents identified as Christian, 26.9% said they had no religion, 7.4% did not state any religion, 4.6% were Sikh, 1.3% were Hindu, 1.0% were Muslim, 0.4% were Buddhists, 0.2% were Jewish and 0.4% were from another religion.


title: Warwick

text: Due to its proximity to north–south and east–west motorway routes, many companies have a head office in the town. Since November 2004, National Grid UK has had its United Kingdom headquarters on the Warwick Technology Park south of the town near the A452 road. Phillips 66 and their petrol station group, JET, have an office on the Technology Park. Other businesses with head offices here include lingerie company Bravissimo. IBM, Wolseley and Volvo Group UK have bases on the Wedgnock Industrial Estate in the north of the town, near to the A46 trunk road. Other companies with regional headquarters in Warwick include Bridgestone, Calor, Kantar and Delphi Automotive. In recent years several high-profile national and international companies have set up large office complexes in and around Warwick, notably National Grid and IBM. There is also an out-of-town retail park called Leamington Shopping Park (formerly "The Shires Retail Park").


title: Warwick

text: Warwick hosts several annual festivals, including: the Spoken Word; Classical and Contemporary Music; a Folk Festival; and a Victorian Evening, held in late November or early December. St. Mary's Church hosts a series of Early Music concerts, and the Bridge House Theatre hosts the Music-in-Round concerts. Warwick Chamber of Trade helps to promote the town for visitors, residents and businesses. The town is also famous for Warwick Castle, whose construction began in 1068. The town centre is also known for its mixture of Tudor and 17th-century buildings.


title: Warwick

text: Warwick is also known for Warwick Racecourse, near the west gate of the medieval town, which hosts several televised horse racing meetings a year. Within the racecourse is a small golf course. J. R. R. Tolkien seems to have been very influenced by Warwick (where he was married in the Catholic Church of Saint Mary Immaculate and is commemorated by a blue plaque) and by its Mercian connections: Lynn Forest-Hill, in an article in the "Times Literary Supplement" (TLS 8 July 2005 pp 12–13) argues cogently that two important settlements in Tolkien's work were modelled on Warwick – Edoras closely on the early town, and Minas Tirith more remotely on the Norman; and that aspects of the plot of "The Lord of the Rings" are paralleled in the romance known as Guy of Warwick. Christopher Tolkien, in "The Book of Lost Tales", stated that Kortirion, the main city of Tol Eressëa, "would become in after days Warwick."


title: Warwick

text: Warwick and its historic buildings have featured in a number of television series, including the BBC's drama series "Dangerfield", the period dramas "Pride and Prejudice" and "Tom Jones" and Granada Television's "Moll Flanders". Parts of the town substituted for Elizabethan and Jacobean era London in the third-series episode two ("The Shakespeare Code") of "Doctor Who" which ran 7 April 2007. Filming took place in June 2019 for "A Christmas Carol", which was screened on United Kingdom television at Christmas 2019.


title: Warwick

text: The Warwickshire Museum has two sites in Warwick, firstly the historic 17th century Market Hall in the Market Square, which hosts collections which are primarily focused on objects in the fields of archaeology, geology and natural history, and particularly those local to Warwickshire. Secondly, the 17th century St John's House, which hosts, among other things, a full sized replica of a Victorian kitchen and classroom, and the Royal Warwickshire Regiment of Fusiliers Museum.


title: Warwick

text: Warwick Hospital, Leamington Spa Hospital and St Michael's Hospital (a psychiatric unit that superseded Central Hospital) are in the town.


title: Warwick

text: Warwick Racecourse is located just west of the town centre. Adjacent to it is Racing Club Warwick F.C., founded in 1919. The city has many long-established sports clubs, including Warwick Hockey Club, founded in 1920.


title: Warwick

text: Secondary schools in Warwick include Warwick School, an independent day and boarding school for boys. The King's High School For Girls is also independent, but Myton School and Aylesford School are state-run co-educational schools. Campion School and Trinity Catholic School in Leamington include parts of Warwick in their catchment areas. Warwick Preparatory School is an independent day school and nursery for boys aged 3–7 and girls 3–11. It is part of the Warwick Independent Schools Foundation, together with King's High School and Warwick School.


title: Warwick

text: Warwick School is an independent school for boys which claims to be the oldest boys' school in England. The actual foundation date is unknown, although 914 has sometimes been quoted. For some years the school claimed that King Edward the Confessor (c.1004–1066) chartered it, although there is no clear evidence for this and King Henry VIII re-founded it in 1545. Whatever the case, there has undoubtedly been a grammar school in the town of Warwick since before the Norman Conquest. Its present successor has occupied its current site south of the River Avon since 1879.


title: Warwick

text: The nearest university is the University of Warwick, which is named after the county of Warwickshire, rather than the town, and is in fact situated several miles north of Warwick on the southern outskirts of Coventry. Adding to the location confusion is the fact that Coventry is no longer in the county of Warwickshire, but instead is in the West Midlands, leading to the current situation where the university straddles both counties.


title: Warwick

text: Warwick is on the M40 London-Birmingham motorway, connected to junctions 13, 14 and 15; it is also on the A46 dual-carriageway trunk road positioned between Coventry and Stratford-upon-Avon. Warwick has several council off-street car parks in the town. There are also a few privately run car parks, including those at the railway station and the castle.


title: Warwick

text: The town has two railway stations, both on the Chiltern Main Line: Located a short distance north of the town centre is Warwick railway station, which has direct rail services to Leamington Spa, London, Birmingham and Stratford-upon-Avon; these services are provided by Chiltern Railways. In addition, a few peak-hour trains to and from Birmingham are operated by West Midlands Trains. The second station is Warwick Parkway, an out-of-town station opened in 2000 on the western outskirts of the town, this provides frequent services to London and Birmingham. Historically, the Leamington & Warwick Tramways & Omnibus Company operated between the towns from 1881 to 1930.


title: Warwick

text: Bus services to Leamington Spa, Stratford-upon-Avon and Coventry are operated by Stagecoach in Warwickshire from the bus station in the town centre. There is also a National Express coach stop in the town's bus station with limited services. The nearby Warwick Parkway railway station also has a coach stop with more frequent services.


title: Warwick

text: The Grand Union Canal passes through Warwick. The restored Saltisford Canal Arm is close to the town centre – it is a short branch of the Grand Union Canal, the remains of the original terminus of the Warwick and Birmingham Canal, dating back to 1799. The Saltisford Canal Trust has restored most of the surviving canal, which is now the mooring for colourful narrowboats and a waterside park open to the public.


title: Warwick

text: The River Avon which also passes through the town is not navigable as far as Warwick; the navigable stretch of the river currently ends at Stratford-upon-Avon. There have been proposals made to extend the Avon navigation to Warwick, which would involve the construction of seven new locks, some dredging, and some new canal sections. The most recent proposals, which would have seen the river linked with the Grand Union Canal at Warwick, failed to win the support of the local council in 2019.


title: Warwick

text: The nearest international airport to Warwick is Birmingham Airport, about by road from the town centre. There also used to be a Royal Air Force station called RAF Warwick.


title: Colin Murray

text: Colin Murray (born Luke Wright on 10 March 1977) is a Northern Irish radio and television presenter. In 2010, he became host of BBC Television's "Match of the Day 2" on BBC Two, while still anchoring shows on BBC Radio 5 Live, including "5 Live Sport" and "Fighting Talk" and was still presenting on BBC Radio Ulster. He has previously hosted regular Channel 5 television and BBC Radio 1 shows. In 2007, he was named 'Music Broadcaster of the Year' at the Sony Radio Academy Awards.


title: Colin Murray

text: Born and raised in Dundonald, east of Belfast, Murray first trained and worked as a news journalist. With a passion for both music and sport, he later moved into music journalism and publishing, before making his national radio debut in 1999 on Radio 1 in a short spell co-hosting "The Session" music show. This was followed by a television debut in 2002 as one of six co-presenters on Channel 4's short-lived morning show "". From 2003 onwards Murray established himself as a music radio presenter on the weekday daytime "Colin and Edith" show, alongside Edith Bowman.


title: Colin Murray

text: In 2006, Murray began his first role on BBC Radio 5 Live, hosting the sports-themed Saturday morning comedy panel game "Fighting Talk", and also began presenting Channel 5's live UEFA Cup football coverage on midweek evenings. In 2006, he moved shows on Radio 1, departing "Colin and Edith" to front the late-night weekday evening music vehicle, "The Colin Murray Show". In 2008, he also began presenting "The Late Show with Colin Murray", a once-a-week late-night music show for Radio Ulster. The next year, he left Radio 1 to take on additional roles at 5 Live, hosting "Kicking off with Colin Murray" on Friday nights, and "5 Live Sport" on Sunday afternoons. In 2010, he moved from presenting live football on Channel 5 to fronting the BBC's "Match of the Day 2" Sunday night highlights show.


title: Colin Murray

text: In 2013, Murray announced he was leaving BBC Radio 5 Live to move to commercial rival Talksport, taking up the 10am1pm slot vacated by Richard Keys and Andy Gray. Murray announced via Twitter in July 2016 that he was to leave Talksport in September 2016, following the takeover of the station by News Corp. He stated that the concomitant business links between Talksport and "The Sun" meant that, after the scandal of the Hillsborough disaster and of its coverage by "The Sun", his position would be untenable owing to the feelings of Liverpool fans (including himself) towards that newspaper.


title: Colin Murray

text: Since August 2017, Murray has hosted the Saturday night EFL television highlights show, first for Channel 5 in the 2017/18 season and since August 2018 for Quest on "EFL on Quest".


title: Colin Murray

text: Murray was born in 1977 in the Ulster Hospital in Dundonald, a suburb of East Belfast, Northern Ireland, and grew up in Dundonald's Ballybeen estate. He said on the 5 September 2022 edition of Countdown that for two days his name was Luke Wright, until "a family member pointed out that was a direction"; he later took his stepfather's surname. He was educated at the Regent House Grammar School in Newtownards, and later at Dundonald High School, leaving after GCSEs. Hyperactive since childhood, Murray was asked to leave the grammar school owing to what was perceived by teachers as a tendency to disruption – always asking awkward questions or telling jokes – traits he later identified as ideal for his future career in presenting, and which he felt should really have been nurtured by teachers.


title: Colin Murray

text: After leaving school, Murray went on to study journalism full-time. He started work as a news journalist, working both in Northern Ireland as a trainee for "The News Letter", before in 1994 moving to Toronto, Canada, for a year, working on a fellowship for the "Toronto Sun". After returning from Toronto he moved into music journalism, writing for newspapers about rock and pop bands, including establishing a long-standing column in the "Irish Sunday People", before moving into the music magazine business with a new title called "BLANK". After Murray set it up and acted as co-publisher, "Blank" became the highest circulating music magazine in Ulster. After "Blank" was merged with another title, Murray left the magazine.


title: Colin Murray

text: Next, Murray joined BBC Radio 1 on 2 September 1999 to co-presented the weekly live music programme "Session in Northern Ireland" on BBC Radio 1, alongside BBC Radio Ulster presenter Donna Legge, broadcast only in Northern Ireland. He had initially thought the audition was for a show on BBC Radio Ulster. That was followed by six months in 1999 presenting the main national "The Session" programme from Tuesdays to Thursdays. Spells deputising for hosts of other major Radio 1 shows also followed.


title: Colin Murray

text: By 2002, Murray's work in radio and television earned him an audition as one of six co-presenters of Channel 4's new national breakfast television show, "". Having initially auditioned as the entertainment presenter, Murray was instead chosen as a news presenter. While at "RI:SE" he continued to co-host the evening session in Northern Ireland with Donna Legge one day a week, commuting between the province and the Channel 4 studios near Heathrow. His time with "RI:SE" was brief and unhappy, with Murray later stating it "scared me off TV for a long time".


title: Colin Murray

text: By 2003 Murray had teamed up with Edith Bowman (his former co-hostess from "") to work together on Radio 1, presenting their own "Colin and Edith" show. It began in September 2003 in the weekend late-morning slot, but from March 2004 it was moved to the weekday afternoon slot. The partnership increased the listener figures to a decade high of 5.5 million.


title: Colin Murray

text: In 2006 Murray became the new presenter of BBC Radio 5 Live's Saturday morning comedy sports panel quiz show, "Fighting Talk", his first regular show on 5 Live. His first show was on 4 February. Also in February 2006, Murray became the anchor for Channel 5's midweek evening live European UEFA Cup football television coverage, with former anchor John Barnes acting as a roving reporter.


title: Colin Murray

text: That year Murray left the Radio 1 "Colin and Edith" show to start "The Colin Murray Show", a new music show on the same station beginning in September, showcasing new and alternative music in the Mondays-to-Thursdays 10pmmidnight slot, with Bowman remaining in the lunchtime slot. He was inevitably compared with the late holder of the slot, John Peel; Murray stated "What I like is that it's always represented honesty, and never been influenced by what's supposed to be cool at the time. Peel played music he liked; I just play music I like". In 2007, there was a year-on-year increase in listeners to the slot of 160,000.


title: Colin Murray

text: From February 2008 Murray also began presenting a weekly late-night music show on BBC Radio Ulster in Northern Ireland. After failing to find a suitable sound location, he actually presents the show from his own house, in his bedroom, drawing on his extensive music collection as well as new music downloaded onto iTunes. It began as a Saturday night show, but later moved to Fridays.