title: James Turrell

text: James Turrell was born in Los Angeles, California. His father, Archibald Milton Turrell, was an aeronautical engineer and educator. His mother, Margaret Hodges Turrell, trained as a medical doctor and later worked in the Peace Corps. His parents were Quakers.


title: James Turrell

text: Turrell obtained a pilot's license when he was 16 years old. Later, registered as a conscientious objector during the Vietnam War, he flew Buddhist monks out of Chinese-controlled Tibet. Some writers have suggested it was a CIA mission; Turrell called it "a humanitarian mission" — and that he found "some beautiful places to fly". For years he restored antique airplanes to support his "art habit".


title: James Turrell

text: He received a BA degree from Pomona College in perceptual psychology in 1965 (including the study of the Ganzfeld effect) and also studied mathematics, geology, and astronomy. The following year, Turrell enrolled in the graduate Studio Art program at the University of California, Irvine, where he began making work using light projections. His studies at Irvine were interrupted in 1966, when he was arrested for coaching young men to avoid the Vietnam draft. He spent about a year in jail. In 1973, he received an Master of Arts degree from Claremont Graduate University.


title: James Turrell

text: In 1966, Turrell began experimenting with light in his Santa Monica studio, the Mendota Hotel, at a time when the so-called Light and Space group of artists in Los Angeles, including Robert Irwin, Mary Corse and Doug Wheeler, was coming into prominence. By covering the windows and only allowing prescribed amounts of light from the street outside to come through the openings, Turrell created his first light projections. In "Shallow Space Constructions" (1968) he used screened partitions, allowing a radiant effusion of concealed light to create an artificially flattened effect within the given space. That same year, he participated in the Los Angeles County Museum's Art and Technology Program, investigating perceptual phenomena with the artist Robert Irwin and psychologist Edward Wortz.


title: James Turrell

text: In 1969, he made sky drawings with Sam Francis, using colored skywriting smoke and cloud seeding materials. A pivotal environment Turrell developed from 1969 to 1974, "The Mendota Stoppages", used several rooms in the former Mendota Hotel in Santa Monica which were sealed off, with the window apertures controlled by the artist to allow natural and artificial light to enter the darkened spaces in specific ways.


title: James Turrell

text: In 1979 Turrell acquired an extinct cinder cone volcano located outside Flagstaff, Arizona. Since then he has spent decades moving tons of dirt and building tunnels and apertures to turn this crater into a massive naked-eye observatory for experiencing celestial phenomena.


title: James Turrell

text: A completion date for the "Crater" has been announced and pushed back several times since the 1990s. The last time Turrell or his team went on record talking about a completion date, the goal was 2011; but according to a 2013 article in the "Los Angeles Times", "nobody volunteers a date any more". "Roden Crater" has been long shrouded in secrecy and access limited to friends of the artist, although fans have sneaked in without the artist's permission. More recently, a program was established by which devoted fans can gain sanctioned access by completing the "Turrell Tour", which involves seeing a Turrell in 23 countries worldwide, and during May 2015, "Roden Crater" was open to a select group of 80 people at a cost of $6,500 per person.


title: James Turrell

text: Although he works in the American desert, Turrell does not consider himself an earthworks artist like Robert Smithson or Michael Heizer "You could say I'm a mound builder," he said. "I make things that take you up into the sky. But it's not about the landforms. I'm working to bring celestial objects like the sun and moon into the spaces that we inhabit." He added: "I apprehend light—I make events that shape or contain light."


title: James Turrell

text: In the 1970s, Turrell began his series of "skyspaces" enclosed spaces open to the sky through an aperture in the roof. A "Skyspace" is an enclosed room large enough for roughly 15 people. Inside, the viewers sit on benches along the edge to view the sky through an opening in the roof. As a lifelong Quaker, Turrell designed the Live Oak Meeting House for the Society of Friends, with an opening or skyhole in the roof, wherein the notion of light takes on a decidedly religious connotation. (See PBS documentary). His work "Meeting" (1986) at P.S. 1, which consists of a square room with a rectangular opening cut directly into the ceiling, is a recreation of such a meeting house. In 2013, Turrell created another Quaker skyspace, "Greet the Light", at the newly rebuilt Chestnut Hill Friends Meeting in Philadelphia.


title: James Turrell

text: In a "New York Times" article on L.A. collectors building skyspaces in their backyards, Jori Finkel describes a skyspace as a "celestial viewing room designed to create the rather magical illusion that the sky is within reach – stretched like a canvas across an opening in the ceiling".


title: James Turrell

text: In 1992, Turrell's "Irish Sky Garden" opened at the Liss Ard Estate, Skibbereen, Co Cork, Ireland. The giant earth and stoneworks has a crater at its center. A visitor enters through a doorway in the perimeter of the rim, walks through a passage and climbs stairs to enter, then lies on the central plinth and looks upwards to experience the sky framed by the rim of the crater. "The most important thing is that inside turns into outside and the other way around, in the sense that relationships between the Irish landscape and sky changes" (James Turrell).


title: James Turrell

text: In 2001, Turrell made a “sky room” and pool for Nora and Norman Stone in Napa Valley, in which visitors swim through a tunnel into the outdoor pool, where an aperture in the roof displays a perfect slice of sky.


title: James Turrell

text: Since 2009, Turrell's "Third Breath, 2005" is part of the permanent exhibition of the Centre for International Light Art (CILA) in Unna, Germany. It is a "camera obscura", consisting of two rooms: In the lower, cubic room (Camera Obscura Space), the visitor sees an image of the sky which is being reflected through a lens on the ground. In the upper, cylindrical room (Sky Space), the sky can be seen directly through a hole in the ceiling.


title: James Turrell

text: "Three Gems" (2005) at the de Young Museum is Turrell's first Skyspace to adopt the stupa form. At Houghton Hall in Norfolk, the Marquess of Cholmondeley commissioned a folly to the east of the great house. Turrell's Skyspace presents itself from the exterior as an oak-clad building raised on stilts. From the inside of the structure, the viewer's point of view is focused upwards and inevitably lured into contemplating the sky as framed by the open roof.


title: James Turrell

text: Turrell's "Dividing the Light" (2007) incorporates both water and landscaping. This Skyspace is an open-air pavilion, with a canopy structure and aperture, lighting program, pool, and landscaping, situated in the Draper Courtyard at Pomona College. The canopy aperture mirrors the continuous pool below, which is surrounded by granite seating and landscaping. At its opening, David Pagel of the Los Angeles Times called it "one of the best works of public art in recent memory".


title: James Turrell

text: His 2007 "Deer Shelter Skyspace" at Yorkshire Sculpture Park in England, commissioned by The Art Fund, was awarded that year's 2007 Marsh Award for Excellence in Public Sculpture.


title: James Turrell

text: Other Skyspaces include the "Kielder Skyspace" (2000) on Cat Cairn in Kielder, Northumberland, England; "Knight Rise" (2001) at the Scottsdale Museum of Contemporary Art; "Second Wind" (2005) in Vejer de la Frontera, Spain; the "Sky-Space" (2006) in Salzburg, Austria; "The other Horizon" (2004) in Vienna, Austria (MAK-Branch Geymüllerschlössel); "La Brea Sky" (2013) at Kayne Griffin Corcoran; Hardanger Skyspace (2016) in Oystese (Norway), located by the Hardangerfjord and a part of The Art Centre Kabuso; the Skyspace Lech (2018) in Oberlech in Vorarlberg (Austria); the "Ta Khut Skyspace" (2021) in José Ignacio, Uruguay; and at Friends Seminary (2023).


title: James Turrell

text: Completed in 2008, Turrell devised an indoor pool in Connecticut for collectors Lisa and Richard Baker, which creates the sensation of swimming in a mirrored light box.


title: James Turrell

text: In 2009 the first museum worldwide dedicated to Turrell's work was opened in the province of Salta, Argentina. It is part of the Hess Collection at Colome. The light art pieces represent five decades of the artist's career, like a time tunnel, and are exhibited in a progression of nine rooms within a space. The experience concludes with a remarkable example of Turrell's exhibited sky spaces, created within the inner courtyard of the museum, which reaches maximum intensity in the views of the Andean sky at dawn and sunset.


title: James Turrell

text: Turrell is also known for his light tunnels and light projections that create shapes that seem to have mass and weight, though they are created with only light. Three such works by Turrell ("Danaë", "Catso Red", and "Pleiades") are permanent installations at the Mattress Factory in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Turrell's 1968 projection of a suspended luminous pink pyramid, "Raethro Pink", was acquired by the Welsh National Museum of Art. His work "Acton" is a very popular exhibit at the Indianapolis Museum of Art. It consists of a room that appears to have a blank canvas on display, but the "canvas" is actually a rectangular hole in the wall, illuminated to look otherwise. Security guards are known to come up to unsuspecting visitors and say "Touch it! Touch it!"


title: James Turrell

text: Turrell's works defy the "accelerated" habits of many people, especially when looking at art. He feels that viewers spend so little time with the art that this makes it hard to appreciate.


title: James Turrell

text: Art critic John McDonald writes that Turrell's works are "dull to describe but magical to experience".


title: James Turrell

text: Turrell was given his first solo show at the Pasadena Art Museum in 1967. Solo exhibitions have since included the Stedelijk Museum (1976); Whitney Museum of American Art, New York (1980); Israel Museum (1982); Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles (1984); MAK, Vienna (1998–1999); Mattress Factory, Pittsburgh (2002–2003).


title: James Turrell

text: The "Wolfsburg Project" at the Kunstmuseum Wolfsburg, Turrell's largest exhibition in Germany to date, opened in October 2009 and continued through October 2010. Amongst the works featured in the "Wolfsburg Project" was a "Ganzfeld" work, which is a light installation that covers 700 square meters in area and 12 meters in height. Also in 2009, the opening of the artwork "Third Breath, 2005" at the Centre for International Light Art in Unna, Germany, was accompanied by the four-month exhibition "James Turrell – Geometry of Light".


title: James Turrell

text: "James Turrell: A Retrospective", a major exhibition spanning the artist's 50-year career, was exhibited from May 26, 2013 to April 6, 2014 at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and travelled to the National Gallery of Australia.


title: James Turrell

text: From June to September 2013 the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum presented "James Turrell", the artist's first exhibition in a New York museum since 1980. The exhibition focused on the artist's explorations of perception, light, color and space. A new project, Aten Reign (2013), recast the Guggenheim rotunda as an enormous volume filled with shifting artificial and natural light.


title: James Turrell

text: In early 2017, his work was featured in the solo exhibition, "Immersive Light", at the West Bund Long Museum Shanghai. "Into the Light", an installation of nine Turrell works, is on view at MASS MoCA from 2017 until at least 2025.


title: James Turrell

text: James Turrell's work has been exhibited at public art spaces as well as commercial galleries around the world. He is represented by Häusler Contemporary, Kayne Griffin Corcoran, Pace Gallery, Hiram Butler Gallery, Almine Rech Gallery, and Gagosian Gallery.


title: James Turrell

text: In February 2020, the Pace Gallery in London held a Turrell exhibition to demonstrate the "culmination of Turrell's lifelong pursuit".


title: James Turrell

text: On April 22, 2009, the James Turrell Museum opened in Colomé, Province of Salta, in Argentina. It was designed by Turrell after Donald M. Hess, owner of the winery and several of Turrell's works, told him he wanted to dedicate a museum to his work. It contains nine light installations, including a skyspace ("Unseen Blue", 2002) and some drawings and prints.


title: James Turrell

text: Turrell's work is represented in numerous public collections including the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art, North Adams; the Tate Modern, London; the Centre for International Light Art, Unna; the Mattress Factory, Pittsburgh; Los Angeles County Museum of Art; the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York; the Henry Art Gallery, Seattle; Walker Art Center, Minneapolis; the de Young Museum, San Francisco; the Indianapolis Museum of Art, Indianapolis; the Israel Museum, Jerusalem; the Spencer Museum of Art, Lawrence, Kansas; Academy Art Museum, Easton, Maryland; Magasin III Museum for Contemporary Art, Stockholm, Sweden; the Hansol Museum, Wonju; Varese (Italy) ; and the Welsh National Museum of Art, Cardiff.


title: James Turrell

text: In Japan, Turrell's works are in the collections of several museums, including the 21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art, Kanazawa and at the Chichu Art Museum at Benesse Art-Site in Naoshima, Kagawa. The Chichu Art Museum holds three works by Turrell, which are on permanent exhibition: the projection piece "Afrum – Pale Blue" (1968); Ganzfield work "Open Field" (2000); and skyspace "Open Sky" (2004). As part of the Chichu Art Museum's Art House Project, architect Tadao Ando designed a building named "Minamidera" ("Southern Temple") to accommodate a sensory-deprivation work by Turrell, "Backside of the Moon," (1999). "House of Light", (2000), which is a work commissioned for the first Echigo-Tsumari Art Field Triennial, is a building completely designed by Turrell that mixes traditional Japanese architecture with his signature light installations. "House of Light" also has a skyspace, whose view of the sunrise has been described as "the almost imperceptible change into deep blue was incredibly moving".


title: James Turrell

text: Turrell has received numerous awards in the arts, including The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Fellowship in 1984 and the National Medal of Arts in 2013.


title: Speciesism

text: Speciesism () is a term used in philosophy regarding the treatment of individuals of different species. The term has several different definitions within the relevant literature. A common element of most definitions is that speciesism involves treating members of one species as morally more important than members of other species in the context of their similar interests. Some sources specifically define speciesism as discrimination or unjustified treatment based on an individual's species membership, while other sources define it as differential treatment without regard to whether the treatment is justified or not. Richard Ryder, who coined the term, defined it as "a prejudice or attitude of bias in favour of the interests of members of one's own species and against those of members of other species." Speciesism results in the belief that humans have the right to use non-human animals, which scholars say is so pervasive in the modern society. Studies increasingly suggest that people who support animal exploitation also tend to endorse racist, sexist, and other prejudicial views, which furthers the beliefs in human supremacy and group dominance to justify systems of inequality and oppression.


title: Speciesism

text: Some philosophers have argued that there is a normative relationship between speciesism and other prejudices such as racism, sexism, homophobia and so forth. As a term, speciesism first appeared during a protest against animal experimentation in 1970. Philosophers and animal rights advocates state that speciesism plays a role in the animal–industrial complex, including in the practice of factory farming, animal slaughter, blood sports (such as bullfighting and rodeos), the taking of animals' fur and skin, and experimentation on animals, as well as the refusal to help animals suffering in the wild due to natural processes and the categorization of certain animals as invasive, then killing them based on that classification. They argue speciesism is a form of discrimination that constitutes a violation of the Golden Rule because it involves treating other beings differently to how they would want to be treated because of the species that they belong to.


title: Speciesism

text: Notable proponents of the concept include Peter Singer, Oscar Horta, Steven M. Wise, Gary L. Francione, Melanie Joy, David Nibert, Steven Best and Ingrid Newkirk. Among academics, the ethics, morality, and concept of speciesism has been the subject of substantial philosophical debate.


title: Speciesism

text: Buffon, a French naturalist, writing in "Histoire Naturelle", published in 1753, questioned whether it could be doubted that animals "whose organization is similar to ours, must experience similar sensations" and that "those sensations must be proportioned to the activity and perfection of their senses". Despite these assertions, he insisted that there exists a gap between humans and other animals. In the poem "Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne", Voltaire described a kinship between sentient beings, humans and other animals included, stating: "All sentient things, born by the same stern law, / Suffer like me, and like me also die."


title: Speciesism

text: In "Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes", published in 1824, the English writer and advocate for animal rights Lewis Gompertz, argued for egalitarianism and detailed how it could be applied to nonhuman animals. He asserted that the feelings and sensations experienced by humans and other animals are highly similar, stating: "Things which affect us, generally seem to affect them in the same way; and at least the following sensations and passions are common to both, viz. hunger, desire, emulation, love of liberty, playfulness, fear, shame, anger, and many other affections". He also argued that humans and other animals share many physiological characteristics and that this implied "similitude of sensation". Gompertz was critical of the human use of nonhuman animals, arguing that they are used "without the slightest regard to their feelings, their wants, and their desires".


title: Speciesism

text: English naturalist Charles Darwin, writing in his notebook in 1838, asserted that man thinks of himself as a masterpiece produced by a deity, but that he thought it "truer to consider him created from animals." In his 1871 book "The Descent of Man", Darwin argued that:There is no fundamental difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties ... [t]he difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind. We have seen that the senses and intuitions, the various emotions and faculties, such as love, memory, attention, curiosity, imitation, reason, etc., of which man boasts, may be found in an incipient, or even sometimes in a well-developed condition, in the lower animals.


title: Speciesism

text: German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer asserted that anthropocentrism was a fundamental defect of Christianity and Judaism, arguing that these religions have been a source of immense suffering for sentient beings because they separate man from the world of animals, leading to the treatment of animals as only things. Schopenhauer praised Brahmanism and Buddhism for their focus on kinship between humans and other animals, as well as their emphasis on the connection between them through metempsychosis.


title: Speciesism

text: English writer and animal rights advocate Henry S. Salt in his 1892 book "Animals' Rights," argued that for humans to do justice to other animals, that they must look beyond the conception of a "great gulf" between them, claiming instead that we should recognize the "common bond of humanity that unites all living beings in one universal brotherhood".


title: Speciesism

text: Edward Payson Evans, an American scholar and animal rights advocate, in "Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology", published in 1897, was critical of anthropocentric psychology and ethics, which he argued "treat man as a being essentially different and inseparably set apart from all other sentient creatures, to which he is bound by no ties of mental affinity or moral obligation". Evans argued that Darwin's theory of evolution implied moral obligations towards enslaved humans and nonhuman animals, asserting that these obligations not only implied that cruelty to slaves must be mitigated and that slavery be abolished, but also that nonhuman animals need more than just kind treatment; they require rights to protect them and that would be enforced if violated. Evans also contended that widespread recognition of the kinship between humans and even the most insignificant sentient beings would necessarily mean that it would be impossible to neglect or mistreat them.


title: Speciesism

text: An 1898 article published in "The Zoophilist", entitled "Anthropocentric Ethics", argued that the earliest civilizations, before Christianity, considered tenderness and mercy towards sentient organism to be a law. It asserted that Zarathustra and the Buddha espoused this philosophy and that early Greek philosophers, similarly to Brahmins and Buddhists followed the doctrine of metempsychosis, which led eventually to the adoption of vegetarianism. The article also contended that this unquestioned truth of psychical homogeneity between humans and animals was carried into the early Christian era, with the Greek philosopher Celsus making its denial a serious criticism of Christianity. The article argued that early Christian writers, such as Origen, considered animals to be mere automata, created for the benefit of humans and that this belief persists to the present day. It concluded that "Animal Psychology and its relation to Evolutionary Ethics is a subject which is attracting the attention of scientists and moralists alike, and can no longer be treated with indifference, much less with contempt. We must enlarge our conceptions of the intention than that the whole animal world exists merely to minister to our wants."


title: Speciesism

text: Writing in 1895, the American zoologist, philosopher and animal rights advocate J. Howard Moore described vegetarianism as the ethical conclusion of the evolutionary kinship of all creatures, calling it the "expansion of ethics to suit the biological revelations of Charles Darwin". He went on to argue that ethics still relied on a "pre-Darwinian delusion" that all nonhuman animals and the world were created specifically for humans. In his 1899 book "Better World Philosophy", Moore contended that human ethics is in an "anthropocentric stage of evolution", having developed "from individual to tribe, and from tribe to race, and from race to sex, and from sex to species, until to-day the ethical conception of many minds includes, with greater or less vividness and sincerity, all sexes, colors, and conditions of "men"." He argued that the next stage of ethical evolution was "zoocentricism", the ethical consideration of the "entire sentient universe".


title: Speciesism

text: In his 1906 book "The Universal Kinship", Moore asserted that a "provincialist" attitude towards other animals leads humans to mistreat them and compared the denial of an ethical connection between humans and animals to the "denial of ethical relations by a tribe, people, or race of human beings to the rest of the human world." He went on to criticize the anthropocentric perspective of humans, who "think of our acts toward non-human peoples ... "entirely from the human point of view". We never take the time to put ourselves in the places of our victims." In his conclusion, Moore argued that the Golden Rule should be applied to all sentient beings, stating "do as you would be done by—and "not" to the dark man and the white woman alone, but to the sorrel horse and the gray squirrel as well; "not" to creatures of your own anatomy only, but to "all" creatures."


title: Speciesism

text: The term "speciesism", and the argument that it is a prejudice, first appeared in 1970 in a privately printed pamphlet written by British psychologist Richard D. Ryder. Ryder was a member of a group of academics in Oxford, England, the nascent animal rights community, now known as the Oxford Group. One of the group's activities was distributing pamphlets about areas of concern; the pamphlet titled "Speciesism" was written to protest against animal experimentation. The term was intended by its proponents to create a rhetorical and categorical link to racism and sexism.


title: Speciesism

text: Ryder stated in the pamphlet that "[s]ince Darwin, scientists have agreed that there is no 'magical' essential difference between humans and other animals, biologically-speaking. Why then do we make an almost total distinction morally? If all organisms are on one physical continuum, then we should also be on the same moral continuum." He wrote that, at that time in the United Kingdom, 5,000,000 animals were being used each year in experiments, and that attempting to gain benefits for our own species through the mistreatment of others was "just 'speciesism' and as such it is a selfish emotional argument rather than a reasoned one". Ryder used the term again in an essay, "Experiments on Animals", in "Animals, Men and Morals" (1971), a collection of essays on animal rights edited by philosophy graduate students Stanley and Roslind Godlovitch and John Harris, who were also members of the Oxford Group. Ryder wrote:


title: Speciesism

text: In as much as both "race" and "species" are vague terms used in the classification of living creatures according, largely, to physical appearance, an analogy can be made between them. Discrimination on grounds of race, although most universally condoned two centuries ago, is now widely condemned. Similarly, it may come to pass that enlightened minds may one day abhor "speciesism" as much as they now detest "racism." The illogicality in both forms of prejudice is of an identical sort. If it is accepted as morally wrong to deliberately inflict suffering upon innocent human creatures, then it is only logical to also regard it as wrong to inflict suffering on innocent individuals of other species. ... The time has come to act upon this logic.


title: Speciesism

text: The term was popularized by the Australian philosopher Peter Singer in his book "Animal Liberation" (1975). Singer had known Ryder from his own time as a graduate philosophy student at Oxford. He credited Ryder with having coined the term and used it in the title of his book's fifth chapter: "Man's Dominion ... "a short history of speciesism"", defining it as "a prejudice or attitude of bias in favour of the interests of members of one's own species and against those of members of other species":


title: Speciesism

text: Racists violate the principle of equality by giving greater weight to the interests of members of their own race when there is a clash between their interests and the interests of those of another race. Sexists violate the principle of equality by favouring the interests of their own sex. Similarly, speciesists allow the interests of their own species to override the greater interests of members of other species. The pattern is identical in each case.


title: Speciesism

text: Singer stated from a preference-utilitarian perspective, writing that speciesism violates the principle of equal consideration of interests, the idea based on Jeremy Bentham's principle: "each to count for one, and none for more than one." Singer stated that, although there may be differences between humans and nonhumans, they share the capacity to suffer, and we must give equal consideration to that suffering. Any position that allows similar cases to be treated in a dissimilar fashion fails to qualify as an acceptable moral theory. The term caught on; Singer wrote that it was an awkward word but that he could not think of a better one. It became an entry in the "Oxford English Dictionary" in 1985, defined as "discrimination against or exploitation of animal species by human beings, based on an assumption of mankind's superiority." In 1994 the "Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy" offered a wider definition: "By analogy with racism and sexism, the improper stance of refusing respect to the lives, dignity, or needs of animals of other than the human species."


title: Speciesism

text: The French-language journal "Cahiers antispécistes" ("Antispeciesist notebooks") was founded in 1991, by David Olivier, Yves Bonnardel and Françoise Blanchon, who were the first French activists to speak out against speciesism. The aim of the journal was to disseminate anti-speciesist ideas in France and to encourage debate on the topic of animal ethics, specifically on the difference between animal liberation and ecology. Estela Díaz and Oscar Horta assert that in Spanish-speaking countries, unlike English-speaking countries, anti-speciesism has become the dominant approach for animal advocacy. In Italy, two distinct trends have been identified in the contemporary anti-speciesist movement, the first focusing on radical counter-hegemonic positions and the second on mainstream neoliberal ones.


title: Speciesism

text: More recently, animal rights groups such as the Farm Animal Rights Movement and People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals have attempted to popularize the concept by promoting a World Day Against Speciesism on June 5. The World Day for the End of Speciesism (WoDES) is a similar annual observance held at the end of August. The WoDES has been held annually since 2015.


title: Speciesism

text: Some psychologists have argued there is a normative relationship between speciesism and other prejudices such as racism, sexism, homophobia and so forth. Studies suggest speciesism involves similar psychological processes and motivations as those underlying other prejudices. In the 2019 book "Why We Love and Exploit Animals", Kristof Dhont, Gordon Hodson, Ana C. Leite, and Alina Salmen reveal the psychological connections between speciesism and other prejudices such as racism and sexism. Marjetka Golež Kaučič connects racism and speciesism saying that discriminations based on race and species are strongly interrelated, with human rights providing the legal ground for the development of the animal rights. Kaučič further argues that racism and speciesism are further connected to issues of freedom, both collective and individual. According to a study, people who score higher on speciesism also score higher on racism, sexism, and homophobia. Scholars say people supporting animal exploitation also tend to endorse racist and sexist views, furthering the beliefs in human supremacy and group dominance in order to justify systems of inequality and oppression. It is suggested that the connection rests in the ideology of social dominance.


title: Speciesism

text: Psychologists have also considered examining speciesism as a specific psychological construct or attitude (as opposed to speciesism as a philosophy), which was achieved using a specifically designed Likert scale. Studies have found that speciesism is a stable construct that differs amongst personalities and correlates with other variables. For example, speciesism has been found to have a weak positive correlation with homophobia and right-wing authoritarianism, as well as slightly stronger correlations with political conservatism, racism and system justification. Moderate positive correlations were found with social dominance orientation and sexism. Social dominance orientation was theorised to be underpinning most of the correlations; controlling for social dominance orientation reduces all correlations substantially and renders many statistically insignificant. Speciesism likewise predicts levels of prosociality toward animals and behavioural food choices.


title: Speciesism

text: Those who state that speciesism is unfair to individuals of nonhuman species have often invoked mammals and chickens in the context of research or farming. There is not yet a clear definition or line agreed upon by a significant segment of the movement as to which species are to be treated equally with humans or in some ways additionally protected: mammals, birds, reptiles, arthropods, insects, bacteria, etc. This question is all the more complex since a study by Miralles et al. (2019) has brought to light the evolutionary component of human empathic and compassionate reactions and the influence of anthropomorphic mechanisms in our affective relationship with the living world as a whole: the more an organism is evolutionarily distant from us, the less we recognize ourselves in it and the less we are moved by its fate.


title: Speciesism

text: Some researchers have suggested that since speciesism could be considered, in terms of social psychology, a prejudice (defined as "any attitude, emotion, or behaviour toward members of a group, which directly or indirectly implies some negativity or antipathy toward that group"), then laypeople may be aware of a connection between it and other forms of "traditional" prejudice. Research suggests laypeople do indeed tend to infer similar personality traits and beliefs from a speciesist that they would from a racist, sexist or homophobe. However, it is not clear if there is a link between speciesism and non-traditional forms of prejudice such as negative attitudes towards the overweight or towards Christians.


title: Speciesism

text: Psychological studies have furthermore argued that people tend to "morally value individuals of certain species less than others even when beliefs about intelligence and sentience are accounted for." One study identified that there are age-related differences in moral views of animal worth, with children holding less speciesist beliefs than adults; the authors argue that such findings indicate that the development of speciesist beliefs is socially constructed over an individual's lifetime.


title: Speciesism

text: Piers Beirne considers speciesism as the ideological anchor of the intersecting networks of the animal–industrial complex, such as factory farms, vivisection, hunting and fishing, zoos and aquaria, wildlife trade, and so forth. Amy Fitzgerald and Nik Taylor argue that the animal-industrial complex is both a consequence and cause of speciesism, which according to them is a form of discrimination similar to racism or sexism. They also argue that the obfuscation of meat's animal origins is a critical part of the animal–industrial complex under capitalist and neoliberal regimes. Speciesism results in the belief that humans have the right to use non-human animals, which is so pervasive in the modern society.


title: Speciesism

text: Some scholars have argued that all kinds of animal production are rooted in speciesism, reducing animals to mere economic resources. Built on the production and slaughter of animals, the animal–industrial complex is perceived as the materialization of the institution of speciesism, with speciesism becoming "a mode of production". In his 2011 book "Critical Theory and Animal Liberation", J. Sanbonmatsu argues that speciesism is not ignorance or the absence of a moral code towards animals, but is a mode of production and material system imbricated with capitalism.


title: Speciesism

text: A common theme in defending speciesism is the argument that humans have the right to exploit other species to defend their own. Philosopher Carl Cohen stated in 1986: "Speciesism is not merely plausible; it is essential for right conduct, because those who will not make the morally relevant distinctions among species are almost certain, in consequence, to misapprehend their true obligations." Cohen writes that racism and sexism are wrong because there are no relevant differences between the sexes or races. Between people and animals, he states, there are significant differences; his view is that animals do not qualify for Kantian personhood, and as such have no rights.


title: Speciesism

text: Nel Noddings, the American feminist, has criticized Singer's concept of speciesism for being simplistic, and for failing to take into account the context of species preference, as concepts of racism and sexism have taken into account the context of discrimination against humans. Peter Staudenmaier has stated that comparisons between speciesism and racism or sexism are trivializing:


title: Speciesism

text: The central analogy to the civil rights movement and the women's movement is trivializing and ahistorical. Both of those social movements were initiated and driven by members of the dispossessed and excluded groups themselves, not by benevolent men or white people acting on their behalf. Both movements were built precisely around the idea of reclaiming and reasserting a shared humanity in the face of a society that had deprived it and denied it. No civil rights activist or feminist ever argued, "We're sentient beings too!" They argued, "We're fully human too!" Animal liberation doctrine, far from extending this humanist impulse, directly undermines it.


title: Speciesism

text: A similar argument was made by Bernard Williams, who observed that a difference between speciesism versus racism and sexism is that racists and sexists deny any input from those of a different race or sex when it comes to questioning how they should be treated. Conversely, when it comes to how animals should be treated by humans, Williams observed that it is only possible for humans to discuss that question. Williams observed that being a human being is often used as an argument against discrimination on the grounds of race or sex, whereas racism and sexism are seldom deployed to counter discrimination.


title: Speciesism

text: Williams also stated in favour of speciesism (which he termed 'humanism'), arguing that "Why are fancy properties which are grouped under the label of personhood "morally relevant" to issues of destroying a certain kind of animal, while the property of being a human being is not?" Williams states that to respond by arguing that it is because these are properties considered valuable by human beings does not undermine speciesism as humans also consider human beings to be valuable, thus justifying speciesism. Williams then states that the only way to resolve this would be by arguing that these properties are "simply better" but in that case, one would need to justify why these properties are better if not because of human attachment to them. Christopher Grau supported Williams, arguing that if one used properties like rationality, sentience and moral agency as criteria for moral status as an alternative to species-based moral status, then it would need to be shown why these particular properties are to be used instead of others; there must be something that gives them special status. Grau states that to claim these are simply better properties would require the existence of an impartial observer, an "enchanted picture of the universe", to state them to be so. Thus Grau states that such properties have no greater justification as criteria for moral status than being a member of a species does. Grau also states that even if such an impartial perspective existed, it still would not necessarily be against speciesism, since it is entirely possible that there could be reasons given by an impartial observer for humans to care about humanity. Grau then further observes that if an impartial observer existed and valued only minimalizing suffering, it would likely be overcome with horror at the suffering of all individuals and would rather have humanity annihilate the planet than allow it to continue. Grau thus concludes that those endorsing the idea of deriving values from an impartial observer do not seem to have seriously considered the conclusions of such an idea.


title: Speciesism

text: Objectivist philosopher Leonard Peikoff stated: "By its nature and throughout the animal kingdom, life survives by feeding on life. To demand that man defer to the 'rights' of "other" species is to deprive man himself of the right to life. This is 'other-ism,' i.e. altruism, gone mad."


title: Speciesism

text: Douglas Maclean agreed that Singer raised important questions and challenges, particularly with his argument from marginal cases. However, Maclean questioned if different species can be fitted with human morality, observing that animals were generally held exempt from morality; Maclean notes that most people would try to stop a man kidnapping and killing a woman but would regard a hawk capturing and killing a marmot with awe and criticise anyone who tried to intervene. Maclean thus suggests that morality only makes sense under human relations, with the further one gets from it the less it can be applied.


title: Speciesism

text: The British philosopher Roger Scruton regards the emergence of the animal rights and anti-speciesism movement as "the strangest cultural shift within the liberal worldview", because the idea of rights and responsibilities is, he states, distinctive to the human condition, and it makes no sense to spread them beyond our own species. Scruton argues that if animals have rights, then they also have duties, which animals would routinely violate, such as by breaking laws or killing other animals. He accuses anti-speciesism advocates of "pre-scientific" anthropomorphism, attributing traits to animals that are, he says, Beatrix Potter-like, where "only man is vile." It is, he states, a fantasy, a world of escape.


title: Speciesism

text: Thomas Wells states that Singer's call for ending animal suffering would justify simply exterminating every animal on the planet in order to prevent the numerous ways in which they suffer, as they could no longer feel any pain. Wells also stated that by focusing on the suffering humans inflict on animals and ignoring suffering animals inflict upon themselves or that inflicted by nature, Singer is creating a hierarchy where some suffering is more important than others, despite claiming to be committed to equality of suffering. Wells also states that the capacity to suffer, Singer's criteria for moral status, is one of degree rather than absolute categories; Wells observes that Singer denies moral status to plants on the grounds they cannot subjectively feel anything (even though they react to stimuli), yet Wells alleges there is no indication that nonhuman animals feel pain and suffering the way humans do.


title: Speciesism

text: Robert Nozick notes that if species membership is irrelevant, then this would mean that endangered animals have no special claim.


title: Speciesism

text: The Rev. John Tuohey, founder of the Providence Center for Health Care Ethics, writes that the logic behind the anti-speciesism critique is flawed, and that, although the animal rights movement in the United States has been influential in slowing animal experimentation, and in some cases halting particular studies, no one has offered a compelling argument for species equality.


title: Speciesism

text: Some proponents of speciesism believe that animals exist so that humans may make use of them. They state that this special status conveys special rights, such as the right to life, and also unique responsibilities, such as stewardship of the environment. This belief in human exceptionalism is often rooted in the Abrahamic religions, such as the Book of Genesis 1:26: "Then God said, 'Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the livestock and all the wild animals, and over all the creatures that move along the ground.'" Some Christian theologists assert that dominion refers to stewardship, not ownership. Jesus Christ taught that a person is worth more than many sparrows. But the Imago Dei may be personhood itself, although we humans have only achieved efficiencies in educating and otherwise acculturating humans. Proverbs 12:10 says that "Whoever is righteous has regard for the life of his beast, but the mercy of the wicked is cruel."


title: Speciesism

text: Paola Cavalieri writes that the current humanist paradigm is that only human beings are members of the moral community and that all are worthy of equal protection. Species membership, she writes, is "ipso facto" moral membership. The paradigm has an inclusive side (all human beings deserve equal protection) and an exclusive one (only human beings have that status).


title: Speciesism

text: She writes that it is not only philosophers who have difficulty with this concept. Richard Rorty (1931–2007) stated that most human beings – those outside what he called our "Eurocentric human rights culture" – are unable to understand why membership of a species would in itself be sufficient for inclusion in the moral community: "Most people live in a world in which it would be just too risky – indeed, it would often be insanely dangerous – to let one's sense of moral community stretch beyond one's family, clan or tribe." Rorty wrote:


title: Speciesism

text: Such people are "morally" offended by the suggestion that they should treat someone who is not kin as if he were a brother, or a nigger as if he were white, or a queer as if he were normal, or an infidel as if she were a believer. They are offended by the suggestion that they treat people whom they do not think of as human as if they were human. When utilitarians tell them that all pleasures and pains felt by members of our biological species are equally relevant to moral deliberation, or when Kantians tell them that the ability to engage in such deliberation is sufficient for membership in the moral community, they are incredulous. They rejoin that these philosophers seem oblivious to blatantly obvious moral distinctions, distinctions that any decent person will draw.


title: Speciesism

text: Much of humanity is similarly offended by the suggestion that the moral community be extended to nonhumans. Nonhumans do possess some moral status in many societies, but it generally extends only to protection against what Cavalieri calls "wanton cruelty". Anti-speciesists state that the extension of moral membership to all humanity, regardless of individual properties such as intelligence, while denying it to nonhumans, also regardless of individual properties, is internally inconsistent. According to the argument from marginal cases, if infants, the senile, the comatose, and the cognitively disabled (marginal-case human beings) have a certain moral status, then nonhuman animals must be awarded that status too since there is no morally relevant ability that the marginal-case humans have that nonhumans lack.


title: Speciesism

text: American legal scholar Steven M. Wise states that speciesism is a bias as arbitrary as any other. He cites the philosopher R.G. Frey (1941–2012), a leading animal rights critic, who wrote in 1983 that, if forced to choose between abandoning experiments on animals and allowing experiments on "marginal-case" humans, he would choose the latter, "not because I begin a monster and end up choosing the monstrous, but because I cannot think of anything at all compelling that cedes all human life of any quality greater value than animal life of any quality."


title: Speciesism

text: Richard Dawkins, the evolutionary biologist, wrote against speciesism in "The Blind Watchmaker" (1986), "The Great Ape Project" (1993), and "The God Delusion" (2006), elucidating the connection with evolutionary theory. He compares former racist attitudes and assumptions to their present-day speciesist counterparts. In the chapter "The one true tree of life" in "The Blind Watchmaker", he states that it is not only zoological taxonomy that is saved from awkward ambiguity by the extinction of intermediate forms but also human ethics and law. Dawkins states that what he calls the "discontinuous mind" is ubiquitous, dividing the world into units that reflect nothing but our use of language, and animals into discontinuous species:


title: Speciesism

text: The director of a zoo is entitled to "put down" a chimpanzee that is surplus to requirements, while any suggestion that he might "put down" a redundant keeper or ticket-seller would be greeted with howls of incredulous outrage. The chimpanzee is the property of the zoo. Humans are nowadays not supposed to be anybody's property, yet the rationale for discriminating against chimpanzees is seldom spelled out, and I doubt if there is a defensible rationale at all. Such is the breathtaking speciesism of our Christian-inspired attitudes, the abortion of a single human zygote (most of them are destined to be spontaneously aborted anyway) can arouse more moral solicitude and righteous indignation than the vivisection of any number of intelligent adult chimpanzees! ... The only reason we can be comfortable with such a double standard is that the intermediates between humans and chimps are all dead.


title: Speciesism

text: Dawkins elaborated in a discussion with Singer at The Center for Inquiry in 2007 when asked whether he continues to eat meat: "It's a little bit like the position which many people would have held a couple of hundred years ago over slavery. Where lots of people felt morally uneasy about slavery but went along with it because the whole economy of the South depended upon slavery."


title: Speciesism

text: "Libertarian extension" is the idea that the intrinsic value of nature can be extended beyond sentient beings. This seeks to apply the principle of individual rights not only to all animals but also to objects without a nervous system such as trees, plants, and rocks. Ryder rejects this argument, writing that "value cannot exist in the absence of consciousness or potential consciousness. Thus, rocks and rivers and houses have no interests and no rights of their own. This does not mean, of course, that they are not of value to us, and to many other [beings who experience pain], including those who need them as habitats and who would suffer without them."


title: Speciesism

text: David Sztybel states in his paper, "Can the Treatment of Animals Be Compared to the Holocaust?" (2006), that the racism of the Nazis is comparable to the speciesism inherent in eating meat or using animal by-products, particularly those produced on factory farms. Y. Michael Barilan, an Israeli physician, states that speciesism is not the same thing as Nazi racism, because the latter extolled the abuser and condemned the weaker and the abused. He describes speciesism as the recognition of rights on the basis of group membership, rather than solely on the basis of moral considerations.


title: Speciesism

text: The first major statute addressing animal protection in the United States, titled "An Act for the More Effectual Prevention of Cruelty to Animals", was enacted in 1867. It provided the right to incriminate and enforce protection with regards to animal cruelty. The act, which has since been revised to suit modern cases state by state, originally addressed such things as animal neglect, abandonment, torture, fighting, transport, impound standards and licensing standards. Although an animal rights movement had already started as early as the late 1800s, some of the laws that would shape the way animals would be treated as industry grew, were enacted around the same time that Richard Ryder was bringing the notion of Speciesism to the conversation. Legislation was being proposed and passed in the U.S. that would reshape animal welfare in industry and science. Bills such as Humane Slaughter Act, which was created to alleviate some of the suffering felt by livestock during slaughter, was passed in 1958. Later the Animal Welfare Act of 1966, passed by the 89th United States Congress and signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, was designed to put much stricter regulations and supervisions on the handling of animals used in laboratory experimentation and exhibition but has since been amended and expanded. These groundbreaking laws foreshadowed and influenced the shifting attitudes toward nonhuman animals in their rights to humane treatment which Richard D. Ryder and Peter Singer would later popularize in the 1970s and 1980s.


title: Speciesism

text: Great ape personhood is the idea that the attributes of nonhuman great apes are such that their sentience and personhood should be recognized by the law, rather than simply protecting them as a group under animal cruelty legislation. Awarding personhood to nonhuman primates would require that their individual interests be taken into account.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Karen Abgarovich Khachanov (; born 21 May 1996) is a Russian professional tennis player. Khachanov has won four ATP Tour singles titles, including a Masters 1000 title at the 2018 Paris Masters, claimed an Olympic silver medal at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics, and reached a major semifinal at the 2022 US Open. He achieved his career-high singles ranking of world No. 8 on 15 July 2019.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Khachanov started playing tennis at the age of three in kindergarten when his parents put him into the tennis group. His father Abgar, an Armenian from Yerevan, played volleyball before studying medicine, while his mother, Nataliya, a Russian, also studied medicine. Khachanov's maternal grandfather was also half Armenian. Despite having been born in Russia, Khachanov tweeted: "I always say that I have Armenian roots."


title: Karen Khachanov

text: He has a sister and a brother. His idols growing up were Marat Safin and Juan Martín del Potro, and favourite sports teams are Real Madrid and the Miami Heat. He decided to become a professional player at 12.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: After Khachanov turned 15, he moved to Split, Croatia, where he trained under Vedran Martić, Goran Ivanišević's former coach. Later, he moved to Barcelona and was coached by Galo Blanco.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Khachanov won the Under-18 European Championship title in Switzerland in July 2013. Together with Andrey Rublev he won a silver medal in doubles at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics. They lost in the final to Brazilian players Orlando Luz and Marcelo Zormann.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Still as under 18, Khachanov made his ITF Circuit debut at the $15K event in Russia, losing his first match against compatriot Alexey Vatutin. In September of the following year, he got a wildcard for his first ATP Tour participation at the St. Petersburg Open. There he recorded his first win by defeating Victor Hanescu in the first round. He then faced Lukas Rosol, but lost in straight sets. A month later he got another wildcard, for the Kremlin Cup. Things got even better there, as he defeated Albert Ramos Vinolas and top 30 Janko Tipsarevic. In the next round he lost to Ivo Karlovic. The following week he made his debut for Russia at the Davis Cup, and at age 17 years and 157 days he became the youngest Russian tennis player in the pro series, surpassing Mikhail Youzhny. There, he defeated Dean O'Brien of South Africa to help Russia advance in the 2013 Davis Cup Europe/Africa Zone Group I. He finished the season by playing at the two Challengers, reaching the quarterfinal in Geneva and then the first round in Helsinki.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: After a slow start at the Chennai Open and two lower-ITF tournaments, Khachanov then played at the Davis Cup. He lost to Jerzy Janowicz of Poland in the first round of the 2014 Davis Cup Europe/Africa Zone Group I. He then continued with no success at one ITF event and Challenger events in Kazakhstan. However, he then made his Masters debut, after receiving a wildcard entry to the 2014 Miami Open, but lost in the first round to Daniel Gimeno-Traver. In August, he achieved his first significant result, winning his first ITF title at the $15K event in Kaohsiung. Two weeks later, he won another ITF title at the $15K event in Mulhouse. For the second year in a row, he got a wildcard for the Kremlin Cup, but again lost in the first round.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Despite playing at a few ATP Tour events in previous years, in 2015 Khachanov played mostly at ITF and Challenger tournaments, with some success. In the first half of the year, he won two $10K/15K events in France, both in March. In April he reached the semifinal and won the title at the $15K events in Uzbekistan. After that came some good results at the Challengers. In June, he advanced to the quarterfinal in Fergana and then the semifinal in Marburg. His next step was Wimbledon, in his first Grand Slam qualification appearance. He lost in the first round of qualifications. Later, at the US Open, he also failed to qualify for the main draw, this time losing in the second round of qualifications. In mid-July, he faced Pablo Andujar in the second round of the 2015 Davis Cup Europe/Africa Zone Group I. He lost that match in three sets. In September 2015, Khachanov won his first ATP Challenger Tour title in Istanbul, where he was unseeded. In the final he defeated top seed Sergiy Stakhovsky. He followed up this performance and finished the year with four consecutive Challenger quarterfinals, in Mons, Rennes, Brest and Mouilleron-le-Captif.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Khachanov made progress during 2016, however bigger results came in the second half of the year. He had a slow start with only a first round at the Chennai Open and the final stage of Australian Open qualifications, as well as failing to reach the main draw at Open Sud de France and Open 13. His following matches were on the Challenger Tour, making it to the quarterfinal in Cherbourg and later the final of Jonkoping and the quarterfinal in Kazan. He then entered the qualifications for Monte Carlo as his first clay Masters 1000 appearance. He lost to Taro Daniel in the first round. The following week he qualified for the Barcelona Open, beating Ramkumar Ramanathan and Marco Trungelliti. In his first-round match he came back from a set down to beat Aljaz Bedene. In the second round he beat fifth seed Roberto Bautista Agut, also in three sets. He eventually lost in the third round to the eleventh seed Alexandr Dolgopolov. Right after that he played at the Istanbul Open as a wildcard player. In his first match, he beat Aljaz Bedene for the second time in the month. In the following round, he lost to Albert Ramos Vinolas, despite winning the first set. He then continued with good results at Challengers, reaching the quarterfinal in Karshi and winning the title in Samarkand the following week.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Playing in the qualification of the French Open, Khachanov completed his appearances at all four Grand Slams, but with no qualifications into the main draw. Two Challenger semifinals in Prostejov and Moscow followed, as well as another loss in the qualifications of Wimbledon. In July, at the Kitzbuhel Open, he defeated Filippo Volandri and Philipp Kohlscreiber to reach his first ATP Tour quarterfinal since the 2013 Kremlin Cup, before losing to Dusan Lajovic.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: At the US Open, he made his main draw debut after passing the qualifications. In the first round he recorded his first Grand Slam win, over Thomas Fabbiano, but lost in the second round to Kei Nishikori. After that, he lost in the first round of the St. Petersburg Open to Alexander Zverev. However, he progressed further the following week at the 2016 Chengdu Open. He defeated Joao Sousa, Adrian Mannarino, Feliciano Lopez and Victor Troicki to reach his first ATP Tour final. By reaching an ATP singles final, Khachanov became the first Russian in an ATP Tour final since Mikhail Youzhny, who beat David Ferrer in the final at the 2013 Valencia Open 500. Khachanov won his first ATP tournament there, beating Albert Ramos-Vinolas in three sets. He finished the year with his first ATP 500 quarterfinal run at the Vienna Open, where he recorded wins over Andreas Seppi and Nikoloz Basilashvili, before Ivo Karlovic defeated him.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Thanks to big progress in the past, he was now able to avoid qualifications. He started the year with a win at the Qatar Open, but then lost to Ivo Karlovic in two tie breaks. He performed no better at the following Auckland Open, losing in the first round to Yen-Hsun Lu. He then made his main-draw debut at the Australian Open. His first opponent was Adrian Mannarino, whom Khachanov defeated in four sets. Against Jack Sock in the following round, he attempted to reach his first Grand Slam third round, but without success. His next step was participating at the Davis Cup against Serbia in the World Group. He lost his match against Viktor Troicki in five sets. Losses then continued for the next four tournaments: Open Sud de France, Rotterdam Open, Open 13 and Dubai Championships. At the Indian Wells, he passed the first round after defeating Tommy Robredo. In the following round, he lost to David Goffin.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: In late April, he reached his first quarterfinal of the year, at the ATP 500 Barcelona. There he defeated Thomaz Bellucci, Pablo Cuevas and top 10 David Goffin before losing to Horacio Zeballos. A month later he advanced to another quarterfinal, at the Lyon Open. He followed up this win with another great performance at the French Open. Wins over Nicolas Jarry and top 30 players, Tomas Berdych and John Isner, brought him to the fourth round at a Grand Slam for the first time in his career. He failed to reach his first Grand Slam quarterfinal, losing to Andy Murray.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: He continued with good performances, reaching the semifinal of the Halle Open. There he achieved his first win on grass over Gilles Simon, and then recorded his second career top 10 win, after defeating Kei Nishikori. He lost to Roger Federer and failed to reach the final. This result ensured him a first Grand Slam seed place at the following Grand Slam at Wimbledon. There, he also had another great result, reaching his first third round, after wins over Andrey Kuznetsov and Thiago Monteiro. He then lost to Rafael Nadal. His successful journey then continued with two consecutive quarterfinals at the Bastad Open and the Hamburg Open. However, he then started to struggle with form. He was eliminated in the first round at both the Canadian Open and the US Open, but reached the third round of the Cincinnati Open. In September he played in the Davis Cup for the second time in a year. He played against Hungarian players, winning against Attila Balazs and losing to Marton Fucsovics. He then went to China, reaching the second round of the Chengdu Open and the China Open and losing in the first round of the Shanghai Masters. He then returned to Europe, but still with no success, with only first rounds of the Vienna Open and the Paris Mastes. He finished the year with his debut at the Next Gen ATP Finals. He overcame Jared Donaldson, but lost to Daniil Medvedev and Borna Coric, so failed to pass the round robin group.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Khachanov started the year at the Auckland Open, reaching the quarterfinal after wins over Yuichi Sugita and Pablo Cuevas, but then lost to Juan Martin del Potro. Next, he participated in the Australian Open, where he lost to del Potro in the second round. In February he first reached the quarterfinal of Open Sud de France, followed up with only a first round at the Rotterdam Open, but then he won his second ATP title at Open 13 in Marseille, France. In the semifinal he defeated former top 10 player Tomas Berdych to reach final. To get the title, he needed to defeat Frenchman Lucas Pouille.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: In the next three months he showed average results. In Dubai he reached the second round, then only the first round of Indian Wells and the third round of the Miami Open.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: However, he reached the final of the Miami Open in the doubles event, alongside Andrey Rublev, but they lost to Bob and Mike Bryan. Then the clay court season came, but he was still not showing good form. He reached the third rounds of Monte Carlo and the Barcelona Open, but only the first rounds of Madrid and Rome.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: However, his form peaked on time for the French Open, where he again reached the fourth round, defeating top 20 player Lucas Pouille in the third round, before losing to Alexander Zverev.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: During the grass season, he played only two tournaments. First, he advanced to the quarterfinal of the Halle Open for the second year in a row. Second, he reached the fourth round of Wimbledon, but then lost to Novak Djokovic.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: In the North American summer hard-court swing, Khachanov reached the semifinals of a Masters 1000 tournament for the first time in his career at the Canadian Open, losing to Nadal. He again lost to Nadal at the US Open in a marathon third round match.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Khachanov then helped Team Russia to progress through the 1st Round play-off of the Europe/Africa Zone Group I by winning both matches and securing Russia a place in the World Group. In Asia, Khachanov struggled to find form. He reached only the second rounds of Beijing and Shanghai. He then rebounded at the Kremlin Cup, winning his second ATP title of the season by defeating Adrian Mannarino in the final. In the semifinal he defeated his compatriot Daniil Medvedev.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Khachanov finished the year by claiming his first ATP Masters 1000 title at the Rolex Paris Masters, defeating Filip Krajinović, Matthew Ebden, world No. 9 John Isner (saving two match points), world No. 5 Alexander Zverev, world No. 8 Dominic Thiem and world No. 1 Novak Djokovic. He was the first tennis player representing Russia to win a Masters 1000 final since Nikolay Davydenko, who won the inaugural 2009 Shanghai Masters. No. 18 Khachanov was the lowest-ranked player to win a Masters 1000 title since Ivan Ljubicic took the 2010 Indian Wells Masters. As a result, Khachanov climbed to world No. 11 and was an alternate at the 2018 ATP Finals. He became the fifth Russian tennis player to win a Masters tournament after Marat Safin, Andrei Chesnokov, Yevgeny Kafelnikov and Nikolay Davydenko.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Despite starting the season as the 11th ranked player in the world, Khachanov struggled to achieve any notable results for the first five months of the season. Leading up to the French Open, Khachanov's record for the year was ten wins and twelve losses, and he had failed to reach a single tournament semifinal.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: At the French Open, Khachanov won his first three rounds to set up a last-16 encounter with Juan Martín del Potro. Khachanov beat del Potro for the first time to reach his first major quarterfinal, where he lost to Dominic Thiem. Khachanov's maiden Slam quarterfinal saw him enter the top-10 for the first time as world No. 9.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: In August, Khachanov reached his first tournament semifinal of the year after beating Alexander Zverev in the quarterfinals of the Montreal Masters. In the semifinals, he was defeated by compatriot Daniil Medvedev.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: After the Rogers Cup, Khachanov reached the semifinals of the China Open. He failed to defend his title at the Paris Masters, losing in the second round to Jan-Lennard Struff, and dropped out of the top 10.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: He then joined team Russia, also consisting of Medvedev, Gabashvili and Kravchuk, at the ATP Cup. He beat four out of five players, with team Russia progressing to the semifinals, where they lost to eventual champion Serbia.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: At the 2020 US Open, Khachanov beat Jannik Sinner, coming back from 2 sets down, then beat Andrey Kuznetsov, before losing to Alex de Minaur in the third round. In Rome, Khachanov lost in the first round to Casper Ruud. He came back to form in time for the French Open, where he reached the fourth round for a fourth consecutive year, beating Kamil Majchrzak, Jiří Veselý and Cristian Garín, before losing to world No. 1 Novak Djokovic.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: At the 2021 Australian Open, Khachanov progressed to the third round for the third year in a row. He reached two semifinals, at the lead-up event to the AO at the 2021 Great Ocean Road Open, where he was defeated by eventual champion Jannik Sinner, and at the clay warm-up event to the French Open at the 2021 Lyon Open, where he was defeated by Cameron Norrie.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: At the 2021 Wimbledon Championships he reached the fourth round for the second time. This marked the first time three Russian players reached the fourth round at the All England Club since 2006, when Elena Dementieva, Anastasia Myskina and Maria Sharapova made their run. He continued by reaching the quarterfinals for the first time in his career, defeating Sebastian Korda in a tight match that finished in a fifth set tiebreak. He then lost in another five-set match, against Denis Shapovalov.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: At the Tokyo Olympics, Khachanov defeated Yoshihito Nishioka, James Duckworth, Diego Schwartzman and Ugo Humbert to reach the semi-finals. There, he defeated Pablo Carreno Busta in straight sets, to guarantee himself at least a silver medal. He lost to Alexander Zverev in the gold medal match.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Khachanov started his 2022 season at the Adelaide International 1. Seeded second, he beat third seed, Marin Čilić, in the semifinals to reach his sixth ATP singles final. He lost in the final to top seed Gaël Monfils. Seeded third at the Adelaide International 2, he reached the quarterfinals where he was defeated by eventual finalist Arthur Rinderknech. Seeded 28th at the Australian Open, he made it to the third round where he was ousted from the tournament by sixth seed, former world no. 1, 2009 champion, and eventual champion, Rafael Nadal.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: In February, Khachanov competed at the Rotterdam Open. He lost in the second round to sixth seed Cameron Norrie. Seeded sixth at the Qatar ExxonMobil Open, he upset fourth seed, Marin Čilić, in the quarterfinals. He fell in his semifinal match to second seed, Roberto Bautista Agut, in three sets. In Dubai, he lost in the second round to world no. 1 and five-time champion, Novak Djokovic. Seeded 25th at the Indian Wells Masters, he was defeated in the second round by American Jenson Brooksby. Seeded 23rd at the Miami Open, he was eliminated in the second round by American Tommy Paul.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Khachanov started his clay-court season at the Monte-Carlo Masters. He lost in the first round to 12th seed Diego Schwartzman. Seeded third at the Serbia Open, he reached the semifinals where he was defeated by World No. 1 Novak Djokovic. At the Madrid Open, he was beaten in the first round by Lucas Pouille in straight sets. In Rome, he sweeped past Pablo Carreño Busta to reach the third round where he was ousted by eventual finalist Stefanos Tsitsipas in three sets. At the French Open, he defeated Cameron Norrie to reach the fourth round of this tournament for a fifth time, but was outlasted by 6th seed Carlos Alcaraz in straight sets.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Khachanov played two tournaments in the grass swing. He reached the quarterfinals of both Libéma Open and Halle Open, losing to Felix Auger-Aliassime and Oscar Otte respectively. At the Hamburg Open, he lost to Alcaraz again in the quarterfinals.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Khachanov started the North American hard court swing at the Citi Open. He lost to eventual finalist Yoshihito Nishioka in the third round. Following early exits at both Canadian Open and Cincinnati Open, Khachanov reached the fourth round at the US Open defeating Jack Draper after he retired in the third set. He went one step further with a win over Pablo Carreno Busta, in a five sets match lasting over 3 hours, to reach the quarterfinals for the first time at this Major. Khachanov defeated Nick Kyrgios in five sets to reach his first career semifinal at a Major. He became the first player of Armenian descent to do so, since Andre Agassi reached his first Major semifinal at the French Open in 1988, and most recently, David Nalbandian at the French Open in 2006. In the semifinals, Khachanov lost to Casper Ruud in four sets.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: In October, Khachanov reached the quarterfinals of Astana Open, where he lost in straight sets to an eventual champion Novak Djokovic. In receipt of a first-round bye in Antwerp, he lost to eventual finalist Sebastian Korda in the second round. It was followed by another early exit at the Erste Bank Open to Dan Evans in the second round.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Early in his career, Khachanov was coached by Igor Bitsenko in Moscow and Vedran Martić in Split, Croatia. In 2014 he joined 4Slam Tennis Academy led by Galo Blanco. Khachanov parted ways with Blanco in November 2017. He has been training for a few years now with his previous coach Vedran Martić. Currently, his other coach is José Clavet.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: In April 2016, Khachanov married Veronika Shkliaeva, his childhood sweetheart, who he had been dating since 2011. Their first child was born in 2019. Fellow tennis player Ilya Ivashka is his brother-in-law, their wives being (twin) sisters.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: In March 2022, the Russian state-run RIA Novosti reported that, amid the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Khachanov had removed the Russian flag from his Instagram page.


title: Karen Khachanov

text: Khachanov has been endorsed by Nike for apparel and shoes, and Wilson for racquets. He has also been sponsored by Lavazza, Armani for luxury apparel, Cadillac Escalade for cars, and Rolex for watches. He was earlier endorsed by Mercedes Benz for car and Head for racquets.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: Ilan Ramon (; , born Ilan Wolfferman ; June 20, 1954 – February 1, 2003) was an Israeli fighter pilot and later the first Israeli astronaut. Ramon was a Space Shuttle payload specialist of STS-107, the fatal mission of "Columbia", in which he and the six other crew members were killed when the spacecraft disintegrated during re-entry. At 48, he was the oldest member of the crew. Ramon is the only foreign recipient of the United States Congressional Space Medal of Honor, which he was awarded posthumously.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: Born in Ramat Gan, Israel, to Tonya (1929–2003) and Eliezer Wolfferman (1923–2006), a family of Ashkenazi Jewish descent, he grew up in Beersheba. His father was from Germany, and his family fled Nazi persecution in 1935. His mother and grandmother were from Poland, and were Holocaust survivors, having been in Auschwitz. They emigrated to Israel in 1949. His first name, Ilan, means "tree" in Hebrew. Ilan Hebraizied his surname from Wolfferman to Ramon, a more "Israeli (Sabra)" name, when he joined the Israeli Air Force (IAF). This was customary and expected of IAF pilots, as well as among IDF senior officers at the time.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: Ramon graduated from high school in 1972. In 1987, he graduated with a B.Sc. degree in electronics and computer engineering from Tel Aviv University.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: Ilan Ramon was a Colonel ("Aluf Mishne") and a fighter pilot in the Israeli Air Force, with thousands of hours of flying experience. He began the fighter pilot's course at the Israeli Air Force Flight Academy in 1972 but was forced to suspend his studies after breaking his hand. He served in an electronic warfare unit in the Sinai during the Yom Kippur War, and afterwards returned to the flight academy. He graduated from the fighter pilots' course in 1974. From 1974 to 1976 he participated in A-4 Skyhawk Basic Training and Operations. From 1976 to 1980 he participated in training and operations for the Mirage IIIC. In 1980, as one of the IAF's establishment team of the first F-16 Squadron in Israel, he attended the F-16 Training Course at Hill Air Force Base, Utah. From 1981 to 1983, he served as the Deputy Squadron Commander B, F-16 Squadron.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: In 1981 he was the youngest pilot taking part in Operation Opera, Israel's strike against Iraq's unfinished Osiraq nuclear reactor. The facility was destroyed, killing ten Iraqi soldiers and one French researcher. He participated in the 1982 Lebanon War.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: After attending the Tel Aviv University, he served as Deputy Squadron Commander A, 119 Squadron, flying the F-4 Phantom (1988–1990). During 1990, he attended the Squadron Commanders Course and between 1990 and 1992, commanded 117 Squadron, flying the F-16. From 1992 to 1994, he was head of the Aircraft Branch in the Operations Requirement Department. In 1994, he was promoted to the rank of colonel and assigned as head of the Department of Operational Requirement for Weapon Development and Acquisition. He stayed at this post until 1998.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: Ramon accumulated over 3,000 flight hours on the A-4, Mirage IIIC, and F-4, and over 1,000 flight hours on the F-16.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: In 1997, Ramon was selected as a Payload Specialist. He was designated to train as prime for a space shuttle mission with a payload that included a multispectral camera for recording desert aerosol (dust). In July 1998, he reported for training at the Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, where he trained until 2003. He flew aboard STS-107, logging 15 days, 22 hours and 20 minutes in space.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: STS-107 "Columbia" (January 16 – February 1, 2003), a 16-day flight, was a dedicated science and research mission. Working 24 hours a day, in two alternating shifts, the crew successfully conducted approximately 80 experiments.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: Personally nonreligious, Ramon performed traditional observance while in orbit: "I feel I am representing all Jews and all Israelis." He was the first spaceflight participant to request kosher food, and marked the Sabbath.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: The STS-107 mission ended abruptly when Space Shuttle "Columbia" was destroyed and its crew died during re-entry, 16 minutes before scheduled landing.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: Ramon, whose mother and grandmother were survivors of Auschwitz, was asked by S. Isaac Mekel, director of development at the American Society for Yad Vashem, to take an item from Yad Vashem aboard STS-107. Ramon carried with him a pencil sketch, "Moon Landscape", drawn by 16-year-old Petr Ginz, who was murdered in Auschwitz. Ramon also took with him a microfiche copy of the Torah given to him by Israeli president Moshe Katsav and a miniature Torah scroll (from the Holocaust) that was given to him by Prof. Yehoyachin Yosef, a Bergen Belsen survivor. Ramon asked the 1939 Club, a Holocaust survivor organization in Los Angeles, for a symbol of the Holocaust to take into outer space with him. A barbed wire mezuzah by the San Francisco artist Aimee Golant was selected. Ramon also took with him a dollar of the Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson. Ramon and the rest of the "Columbia" crew died over East Texas in the Southern United States during entry into Earth's atmosphere, 16 minutes prior to scheduled landing.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: On November 10, 2013, the American Society for Yad Vashem held a special event with the participation of Petr Ginz's nephew and Ramon's son Tal, who performed a song he wrote in memory of his father.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: Among the recovered 40% from the contents of the "Columbia" Space Shuttle that crashed outside Palestine, Texas, were 37 pages of Ramon's diary, which NASA returned to his wife. His widow, Rona, shared an excerpt with the Israeli public in a display at Jerusalem's Israel Museum. Rona Ramon brought it to Israel Museum forensic experts. Only two pages were displayed, one containing Ramon's notes, and the other is a copy of the Kiddush prayer. Curator Yigal Zalmona said the diary was partially restored in one year, and needed four more, for police scientists to decipher 80% of the text. Zalmona stated: "The diary survived extreme heat in the explosion, extreme atmospheric cold, and then "was attacked by microorganisms and insects. It's almost a miracle that it survived — it's incredible. There is 'no rational explanation' for how it was recovered when most of the shuttle was not, he said." Ramon wrote on the last day of the journal:


title: Ilan Ramon

text: Ramon was survived by his wife Rona and their four children (Assaf, Tal, Yiftah, and Noa), who were in Florida at the time of the accident.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: Ramon's eldest son, Assaf (February 10, 1988 – September 13, 2009), died aged 21 during a routine training flight while piloting his F-16A, three months after graduating from the IAF flight school Hatzerim Airbase as the top cadet in his class. He lost consciousness during a spell of vertigo, as a result of the high speed and G-force conditions to which he was subjected. This led to the plane crash and Ramon's subsequent death. Assaf was considered an excellent pilot. A lieutenant of the Israeli Air Force, he was posthumously promoted to the rank of captain.


title: Ilan Ramon

text: Ramon's widow, Rona Ramon, served in the Israel Defense Forces as a paramedic and later earned a BA at the Wingate Institute. After Assaf's death, Rona returned to school and earned a master's degree in holistic health at Massachusetts' Lesley University. She also began to lecture about dealing with grief and finding coping mechanisms. She served as founding CEO of the nonprofit Ramon Foundation for youth academic excellence and social leadership through science and technology. Rona died on December 17, 2018, after battling pancreatic cancer. After her death, she was awarded Israel prize for lifetime achievement.


title: Kukke Subramanya Temple

text: Kukke Subramanya (IAST: "Kukke Subrahmaṇya") is a Hindu temple located in the village Subramanya, of Kadaba taluk (Earlier in Sullia taluk) in Dakshina Kannada district, Karnataka, India. In this temple Murugan is worshipped as Subramanya, lord of all serpents. The epics relate that the divine serpent Vasuki and other serpents found refuge under Subramanya when threatened by the Garuda. The priests in the temple are Shivalli Madhva Brahmins. The poojas and other daily rituals in the temple are performed as per Madhvacharya's "Tantra Sara Sangraha".


title: Kukke Subramanya Temple

text: The Kukke Subramanya Temple is located in the Western Ghats range of Karnataka. Overlooking the temple is the famous mountain of Kumara Parvatha, a popular hiking destination for trekkers from across South India. Kumara Parvatha forms a picture-perfect backdrop to the temple entrance and the Shesha Parvatha (a mountain shaped like a six-headed mythological serpent, adjacent to Kumara Parvatha) looks like a cobra with its open hood, as if protecting the temple shrine of Lord Subramanya. The temple is situated on the western slopes of the Ghats and is covered with dense evergreen forests.


title: Kukke Subramanya Temple

text: Kukke lapped in the luxurious abundance of the beauty of the nature the village of Subramanya lies in the Kadaba


title: Kukke Subramanya Temple

text: Taluk in Dakshina Kannada with a sanctity which very few places can boast of. The temple is situated in the heart of the village. Nature reveals herself in all her unhidden beauty in the rivers, forests and mountains which the temples is surrounded by. It is about a 105 km from Mangalore and can be easily reached by train, buses or taxis. Subramanya used to be called as Kukke Pattana in the past. Mahimanipurana' chapter of the Sahyadrikhanda comprised in the Sanatkumara Samhita of Skanda Purana. This kshetra is situated in the banks of the river 'Dhara' which originates in the Kumara mountain and proceeds to the western sea.


title: Kukke Subramanya Temple

text: Pilgrims going to the temple have to cross the Kumaradhara River and take a holy dip in the river before entering the temple for their darshan holy viewing of the Lord.


title: Kukke Subramanya Temple

text: The devotees enter the courtyard from the doorway at the back, and circumambulate the deity. Between the sanctorum and the portico entrance, there is the Garuda pillar covered with silver. Devotees circumambulate this pillar. It is believed that this pillar was enchanted and planted there to shield devotees from the poisonous flames arising from the breath of Vasuki, who resides inside. Beyond the pillar is the outer hall, the inner hall, and then the sanctorum of Sri Subrahmanya. At the centre of sanctorum is a pedestal. On the upper dais stands the deity of Sri Subrahmanya and the deity of Vasuki and, at a somewhat lower level, the deity of Shesha. Ritual worship is offered to these deities every day. The temple is slowly increasing in popularity, owing to its religious significance and importance.


title: Kukke Subramanya Temple

text: According to one belief, after killing the demon rulers Tharaka, Shurapadmasura and their followers in a war, Lord Shanmukha reached Kumara Parvatha with his brother Ganesha and others. He was received by Indra and his followers. Indra being very happy prayed Lord Kumara Swamy to accept and marry his daughter Devasena for which the Lord readily agreed. The divine marriage took place on Margashira shudha shashti at Kumara Parvatha. Gods like Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra and many other deities assembled for the marriage and coronation ceremony of Shanmukha for which waters of several holy rivers were brought. With these waters of Mahabhisheka fell down to form a river which was later known by the popular name Kumaradhara. The great Shiva Bhakta and Serpent king Vasuki was performing tapas for years in the Biladwara caves of Kukke Subrahmanya to avoid the attack of Garuda. Following Lord Shiva's assurance Shanmuka gave darshan to Vasuki and blessed him that he would stay as his parama bhakta in this place forever. Hence the poojas offered to Vasuki or Nagaraja are nothing but the poojas to Lord Subrahmanya.


title: Kukke Subramanya Temple

text: Ashlesha Bali ceremonies & Sarpa Samskara are two important Sarpa Dosha ceremonies are also done at Kukke Subramanya Temple apart from Kudupu, Mangaluru and Katukukke, Dakshina Kannada. Since 700 years, the poojas and daily rituals in the temple are carried out by Madhva Brahmins as per "Tantra Sara Sangraha" of Madhvacharya.


title: Kukke Subramanya Temple

text: Ashlesha Bali or Ashlesha Bali is one of the important Kaalasarpa dosha ceremonies performed at Kukke Subramanya temple. Lord Subramanya is known as the protector from Kaalasarpa dosha and Kuja dosha. Kukke Sri Kshetra temple is the most popular for Sarpadosha. Aslesha Bali is performed on Aslesha nakshatra in each month.


title: Kukke Subramanya Temple

text: Aslesha Bali in Kukke Subramaya temple will be performed in two shifts  – 7:00 am and 9.15 am. Those who want to perform this ceremony need to report for sankalpa with Purohita inside the temple either at 7:00 am or 9.15 am. After the completion of Homa Poornahuthi, devotees will get prasada. Devotees believe Shravana masa, Karthika masa, and Margashira masa are the most auspicious months to perform Aslesha bali at Kukke temple.


title: Kukke Subramanya Temple

text: Sarpa Samskara / Sarpa Dosha is one of the ceremonies performed by devotees at this temple to get rid of the Sarpa Dosha (according to belief, a person, either in this birth or in any of his previous births, could be afflicted by the Sarpa (serpent) Dosha (curse) either knowingly or unknowingly, through many ways). Persons who are afflicted with this dosha are advised by astrologers/horoscope writers to perform this ceremony for their own well-being. The ceremony can be done either by the afflicted person himself if he is male and married or through a priest. This is because the same involves rituals similar to those done while performing shraddha (tithi) (funeral rites). Sarpa Samskara devotees are required to be present for two days. The same is performed during the daytime, with no particular in the evening. Food arrangements will be made for these devotees by the devasthana, for up to four persons per ceremony.


title: Kukke Subramanya Temple

text: Due to the widespread belief in the snake god in Tulunad region of Karnataka and Kerala, this pooja is performed by people of all faiths.


title: Kukke Subramanya Temple

text: Made Snana is the important and most favorite Seva to Lord Subramanya. Beedi Madesnana is also an important and favorite Seva to Lord Subramanya.


title: Amerikabomber

text: The Amerikabomber () project was an initiative of the German Ministry of Aviation ("Reichsluftfahrtministerium") to obtain a long-range strategic bomber for the "Luftwaffe" that would be capable of striking the United States (specifically New York City) from Germany, a round-trip distance of about . The concept was raised as early as 1938, but advanced plans for such a long-range strategic bomber design did not begin to appear before "Reichsmarschall" Hermann Göring until early 1942. Various proposals were put forward, but these plans were all eventually abandoned as they were too expensive, too reliant on rapidly-diminishing materiel and production capacity, and/or technically unfeasible.


title: Amerikabomber

text: According to Albert Speer's book, "", Adolf Hitler was fascinated with the idea of New York City in flames. In 1937, Willy Messerschmitt hoped to win a lucrative contract by showing Hitler a prototype of the Messerschmitt Me 264 that was being designed to reach North America from Europe. On 8 July 1938, barely two years after the death of Germany's main strategic bombing advocate, "Generalleutnant" Walter Wever, and eight months after the Reich Air Ministry awarded the contract for the design of the Heinkel He 177, Germany's only operational heavy bomber during the war years, the Luftwaffe's commander-in-chief Hermann Göring gave a speech saying, "I completely lack the bombers capable of round-trip flights to New York with a 4.5-tonne bomb load. I would be extremely happy to possess such a bomber, which would at last stuff the mouth of arrogance across the sea." Canadian historian Holger H. Herwig claims the plan started as a result of discussions by Hitler in November 1940 and May 1941 when he stated his need to "deploy long-range bombers against American cities from the Azores." Due to their location, he thought the Portuguese Azores islands were Germany's "only possibility of carrying out aerial attacks from a land base against the United States." At the time, Portuguese Prime Minister Salazar had allowed German U-boats and navy ships to refuel there, but from 1943 onwards, he leased bases in the Azores to the British, allowing the Allies to provide aerial coverage in the middle of the Atlantic.


title: Amerikabomber

text: Requests for designs, at various stages during the war, were made to the major German aircraft manufacturers (Messerschmitt, Junkers, Focke-Wulf and the Horten Brothers) early in World War II, coinciding with the passage of the Destroyers for Bases Agreement between the United States and the United Kingdom in September 1940. Heinkel's bid for the project had occurred sometime shortly after February 1943, by which time the RLM had issued the Heinkel firm the airframe type number "8-277" for what essentially became its entry.


title: Amerikabomber

text: The "Amerikabomber" project plan was completed on April 27, 1942, and submitted to "Reichsmarschall" Hermann Göring on May 12, 1942. The 33-page plan was discovered in Potsdam by , a German historian. Ten copies of the plan were made, with six going to different Luftwaffe offices and four held in reserve. The plan specifically mentions using the Azores as a transit airfield to reach the United States. If utilized, the Heinkel He 277, Junkers Ju 390, and the Messerschmitt Me 264 could reach American targets with a 3 tonne, 5 tonne, and 6.5 tonne payload respectively. Although it is apparent that the plan itself deals only with an attack on American soil, it is possible the Nazis saw other interrelated strategic purposes for the "Amerikabomber" project. According to military historian James P. Duffy, Hitler "saw in the Azores the ... possibility for carrying out aerial attacks from a land base against the United States ... [which in turn would] force it to build up a large antiaircraft defense." The anticipated result would have been to force the United States to use more of its antiaircraft capabilities—guns and fighter planes—for its own defense rather than for that of Great Britain, thereby allowing the Luftwaffe to attack the latter country with less resistance.


title: Amerikabomber

text: Partly as a liaison with the "Wehrmacht Heer", in May 1942 "Generalfeldmarschall" Erhard Milch requested the opinion of "Generalmajor" Eccard Freiherr von Gablenz on the new proposal, with regard to the aircraft available to fill the needs of an "Amerikabomber", which had then included the Me 264, Fw 300 and the Ju 290. von Gablenz gave his opinion on the Me 264, as it was in the second half of 1942, before von Gablenz's own commitments in the Battle of Stalingrad occurred: the Me 264 could not be usefully equipped for a true trans-Atlantic bomber mission from Europe, but it would be useful for a number of very long-range maritime patrol duties in co-operation with the "Kriegsmarine's" U-boats off the US East Coast.


title: Amerikabomber

text: The most promising proposals were based on conventional principles of aircraft design, and would have yielded aircraft very similar in configuration and capability to the Allied heavy bombers of the day. These would have needed ultra-long range capability similar to the Messerschmitt Me 261 maritime reconnaissance design, the longest-ranged intended design actually flown during the Third Reich's existence. Many of the developed designs, themselves first submitted during 1943 suggested tricycle landing gear for their undercarriage, a relatively new feature for large German military aircraft designs of that era. These included the following concepts:


title: Amerikabomber

text: Three prototypes of the Me 264 were built, but it was the Ju 390 that was selected for production. A verified pair of the Ju 390 design were constructed before the program was abandoned. After World War II, several authors claimed that the second Ju 390 actually made a transatlantic flight, coming within 20 km (12 mi) of the northeast U.S. coast in early 1944, but this claim has since been discredited as Ju 390 V2 never flew. As both the Me 264 and He 277 were each intended to be four-engined bombers from their origins, the troubling situation of being unable to develop combat-reliable piston aviation engines of 1,500 kW (2,000 PS) and above output levels led to both designs being considered for six-engined upgrades, with Messerschmitt's paper project for a 47.5 meter wingspan "Me 264B" airframe upgrade to use six BMW 801E radials, and the Heinkel firm's July 23, 1943-dated request from the RLM to propose a 45-meter wingspan, six-engined variant of the still-unfinalized He 277 airframe design that could alternatively accommodate four of the troublesome, over-1,500 kW output apiece Junkers Jumo 222 24-cylinder six-bank liquid-cooled engines, or two additional BMW 801E radials beyond the four it was originally meant to use. July 23, 1943, was the same day that the USAAF submitted a "letter of intent" to Convair, that ordered the first 100 production Convair B-36 bombers to be built - itself a design first asked for by the earlier USAAC on April 11, 1941 - an enormous six-engined, 70-meter wingspan design far superior to either the Heinkel He 277 or Focke-Wulf Ta 400 designs.


title: Amerikabomber

text: One idea similar to Mistel-Gespann was to have a Heinkel He 177 bomber carry a Dornier Do 217, powered with an additional "Lorin-Staustrahltriebwerk" (Lorin-ramjet), as far as possible over the Atlantic before releasing it. For the Do 217 it would have been a one-way trip. The aircraft would be ditched off the east coast, and its crew would be picked up by a waiting U-boat. When plans had advanced far enough, the lack of fuel and the loss of the base at Bordeaux prevented a test. The project was abandoned after the forced move to Istres increased the distance too much.


title: Amerikabomber

text: The Huckepack Projekt was brought up again at multiple joint conferences between the Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine. After a few weeks the plan was abandoned on August 21, 1942. Air Staff General Kreipe wrote in his diary that the German navy could not supply a U-boat off the United States to pick up the aircrew. The plan saw no further development, since the Kriegsmarine would not cooperate with the Luftwaffe.


title: Amerikabomber

text: Other proposals were far more exotic jet- and rocket-powered designs, e.g. a flying wing. The Horten brothers designed the Horten Ho XVIII, a flying wing powered by six turbojets based on experiences with their existing Ho X design. The Arado company also suggested a six-jet flying wing design, the Arado E.555.


title: Amerikabomber

text: Other designs were rockets with wings. Perhaps the best-known of these today is Eugen Sänger's pre-war "Silbervogel ("Silverbird")" sub-orbital bomber. While the A4b rocket, winged version of the V-2 rocket and probably its successor A9 rocket were tested several times in late 1944/early 1945, the A9/A10 "Amerika-Rakete", planned as a full 2-staged ICBM, remained a project.


title: Amerikabomber

text: Included in the plan was a list of 21 targets of military importance in North America. Many of these would not have been viable targets for conventional bombers of World War II, operating from bases in Europe. Of these targets, primarily but not exclusively located in the eastern United States, 19 were located in the United States; one in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (a possibly achievable target for a similar Japanese project) and one in Greenland. Nearly all were companies that manufactured parts for aircraft, so the goal was likely to cripple U.S. aircraft production.