title: Chocolate (2005 film)

text: Following the 11 September 2001 attacks in the US, an explosion in a motorboat shatters the peace on Christmas Eve in London, UK. Following this incident is a daring robbery on an armoured vehicle carrying billions of pounds. The police suspect two Indians: Pipi (Irrfan Khan) and Sim (Tanushree Dutta). They are interrogated extensively amidst allegations that they may be linked to Al-Qaeda.


title: Chocolate (2005 film)

text: Crime journalist Monsoon Iyer (Sushma Reddy) learns about their plight, meets them, and asks advocate Krishan Pandit (Anil Kapoor) to represent them in court. Krishan meets with the two, listens to their side of the incidents, is convinced of their innocence, and is quite sure that the two incidents, as well as the deaths of three of Pipi and Sim's friends Chip (Arshad Warsi), Deva (Emraan Hashmi) and Rocker (Sunil Shetty), were the actions of a notorious terrorist named Murtaza Arzai.


title: Chocolate (2005 film)

text: Listening to Sim and Pipi, Krishan investigates and pieces together the story of how the three died on the boat that night at Arzai's hand. Krishan succeeds in persuading the presiding judge of their innocence, and the charges against them are dismissed and sealed. However, a fleeting glance at a magazine lying on his office table tells Krishan that the names in Sim and Pipi's story match up with names on the magazine's cover stories and the story must therefore be made up. Sim and Pipi escape scot free, to meet with Rocker, Devaa, and Chip whose supposed deaths turn out to be part of the ruse.


title: Chocolate (2005 film)

text: The soundtrack of "Chocolate" is composed by Pritam. The songs "Halka Halka" and "Zahreeli Raatein" were chartbusters.


title: Chocolate (2005 film)

text: Actress Tanushree Dutta accused director Vivek Agnihotri of inappropriate behavior with her during the making of the movie.


title: Scott Fisher (basketball)

text: Scott C. Fisher (born July 20, 1963) is an American-Australian former professional basketball player and coach, most known for his time spent with the Perth Wildcats of the National Basketball League (NBL) in both roles. As a player, he won the NBL MVP in 1989 and 1992 while playing for the North Melbourne Giants. He won a championship with the Giants in 1989 before winning two more with the Wildcats in 1995 and 2000. He also played for the Australian national team at the 1996 Olympic Games and the 1998 FIBA World Championship.


title: Scott Fisher (basketball)

text: Born in San Jose, California, Fisher played at the University of California, Santa Barbara under head coach Jerry Pimm. He combined with Conner Henry to form an effective inside-outside scoring combination, with Fisher in the low post and Henry driving to the basket or hitting spot up jump shots. Fisher possessed an excellent drop step and had a soft shooting touch inside 15 feet. He earned 2nd team All Big West honors in his junior and senior years.


title: Scott Fisher (basketball)

text: Fisher began his NBL career in 1987 with the North Melbourne Giants. While playing with the Giants Fisher was awarded the NBL's MVP, the Grand Final MVP, and won his first championship in 1989. Between 1989 and 1992 Fisher would also be named in the NBL's First Team.


title: Scott Fisher (basketball)

text: In 1993, Fisher suited up for the Perth Wildcats for the first time. With the Wildcats, Fisher would participate in another two NBL championships in 1995 and 2000. Fisher represented Australia from 1995–1998 and competed in the Atlanta Olympics (fourth place) in 1996. He also represented Australia at the Goodwill Games (winning Silver) and World Championships in 1998. Fisher was named in the NBL's 20th Anniversary Team in 1998 and then again in the 25th Anniversary Team in 2003 shortly after retiring. In 2007 Fisher was inducted into the NBL Hall of Fame.


title: Scott Fisher (basketball)

text: In March 2008, Fisher decided to leave the Perth Wildcats, after they were beaten in the best of three NBL Semi Finals series by the Sydney Kings.


title: Scott Fisher (basketball)

text: In June 2010, Fisher was appointed Director of Basketball Operations for the University of Hawaii. In June 2011, Fisher was elevated to assistant coach at the University of Hawaii.


title: SmartLess

text: SmartLess is a podcast hosted by the American actors Jason Bateman, Sean Hayes and Canadian actor Will Arnett. Its first episode was released on July 20, 2020, and new episodes are released weekly each Monday. Each episode begins with one of the hosts revealing a mystery guest to the other two hosts. Once revealed, the three hosts begin interviewing the mystery guest.


title: SmartLess

text: In May 2021, the podcast signed with Creative Artists Agency. In June 2021, the podcast was acquired by Amazon.com, Inc. for around US$80 million. With the deal, the podcast will be made available on Amazon Music and Wondery+ one week before other podcast and streaming platforms.


title: SmartLess

text: In August 2021, Discovery+ ordered two documentary-style specials following the podcast's North American six-city tour, which began in February 2022, featuring behind-the-scenes footage and celebrity interviews.


title: Fiddlehead

text: Fiddleheads or fiddlehead greens are the furled fronds of a young fern, harvested for use as a vegetable.


title: Fiddlehead

text: Left on the plant, each fiddlehead would unroll into a new frond (circinate vernation). As fiddleheads are harvested early in the season before the frond has opened and reached its full height, they are cut fairly close to the ground.


title: Fiddlehead

text: The fiddlehead resembles the curled ornamentation (called a "scroll") on the end of a stringed instrument, such as a fiddle. It is also called a crozier, after the curved staff used by bishops, which has its origins in the shepherd's crook.


title: Fiddlehead

text: The fiddleheads of certain ferns are eaten as a cooked leaf vegetable. The most popular of these are:


title: Fiddlehead

text: Fiddleheads' ornamental value makes them very expensive in the temperate regions where they are not abundant.


title: Fiddlehead

text: Available seasonally, fiddleheads are both foraged and commercially harvested in spring. When picking fiddleheads, it is recommended to take only one third the tops per plant/cluster for sustainable harvest. Each plant produces several tops that turn into fronds; repeated over-picking will eventually kill the plant. Maintaining sustainable harvesting methods is important in the propagation of any non-farmed food species.


title: Fiddlehead

text: Fiddleheads have been part of traditional diets in much of Northern France since the beginning of the Middle Ages, across Asia, and also among Native Americans for centuries. They are also part of the diet in the Russian Far East where they are often picked in the wild in autumn, preserved in salt over winter, and then consumed in spring.


title: Fiddlehead

text: In Indonesia, young fiddlehead ferns are cooked in a rich coconut sauce spiced with chili pepper, galangal, lemongrass, turmeric leaves and other spices. This dish is called "gulai pakis" or "gulai paku", and originated from the Minangkabau ethnic group of Indonesia.


title: Fiddlehead

text: In the Philippines, young fronds of "Diplazium esculentum" or "pakô" is a delicacy often made into a salad with tomato, salted egg slices, and a simple vinaigrette dressing.


title: Fiddlehead

text: In East Asia, fiddleheads of bracken ("Pteridium aquilinum") are eaten as a vegetable, called "kogomi" () in Japan, "gosari" () in Korea, and "juécài" () in China and Taiwan. In Korea, a typical "banchan" (small side dish) is "gosari-namul" (), which consists of prepared fernbrake fiddleheads that have been sauteed. It is also a component of the popular dish "bibimbap", "yukgaejang", and "bindae-tteok".


title: Fiddlehead

text: In Japan, bracken fiddleheads are a prized dish, and roasting the fiddleheads is reputed to neutralize any toxins in the vegetable. In Japan, fiddleheads of flowering fern ("Osmunda japonica"), known as "zenmai" (), as well as those of the ostrich fern ("Matteuccia struthiopteris"), known as "kogomi" (), are commonly eaten in springtime. Fiddleheads in Japan are considered "sansai", or wild vegetables. They are also traditionally used to make "warabimochi," a Japanese-style dessert.


title: Fiddlehead

text: In the state of Tripura, it is known as Muikhonchok in the Kokborok language. As part of the Tripuri cuisine; fiddlehead fern is prepared by stir frying as bhaja served as a side dish.


title: Fiddlehead

text: In Mandi (Himachal Pradesh) it is called Lingad and used for vegetable pickling, In the Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh, it is known locally as and is used to make a pickle . In the Kangra Valley it is called in the Kangri dialect and is eaten as vegetable. In Chamba it is known as "Kasrod". In the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand it is called limbra.


title: Fiddlehead

text: In Darjeeling and Sikkim regions, it is called (नियुरो) and is common as a vegetable side dish, often mixed with local cheese. and sometimes pickled.


title: Fiddlehead

text: In the area of Jammu in Jammu and Kashmir, it's known as "kasrod" (कसरोड). The most famous Dogra dish is "kasrod ka achaar" (fiddlehead fern pickle). In Poonch, it is known as 'Kandor'(कंडोर) in local language. In Kishtwar, it is known as (टेड) in the local language Kishtwari. It is also cooked as a dry vegetable side dish to be eaten with rotis or parathas.In Ramban district of Jammu and Kashmir, it is called "DheeD" in Khah language.


title: Fiddlehead

text: It is also found in the hills of Kodagu (Coorg). Known as therme thoppu in local language, they are made into a palya and can be had with rice or otti (roti made from cooked rice and rice powder).


title: Fiddlehead

text: In Nepal, it is a seasonal food called (नियुरो) or "niuro" (निउरो). There are three varieties of fiddlehead most commonly found in Nepali cuisine, namely सेती निउरो having whitish green stem, काली निउरो having dark purple stem, and ठूलो निउरो having large green stems. It is served as a vegetable side dish, often cooked in local clarified butter. It is also pickled.


title: Fiddlehead

text: Ostrich ferns ("Matteuccia struthiopteris"), known locally as "fiddleheads", grow wild in wet areas of northeastern North America in spring. The Maliseet, Mi'kmaq, and Penobscot peoples of Eastern Canada and Maine have traditionally harvested fiddleheads, and the vegetable was introduced first to the Acadian settlers in the early 18th century, and later to United Empire Loyalist colonists as they began settling in New Brunswick in the 1780s. Fiddleheads remain a traditional dish in these regions, with most commercial harvesting occurring in New Brunswick, Quebec and Maine, and the vegetable is considered particularly emblematic of New Brunswick. North America's largest grower, packer and distributor of wild fiddleheads established Ontario's first commercial fiddlehead farm in Port Colborne in 2006. Fiddlehead-producing areas are also located in Nova Scotia, Vermont and New Hampshire. The Canadian village of Tide Head, New Brunswick, bills itself as the "Fiddlehead Capital of the World."


title: Fiddlehead

text: Fiddleheads are sold fresh and frozen. Fresh fiddleheads are available in the market for only a few weeks in springtime, and are fairly expensive. Pickled and frozen fiddleheads, however, can be found in some shops year-round. The vegetable is typically steamed, boiled and/or sautéed before being eaten hot, with hollandaise sauce, butter, lemon, vinegar and/or garlic, or chilled in salad or with mayonnaise.


title: Fiddlehead

text: To cook fiddleheads, it is advised to remove the brown papery husk before washing in several changes of cold water, then boil or steam them. Boiling reduces the bitterness and the content of tannins and toxins. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention associated a number of food-borne illness cases with fiddleheads in the early 1990s. Although they did not identify a toxin in the fiddleheads, the findings of that case suggest that fiddleheads should be cooked thoroughly before eating. The cooking time recommended by health authorities is 15 minutes if boiled and 10 to 12 minutes if steamed. The cooking method recommended by gourmets is to spread a thin layer in a steam basket and steam lightly, just until tender crisp .


title: Fiddlehead

text: Māori people have historically eaten young fern shoots called pikopiko, which can refer to several species of New Zealand ferns.


title: Fiddlehead

text: Many ferns also contain the enzyme thiaminase, which breaks down thiamine. This can lead to beriberi, if consumed in extreme excess.


title: Fiddlehead

text: Further, there is some evidence that certain varieties of fiddleheads, e.g. bracken ("Pteridium genus"), are toxic. It is recommended to fully cook fiddleheads to destroy the shikimic acid. Ostrich fern ("Matteuccia struthiopteris") is not thought to cause cancer, although there is evidence it contains a toxin unidentified as yet.


title: Rakta Charitra 2

text: Rakta Charitra 2 ("Rakht Charitra 2" in Hindi) is a 2010 Indian political action thriller film based on the life of Paritala Ravindra. The film was directed by Ram Gopal Varma and written by Prashant Pandey. The film is a sequel to "Rakta Charitra", which released two months earlier. Shatrughan Sinha, Vivek Oberoi, Sudeepa, and Radhika Apte among several others reprise their roles from the prequel while also featuring Suriya and Priyamani.


title: Rakta Charitra 2

text: This film marks the debut of Tamil actor Suriya into the Telugu and Hindi film industries. The film was released in Tamil as "Ratha Sarithiram", which was partly dubbed and partly reshot.


title: Rakta Charitra 2

text: The first half-hour is a recap of part I, such as the events of how Pratap Ravi (Vivek Oberoi) takes revenge for the murder of his father and brother, as well as how he comes to power. When no one in Andhra has the courage to stand up against Ravi, a man comes into the light to seek revenge on Prathap. Yeturi Suryanarayana Reddy, a.k.a. Surya (Suriya) is seen waiting in the woods near the main road, waiting for Pratap Ravi and hurls a bomb at his convoy. Unfortunately for Surya, Pratap Ravi escapes the bomb blast. Pratap Ravi's henchmen attempt to kill Surya, but he manages to escape.


title: Rakta Charitra 2

text: Surya informs his wife that he missed the chance of killing Pratap Ravi. Meanwhile, the media asks Pratap Ravi if this attempt is a Surya's revenge for the TV bomb placed in Surya's home by Pratap himself. Pratap Ravi denies the charge. Shivaji Rao asks Pratap to stop this vengeance, but Prathap insists on killing Surya. Pratap orders his action team to kill anyone who opposes him. DCP Mohan Prasad (Sudeepa) starts to investigate the case. He finds Bhavani (Priyamani), wife of Surya, and demands Surya to surrender or else he would harm his wife and baby son Arya. Surya thinks that he has missed a great chance and another chance will not come so easily and decides to surrender for protection plots to kill Prathap Ravi. DCP Mohan Prasad produces Surya in court to face trial. Prathap Ravi sends a henchmen to kill Surya in the court itself, but Surya manages to fight him and kills the henchman in front of the judge. Surya is sent to prison.


title: Rakta Charitra 2

text: Pratap Ravi decides to kill Surya inside the jail, he plans carefully and decides someone from outside their camp should do this, so that the police does not suspect them. In prison, Surya befriends Muddu Krishna by telling him his story. The flashback shows that after Pratap Ravi's attempt to kill Narasimha Reddy (Kitty), Surya's brother wants to take revenge. Surya, on the other hand, doesn't want to take revenge straight away, and tells him to be patient and to leave the matter as it is, as he doesn't want to put his mother and sister in any danger. Within a few months, Surya's entire family is killed in the TV bomb blast. After hearing the story, Muddu Krishna decides to help Surya in killing Ravi. The henchmen in prison try to kill Surya, but Surya fights them back. After this failure, Pratap Ravi is warned by Shivaji Rao. As a result, Pratap Ravi decides that he wants to stop this revenge, and he meets Surya in jail. Ravi tells Surya to stop this bloodshed, to which Surya promptly replies, "I'll surely stop – after killing you". Prathap thinks he can't do anything because he is in jail, which makes him defenceless.


title: Rakta Charitra 2

text: Enter Krishnaswamy, the opposition Party leader, who decides to meet Surya. He says that to kill Pratap Ravi, Surya has to become a bigger name in Anantapur than Pratap Ravi. Krishnaswamy requests Surya to ask his wife to stand in the election. Surya convinces Bhavani to stand for election. This makes Ravi to fear for his life and also for his ministerial post, consequently his henchmen want to eliminate Bhavani but Nandini (Radhika Apte) pleads with Pratap Ravi not to kill Bhavani, causing Ravi to abort the plan. However, one of Ravi's closest gang members, Umapati, is already on his way to kill Bhavani. Muddu Krishna kills Umapati and saves Bhavani. Krishnaswamy comes to the prison to thank Surya, and Surya thanks him in return.


title: Rakta Charitra 2

text: A scared Pratap organises a meeting involving the leaders of all the districts in Andhra Pradesh. Knowing this, Surya plots to kill Pratap Ravi. He realises that in the meeting, all the leaders will participate with their bodyguards. He orders Muddu Krishna to dress like a bodyguard since no one would be able to identify whose bodyguard belongs to whoever. Using this ambiguity, Surya's henchmen can kill Pratap Ravi. After the meeting comes to an end, Pratap Ravi plans to leave. As he was leaving, he sees a familiar face and is struck. He sees Surya, standing in front of him with his handgun. Surya fires at Pratap Ravi until he dies in a pool of blood. Surya's friends put tear gas and create panic, and under the cover of smoke, Surya escapes from the scene and returns to the prison. Nandini cries by hugging her dead husband, Pratap Ravi.


title: Rakta Charitra 2

text: Muddu Krishna takes the blame for killing Pratap Ravi for Surya. DCP Mohan Prasad comes to meet Surya in jail and justifies why Pratap Ravi became a factionist. It was the circumstances that made Pratap Ravi a factionist. He adds to Surya that the same circumstances will change him into a Ravi. Surya finally says, "Thank you, but I won't change into another Ravi". The movie ends with the birth of Pratap Ravi's child.


title: Rakta Charitra 2

text: Taran Adarsh of "Bollywood Hungama" rated 3.5 out of 5 and said that "On the whole, RAKHT CHARITRA 2 highlights the emotion called vengeance most convincingly. It is chilling, raw, revolting, crass and ghastly, the kind that is meant to repulse you. But let's face it: It's a true depiction of human emotions." Renuka Rao of DNA India gave the movie 3 stars in a scale of 5, concluding that "Watch it if you had watched the first part, but don't be surprised if you don't like this as much." Nikhat Kazmi of Times of India gave the movie 3 stars out of 5, stating that "Rakht Charitra doesn't break new ground like Satya and Company, nevertheless it remains a must-see film for Ramu fans." Shubhra Gupta of Indian Express gave the movie 2.5 stars out of 5, and wrote that "Like in the first part, RGV's intention is not so much to delve into the complexities of Andhra politics, which stay firmly in the backdrop, but to create sequences where death is choreographed in varying ways. After a point, you are oblivious to the gore. But you cannot, at any point, bypass Suriya : he has eyes that speak. Bollywood is ready for him."


title: Rakta Charitra 2

text: Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN gave the movie 2.5 out of 5 stars, noting that "I’m going with two out of five for 'Rakht Charitra 2'. More blood and more killings leave you numb your seat.".NDTV rated 2 out of 5 stars vstating "Suriya saves the film from being a total loss. His expressive eyes have a quiet strength and his presence sears the screen."The Economic Times rated 3 out of 5 stars stating "The sequel carries forward the tale of power and revenge which exploded in Rakht Charitra 1."Rediff rated 1.5 out of 5 stars stating "RGV doesn't have anything new to offer in Rakht Charitra 2. The film does have some high points but they are too few to keep you engaged." Rakta Charitra 2 was simultaneously released in Telugu in Andhra Pradesh. 123telugu.com rated the film 3.5 out of 5 stars, praising the story, but noting the second half slows down and that, "Yes the climax could have been better".


title: Rakta Charitra 2

text: Greatandhra.com rated the film 3.25 out of 5 and credited the film as "A Technical Masterpiece" and said that "This is an Charitra that haunts for a decade".


title: Maritime transport

text: Maritime transport (or ocean transport) and hydraulic effluvial transport, or more generally waterborne transport, is the transport of people (passengers) or goods (cargo) via waterways. Freight transport by sea has been widely used throughout recorded history. The advent of aviation has diminished the importance of sea travel for passengers, though it is still popular for short trips and pleasure cruises. Transport by water is cheaper than transport by air, despite fluctuating exchange rates and a fee placed on top of freighting charges for carrier companies known as the currency adjustment factor. Maritime transport accounts for roughly 80% of international trade, according to UNCTAD in 2020.


title: Maritime transport

text: Maritime transport can be realized over any distance by boat, ship, sailboat or barge, over oceans and lakes, through canals or along rivers. Shipping may be for commerce, recreation, or military purposes. While extensive inland shipping is less critical today, the major waterways of the world including many canals are still very important and are integral parts of worldwide economies. Particularly, especially any material can be moved by water; however, water transport becomes impractical when material delivery is time-critical such as various types of perishable produce. Still, water transport is highly cost effective with regular schedulable cargoes, such as trans-oceanic shipping of consumer products – and especially for heavy loads or bulk cargos, such as coal, coke, ores, or grains. Arguably, the industrial revolution took place best where cheap water transport by canal, navigations, or shipping by all types of watercraft on natural waterways supported cost-effective bulk transport.


title: Maritime transport

text: Containerization revolutionized maritime transport starting in the 1970s. "General cargo" includes goods packaged in boxes, cases, pallets, and barrels. When a cargo is carried in more than one mode, it is intermodal or co-modal.


title: Maritime transport

text: A nation's shipping fleet (merchant navy, merchant marine, merchant fleet) consists of the ships operated by civilian crews to transport passengers or cargo from one place to another. Merchant shipping also includes water transport over the river and canal systems connecting inland destinations, large and small. For example, during the early modern era, cities in the Hanseatic League began taming Northern Europe's rivers and harbors. Similarly, the Saint Lawrence Seaway connects the port cities on the Great Lakes in Canada and the United States with the Atlantic Ocean shipping routes, while the various Illinois canals connect the Great Lakes and Canada with New Orleans. Ores, coal, and grains can travel along the rivers of the American Midwest to Pittsburgh or to Birmingham, Alabama. Professional mariners are known as merchant seamen, merchant sailors, and merchant mariners, or simply seamen, sailors, or mariners. The terms "seaman" or "sailor" may also refer to a member of a country's navy.


title: Maritime transport

text: According to the 2005 CIA World Factbook, the total number of merchant ships of at least 1,000 gross register tons in the world was 30,936. In 2010, it was 38,988, an increase of 26%. , a quarter of all merchant mariners were born in the Philippines. Statistics for individual countries are available at the list of merchant navy capacity by country.


title: Maritime transport

text: Ships and other watercraft are used for maritime transport. Types can be distinguished by propulsion, size or cargo type. Recreational or educational craft still use wind power, while some smaller craft use internal combustion engines to drive one or more propellers, or in the case of jet boats, an inboard water jet. In shallow-draft areas, such as the Everglades, some craft, such as the hovercraft, are propelled by large pusher-prop fans.


title: Maritime transport

text: A cargo ship sailing from a European port to a US one will typically take 10–12 days depending on water currents and other factors. In order to make container ship transport more economical in the face of declining demand for intercontinental shipping, ship operators sometimes reduce cruising speed, thereby increasing transit time, to reduce fuel consumption, a strategy referred to as "slow steaming".


title: Maritime transport

text: Officer positions in the deck department include but not limited to the Master and his Chief, Second, and Third officers. The official classifications for unlicensed members of the deck department are Able Seaman and Ordinary Seaman.


title: Maritime transport

text: A deck cadet is a person who is carrying out mandatory sea time to achieve their officer of the watch certificate. Their time on board is spent learning the operations and tasks of everyday life on a merchant vessel.


title: Maritime transport

text: A ship's engine department consists of the members of a ship's crew that operate and maintain the propulsion and other systems on board the vessel. Engine staff also deal with the "Hotel" facilities on board, notably the sewage, lighting, air conditioning and water systems. They deal with bulk fuel transfers, and require training in firefighting and first aid, as well as in dealing with the ship's boats and other nautical tasks- especially with cargo loading/discharging gear and safety systems, though the specific cargo discharge function remains the responsibility of deck officers and deck workers. On LPG and LNG tankers, however, a cargo engineer works with the deck department during cargo operations, as well as being a watchkeeping engineer.


title: Maritime transport

text: Many American ships also carry a motorman. Other possible positions include machinist, electrician, refrigeration engineer, and tankerman. Engine cadets are engineer trainees who are completing sea time necessary before they can obtain a watchkeeping license.


title: Maritime transport

text: A typical steward's department for a cargo ship would be composed of a Chief Steward, a chief cook, and a Steward's Assistant. All three positions are typically filled by unlicensed personnel. The chief steward directs, instructs, and assigns personnel performing such functions as preparing and serving meals; cleaning and maintaining officers' quarters and steward department areas; and receiving, issuing, and inventorying stores. On large passenger vessels, the Catering Department is headed by the Chief Purser and managed by Assistant Pursers. Although they enjoy the benefits of having officer rank, they generally progress through the ranks to become pursers. Under the pursers are the department heads – such as chief cook, head waiter, head barman etc. They are responsible for the administration of their own areas.


title: Maritime transport

text: The chief steward also plans menus and compiles supply, overtime, and cost control records. They may requisition or purchase stores and equipment. They may bake bread, rolls, cakes, pies, and pastries. A chief steward's duties may overlap with those of the Steward's Assistant, the chief cook, and other Steward's Department crewmembers.


title: Maritime transport

text: In the United States Merchant Marine, a chief steward must have a Merchant Mariner's Document issued by the United States Coast Guard. Because of international law, conventions, and agreements, all chief cooks who sail internationally are similarly documented by their respective countries.


title: Maritime transport

text: Staff officer positions on a ship, including Junior Assistant Purser, Senior Assistant Purser, Purser, Chief Purser, Medical Doctor, Professional Nurse, Marine Physician Assistant, and hospital corpsman, are considered administrative positions and are therefore regulated by Certificates of Registry issued by the United States Coast Guard. Pilots are also merchant marine officers and are licensed by the Coast Guard. Formerly, there was also a radio department, headed by a chief radio officer and supported by a number of radio officers. Since the introduction of GMDSS (Satellite communications) and the subsequent exemptions from carrying radio officers if the vessel is so equipped, this department has fallen away, although many ships do still carry specialist radio officers, particularly passenger vessels. Many radio officers became 'electro-technical officers', and transferred into the engine department.


title: Maritime transport

text: Mariners spend much of their life beyond the reach of land. They sometimes face dangerous conditions at sea or on lakes – the fishing port of Gloucester, Massachusetts has a seaside memorial listing over 10,000 fishermen who lost their lives to the sea, and the Great Lakes have seen over 10,000 lost vessels since the 1800s, yet men and women still go to sea. For some, the attraction is a life unencumbered with the restraints of life ashore. Seagoing adventure and a chance to see the world also appeal to many seafarers. Whatever the calling, those who live and work at sea invariably confront social isolation.


title: Maritime transport

text: Findings by the Seafarer's International Research Center indicate a leading cause of mariners leaving the industry is "almost invariably because they want to be with their families." U.S. merchant ships typically do not allow family members to accompany seafarers on voyages. Industry experts increasingly recognize isolation, stress, and fatigue as occupational hazards. Advocacy groups such as International Labour Organization, a United Nations agency, and the Nautical Institute are seeking improved international standards for mariners. Satellite phones have improved communication and efficiency aboard sea-faring ships. This technology has contributed to crew welfare, although both equipment and fees are expensive.


title: Maritime transport

text: Ocean voyages are steeped in routine. Maritime tradition dictates that each day be divided into six four-hour periods. Three groups of watch keepers from the engine and deck departments work four hours on then have eight hours off watch keeping. However, there are many overtime jobs to be done daily. This cycle repeats endlessly, 24 hours a day while the ship is at sea. Members of the steward department typically are day workers who put in at least eight-hour shifts. Operations at sea, including repairs, safeguarding against piracy, securing cargo, underway replenishment, and other duties provide opportunities for overtime work. Service aboard ships typically extends for months at a time, followed by protracted shore leave. However, some seamen secure jobs on ships they like and stay aboard for years.


title: Maritime transport

text: The quick turnaround of many modern ships, spending only a few hours in port, limits a seafarer's free-time ashore. Moreover, some foreign seamen entering U.S. ports from a watch list of 25 countries face restrictions on shore leave due to maritime security concerns. However, shore leave restrictions while in U.S. ports impact American seamen as well. For example, the International Organization of Masters, Mates & Pilots notes a trend of U.S. shipping terminal operators restricting seamen from traveling from the ship to the terminal gate. Furthermore, in cases where transit is allowed, special "security fees" are at times assessed.


title: Maritime transport

text: Such restrictions on shore leave, coupled with reduced time in port, translate into longer periods at sea. Mariners report that extended periods at sea living and working with shipmates, who for the most part are strangers, takes getting used to. At the same time, there is an opportunity to meet people from other ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Recreational opportunities have improved aboard some U.S. ships, which may feature gyms and day rooms for watching movies, swapping sea stories, and other activities. And in some cases, especially tankers, it is possible for a mariner to be accompanied by members of his family. However, a mariner's off-duty time is largely a solitary affair, pursuing hobbies, reading, writing letters, and sleeping.


title: Maritime transport

text: On modern ocean-going vessels, typically registered with a flag of convenience, life has changed immensely in the last 20 years. Most large vessels include a gym and often a swimming pool for use by the crew. Since the "Exxon Valdez" incident, the focus of leisure time activity has shifted from having officer and crew bars, to simply having lounge-style areas where officers or crew can sit to watch movies. With many companies now providing TVs and DVD players in cabins, and enforcing strict smoking policies, it is not surprising that the bar is now a much quieter place on most ships. In some instances games consoles are provided for the officers and crew. The officers enjoy a much higher standard of living on board ocean-going vessels.


title: Maritime transport

text: Crews are generally poorly paid, poorly qualified and have to complete contracts of approximately 9 months before returning home on leave. They often come from countries where the average industrial wage is still very low, such as the Philippines or India. Officers however, come from all over the world and it is not uncommon to mix the nationality of the officers on board ships. Officers are often the recipients of university degrees and have completed vast amounts of training in order to reach their rank. Officers benefit e.g. by having larger, more comfortable cabins and table service for their meals.


title: Maritime transport

text: Contracts average at the 4 month mark for officers, with generous leave. Most ocean-going vessels now operate an unmanned engine room system allowing engineers to work days only. The engine room is computer controlled by night, although the duty engineer will make inspections during unmanned operation. Engineers work in a hot, humid, noisy atmosphere. Communication in the engine room is therefore by hand signals and lip-reading, and good teamwork often stands in place of any communication at all.


title: Maritime transport

text: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions, acoustic, and oil pollution. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2% of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise 50 to 250 percent by 2050 if no action is taken.


title: Maritime transport

text: For a port to efficiently send and receive cargo, it requires infrastructure: docks, bollards, pilings, cranes, bulk cargo handling equipment, and so on – equipment and organization supporting the role of the facilities. From pier to pier these may differ, one dock handling intermodal transport needs (container-ships linked to rail by cranes); another bulk handling capabilities (such as conveyors, elevators, tanks, pumps) for loading and unloading bulk cargoes like grain, coal, or fuels. Others may be outfitted as passenger terminals or for mixed mode operations.


title: Maritime transport

text: Generally, Harbors, seaports and marinas all host watercraft, and consist of components such as piers, wharfs, docks and roadsteads.


title: Khoisan languages

text: The Khoisan languages (; also Khoesan or Khoesaan) are a group of African languages originally classified together by Joseph Greenberg. Khoisan languages share click consonants and do not belong to other African language families. For much of the 20th century, they were thought to be genealogically related to each other, but this is no longer accepted. They are now held to comprise three distinct language families and two language isolates.


title: Khoisan languages

text: All Khoisan languages but two are indigenous to southern Africa and belong to three language families. The Khoe family appears to have migrated to southern Africa not long before the Bantu expansion. Ethnically, their speakers are the Khoikhoi and the San (Bushmen). Two languages of east Africa, those of the Sandawe and Hadza, originally were also classified as Khoisan, although their speakers are ethnically neither Khoikhoi nor San.


title: Khoisan languages

text: Before the Bantu expansion, Khoisan languages, or languages like them, were likely spread throughout southern and eastern Africa. They are currently restricted to the Kalahari Desert, primarily in Namibia and Botswana, and to the Rift Valley in central Tanzania.


title: Khoisan languages

text: Most of the languages are endangered, and several are moribund or extinct. Most have no written record. The only widespread Khoisan language is Khoekhoe (also known as Khoekhoegowab, Nàmá or Damara) of Namibia, Botswana and South Africa, with a quarter of a million speakers; Sandawe in Tanzania is second in number with some 40–80,000, some monolingual; and the ǃKung language of the northern Kalahari spoken by some 16,000 or so people. Language use is quite strong among the 20,000 speakers of Naro, half of whom speak it as a second language.


title: Khoisan languages

text: Khoisan languages are best known for their use of click consonants as phonemes. These are typically written with characters such as ǃ and ǂ. Clicks are quite versatile as consonants, as they involve two articulations of the tongue which can operate partially independently. Consequently, the languages with the greatest numbers of consonants in the world are Khoisan. The Juǀʼhoan language has 48 click consonants among nearly as many non-click consonants, strident and pharyngealized vowels, and four tones. The ǃXóõ and ǂHõã languages are even more complex.


title: Khoisan languages

text: Khoisan was proposed as one of the four families of African languages in Joseph Greenberg's classification (1949–1954, revised in 1963). However, linguists who study Khoisan languages reject their unity, and the name "Khoisan" is used by them as a term of convenience without any implication of linguistic validity, much as "Papuan" and "Australian" are. It has been suggested that the similarities of the Tuu and Kxʼa families are due to a southern African Sprachbund rather than a genealogical relationship, whereas the Khoe (or perhaps Kwadi–Khoe) family is a more recent migrant to the area, and may be related to Sandawe in East Africa.


title: Khoisan languages

text: Ernst Oswald Johannes Westphal is known for his early rejection of the Khoisan language family (Starostin 2003). Bonny Sands (1998) concluded that the family is not demonstrable with current evidence. Anthony Traill at first accepted Khoisan (Traill 1986), but by 1998 concluded that it could not be demonstrated with current data and methods, rejecting it as based on a single typological criterion: the presence of clicks. Dimmendaal (2008) summarized the general view with, "it has to be concluded that Greenberg's intuitions on the genetic unity of Khoisan could not be confirmed by subsequent research. Today, the few scholars working on these languages treat the three [southern groups] as independent language families that cannot or can no longer be shown to be genetically related" (p. 841). Starostin (2013) accepts a relationship between Sandawe and Khoi is plausible, as is one between Tuu and Kxʼa, but sees no indication of a relationship between Sandawe and Khoi on the one hand and Tuu and Kxʼa on the other, or between any of them and Hadza.


title: Khoisan languages

text: Janina Brutt-Griffler claims, "given that such colonial borders were generally arbitrarily drawn, they grouped large numbers of ethnic groups that spoke many languages." She hypothesizes that this took place within efforts to prevent the spread of English during European colonization and prevent the entrance of the majority into the middle class.


title: Khoisan languages

text: Anthony Traill noted the Khoisan languages' extreme variation. Despite their shared clicks, the Khoisan languages diverge significantly from each other. Traill demonstrated this linguistic diversity in the data presented in the below table. The first two columns include words from the two Khoisan language isolates, Sandawe and Hadza. The following three are languages from the Khoe family, the Kxʼa family, and the Tuu family, respectively.


title: Khoisan languages

text: The branches that were once considered part of so-called Khoisan are now considered independent families, since it has not been demonstrated that they are related according to the standard comparative method.


title: Khoisan languages

text: With about 800 speakers in Tanzania, Hadza is no longer seen as a Khoisan language and appears to be unrelated to any other language. Genetically, the Hadza people are unrelated to the Khoisan peoples of Southern Africa, and their closest relatives may be among the Pygmies of Central Africa.


title: Khoisan languages

text: There is some indication that Sandawe (about 40,000 speakers in Tanzania) may be related to the Khoe family, such as a congruent pronominal system and some good Swadesh-list matches, but not enough to establish regular sound correspondences. Sandawe is not related to Hadza, despite their proximity.


title: Khoisan languages

text: The Khoe family is both the most numerous and diverse family of Khoisan languages, with seven living languages and over a quarter million speakers. Although little Kwadi data is available, proto-Khoe–Kwadi reconstructions have been made for pronouns and some basic vocabulary.


title: Khoisan languages

text: A Haiǁom language is listed in most Khoisan references. A century ago the Haiǁom people spoke a Ju dialect, probably close to ǃKung, but they now speak a divergent dialect of Nama. Thus their language is variously said to be extinct or to have 18,000 speakers, to be Ju or to be Khoe. (Their numbers have been included under Nama above.) They are known as the "Saa" by the Nama, and this is the source of the word "San".


title: Khoisan languages

text: The Tuu family consists of two language clusters, which are related to each other at about the distance of Khoekhoe and Tshukhwe within Khoe. They are typologically very similar to the Kxʼa languages (below), but have not been demonstrated to be related to them genealogically (the similarities may be an areal feature).


title: Khoisan languages

text: Starostin (2013) gives the following classification of the Khoisan "macrofamily," which he considers to be a single coherent language family. However, this classification is not widely accepted.


title: Khoisan languages

text: Not all languages using clicks as phonemes are considered Khoisan. Most others are neighboring Bantu languages in southern Africa: the Nguni languages (Xhosa, Zulu, Swazi, Phuthi, and Northern Ndebele); Sotho; Yeyi in Botswana; and Mbukushu, Kwangali, and Gciriku in the Caprivi Strip. Clicks are spreading to a few additional neighboring languages. Of these languages, Xhosa, Zulu, Ndebele and Yeyi have intricate systems of click consonants; the others, despite the click in the name "Gciriku," more rudimentary ones. There is also the South Cushitic language Dahalo in Kenya, which has dental clicks in a few score words, and an extinct and presumably artificial Australian ritual language called Damin, which had only nasal clicks.


title: Khoisan languages

text: The Bantu languages adopted the use of clicks from neighboring, displaced, or absorbed Khoisan populations (or from other Bantu languages), often through intermarriage, while the Dahalo are thought to have retained clicks from an earlier language when they shifted to speaking a Cushitic language; if so, the pre-Dahalo language may have been something like Hadza or Sandawe. Damin is an invented ritual language, and has nothing to do with Khoisan.


title: Khoisan languages

text: These are the only languages known to have clicks in normal vocabulary. Occasionally other languages are said by laypeople to have "click" sounds. This is usually a misnomer for ejective consonants, which are found across much of the world, or is a reference to paralinguistic use of clicks such as English "tsk! tsk!"


title: Travis County, Texas

text: Travis County is located in south central Texas. As of the 2020 census, the population was 1,290,188. It is the fifth-most populous county in Texas. Its county seat is Austin, the capital of Texas. The county was established in 1840 and is named in honor of William Barret Travis, the commander of the Republic of Texas forces at the Battle of the Alamo. Travis County is part of the Austin–Round Rock–Georgetown Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is located along the Balcones Fault, the boundary between the Edwards Plateau to the west and the Blackland Prairie to the east.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: Evidence of habitation of the Balcones Escarpment region of Texas can be traced to at least 11,000 years ago. Two of the oldest Paleolithic archeological sites in Texas, the Levi Rock Shelter and Smith Rock Shelter, are in southwest and southeast Travis County, respectively. Several hundred years before European settlers arrived, a variety of nomadic Native American tribes inhabited the area. These indigenous peoples fished and hunted along the creeks, including present-day Barton Springs, which proved to be a reliable campsite. At the time of the first permanent settlement of the area, the Tonkawa tribe was the most common, with the Comanches and Lipan Apaches also frequenting the area.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: The region (along with all of modern Texas) was claimed by the Spanish Empire in the 1600s, but at the time no attempt was made to settle the area (or even to fully explore it). In 1691 Domingo Terán de los Ríos made an inspection tour through East Texas that likely took him through Travis Country. The first European settlers in the area were a group of Spanish friars who arrived from East Texas in July 1730. They established three temporary missions, La Purísima Concepción, San Francisco de los Neches and San José de los Nazonis, on a site by the Colorado River near Barton Springs. The friars found conditions undesirable and relocated to the San Antonio River within a year of their arrival.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: In 1821 Mexico won its independence from Spain, and the new government enacted laws encouraging colonists to settle the Texas frontier by granting them land and reduced taxation. Over the next decade, thousands of foreign immigrants (primarily from the United States) moved into Texas; in particular, American empresario Stephen F. Austin established one of his colonies near what is now Bastrop, Texas (in future Travis County) in 1827. Josiah and Mathias Wilbarger, Reuben Hornsby, Jacob M. Harrell, and John F. Webber were early settlers who moved into the area in the early 1830s.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: In 1836 Texas declared and won its independence from Mexico, forming a new Republic of Texas. After Texas Vice President Mirabeau B. Lamar visited central Texas during a buffalo-hunting expedition between 1837 and 1838, he proposed that the republic's capital (then located in Houston) be relocated to a site on the north bank of the Colorado River. In 1839 the site was officially chosen as the republic's new capital and given the name Waterloo, Texas; shortly thereafter the city's name was changed to Austin in honor of Stephen F. Austin. A new county was also established the following year, of which Austin would be the seat; the county was named Travis County, after William B. Travis. Though the Republic's capital moved briefly back to Houston during the events surrounding the Texas Archive War, by 1845 Austin was again the capital, and it became the capital of the new State of Texas when Texas was annexed by the United States later that year.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: In 1861 Travis County was one of the few Texas counties to vote against secession from the Union. Since the majority of the state did favor secession, Travis County then became a part of the Confederacy for the duration of the Civil War. After the Confederacy's defeat, Texas was fully readmitted to the Union in 1870.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: From the end of the Civil War to the early twenty-first century, Travis County has experienced steady, rapid population growth (averaging more than a 36% increase every decade from 1870 to 2010), driven largely by the growth of Austin and its suburbs; it is now the fifth most populous county in Texas, after Harris (Houston), Dallas, Tarrant (Fort Worth) and Bexar (San Antonio) counties.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (3.2%) is water. Travis County is located in the southern part of central Texas, between San Antonio and Dallas–Fort Worth. The county's geographical center lies two miles northwest of downtown Austin at 30°18' north latitude and 97°45' west longitude.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: Travis County straddles the Balcones Fault, the boundary between the Edwards Plateau to the west and the Texas Coastal Plain to the east. The western part of the county is characterized by the karst topography of the Texas Hill Country, while the eastern part exhibits the fertile plains and farmlands of the Blackland Prairie. The Colorado River meanders through the county from west to east, forming a series of man-made lakes (Lake Travis, Lake Austin, and Lady Bird Lake).


title: Travis County, Texas

text: The limestone karst geology of the western and southwestern parts of Travis County gives rise to numerous caverns and springs, some of which have provided shelter and water for humans in the region for thousands of years. Notable springs in the county include Barton Springs, Deep Eddy and Hamilton Pool.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: Travis County is crossed by Interstate Highway 35, US Highways 183 and 290, and Texas Highway 71. IH-35 leads northward to Waco and Dallas–Fort Worth and southward to San Antonio. US-183 leads northward through Cedar Park to Lampasas and southward to Lockhart. US-290 leads westward to Fredericksburg and eastward to Houston. TX-71 leads westward to Marble Falls and eastward to Bastrop.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: Other major highways within the county include Texas Highway Loop 1 (the "Mopac Expressway"), which runs from north to south through the center of the county, and Texas Highway 45, which forms parts of an incomplete highway loop around Austin. Texas Highway 130 (constructed as an alternative to IH-35 for long-distance traffic wishing to avoid Austin and San Antonio) also runs from north to south through the sparsely populated eastern part of the county.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: "Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race."


title: Travis County, Texas

text: According to the census of 2010, there were 1,024,266 people, 320,766 households, and 183,798 families residing in the county. The population density was 1034 persons per square mile (387/km). There were 335,881 housing units at an average density of 340 per square mile (131/km). The racial makeup of the county was 68.21% White, 9.26% Black or African American, 0.58% Native American, 4.47% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 14.56% other races, and 2.85% from two or more races. 28.20% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. English is the sole language spoken at home by 71.42% of the population age 5 or over, while 22.35% speak Spanish, and a Chinese language (including Mandarin, Taiwanese, and Cantonese) is spoken by 1.05%. As of the 2010 census, there were about 11.1 same-sex couples per 1,000 households in the county.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: According to the census of 2000, there were 812,280 people, of which 29.30% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.60% were married couples living together, 10.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.70% were non-families. 30.10% of all households were composed of individuals, and 4.40% had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 3.15. 12.0% were of German, 7.7% English, 6.6% Irish and 5.5% American ancestry according to Census 2000


title: Travis County, Texas

text: The population's age distribution was 23.80% under the age of 18, 14.70% from 18 to 24, 36.50% from 25 to 44, 18.20% from 45 to 64, and 6.70% age 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.90 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.50 males.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: Like other Texas counties, Travis County is governed by a Commissioners' Court composed of the county judge and four county commissioners. The court levies county taxes and sets the budgets for county officials and agencies. The judge and commissioners are elected for four-year terms (the judge at-large, and the commissioners from geographic precincts). The other major county-wide official is the county clerk, who maintains the county's records, administers elections, and oversees legal documentation (such as property deeds, marriage licenses and assumed name certificates). The clerk is also elected at-large for a four-year term.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: The Heman Marion Sweatt Travis County Courthouse is located in downtown Austin. The county courthouse holds civil and criminal trial courts and other functions of county government. , the county's probate courts are in the process of being moved from the county courthouse into Austin's 1936 United States Courthouse, which was acquired by the county in 2016.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: The Travis County Jail and the Travis County Criminal Justice Center are located in Downtown Austin. The Travis County Correctional Complex is located in an unincorporated area in Travis County, next to Austin-Bergstrom International Airport.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: The Texas Department of Criminal Justice operates the Travis County Unit, a state jail for men, in eastern Austin.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: As of 2017, Travis County had a median household income of $68,350 per year, and a per capita income of $38,820 per year. 13.9% of the population lived below the poverty level. The county's largest employers are governments (the State of Texas, the US Federal Government, Travis County and the City of Austin) and public education bodies. Other major employers are concentrated in industries relating to semiconductors, software engineering and healthcare.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: Travis County, along with other Texas counties, has one of the nation's highest property tax rates. In 2009, the county was ranked 88th in the nation for property taxes as percentage of the homes value on owner-occupied housing. Travis County also ranked in the top 100 for amount of property taxes paid and for percentage of income paid as tax. Property tax rates are generally high in Texas because the state does not levy an income tax.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: Travis County is served by a number of public school districts; the largest is Austin Independent School District, serving most of Austin. Other districts wholly or mainly located in Travis County include Eanes ISD, Lake Travis ISD, Lago Vista ISD, Leander ISD, Del Valle ISD, Manor ISD, and Pflugerville ISD. Parts of Elgin ISD, Coupland ISD, Hutto ISD, Round Rock ISD, Marble Falls ISD, Johnson City ISD, Dripping Springs ISD and Hays Consolidated ISD also cross into Travis County.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: The largest university in Travis County is the University of Texas at Austin. Other universities include St. Edward's University, Huston–Tillotson University, and Concordia University Texas.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: Under Texas law Austin Community College District (ACC) is the designated community college for most of the county. However areas in Marble Falls ISD are zoned to Central Texas College District.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: Central Health, a hospital district, was established in 2004. Brackenridge Hospital was originally built as the City-County Hospital in 1884 but Travis County ended its share of the ownership in 1907. In 2017 Brackenridge was replaced by the Dell Seton Medical Center.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: Travis County is one of the most consistently Democratic counties in Texas, having voted for the Democratic presidential nominee in twelve of the last fifteen elections since 1960. The only exceptions have been the Republican landslide years of 1972 and 1984, when Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan each won 49 out of 50 states, and 2000, when the Republican nominee was incumbent Texas Governor George W. Bush. In 2005 Travis County was the only county in Texas to vote against the Proposition 2 state constitutional amendment banning gay marriage, with slightly under 60% of voters being against it. In 2020, Travis County backed Democrat Joe Biden with nearly 72% of the vote, which was the highest percentage he received in any Texas county, and the largest percentage received by any winner of the presidential election in the county since 1948.


title: Travis County, Texas

text: The county's Democratic advantage is not limited to the presidential level, as all of the county-level officials and state representatives are Democrats.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: Beta vulgaris (beet) is a species of flowering plant in the subfamily Betoideae of the family Amaranthaceae. Economically, it is the most important crop of the large order Caryophyllales. It has several cultivar groups: the sugar beet, of greatest importance to produce table sugar; the root vegetable known as the beetroot or garden beet; the leaf vegetable known as chard or spinach beet or silverbeet; and mangelwurzel, which is a fodder crop. Three subspecies are typically recognised. All cultivars fall into the subspecies "Beta vulgaris" subsp. "vulgaris". The wild ancestor of the cultivated beets is the sea beet ("Beta vulgaris" subsp. "maritima").


title: Beta vulgaris

text: "Beta vulgaris" is a herbaceous biennial or, rarely, perennial plant up to 120 cm (rarely 200 cm) height; cultivated forms are mostly biennial. The roots of cultivated forms are dark red, white, or yellow and moderately to strongly swollen and fleshy (subsp. "vulgaris"); or brown, fibrous, sometimes swollen and woody in the wild subspecies. The stems grow erect or, in the wild forms, often procumbent; they are simple or branched in the upper part, and their surface is ribbed and striate. The basal leaves have a long petiole (which may be thickened and red, white, or yellow in some cultivars). The simple leaf blade is oblanceolate to heart-shaped, dark green to dark red, slightly fleshy, usually with a prominent midrib, with entire or undulate margin, 5–20 cm long on wild plants (often much larger in cultivated plants). The upper leaves are smaller, their blades are rhombic to narrowly lanceolate.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: The flowers are produced in dense spike-like, basally interrupted inflorescences. Very small flowers sit in one- to three- (rarely eight-) flowered glomerules in the axils of short bracts or in the upper half of the inflorescence without bracts. The hermaphrodite flowers are urn-shaped, green or tinged reddish, and consist of five basally connate perianth segments (tepals), 3-5 × 2–3 mm, 5 stamens, and a semi-inferior ovary with 2-3 stigmas. The perianths of neighbouring flowers are often fused. Flowers are wind-pollinated or insect-pollinated, the former method being more important.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: In fruit, the glomerules of flowers form connate hard clusters. The fruit (utricle) is enclosed by the leathery and incurved perianth, and is immersed in the swollen, hardened perianth base. The horizontal seed is lenticular, 2–3 mm, with a red-brown, shiny seed coat. The seed contains an annular embryo and copious perisperm (feeding tissue).


title: Beta vulgaris

text: There are 18 chromosomes found in 2 sets, which makes beets diploid. Using chromosome number notation, 2n = 18.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: The wild forms of "Beta vulgaris" are distributed in southwestern, northern and Southeast Europe along the Atlantic coasts and the Mediterranean Sea, in North Africa, Macaronesia, to Western Asia. Naturalized they occur in other continents.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: The plants grow at coastal cliffs, on stony and sandy beaches, in salt marshes or coastal grasslands, and in ruderal or disturbed places.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: Cultivated beets are grown worldwide in regions without severe frosts. They prefer relatively cool temperatures between 15 and 19 °C. Leaf beets can thrive in warmer temperatures than beetroot. As descendants of coastal plants, they tolerate salty soils and drought. They grow best on pH-neutral to slightly alkaline soils containing plant nutrients and additionally sodium and boron.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: The species description of "Beta vulgaris" was made in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in "Species Plantarum", at the same time creating the genus "Beta". Linnaeus regarded sea beet, chard and red beet as varieties (at that time, sugar beet and mangelwurzel had not been selected yet). In the second edition of "Species Plantarum" (1762), Linnaeus separated the sea beet as its own species, "Beta maritima", and left only the cultivated beets in "Beta vulgaris". Today sea beet and cultivated beets are considered as belonging to the same species, because they may hybridize and form fertile offspring. The taxonomy of the various cultivated races has a long and complicated history, they were treated at the rank of either subspecies, or convarieties or varieties. Now rankless cultivar groups are used, according to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: "Beta vulgaris" belongs to the subfamily Betoideae in family Amaranthaceae ("s.l", including the Chenopodiaceae).


title: Beta vulgaris

text: Spinach beet leaves are eaten as a pot herb. Young leaves of the garden beet are sometimes used similarly. The midribs of Swiss chard are eaten boiled while the whole leaf blades are eaten as spinach beet.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: The leaves and stems of young plants are steamed briefly and eaten as a vegetable; older leaves and stems are stir-fried and have a flavour resembling taro leaves.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: The usually deep-red roots of garden beet can be baked, boiled, or steamed, and often served hot as a cooked vegetable or cold as a salad vegetable. They are also pickled. Raw beets are added to salads. A large proportion of the commercial production is processed into boiled and sterilised beets or into pickles. In Eastern Europe beet soup, such as cold borsch, is a popular dish. Yellow-coloured garden beets are grown on a very small scale for home consumption.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: Jews traditionally eat beet on Rosh Hashana (New Year). Its Aramaic name סלקא sounds like the word for "remove" or "depart"; it is eaten with a prayer "that our enemies be removed".


title: Beta vulgaris

text: In a 100 gram amount, beets supply 43 Calories, contain 88% water, 10% carbohydrates, about 2% protein and have a minute amount of fat (table). The only micronutrients of significant content are folate (27% of the Daily Value, DV) and manganese (16% DV).


title: Beta vulgaris

text: The roots and leaves of the beet have been used in traditional medicine to treat a wide variety of ailments. Ancient Romans used beetroot as a treatment for fevers and constipation, amongst other ailments. Apicius in "De re coquinaria" gives five recipes for soups to be given as a laxative, three of which feature the root of beet. Platina recommended taking beetroot with garlic to nullify the effects of 'garlic-breath'.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: Beet greens and Swiss chard are both considered high oxalate foods which are implicated in the formation of kidney stones.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: Betaine and betalain, two phytochemical compounds prevalent in "Beta vulgaris", are under basic research for their potential biological properties.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: Beets are cultivated for fodder (e.g. mangelwurzel), for sugar (the sugar beet), as a leaf vegetable (chard or "Bull's Blood"), or as a root vegetable ("beetroot", "table beet", or "garden beet").


title: Beta vulgaris

text: "Blood Turnip" was once a common name for beet root cultivars for the garden. Examples include: Bastian's Blood Turnip, Dewing's Early Blood Turnip, Edmand Blood Turnip, and Will's Improved Blood Turnip.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: The "earthy" taste of some beetroot cultivars comes from the presence of geosmin. Researchers have not yet answered whether beets produce geosmin themselves or whether it is produced by symbiotic soil microbes living in the plant. Breeding programs can produce cultivars with low geosmin levels yielding flavours more acceptable to consumers.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: Beets are one of the most boron-intensive of modern crops, a dependency possibly introduced as an evolutionary response its pre-industrial ancestor's constant exposure to sea spray; on commercial farms, a 60 tonne per hectare (26.8 ton/acre) harvest requires 600 grams of elemental boron per hectare (8.6 ounces/acre) for growth. A lack of boron causes the meristem and the shoot to languish, eventually leading to heart rot.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: The color of red/purple beetroot is due to a variety of betalain pigments, unlike most other red plants, such as red cabbage, which contain anthocyanin pigments. The composition of different betalain pigments can vary, resulting in strains of beetroot which are yellow or other colors in addition to the familiar deep red. Some of the betalains in beets are betanin, isobetanin, probetanin, and neobetanin (the red to violet ones are known collectively as "betacyanin"). Other pigments contained in beet are indicaxanthin and vulgaxanthins (yellow to orange pigments known as "betaxanthins"). Indicaxanthin has been shown as a powerful protective antioxidant for thalassemia and prevents the breakdown of alpha-tocopherol (Vitamin E).


title: Beta vulgaris

text: Betacyanin in beetroot may cause red urine in people who are unable to break it down. This is called beeturia.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: The pigments are contained in cell vacuoles. Beetroot cells are quite unstable and will 'leak' when cut, heated, or when in contact with air or sunlight. This is why red beetroots leave a purple stain. Leaving the skin on when cooking, however, will maintain the integrity of the cells and therefore minimize leakage.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: The sea beet, the ancestor of modern cultivated beets, prospered along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Beetroot remains have been excavated in the Third dynasty Saqqara pyramid at Thebes, Egypt, and four charred beetroots were found in the Neolithic site of Aartswoud in the Netherlands though it has not been determined whether these were domesticated or wild forms of "B. vulgaris". Zohary and Hopf note that beetroot is "linguistically well identified." They state the earliest written mention of the beet comes from 8th century BC Mesopotamia. The Greek Peripatetic Theophrastus later describes the beet as similar to the radish, while Aristotle also mentions the plant. Available evidence, such as that provided by Aristotle and Theophrastus, suggests the leafy varieties of the beet were grown primarily for most of its history, though these lost much of their popularity following the introduction of spinach. The ancient Romans considered beets an important health food and an aphrodisiac.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: Roman and Jewish literary sources suggest that in the 1st century BC the domestic beet was represented in the Mediterranean basin primarily by leafy forms like chard and spinach beet. Zohary and Hopf also argue that it is very probable that beetroot cultivars were also grown at the time, and some Roman recipes support this. Later English and German sources show that beetroots were commonly cultivated in Medieval Europe.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: Modern sugar beets date back to mid-18th century Silesia where the king of Prussia subsidised experiments aimed at processes for sugar extraction. In 1747 Andreas Marggraf isolated sugar from beetroots and found them at concentrations of 1.3-1.6%. He also demonstrated that sugar could be extracted from beets that was the same as that produced from sugarcane. His student, Franz Karl Achard, evaluated 23 varieties of mangelwurzel for sugar content and selected a local race from Halberstadt in modern-day Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Moritz Baron von Koppy and his son further selected from this race for white, conical tubers. The selection was named 'Weiße Schlesische Zuckerrübe', meaning white Silesian sugar beet, and boasted about a 6% sugar content. This selection is the progenitor of all modern sugar beets.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: A royal decree led to the first factory devoted to sugar extraction from beetroots being opened in Kunern, Silesia (now Konary, Poland) in 1801. The Silesian sugar beet was soon introduced to France where Napoleon opened schools specifically for studying the plant. He also ordered that be devoted to growing the new sugar beet. This was in response to British blockades of cane sugar during the Napoleonic Wars, which ultimately stimulated the rapid growth of a European sugar beet industry. By 1840 about 5% of the world's sugar was derived from sugar beets, and by 1880 this number had risen more than tenfold to over 50%. The sugar beet was introduced to North America after 1830 with the first commercial production starting in 1879 at a farm in Alvarado, California. The sugar beet was also introduced to Chile via German settlers around 1850.


title: Beta vulgaris

text: It remains a widely cultivated commercial crop for producing table sugar, in part due to subsidies scaled to keep it competitive with tropical sugar cane.


title: Information science

text: Information science (also known as information studies) is an academic field which is primarily concerned with analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval, movement, dissemination, and protection of information. Practitioners within and outside the field study the application and the usage of knowledge in organizations in addition to the interaction between people, organizations, and any existing information systems with the aim of creating, replacing, improving, or understanding the information systems.


title: Information science

text: Historically, information science (informatics) is associated with computer science, data science, psychology, technology, library science, healthcare, and intelligence agencies. However, information science also incorporates aspects of diverse fields such as archival science, cognitive science, commerce, law, linguistics, museology, management, mathematics, philosophy, public policy, and social sciences.


title: Information science

text: Information science focuses on understanding problems from the perspective of the stakeholders involved and then applying information and other technologies as needed. In other words, it tackles systemic problems first rather than individual pieces of technology within that system. In this respect, one can see information science as a response to technological determinism, the belief that technology "develops by its own laws, that it realizes its own potential, limited only by the material resources available and the creativity of its developers. It must therefore be regarded as an autonomous system controlling and ultimately permeating all other subsystems of society."


title: Information science

text: Many universities have entire colleges, departments or schools devoted to the study of information science, while numerous information-science scholars work in disciplines such as communication, healthcare, computer science, law, and sociology. Several institutions have formed an I-School Caucus (see "List of I-Schools"), but numerous others besides these also have comprehensive information foci.


title: Information science

text: The first known usage of the term "information science" was in 1955. An early definition of Information science (going back to 1968, the year when the "American Documentation Institute" renamed itself as the "American Society for Information Science and Technology") states:


title: Information science

text: Some authors use informatics as a synonym for "information science". This is especially true when related to the concept developed by A. I. Mikhailov and other Soviet authors in the mid-1960s. The Mikhailov school saw informatics as a discipline related to the study of scientific information.


title: Information science

text: Informatics is difficult to precisely define because of the rapidly evolving and interdisciplinary nature of the field. Definitions reliant on the nature of the tools used for deriving meaningful information from data are emerging in Informatics academic programs.


title: Information science

text: Regional differences and international terminology complicate the problem. Some people note that much of what is called "Informatics" today was once called "Information Science" – at least in fields such as Medical Informatics. For example, when library scientists began also to use the phrase "Information Science" to refer to their work, the term "informatics" emerged:


title: Information science

text: Another term discussed as a synonym for "information studies" is "information systems". Brian Campbell Vickery's "Information Systems" (1973) placed information systems within IS. Ellis, Allen, & Wilson (1999), on the other hand, provided a bibliometric investigation describing the relation between two "different" fields: "information science" and "information systems".


title: Information science

text: Philosophy of information studies conceptual issues arising at the intersection of psychology, computer science, information technology, and philosophy. It includes the investigation of the conceptual nature and basic principles of information, including its dynamics, utilisation and sciences, as well as the elaboration and application of information-theoretic and computational methodologies to its philosophical problems.


title: Information science

text: In science and information science, an ontology formally represents knowledge as a set of concepts within a domain, and the relationships between those concepts. It can be used to reason about the entities within that domain and may be used to describe the domain.


title: Information science

text: More specifically, an ontology is a model for describing the world that consists of a set of types, properties, and relationship types. Exactly what is provided around these varies, but they are the essentials of an ontology. There is also generally an expectation that there be a close resemblance between the real world and the features of the model in an ontology.


title: Information science

text: In theory, an ontology is a "formal, explicit specification of a shared conceptualisation". An ontology renders shared vocabulary and taxonomy which models a domain with the definition of objects and/or concepts and their properties and relations.


title: Information science

text: Ontologies are the structural frameworks for organizing information and are used in artificial intelligence, the Semantic Web, systems engineering, software engineering, biomedical informatics, library science, enterprise bookmarking, and information architecture as a form of knowledge representation about the world or some part of it. The creation of domain ontologies is also essential to the definition and use of an enterprise architecture framework.


title: Information science

text: An information scientist is an individual, usually with a relevant subject degree or high level of subject knowledge, who provides focused information to scientific and technical research staff in industry or to subject faculty and students in academia. The industry *information specialist/scientist* and the academic information subject specialist/librarian have, in general, similar subject background training, but the academic position holder will be required to hold a second advanced degree (MLS/MI/MA in IS, e.g.) in information and library studies in addition to a subject master’s. The title also applies to an individual carrying out research in information science.


title: Information science

text: A systems analyst works on creating, designing, and improving information systems for a specific need. Often systems analysts work with one or more businesses to evaluate and implement organizational processes and techniques for accessing information in order to improve efficiency and productivity within the organization (s).


title: Information science

text: An information professional is an individual who preserves, organizes, and disseminates information. Information professionals are skilled in the organization and retrieval of recorded knowledge. Traditionally, their work has been with print materials, but these skills are being increasingly used with electronic, visual, audio, and digital materials. Information professionals work in a variety of public, private, non-profit, and academic institutions. Information professionals can also be found within organisational and industrial contexts. Performing roles that include system design and development and system analysis.


title: Information science

text: Information science, in studying the collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information has origins in the common stock of human knowledge. Information analysis has been carried out by scholars at least as early as the time of the Assyrian Empire with the emergence of cultural depositories, what is today known as libraries and archives. Institutionally, information science emerged in the 19th century along with many other social science disciplines. As a science, however, it finds its institutional roots in the history of science, beginning with publication of the first issues of "Philosophical Transactions," generally considered the first scientific journal, in 1665 by the Royal Society (London).


title: Information science

text: The institutionalization of science occurred throughout the 18th century. In 1731, Benjamin Franklin established the Library Company of Philadelphia, the first library owned by a group of public citizens, which quickly expanded beyond the realm of books and became a center of scientific experimentation, and which hosted public exhibitions of scientific experiments. Benjamin Franklin invested a town in Massachusetts with a collection of books that the town voted to make available to all free of charge, forming the first public library of the United States. Academie de Chirurgia (Paris) published "Memoires pour les Chirurgiens", generally considered to be the first medical journal, in 1736. The American Philosophical Society, patterned on the Royal Society (London), was founded in Philadelphia in 1743. As numerous other scientific journals and societies were founded, Alois Senefelder developed the concept of lithography for use in mass printing work in Germany in 1796.


title: Information science

text: By the 19th century the first signs of information science emerged as separate and distinct from other sciences and social sciences but in conjunction with communication and computation. In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a punched card system to control operations of the cloth weaving loom in France. It was the first use of "memory storage of patterns" system. As chemistry journals emerged throughout the 1820s and 1830s, Charles Babbage developed his "difference engine," the first step towards the modern computer, in 1822 and his "analytical engine” by 1834. By 1843 Richard Hoe developed the rotary press, and in 1844 Samuel Morse sent the first public telegraph message. By 1848 William F. Poole begins the "Index to Periodical Literature," the first general periodical literature index in the US.


title: Information science

text: In 1854 George Boole published "An Investigation into Laws of Thought...," which lays the foundations for Boolean algebra, which is later used in information retrieval. In 1860 a congress was held at Karlsruhe Technische Hochschule to discuss the feasibility of establishing a systematic and rational nomenclature for chemistry. The congress did not reach any conclusive results, but several key participants returned home with Stanislao Cannizzaro's outline (1858), which ultimately convinces them of the validity of his scheme for calculating atomic weights.


title: Information science

text: By 1865, the Smithsonian Institution began a catalog of current scientific papers, which became the "International Catalogue of Scientific Papers" in 1902. The following year the Royal Society began publication of its "Catalogue of Papers" in London. In 1868, Christopher Sholes, Carlos Glidden, and S. W. Soule produced the first practical typewriter. By 1872 Lord Kelvin devised an analogue computer to predict the tides, and by 1875 Frank Stephen Baldwin was granted the first US patent for a practical calculating machine that performs four arithmetic functions. Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Edison invented the telephone and phonograph in 1876 and 1877 respectively, and the American Library Association was founded in Philadelphia. In 1879 "Index Medicus" was first issued by the Library of the Surgeon General, U.S. Army, with John Shaw Billings as librarian, and later the library issues "Index Catalogue," which achieved an international reputation as the most complete catalog of medical literature.


title: Information science

text: The discipline of "documentation science", which marks the earliest theoretical foundations of modern information science, emerged in the late part of the 19th century in Europe together with several more scientific indexes whose purpose was to organize scholarly literature. Many information science historians cite Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine as the fathers of information science with the founding of the International Institute of Bibliography (IIB) in 1895. A second generation of European Documentalists emerged after the Second World War, most notably Suzanne Briet. However, "information science" as a term is not popularly used in academia until sometime in the latter part of the 20th century.


title: Information science

text: Documentalists emphasized the utilitarian integration of technology and technique toward specific social goals. According to Ronald Day, "As an organized system of techniques and technologies, documentation was understood as a player in the historical development of global organization in modernity – indeed, a major player inasmuch as that organization was dependent on the organization and transmission of information." Otlet and Lafontaine (who won the Nobel Prize in 1913) not only envisioned later technical innovations but also projected a global vision for information and information technologies that speaks directly to postwar visions of a global "information society". Otlet and Lafontaine established numerous organizations dedicated to standardization, bibliography, international associations, and consequently, international cooperation. These organizations were fundamental for ensuring international production in commerce, information, communication and modern economic development, and they later found their global form in such institutions as the League of Nations and the United Nations. Otlet designed the Universal Decimal Classification, based on Melville Dewey’s decimal classification system.


title: Information science

text: Although he lived decades before computers and networks emerged, what he discussed prefigured what ultimately became the World Wide Web. His vision of a great network of knowledge focused on documents and included the notions of hyperlinks, search engines, remote access, and social networks.


title: Information science

text: Otlet not only imagined that all the world's knowledge should be interlinked and made available remotely to anyone, but he also proceeded to build a structured document collection. This collection involved standardized paper sheets and cards filed in custom-designed cabinets according to a hierarchical index (which culled information worldwide from diverse sources) and a commercial information retrieval service (which answered written requests by copying relevant information from index cards). Users of this service were even warned if their query was likely to produce more than 50 results per search.


title: Information science

text: By 1937 documentation had formally been institutionalized, as evidenced by the founding of the American Documentation Institute (ADI), later called the American Society for Information Science and Technology.


title: Information science

text: With the 1950s came increasing awareness of the potential of automatic devices for literature searching and information storage and retrieval. As these concepts grew in magnitude and potential, so did the variety of information science interests. By the 1960s and 70s, there was a move from batch processing to online modes, from mainframe to mini and microcomputers. Additionally, traditional boundaries among disciplines began to fade and many information science scholars joined with other programs. They further made themselves multidisciplinary by incorporating disciplines in the sciences, humanities and social sciences, as well as other professional programs, such as law and medicine in their curriculum.


title: Information science

text: By the 1980s, large databases, such as Grateful Med at the National Library of Medicine, and user-oriented services such as Dialog and Compuserve, were for the first time accessible by individuals from their personal computers. The 1980s also saw the emergence of numerous special interest groups to respond to the changes. By the end of the decade, special interest groups were available involving non-print media, social sciences, energy and the environment, and community information systems. Today, information science largely examines technical bases, social consequences, and theoretical understanding of online databases, widespread use of databases in government, industry, and education, and the development of the Internet and World Wide Web.


title: Information science

text: Dissemination has historically been interpreted as unilateral communication of information. With the advent of the internet, and the explosion in popularity of online communities, "social media has changed the information landscape in many respects, and creates both new modes of communication and new types of information", changing the interpretation of the definition of dissemination. The nature of social networks allows for faster diffusion of information than through organizational sources. The internet has changed the way we view, use, create, and store information, now it is time to re-evaluate the way we share and spread it.


title: Information science

text: Social media networks provide an open information environment for the mass of people who have limited time or access to traditional outlets of information diffusion, this is an "increasingly mobile and social world [that] demands...new types of information skills". Social media integration as an access point is a very useful and mutually beneficial tool for users and providers. All major news providers have visibility and an access point through networks such as Facebook and Twitter maximizing their breadth of audience. Through social media people are directed to, or provided with, information by people they know. The ability to "share, like, and comment on...content" increases the reach farther and wider than traditional methods. People like to interact with information, they enjoy including the people they know in their circle of knowledge. Sharing through social media has become so influential that publishers must "play nice" if they desire to succeed. Although, it is often mutually beneficial for publishers and Facebook to "share, promote and uncover new content" to improve both user base experiences. The impact of popular opinion can spread in unimaginable ways. Social media allows interaction through simple to learn and access tools; "The Wall Street Journal" offers an app through Facebook, and "The Washington Post" goes a step further and offers an independent social app that was downloaded by 19.5 million users in 6 months, proving how interested people are in the new way of being provided information.


title: Information science

text: The connections and networks sustained through social media help information providers learn what is important to people. The connections people have throughout the world enable the exchange of information at an unprecedented rate. It is for this reason that these networks have been realized for the potential they provide. "Most news media monitor Twitter for breaking news", as well as news anchors frequently request the audience to tweet pictures of events. The users and viewers of the shared information have earned "opinion-making and agenda-setting power" This channel has been recognized for the usefulness of providing targeted information based on public demand.


title: Information science

text: Information access is an area of research at the intersection of Informatics, Information Science, Information Security, Language Technology, and Computer Science. The objectives of information access research are to automate the processing of large and unwieldy amounts of information and to simplify users' access to it. What about assigning privileges and restricting access to unauthorized users? The extent of access should be defined in the level of clearance granted for the information. Applicable technologies include information retrieval, text mining, text editing, machine translation, and text categorisation. In discussion, information access is often defined as concerning the insurance of free and closed or public access to information and is brought up in discussions on copyright, patent law, and public domain. Public libraries need resources to provide knowledge of information assurance.


title: Information science

text: Information architecture (IA) is the art and science of organizing and labelling websites, intranets, online communities and software to support usability. It is an emerging discipline and "community of practice" focused on bringing together principles of design and architecture to the "digital landscape". Typically it involves a model or concept of information which is used and applied to activities that require explicit details of complex information systems. These activities include library systems and database development.


title: Information science

text: Information management (IM) is the collection and management of information from one or more sources and the distribution of that information to one or more audiences. This sometimes involves those who have a stake in, or a right to that information. Management means the organization of and control over the structure, processing and delivery of information. Throughout the 1970s this was largely limited to files, file maintenance, and the life cycle management of paper-based files, other media and records. With the proliferation of information technology starting in the 1970s, the job of information management took on a new light and also began to include the field of data maintenance.


title: Information science

text: Information retrieval (IR) is the area of study concerned with searching for documents, for information within documents, and for metadata about documents, as well as that of searching structured storage, relational databases, and the World Wide Web. Automated information retrieval systems are used to reduce what has been called "information overload". Many universities and public libraries use IR systems to provide access to books, journals and other documents. Web search engines are the most visible IR applications.


title: Information science

text: An information retrieval process begins when a user enters a query into the system. Queries are formal statements of information needs, for example search strings in web search engines. In information retrieval a query does not uniquely identify a single object in the collection. Instead, several objects may match the query, perhaps with different degrees of relevancy.


title: Information science

text: An object is an entity that is represented by information in a database. User queries are matched against the database information. Depending on the application the data objects may be, for example, text documents, images, audio, mind maps or videos. Often the documents themselves are not kept or stored directly in the IR system, but are instead represented in the system by document surrogates or metadata.


title: Information science

text: Most IR systems compute a numeric score on how well each object in the database match the query, and rank the objects according to this value. The top ranking objects are then shown to the user. The process may then be iterated if the user wishes to refine the query.


title: Information science

text: Information seeking is the process or activity of attempting to obtain information in both human and technological contexts. Information seeking is related to, but different from, information retrieval (IR).


title: Information science

text: Much library and information science (LIS) research has focused on the information-seeking practices of practitioners within various fields of professional work. Studies have been carried out into the information-seeking behaviors of librarians, academics, medical professionals, engineers and lawyers (among others). Much of this research has drawn on the work done by Leckie, Pettigrew (now Fisher) and Sylvain, who in 1996 conducted an extensive review of the LIS literature (as well as the literature of other academic fields) on professionals' information seeking. The authors proposed an analytic model of professionals' information seeking behaviour, intended to be generalizable across the professions, thus providing a platform for future research in the area. The model was intended to "prompt new insights... and give rise to more refined and applicable theories of information seeking" (1996, p. 188). The model has been adapted by Wilkinson (2001) who proposes a model of the information seeking of lawyers. Recent studies in this topic address the concept of information-gathering that "provides a broader perspective that adheres better to professionals’ work-related reality and desired skills." (Solomon & Bronstein, 2021).


title: Information science

text: An information society is a society where the creation, distribution, diffusion, uses, integration and manipulation of information is a significant economic, political, and cultural activity. The aim of an information society is to gain competitive advantage internationally, through using IT in a creative and productive way. The knowledge economy is its economic counterpart, whereby wealth is created through the economic exploitation of understanding. People who have the means to partake in this form of society are sometimes called digital citizens.


title: Information science

text: Basically, an information society is the means of getting information from one place to another (Wark, 1997, p. 22). As technology has become more advanced over time so too has the way we have adapted in sharing this information with each other.


title: Information science

text: Information society theory discusses the role of information and information technology in society, the question of which key concepts should be used for characterizing contemporary society, and how to define such concepts. It has become a specific branch of contemporary sociology.


title: Information science

text: The information society is becoming very popular to research and study. Exist many committed to providing an opportunity for anyone to commence a FREE self-imposed, quality "re-education" in cyberspace. A part of commitment is to network the research and information that creative individuals and/or innovative institutions are exposing in cyberspace.


title: Information science

text: Knowledge representation (KR) is an area of artificial intelligence research aimed at representing knowledge in symbols to facilitate inferencing from those knowledge elements, creating new elements of knowledge. The KR can be made to be independent of the underlying knowledge model or knowledge base system (KBS) such as a semantic network.


title: Information science

text: Knowledge Representation (KR) research involves analysis of how to reason accurately and effectively and how best to use a set of symbols to represent a set of facts within a knowledge domain. A symbol vocabulary and a system of logic are combined to enable inferences about elements in the KR to create new KR sentences. Logic is used to supply formal semantics of how reasoning functions should be applied to the symbols in the KR system. Logic is also used to define how operators can process and reshape the knowledge. Examples of operators and operations include, negation, conjunction, adverbs, adjectives, quantifiers and modal operators. The logic is interpretation theory. These elements—symbols, operators, and interpretation theory—are what give sequences of symbols meaning within a KR.