title: CNN-News18

text: In November 2012, on its prime time show "Face The Nation", the channel broadcast a pre-recorded and edited interview of Sri Sri Ravi Shankar as a live television debate. The show was hosted by the deputy editor of the channel, Sagarika Ghose, the wife of the channel's editor, Rajdeep Sardesai. On public outcry, the anchor issued a public apology on Twitter, web and TV. The episode has not been hosted on the show's homepage.


title: CNN-News18

text: In August 2013, TV18 fired nearly 400 people from their various offices including CNN-IBN as a part of restructuring. The company declined to further comment on the issue.


title: Extreme E

text: Extreme E is an FIA-sanctioned international off-road racing series that uses spec silhouette electric SUVs to race in remote parts of the world, such as the Saudi Arabian desert or the Arctic. All racing locations are chosen to raise awareness for some aspects of climate change and Extreme E maintains a "Legacy Programme" which intends to provide social and environmental support for those locations. The series also promotes gender equality in motorsport by mandating that all teams consist of a female and a male driver who share equal driving duties.


title: Extreme E

text: The first season began with the Desert X-Prix in Saudi Arabia in April 2021. Team X44 is the defending champion.


title: Extreme E

text: Extreme E began in 2018 as a project led by Formula E founder Alejandro Agag and former driver Gil de Ferran. The series was presented to the public in January 2019 with an event in London. The announcement took place on board of the ship "St Helena" which was to serve as "floating paddock" of the series, and also introduced Continental as tyre supplier and Brazilian company CBMM as niobium supplier for the vehicle production. Ali Russell was named Chief Marketing Officer, while Red Bull sports executives Kester Wilkinson and Nina Dreier signed on as event and marketing managers.


title: Extreme E

text: The first team to commit to the series, Venturi Racing, was announced in May 2019 (although they withdrew again before the first season). A couple of months later, German team Abt Sportsline was the second team to join the series.


title: Extreme E

text: In July 2019 a first prototype of the series vehicle, the Odyssey 21, was showcased at the Goodwood Festival of Speed and in December 2019 the provisional calendar for the first season in 2021 has been revealed, featuring races in Senegal, Saudi Arabia, Nepal, Greenland and Brazil.


title: Extreme E

text: In 2020, the series started to attract attention by having Ken Block race the Extreme E car at the last stage of the Dakar Rally in January and in September Formula One world champion Lewis Hamilton announced the creation of his own Extreme E team, called X44. Former F1 champion and Hamilton's longtime team-mate and rival Nico Rosberg also entered his own team into the competition with Rosberg X Racing, as did fellow champion Jenson Button with JBXE; Button also drove the 2021 Desert X-Prix for his team. A six-day drivers' test was held near the Châteaux de Lastours in southern France in late September and early October, featuring among confirmed series drivers some well-known racing drivers like Valtteri Bottas, Sébastien Loeb and Jean-Éric Vergne.


title: Extreme E

text: In November 2020, the vehicles were delivered to the teams, who could then apply their liveries and acquaint themselves with the car and its operations. The teams were limited to 100km of private testing. A joint test with eight teams and a race simulation was held at MotorLand Aragón in December.


title: Extreme E

text: The "St Helena" departed from Liverpool on 20 February 2021, carrying equipment and 9 cars for the first race in April and arrived in Jeddah on 14 March.


title: Extreme E

text: The first season began with the Desert X-Prix in Saudi Arabia in April 2021 and ended in December in the United Kingdom. Nine teams were competing over five rounds. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic the calendar had to be modified during the season with two European rounds replacing the two planned events in South America. Rosberg X Racing with drivers Molly Taylor and Johan Kristoffersson emerged as the first Extreme E champions.


title: Extreme E

text: The second season started in February 2022, again in Saudi Arabia. McLaren joined the series as a new team. The season will end in November 2022 in Uruguay.


title: Extreme E

text: Prior to the 2022 season's opening race, Agag announced the creation of a similar off-road electric championship called Extreme H, which uses the usual Spark Odyssey 21 chassis, but the car will be powered by hydrogen. Development of the first Extreme H prototype car is underway, scheduled for a 2023 launch. The first season is expected to take place in 2024, alongside Extreme E's fourth season.


title: Extreme E

text: Teams consist of one female and one male driver, who share equal driving duties. In each session, the team must complete two laps of the course (three for the Jurassic X-Prix due to its shorter distance), with both team member driving one lap (or two-and-one for the Jurassic X-Prix). The driver switch takes place in a designated "switch zone", where a speed limit and a minimal switch time are enforced for safety reasons.


title: Extreme E

text: The format of the Extreme E race weekend evolved over the course of the first two seasons. Under the current format, racing starts on Saturday with one round of qualifying time trial and another of qualifying races. Then, on Sunday, a series of actual races with multiple cars take place to determine the event winner. Round one of qualifying is a two-lap time trial, while round two consists of two five-car heats, with both drivers in a team doing one lap each, and the finishing position contributes towards the combined results from both rounds, based on intermediate points (10 for the time trial winner down to 1 point for the last-placed team; 10, 8, 6, 4 and 2 for the heats). Championship points were awarded for overall qualifying in season one. The qualifying results determine to which second-round race each teams advances: first, fourth and fifth place progress to semi-final 1; second, third and sixth advance to semi-final 2; and teams finishing in seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth go to the "Crazy Race". The best two teams from each semi-final as well as the winner of the Crazy Race qualify for the five-car final.


title: Extreme E

text: Additionally, a "super sector" is defined where five extra points are awarded to the fastest team through that sector over the weekend. During a session, one "Hyper Drive" can be used per lap which provides extra power for four seconds.


title: Extreme E

text: The Spark Odyssey 21 electric SUV was unveiled as the series' competition vehicle at Goodwood Festival of Speed on 5 July 2019. The vehicle is manufactured by Spark Racing Technology, the constructors of the Formula E cars, with a battery produced by Williams Advanced Engineering. The car is fitted with a niobium-reinforced steel alloy tubular frame, as well as crash structure and roll cage. It weighs , and is capable of 0 to 60 mph in 4.5 seconds, with of power.


title: Extreme E

text: The Odyssey 21 was first showcased at the 2020 Dakar Rally in Saudi Arabia. Guerlain Chicherit drove the vehicle during shakedown one day before the race start and Ken Block competed with it on the final stage between Haradh and Al-Qiddiya, finishing with the third fastest time in the car category.


title: Extreme E

text: The Extreme E regulations require each team to consist of a female and a male driver who share equal driving duties (with a driver swap in the middle of each race).


title: Extreme E

text: In September 2019, Extreme E released a list of drivers who had registered official interest in driving in the series. Teams could select drivers from this list, but they could also sign any other driver. In November, a second group of inductees joined the programme. The first actual driver signing, Sara Price with Chip Ganassi Racing, was announced in June 2020.


title: Extreme E

text: Reserve drivers can substitute any driver before the beginning of each subsequent rounds. The series also employs "championship drivers" as reserves and advisors, while guest championship drivers are occasionally present to work with the full-time members. Championship drivers can be hired to permanent seats by teams such as Jutta Kleinschmidt by Abt Cupra in 2021.


title: Extreme E

text: Extreme E races in locations already damaged by climate change in order to bring awareness to the problems posed by climate change and have consulted ecological experts to keep the impact of their presence to a minimum. The series maintains a so called "legacy programme" which intends to provide support for social and environmental challenges at the racing locations.


title: Extreme E

text: The RMS "St Helena", a former Royal Mail Ship, serves as a "floating paddock" and headquarters for the series. It is used to carry all equipment, including the cars, to the race locations (or nearest port) in order to reduce carbon emissions compared to air freight. The ship's environmental footprint has been reduced by converting the propulsion units and the generators to run on ultra-low-sulfur diesel. The "St Helena" also serves as a research vessel, carrying scientists and potentially holding conferences at the race locations.


title: Extreme E

text: Extreme E uses hydrogen fuel cell technology supplied by AFC Energy. Hydrogen fuel is generated from water and solar energy and is then used to charge the vehicles, allowing for a sustainable off-the-grid power generation.


title: Extreme E

text: Aurora Media Worldwide and North One Television were selected as host broadcasters, producing live race coverage and a supporting documentary series, combining sport and scientific stories. Academy Award-winning filmmaker Fisher Stevens was hired as the series artistic director to produce the broadcasts. Gil de Ferran said that the "viewers can expect a completely new way of consuming sport, with each episode telling not just the story of a race, but the wider race of awareness and the need to protect these remote and challenging environments being explored by Extreme E."


title: Extreme E

text: Before the first season in 2021, a three-part TV series has been produced to document the process of creating a brand-new racing series. The first episode premiered in June 2020 on Channel 4 in the UK, followed a few days later on Eurosport.


title: Extreme E

text: The live broadcast is presented by Andrew Coley and Jennie Gow from a studio in London, and Layla Anna-Lee is the on-site reporter and also presents a 20-episode magazine show called "Electric Odyssey".


title: 2017 Ballon d'Or

text: The 2017 Ballon d'Or was the 62nd annual award recognising the best male footballer in the world for 2017.


title: 2017 Ballon d'Or

text: Cristiano Ronaldo won the award for the fifth time on 7 December 2017, equalling the highest tally of Ballons d'Or in history at the time, sharing the record with Lionel Messi.


title: 2017 Ballon d'Or

text: The 30 nominees for the award were announced on 9 October 2017. The winner was announced on 7 December 2017.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: In distributed computing, a conflict-free replicated data type (CRDT) is a data structure that is replicated across multiple computers in a network, with the following features:


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: The CRDT concept was formally defined in 2011 by Marc Shapiro, Nuno Preguiça, Carlos Baquero and Marek Zawirski. Development was initially motivated by collaborative text editing and mobile computing. CRDTs have also been used in online chat systems, online gambling, and in the SoundCloud audio distribution platform. The NoSQL distributed databases Redis, Riak and Cosmos DB have CRDT data types.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: Concurrent updates to multiple replicas of the same data, without coordination between the computers hosting the replicas, can result in inconsistencies between the replicas, which in the general case may not be resolvable. Restoring consistency and data integrity when there are conflicts between updates may require some or all of the updates to be entirely or partially dropped.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: Accordingly, much of distributed computing focuses on the problem of how to prevent concurrent updates to replicated data. But another possible approach is optimistic replication, where all concurrent updates are allowed to go through, with inconsistencies possibly created, and the results are merged or "resolved" later. In this approach, consistency between the replicas is eventually re-established via "merges" of differing replicas. While optimistic replication might not work in the general case, there is a significant and practically useful class of data structures, CRDTs, where it does work — where it is always possible to merge or resolve concurrent updates on different replicas of the data structure without conflicts. This makes CRDTs ideal for optimistic replication.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: As an example, a one-way Boolean event flag is a trivial CRDT: one bit, with a value of true or false. True means some particular event has occurred at least once. False means the event has not occurred. Once set to true, the flag cannot be set back to false (an event having occurred cannot un-occur). The resolution method is "true wins": when merging a replica where the flag is true (that replica has observed the event), and another one where the flag is false (that replica hasn't observed the event), the resolved result is true — the event has been observed.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: There are two approaches to CRDTs, both of which can provide strong eventual consistency: operation-based CRDTs and state-based CRDTs.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: State-based CRDTs are often simpler to design and to implement; their only requirement from the communication substrate is some kind of gossip protocol.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: Their drawback is that the entire state of every CRDT must be transmitted eventually to every other replica, which may be costly.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: However, operation-based CRDTs require guarantees from the communication middleware; that the operations are not dropped or duplicated when transmitted to the other replicas, and that they are delivered in causal order.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: Operation-based CRDTs are also called commutative replicated data types, or CmRDTs. CmRDT replicas propagate state by transmitting only the update operation. For example, a CmRDT of a single integer might broadcast the operations (+10) or (−20). Replicas receive the updates and apply them locally. The operations are commutative. However, they are not necessarily idempotent. The communications infrastructure must therefore ensure that all operations on a replica are delivered to the other replicas, without duplication, but in any order.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: State-based CRDTs are called convergent replicated data types, or CvRDTs. In contrast to CmRDTs, CvRDTs send their full local state to other replicas, where the states are merged by a function which must be commutative, associative, and idempotent. The merge function provides a join for any pair of replica states, so the set of all states forms a semilattice. The update function must monotonically increase the internal state, according to the same partial order rules as the semilattice.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: "Delta state" CRDTs (or simply Delta CRDTs) are optimized state-based CRDTs where only recently applied changes to a state are disseminated instead of the entire state.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: While CmRDTs place more requirements on the protocol for transmitting operations between replicas, they use less bandwidth than CvRDTs when the number of transactions is small in comparison to the size of internal state. However, since the CvRDT merge function is associative, merging with the state of some replica yields all previous updates to that replica. Gossip protocols work well for propagating CvRDT state to other replicas while reducing network use and handling topology changes.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: This CvRDT implements a counter for a cluster of n nodes. Each node in the cluster is assigned an ID from 0 to n - 1, which is retrieved with a call to "myId"(). Thus each node is assigned its own slot in the array P, which it increments locally. Updates are propagated in the background, and merged by taking the "max"() of every element in P. The compare function is included to illustrate a partial order on the states. The merge function is commutative, associative, and idempotent. The update function monotonically increases the internal state according to the compare function. This is thus a correctly-defined CvRDT and will provide strong eventual consistency. The CmRDT equivalent broadcasts increment operations as they are received.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: A common strategy in CRDT development is to combine multiple CRDTs to make a more complex CRDT. In this case, two G-Counters are combined to create a data type supporting both increment and decrement operations. The "P" G-Counter counts increments; and the "N" G-Counter counts decrements. The value of the PN-Counter is the value of the P counter minus the value of the N counter. Merge is handled by letting the merged P counter be the merge of the two P G-Counters, and similarly for N counters. Note that the CRDT's internal state must increase monotonically, even though its external state as exposed through "query" can return to previous values.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: The G-Set (grow-only set) is a set which only allows adds. An element, once added, cannot be removed. The merger of two G-Sets is their union.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: Two G-Sets (grow-only sets) are combined to create the 2P-set. With the addition of a remove set (called the "tombstone" set), elements can be added and also removed. Once removed, an element cannot be re-added; that is, once an element e is in the tombstone set, query will never again return True for that element. The 2P-set uses "remove-wins" semantics, so "remove"(e) takes precedence over "add"(e).


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: LWW-Element-Set is similar to 2P-Set in that it consists of an "add set" and a "remove set", with a timestamp for each element. Elements are added to an LWW-Element-Set by inserting the element into the add set, with a timestamp. Elements are removed from the LWW-Element-Set by being added to the remove set, again with a timestamp. An element is a member of the LWW-Element-Set if it is in the add set, and either not in the remove set, or in the remove set but with an earlier timestamp than the latest timestamp in the add set. Merging two replicas of the LWW-Element-Set consists of taking the union of the add sets and the union of the remove sets. When timestamps are equal, the "bias" of the LWW-Element-Set comes into play. A LWW-Element-Set can be biased towards adds or removals. The advantage of LWW-Element-Set over 2P-Set is that, unlike 2P-Set, LWW-Element-Set allows an element to be reinserted after having been removed.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: OR-Set resembles LWW-Element-Set, but using unique tags instead of timestamps. For each element in the set, a list of add-tags and a list of remove-tags are maintained. An element is inserted into the OR-Set by having a new unique tag generated and added to the add-tag list for the element. Elements are removed from the OR-Set by having all the tags in the element's add-tag list added to the element's remove-tag (tombstone) list. To merge two OR-Sets, for each element, let its add-tag list be the union of the two add-tag lists, and likewise for the two remove-tag lists. An element is a member of the set if and only if the add-tag list less the remove-tag list is nonempty. An optimization that eliminates the need for maintaining a tombstone set is possible; this avoids the potentially unbounded growth of the tombstone set. The optimization is achieved by maintaining a vector of timestamps for each replica.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: A sequence, list, or ordered set CRDT can be used to build a Collaborative real-time editor, as an alternative to Operational transformation (OT).


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: CRATE is a decentralized real-time editor built on top of LSEQSplit (an extension of LSEQ) and runnable on a network of browsers using WebRTC.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: LogootSplit was proposed as an extension of Logoot in order to reduce the metadata for sequence CRDTs. MUTE is an online web-based peer-to-peer real-time collaborative editor relying on LogootSplit algorithm.


title: Conflict-free replicated data type

text: Industrial sequence CRDTs, including open-source ones, are known to out-perform academic implementations due to optimizations and a more realistic testing methodology. The main popular example is Yjs CRDT, a pioneer in using a plain list instead of a tree (ala Kleppmann's "automerge").


title: Miles Brown (actor)

text: Miles Brown (born December 28, 2004), also known by his stage name Baby Boogaloo, is an American actor, dancer and rapper. He is best known for his role as Jack Johnson in the ABC comedy series "Black-ish".


title: Miles Brown (actor)

text: Brown is the son of rapper Wildchild and Cyndee Brown. He has an older sister. Brown's father is African-American, while his mother is of Filipino and Mexican descent.


title: Miles Brown (actor)

text: As a young child, he danced in music videos—including "Yeah 3x" and "Loving You Is Killing Me"—and on the children's show "Yo Gabba Gabba!". At the age of 5, he was a guest on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" and a contestant on the fifth season of "America's Got Talent" as part of the dance duo Future Funk. His first role in a feature film was as part of the Little Rascals Intro Battle Crew in the dance-drama movie "Battlefield America". Brown was also in a dance group called Alias Dance Company from 2010 to 2014.


title: Miles Brown (actor)

text: In 2014, Brown was cast opposite Anthony Anderson and Tracee Ellis Ross in the ABC comedy series "Black-ish" created by Kenya Barris. For his role as Jack Johnson on the show, he has been nominated for four NAACP Image Awards, two Screen Actors Guild Awards, and the BET YoungStars Award. He won a Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Series - Supporting Young Actor.


title: Miles Brown (actor)

text: Between 2014 and 2016, Brown appeared in several short films. He and Marsai Martin, who plays his twin sister on "Black-ish", voice the recurring characters of siblings Jack and Jill on "Goldie & Bear". Brown danced in Cirque du Soleil's annual benefit show, One Night for One Drop.


title: Miles Brown (actor)

text: In 2018, Brown was cast in the main role of the indie film "Boy Genius" alongside Rita Wilson. Later that year, he released his first single, "NBA," and competed on the first season of "". He was named one of Hollywood's top 30 stars under 18 by "The Hollywood Reporter". In October 2020, Brown released his debut album "We the Future", with production from Madlib, Mic Checkmate and Deliv; as well as features from Jidenna, Slick Rick, Siedah Garrett, Dame D.O.L.L.A. and his father Wildchild.


title: Pea coat

text: A pea coat (or peacoat, pea jacket, pilot jacket, reefer jacket) is an outer coat, generally of a navy-coloured heavy wool, originally worn by sailors of European and later American navies. Pea coats are characterized by short length, broad lapels, double-breasted fronts, often large wooden, metal or plastic buttons, three or four in two rows, and vertical or slash pockets. References to the pea jacket appear in American newspapers at least as early as the 1720s, and modern renditions still maintain the original design and composition.


title: Pea coat

text: A "bridge coat" is a pea coat that extends to the thighs, and is a uniform exclusively for officers and chief petty officers. The reefer jacket is for officers and chief petty officers only, and is identical to the basic design, but usually has gold buttons and epaulettes. Only officers wear the epaulettes.


title: Pea coat

text: According to a 1975 edition of "The Mariner's Mirror", the term "pea coat" originated from the Dutch or West Frisian word "pijjekker" or "pijjakker", in which "pij" referred to the type of cloth used, a coarse kind of twilled blue cloth with a nap on one side. "Jakker" designates a man’s short, heavy coat.


title: Pea coat

text: Another theory, favoured by the US Navy, is that the heavy topcoat worn in cold, miserable weather by seafaring men was once tailored from "pilot cloth" a heavy, coarse, stout kind of twilled blue cloth with the nap on one side. This was sometimes called P-cloth from the initial letter of pilot, and the garment made from it was called a P-jacket later a pea coat. The term has been used since 1723 to denote coats made from that cloth.


title: Pea coat

text: Today, the style is considered a classic, and pea coats are worn by all manner of individuals. The style has evolved to the addition of hoods.


title: Pea coat

text: While some of the jackets seen on the street are genuine navy surplus, most are designs inspired by the classic uniform and available from retailers with design variations that reflect current fashion trends, including a variety of fabrics and colours. The standard US Navy-issued pea coat uses dark blue or black wool and sports buttons (originally in brass and later black plastic) decorated with an anchor motif. The standard fabric for historical pea coats in the 20th century was a smooth and heavy, dark navy blue Kersey wool, which was dense enough to repel wind and rain, and able to contain body heat without further insulation. This wool was left lightly treated after being sheared to retain much of the natural lanolin oil from sheep, thus increasing its water-repelling and insulating properties. Kersey was gradually replaced in the U.S. Navy through the 1970s by the rougher black Melton cloth (also lightly treated), a lighter wool that requires a quilted lining to match the warmth of the original Kersey.


title: Pea coat

text: A black leather version of the reefer jacket was worn by "Kriegsmarine" U-boat officers during World War II, including Admiral Dönitz. It was also worn with a peaked cap by Red Army commissars, tank commanders, and pilots.


title: Central Saint Martins

text: Central Saint Martins is a public tertiary art school in London, England. It is a constituent college of the University of the Arts London. It offers full-time courses at foundation, undergraduate and postgraduate levels, and a variety of short and summer courses.


title: Central Saint Martins

text: It was formerly known as Central Saint Martins College of Arts and Design, and before that as Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design.


title: Central Saint Martins

text: Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design was formed in 1989 from the merger of the Central School of Art and Design, founded in 1896, and Saint Martin's School of Art, founded in 1854. Since 1986 both schools had been part of the London Institute, formed by the Inner London Education Authority to bring together seven London art, design, fashion and media schools. The London Institute became a legal entity in 1988, could award taught degrees from 1993, was granted university status in 2003 and was renamed University of the Arts London in 2004. It also includes Camberwell College of Arts, Chelsea College of Arts, the London College of Communication, the London College of Fashion and Wimbledon College of Arts.


title: Central Saint Martins

text: The Drama Centre London, founded in 1963, joined Central Saint Martins in 1999 as an integral school, maintaining its name and teaching approaches. The Byam Shaw School of Art, founded in 1910, was merged into Central Saint Martins in 2003.


title: Central Saint Martins

text: The Central School of Art and Design was established as the Central School of Arts and Crafts in 1896 by London County Council. It grew directly from the Arts and Crafts movement of William Morris and John Ruskin. The first principal, from 1896 until 1911, was William Richard Lethaby; a blue plaque in his memory was erected in 1957. The school was at first housed in Morley Hall, rented from the Regent Street Polytechnic. It moved to purpose-built premises in Southampton Row, in the London Borough of Camden, in 1908. In the same year the Royal Female School of Art, established in 1842, was merged into the school. Central became part of the London Institute in 1986, and merged with Saint Martin's in 1989.


title: Central Saint Martins

text: Saint Martin's School of Art was established in 1854 by Henry Mackenzie, vicar of the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields. It became independent from the church in 1859. Frank Martin became head of the sculpture department in 1952; he brought in young sculptors and recent graduates of the department as teachers. Among these, Anthony Caro was particularly influential. The group around him came to be known as the New Generation of British sculptors and the sculpture department of Saint Martin's became, in the words of Tim Scott: "the most famous in the art world". Saint Martin's became part of the London Institute in 1986, and merged with Central in 1989.


title: Central Saint Martins

text: The Drama Centre London was founded in 1963 by a breakaway group of teachers and students from the Central School of Speech and Drama, led by John Blatchley, Yat Malmgren and Christopher Fettes. The school is a member of Drama UK and its undergraduate Acting course is accredited by Drama UK. The Drama Centre London merged with Central Saint Martins in 1999. Closure of the Centre was announced in 2020, but acting courses will continue under the aegis of St Martins.


title: Central Saint Martins

text: Byam Shaw School of Art was founded by the artists John Byam Shaw and Rex Vicat Cole in 1910 as a school of drawing and painting. It was originally located in Campden Street, Kensington, and moved to larger premises in Archway in 1990. It was subsumed by Central Saint Martins in 2003.


title: Central Saint Martins

text: In 1998 the London Institute received a Queen's Anniversary Prize for the "massive contribution" of Central Saint Martins College of Art & Design to the growth of the fashion industry in Britain. The University of the Arts London received a Queen's Anniversary Prize in 2013, for the contribution of CSM industrial and product design graduates to commerce, industry and the design profession.


title: Central Saint Martins

text: CSM does not receive independent assessment in the "Complete University Guide" league tables, but is ranked as part of the University of the Arts London. In 2014 the university received an overall ranking of 67 out of 124 institutions, with a rank of 102 for graduate prospects and 123 for student satisfaction with teaching. In 2018 it was placed 83rd out of 129 universities, with a rank of 125 for student satisfaction. In 2021 the University of the Arts London was ranked by QS as number 2 globally under 'Art and Design', second only to the postgraduate Royal College of Art in London.


title: Central Saint Martins

text: Teaching at Central Saint Martins is organised into nine programmes, which include acting, art, design, fashion, graphics and jewellery and textiles, as well as foundation courses.


title: Central Saint Martins

text: Central Saint Martins moved to a converted warehouse complex on Granary Square at King's Cross in 2011. Most of the college is housed there, but it also uses the former Byam Shaw building in Elthorne Road, Archway, and premises in Richbell Place, Holborn.


title: Central Saint Martins

text: The school does not allow students to bring their children to the campus (except for 'exceptional visits') and does not allow breastfeeding.


title: Central Saint Martins

text: Among the alumni of the school are the Turner Prize winner Laure Prouvost, the musician Jarvis Cocker, and many fashion designers, including Sarah Burton, John Galliano, Stella McCartney, Alexander McQueen, Zac Posen and Riccardo Tisci.


title: Multiple choice

text: Multiple choice (MC), objective response or MCQ (for multiple choice question) is a form of an objective assessment in which respondents are asked to select only correct answers from the choices offered as a list. The multiple choice format is most frequently used in educational testing, in market research, and in elections, when a person chooses between multiple candidates, parties, or policies.


title: Multiple choice

text: Although E. L. Thorndike developed an early scientific approach to testing students, it was his assistant Benjamin D. Wood who developed the multiple-choice test. Multiple-choice testing increased in popularity in the mid-20th century when scanners and data-processing machines were developed to check the result. Christopher P. Sole created the first multiple-choice examination for computers on a Sharp Mz 80 computer in 1982. It was developed to aid people with dyslexia cope with agricultural subjects, as Latin plant names can be difficult to understand and write.


title: Multiple choice

text: Multiple choice items consist of a stem and several alternative answers. The "stem" is the opening—a problem to be solved, a question asked, or an incomplete statement to be completed. The options are the possible answers that the examinee can choose from, with the correct answer called the "key" and the incorrect answers called "distractors". Only one answer may be keyed as correct. This contrasts with multiple response items in which more than one answer may be keyed as correct.


title: Multiple choice

text: Usually, a correct answer earns a set number of points toward the total mark, and an incorrect answer earns nothing. However, tests may also award partial credit for unanswered questions or penalize students for incorrect answers, to discourage guessing. For example, the SAT Subject tests remove a quarter point from the test taker's score for an incorrect answer.


title: Multiple choice

text: For advanced items, such as an applied knowledge item, the stem can consist of multiple parts. The stem can include extended or ancillary material such as a vignette, a case study, a graph, a table, or a detailed description which has multiple elements to it. Anything may be included as long as it is necessary to ensure the utmost validity and authenticity to the item. The stem ends with a lead-in question explaining how the respondent must answer. In a medical multiple choice items, a lead-in question may ask "What is the most likely diagnosis?" or "What pathogen is the most likely cause?" in reference to a case study that was previously presented.


title: Multiple choice

text: The items of a multiple choice test are often colloquially referred to as "questions," but this is a misnomer because many items are not phrased as questions. For example, they can be presented as incomplete statements, analogies, or mathematical equations. Thus, the more general term "item" is a more appropriate label. Items are stored in an item bank.


title: Multiple choice

text: Ideally, the multiple choice question (MCQ) should be asked as a "stem", with plausible options, for example:


title: Multiple choice

text: A well written multiple-choice question avoids obviously wrong or implausible distractors (such as the American city of Detroit being included in the third example), so that the question makes sense when read with each of the distractors as well as with the correct answer.


title: Multiple choice

text: There are several advantages to multiple choice tests. If item writers are well trained and items are quality assured, it can be a very effective assessment technique. If students are instructed on the way in which the item format works and myths surrounding the tests are corrected, they will perform better on the test. On many assessments, reliability has been shown to improve with larger numbers of items on a test, and with good sampling and care over case specificity, overall test reliability can be further increased.


title: Multiple choice

text: Multiple choice tests often require less time to administer for a given amount of material than would tests requiring written responses.


title: Multiple choice

text: Multiple choice questions lend themselves to the development of objective assessment items, but without author training, questions can be subjective in nature. Because this style of test does not require a teacher to interpret answers, test-takers are graded purely on their selections, creating a lower likelihood of teacher bias in the results. Factors irrelevant to the assessed material (such as handwriting and clarity of presentation) do not come into play in a multiple-choice assessment, and so the candidate is graded purely on their knowledge of the topic. Finally, if test-takers are aware of how to use answer sheets or online examination tick boxes, their responses can be relied upon with clarity. Overall, multiple choice tests are the strongest predictors of overall student performance compared with other forms of evaluations, such as in-class participation, case exams, written assignments, and simulation games.


title: Multiple choice

text: The most serious disadvantage is the limited types of knowledge that can be assessed by multiple choice tests. Multiple choice tests are best adapted for testing well-defined or lower-order skills. Problem-solving and higher-order reasoning skills are better assessed through short-answer and essay tests. However, multiple choice tests are often chosen, not because of the type of knowledge being assessed, but because they are more affordable for testing a large number of students. This is especially true in the United States and India, where multiple choice tests are the preferred form of high-stakes testing and the sample size of test-takers is large respectively.


title: Multiple choice

text: Another disadvantage of multiple choice tests is possible ambiguity in the examinee's interpretation of the item. Failing to interpret information as the test maker intended can result in an "incorrect" response, even if the taker's response is potentially valid. The term "multiple guess" has been used to describe this scenario because test-takers may attempt to guess rather than determine the correct answer. A free response test allows the test taker to make an argument for their viewpoint and potentially receive credit.


title: Multiple choice

text: In addition, even if students have some knowledge of a question, they receive no credit for knowing that information if they select the wrong answer and the item is scored dichotomously. However, free response questions may allow an examinee to demonstrate partial understanding of the subject and receive partial credit. Additionally if more questions on a particular subject area or topic are asked to create a larger sample then statistically their level of knowledge for that topic will be reflected more accurately in the number of correct answers and final results.


title: Multiple choice

text: Another disadvantage of multiple choice examinations is that a student who is incapable of answering a particular question can simply select a random answer and still have a chance of receiving a mark for it. If randomly guessing an answer, there is usually a 25 percent chance of getting it correct on a four-answer choice question. It is common practice for students with no time left to give all remaining questions random answers in the hope that they will get at least some of them right. Many exams, such as the Australian Mathematics Competition and the SAT, have systems in place to negate this, in this case by making it no more beneficial to choose a random answer than to give none.


title: Multiple choice

text: Another system of negating the effects of random selection is formula scoring, in which a score is proportionally reduced based on the number of incorrect responses and the number of possible choices. In this method, the score is reduced by the number of wrong answers divided by the average number of possible answers for all questions in the test, "w"/("c" – 1) where "w" is the "number of wrong responses on the test" and "c" is "the average number of possible choices for all questions on the test". All exams scored with the three-parameter model of item response theory also account for guessing. This is usually not a great issue, moreover, since the odds of a student receiving significant marks by guessing are very low when four or more selections are available.


title: Multiple choice

text: Additionally, it is important to note that questions phrased ambiguously may confuse test-takers. It is generally accepted that multiple choice questions allow for only one answer, where the one answer may encapsulate a collection of previous options. However, some test creators are unaware of this and might expect the student to select multiple answers without being given explicit permission, or providing the trailing encapsulation options.


title: Multiple choice

text: Critics like philosopher and education proponent Jacques Derrida, said that while the demand for dispensing and checking basic knowledge is valid, there are other means to respond to this need than resorting to crib sheets.


title: Multiple choice

text: Despite all the shortcomings, the format remains popular because MCQs are easy to create, score and analyse.


title: Multiple choice

text: The theory that students should trust their first instinct and stay with their initial answer on a multiple choice test is a myth worth dispelling. Researchers have found that although some people believe that changing answers is bad, it generally results in a higher test score. The data across twenty separate studies indicate that the percentage of "right to wrong" changes is 20.2%, whereas the percentage of "wrong to right" changes is 57.8%, nearly triple. Changing from "right to wrong" may be more painful and memorable (Von Restorff effect), but it is probably a good idea to change an answer after additional reflection indicates that a better choice could be made. In fact, a person's initial attraction to a particular answer choice could well derive from the surface plausibility that the test writer has intentionally built into a distractor (or incorrect answer choice). Test item writers are instructed to make their distractors plausible yet clearly incorrect. A test taker's first-instinct attraction to a distractor is thus often a reaction that probably should be revised in light of a careful consideration of each of the answer choices. Some test takers for some examination subjects might have accurate first instincts about a particular test item, but that does not mean that all test takers should trust their first instinct.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The Russo-Circassian War (; ; 1763–1864; also known as the Russian Invasion of Circassia) was the invasion of Circassia by Russia, starting in July 17, 1763 (O.S) with the Russian Empire assuming authority in Circassia, followed by the Circassian refusal, and ending 101 years later with the last army of Circassia defeated on 21 May 1864 (O.S), making it exhausting and casualty-heavy for both sides. The Circassians fought the Russians longer than all the other peoples of the Caucasus, and the Russo-Circassian War was the longest war both Russia and Circassia have ever fought.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: During and after the war, the Russian Empire employed a genocidal strategy of systematically massacring civilians which resulted in the Circassian genocide where up to 1,500,000 Circassians (85-97% of the total population) were either killed or expelled to the Ottoman Empire (especially to modern-day Turkey; see Circassians in Turkey), creating the Circassian diaspora. While the war was initially an isolated conflict, Russian expansion through the entire region soon drew a number of other nations in the Caucasus into the conflict. As such, the war is often considered the western half of the Caucasus War.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: During the war, the Russian Empire did not recognize Circassia as an independent region, and as a result; it considered Circassia Russian land which was under rebel occupation, despite the fact that the region was not and had never been under Russian control. Russian generals did not refer to the Circassians by their ethnic name, instead, they called the Circassians "mountaineers", “bandits", and "mountain scum". The war has been subjected to historical revisionism and it has also garnered controversy due to the fact that later Russian sources mostly ignored or belittled the conflict, and Russian state media and officials have gone as far as to claim that the conflict "never happened” and they have also claimed that Circassia "voluntarily joined Russia in the 16th century".


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The earliest recorded hostilities between Russia and the Circassians began in 985 when Kievan Rus forces under Prince Sviatoslav raided the region, killed the local Circassians and laid the foundation of the Tmutarakan town. Following the invasion under Prince Sviatoslav, hostilities again broke out in 1022, when Prince Mstislav of Tamatarkha occupied the region. The Circassian army, led by Prince Rededey, had faced him, but lost, and 20,000 Circassians were killed.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Circassians, Christianised through Byzantine influence between the 5th and 6th centuries, were generally in alliance with Georgians and both Georgians and Circassians wanted to keep good relations with the Russians. In 1557, Temryuk Idar of Eastern Circassia allied the Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible and built a defense against possible enemies. Circassians were Christians during this period and Islam had not begun to spread. In 1561, Ivan the Terrible married Goshenay, daughter of Temryuk, and named her Mariya. Because of his alliance with Russia, in several narratives, Temryuk was described as a tyrant who only cared about his rule.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Although there had previously been a small Muslim presence in Circassia, significant conversions came after 1717, when Sultan Murad IV ordered the Crimeans to spread Islam among the Circassians. Islam gained much more ground later as conversion came to be used to cement defensive alliances to protect their independence against Russian expansion. Despite this, there were still Pagans and Christians among the Circassian people. The Circassian-Russian alliance was damaged and eventually broken when the Circassians converted to Islam and adopted a more pro-Ottoman policy.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: On 13 May 1711, Tsar Peter I ordered Araksin, Governor of Astrakhan, to pillage Circassia. Araksin moved with 30,000 strong Russian armed forces and, on 26 August 1711, broke into the lands of the Circassians, and captured Kopyl town (now Slavianski). From there, heading towards the Black Sea, he seized ports on the Kuban and looted and pillaged them. Then, he marched up along the Kuban River, pillaging villages. During this single invasion in Circassia, the Russians killed 43,247 Circassian men and women, and drove away 39,200 horses, 190,000 cattle and 227,000 sheep from Circassia. Russia kept waging this type of warfare against Circassia during the period from 1711 to 1763, but this type of operations were not in order to annex Circassia, but rather raid it. Although Peter I was unable to annex Circassia in his lifetime, he laid the political and ideological foundation for the occupation to take place.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: After the Mongols and Timur, the Ingush began to develop their foothill plains in the 15th-16th centuries. “In the XIII-XIV centuries. complex processes are taking place on the plain and in the foothills of the North Caucasus: long and unprecedentedly cruel wars, on the flat part of Ingushetia such nomads and semi-nomads as the Golden Horde, Timur's hordes, Kalmyks, Nogais, Kumyks and Adygs alternately replaced each other. The Ingush were partially exterminated, partially driven into the mountains. However, all these years they did not abandon their attempts to return to the plain. The Ingush got this opportunity in the 15th-16th centuries.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: This campaign was directed against the Ingush societies that left the mountains after the departure of Timur the Lame and mastered their foothill plane from the beginning of the 15th century.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1562, the Kabardian prince Temryuk Idarovich undertook an aggressive campaign against the Ingush, who lived in anticipation. Detachments of Nogai Murzas come to his aid. The Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible, married to Temryuk's daughter Maria, sent 1,000 Cossacks under the command of Grigory Pleshcheev to help him. As a result of this unification of the Kabardino-Nogai-Cossack campaign for discovery, 164 settlements were defeated, judging by the Russian chronicles. The Ingush went to the mountains again. Kabardians settled on their former territory.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Circassia was a key strategic location amidst the power struggle between the emerging Russian Empire, established England and France, and the failing Ottoman Empire. Russia set her sights on expansion along the Black Sea, and England sought to reduce Russia's ability to take advantage of the declining Ottoman Empire, known as the Eastern Question.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: To facilitate the fall of Persia, Russia would require shipyards on the Black Sea, which made Circassia, with its coastline, a target. The Circassian territories were particularly attractive to the Russians due to their fertile valleys, and by 1853 the Black Sea had become very important for Russian trade, being responsible for a third of its exports.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The date of the outbreak of the Russian-Circassian War has been a matter of debate by historians. Most scholars agree that organised warfare happened after 1763 when Russia established forts in Circassian territory, but small-scale conflicts have been going on since 1711. Another view held by a smaller number of scholars is that proper warfare began in 1817 with the arrival of Aleksey Yermolov, and prior to that it was merely clashes.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: During the reign of Catherine II the Russian army started entering Circassian soil and Russia started building forts in an attempt to quickly annex Circassia. In July 17 (O.S.), 1763, Russian forces entered the town of Mezdeug (modern-day Mozdok) in Eastern Circassia, turning it into a Russian fortress. Thus began the first hostilities between the Circassians and the Russian Empire.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: While some Kabardian (Eastern Circassian) nobles wanted to fight the Russians, arguing they could convince the Ottomans and Crimea to help them, other nobles wanted to avoid fighting with Russia and try to make peace.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In January 1764, several Kabardian nobles including Atajuq Misost Bematiqwa met with the representative of the Russian Kizlyar commandant N. A. Potapov and unsuccessfully demanded the demolition of the Mozdok fortress built by the Russians. If the Russian government refused, the Kabardian princes threatened to seek alliance with the Crimean Khan against Russia.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Also in 1764, Kabardian Circassian knights Keysin Keytiqo and Kundeyt Shebez-Giray also met with Catherine II in St. Petersburg. They informed her that "the military build-up in Mezdeug was unacceptable, the region has been a land of Circassians, the situation would create hostility and conflict". She refused diplomacy and the envoys were sent back. On 21 August 1765, the citizens of Circassia were instructed by Russian General De-Medem to accept Russian control or face the Russian army. In 1765, Kabardian Circassians occupied the fortress of Kizlyar.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In June 1767, Misost Bematiqwa started a military operation against Russia, but many other Kabardian nobles did not want a war and wanted to surrender. In the middle of 1768, fifteen of these Kabardian princes who decided to surrender reported to Kizlyar that they were ready to "take an oath" of allegiance to Russia. Misost Bematiqwa, not wanting to surrender or convert to Christianity, refused.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Bematiqwa's resistance was strengthened when on October 18, 1768, the Ottoman sultan, who had declared war on Russia, sent a letter to Bematiqwa stating that he, as caliph, orders that all the Muslim peoples of the Caucasus should officially rise to war with Russia, obey the Crimean Khan as their commander, and together with the Nogais, defeat Russia. In December 1768, Muhammad-aga, the personal envoy of the Crimean Khan, arrived in Kabarda. The Crimean Khan asked the Kabardian princes to help the Kuban seraskir in the upcoming campaign to Russia. In January 1769, the Kizlyar commandant, Major General N. A. Potapov, sent a letter to Bematiqwa Putting pressure on him to stop listening to the Ottoman caliph and surrender.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In the same year, Russian army fought a battle against the Kabardian Circassians with the support of the Kalmyk Khan's 20,000 cavalrymen, and were victorious as they destroyed the whole Kabardian army. Another great battle took place in the Nartsane area in June 1769, when a large Russian army entered Kabardia and took up positions near the Pashtu mountains. Circassian forces under the leadership of Misost Bematiqwa retreated as both sides suffered losses.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: At this point, the anti-Russian group, which refused to cooperate with the Russian tsarist government, was headed by Bematiqwa. He and his supporters moved to the upper reaches of the Kumy river. Bematiqwa and his associates, in need of allies, turned to the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray for help. The Khan promised to send a small detachment, however, before that happened, the Russian lieutenant general Johann de Medem sent detachments of Cossacks and Kalmyk cavalry against the Kabardians. In an unequal battle on the river Eshkokon, the superior Russian forces defeated the Kabardians.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: As a result of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), the Ottomans had forces in Circassia. They were seen as fellow Muslim allies by the Circassians. The Cossacks defended the village of Naur against 8000 men strong Circassian-Turkish combined army.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: A battle took near the Malka River on 29 September 1771. The Russians under General Yakobi won the battle.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1772 a serious collision took place. In the fort Kizlar of the Russian army there were 10,000 soldiers. The battle occurred on Daghestan territory. Both sides suffered serious losses as finally the Russians emerged victorious.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In the same year, 1772, the Kabardian princes sent another embassy to the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey, calling him to assist them in the inevitable war against tsarist Russia. However, in June 1774, despite nominally being allies, the Crimean Khanate attacked Circassia. A large Crimean army led by Khan Devlet-Girey and Kalga Shabaz-Girey attacked Kabarda and the Battle of Beshtamak took place. The Crimean horde entered Mozdok and hit the nearby villages, which were occupied and ruined by them.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The Ottoman Empire lost its protection over the Crimean Khanate with the 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca. Following these events, Russian presence in the region got stronger, and the Circassians requested help and alliance from the Ottomans.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1776 the Russian army built several forts in Terek to encircle the Kabardian Circassians from the north. The Circassians managed to gather a 14,000 strong army and won back several forts. From 1777 the Russians built a line of forts from Mozdok northwest to Azov. The presence of Cossacks in former grazing lands slowly converted traditional raiding from a kind of ritualized sport into a serious military struggle. In 1778, a battle took place between the Russian troops under the command of Colonel Kulbakov and the Circassians.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1779 general Yakobi conducted an offensive in Kabarda, which lasted all summer. The Circassian region of Kabardia, near the Balka River, was attacked on 29 September 1779, and was occupied with the loss of the Kabardian defenders as well as 2,000 horses, 5,000 cattle and 5,000 sheep. About 50 tribal elites died in this conflict.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: On October 10, 1779, the principalities of Chemguy, Besleney, and Kabarda coordinated an offensive together. The leaders were Misostiqo Bat and Qownshayiqo Adildjeri. As a result, Russian armies temporarily withdrew from Circassia.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1781, the Ottomans, in Circassia, built a strong fortress in order to ensure Turkish influence in Circassia and as a base for future operations against Russia in the Kuban and the Don, as well as in the Crimea.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1782, Ferah Ali Pasha arrived in the Soghujaq Castle in Western Circassia as a missionary and diplomat from the Ottoman Empire with the aim of Islamizing some Circassians who were still not Muslims.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The position of the Kabardians became even more precarious when Russia occupied the Kuban in 1781 and annexed the Crimea in 1783. Many Tatars, the erstwhile enemies, took refuge in Circassia. Sensing the threat posed by Russia, the Circassians and Nogais launched joint attacks on the Russians in the Western Caucasus in 1784, but no success was achieved.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1784, Sheikh Mansur, an imam in Chechnya who wanted to unite all Caucasian peoples against Russia, declared holy war against Russia. Angered, the Russian troops plundered and burned his village to the ground. Soon, Chechen fighters won the Battle of the Sunja.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1786, Russian forces abandoned the new fort of Vladikavkaz, and did not occupy it again until 1803. From 1787 to 1791, during the Russian-Turkish War, Sheikh Mansur moved to Circassia, and started Western Circassian resistance against Russia. He led the Circassians in assaults against Russian forces.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The Russian army entered Circassia again after the Battle of Jilehoy and raided the Abaza, Besleney, Chemguy and Hatuqway regions in 1787, successfully defeated the regional Circassian armies and burned near a hundred villages. In 1788, the Russians besieged the Bighurqal (Anapa) castle, but failed.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1787, Circassian envoys led by Tatarkhan Kurighoqo and Sidak Jankat requested a meeting with the Russians to secure a solution, but they were denied. The Russians sent the envoys back.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1790, a large Russian army led by General Yury Bogdanovich Bibikov crossed the Kuban river and entered the territory of Western Circassia. Bibikov managed to reach Anapa, but failed to capture the castle. He also suffered heavy losses during his retreat. After this defeat, Bibikov was removed from his post and Circassian attacks on Russian forts increased significantly. At the same year, Russian armies entered the Bzhedugh region and burnt several villages.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The Russians introduced courts in Kabarda in the early 1790s and declared that the Adyghe Xabze, the Circassian law, has been removed. This greatly angered the Circassians.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: On May 29 (O.S.), 1791, Russian troops led by Ivan Gudovich crossed the Kuban and entered Circassia to capture the Anapa castle. The Russian camp was established and in June.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Following this, the Siege of Anapa took place, and the Anapa castle was taken by the Russians. Once the Russian army entered the fortress, as per Gudovich's orders, the Anapa fort were razed to the ground, wells were poisoned and houses were burned. The entire fort was destroyed. On July 10, Russian troops left Anapa. Sheikh Mansur was captured in the fort and brought to Saint Petersburg and imprisoned for life in harsh conditions. In April 1794, he died, reportedly due to poor treatment.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: After a large influx of Cossack settlers and the construction of a long line of pickets in 1792 which cut the Circassians off from their traditional pastures around the Kuban river the Circassians began systematically raiding Russian encampments and then disappearing.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: At the same time, as more Russian troops came to be stationed in the region, they started to raid native villages, further enraging the natives and producing cycles of retaliation.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The Russian military tried to impose authority by building a series of forts, but these forts in turn became the new targets of raids and indeed sometimes the highlanders actually captured and held the forts.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1799, Russian general Fyodor Bursak organized several raids against the Western Circassians, and personally ordered his men to burn Circassian villages, even those who were loyal to the Russian Empire.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1800, as part of the Russian conquest of the Caucasus, Russia annexed eastern Georgia and by 1806 held Transcaucasia from the Black Sea to the Caspian. Russia had to hold the Georgian Military Highway in the center so the war against the mountaineers was divided into eastern and western parts. With Georgia out of the question, more armies were directed to Circassia. Russian armies successfully crossed the Kuban River again in March 1814. Western Circassians used this opportunity to promote the young prince Jembulat Bolotoqo and sent a delegation to the Ottoman Empire, who complained against the Russian actions.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: On 22 February 1802, near the Karakuban island, Western Circassians captured a Russian ship in the Black Sea and burned it down. During the battle, 2 Russian admirals and 14 Cossacks soldiers were killed, the rest surrendered, were pardoned by the Circassians and left.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1804, the Kabardian Circassians and neighbouring Abazins, Ossetians and Chechens united in a military movement. They aimed to destroy the Kislovodsk Russian fort. Despite threats of bloodshed from General Tsitsianov, the forces began threatening the Kislovodsk fort.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Russian forces commanded by General Glazenap were pushed back to Georgievsk and then put under siege, however the attacking Kabardian forces were eventually pushed back, and 80 Kabardian villages were burnt as a reprisal.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1805, a plague struck Kabardia. Using this as an excuse, General Glazenap ordered his forces to burn down 80 villages to terrorize the people into submission and to wreak revenge upon the Kabardians. In 1810 about 200 villages were burned. In 1817 the frontier was pushed to the Sunzha River and in 1822 a line of forts was built from Vladikavkaz northwest through Nalchik to the Pyatigorsk area. After 1825 fighting subsided. Between 1805 and 1807, Bulgakov's army burned more than 280 villages. The population of Kabarda, which was 350,000 in 1763, was only 37,000 in 1817.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1807, the fortress of Anapa in Western Circassia was captured by Russian troops and Circassian nobleman Seferbiy Zaneqo was taken as hostage.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1808, a Russian commission from decided that in order to end Circassian resistance against the Russian Empire, the Circassians would need to be eliminated from their homeland.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In January 1810, Circassians raided and plundered the Cossack settlements of Ivanovskaya and Stebliyevkaya. At the Olginsk Fortress, they killed 146 Cossacks, including the fortress commander Colonel Tikhovski. During these operations, the Circassian army suffered around 500 casualties.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In February same year, Fyodor Bursak's forces entered a Circassian village near the Sop River and proceeded to kill every single inhabitant. They decided to postpone their plans to attack the next village when the river began to overflow. In December, the same methods were applied in the Shapsug region, and several villages were burnt. After some civilians deserted to the forests, forests in the region were burnt down.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1811, petitions were sent to St. Petersburg in Russia, appealing for the basic rights of Circassians in the occupied areas.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1817, Russian veteran general Aleksey Yermolov arrived in the Caucasus. Deciding that Circassians would not surrender, General Yermolov concluded that "terror" would be effective. Russia began to destroy Circassian fortresses, villages and towns and slaughter the people.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In May 1818, the village of Tram was surrounded, burnt, and its inhabitants killed by Russian forces under the command of General Ivan Petrovich Delpotso, who took orders from Yermolov and who then wrote to the rebel forces:


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The Russians also constructed several more fortifications during that year. During the whole period from 1779 to 1818, 315,000 of the 350,000 Kabardian Circassians had reportedly been killed by the Russian armies.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: These brutal methods annoyed the Circassians even more, and many Circassian nobles, even those who had been in blood feuds for centuries, joined hands to resist harder, many Russian armies were defeated, some completely destroyed. In Europe, especially in England, great sympathy for the Circassians who resisted the Russians was starting to form.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In response to persistent Circassian resistance and the failure of their previous policy of building forts, the Russian military began using a strategy of disproportionate retribution for raids. With the goal of imposing stability and authority beyond their current line of control and over the whole Caucasus, Russian troops retaliated by destroying villages or any place that resistance fighters were thought to hide, as well as employing assassinations and executions of whole families.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Understanding that the resistance was reliant on being fed by sympathetic villages, the Russian military also systematically destroyed crops and livestock. These tactics further enraged natives and intensified resistance to Russian rule. The Russians began to counter this by modifying the terrain, in both the environment and the demographics. They cleared forests by roads, destroyed native villages, and often settled new farming communities of Russians or pro-Russian Orthodox peoples.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The complete destruction of villages with everyone and everything within them became a standard action by the Russian army and Cossack units, marking the beginning of the Circassian genocide. Nevertheless, the Circassian resistance continued. Villages that had previously accepted Russian rule were found resisting again, much to the ire of Russian commanders.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In September 1820, Russian forces began to forcibly resettle inhabitants of Eastern Circassia. Throughout the conflict, Russia had employed a tactic of divide and rule, and following this, the Russians began to encourage the Karachay-Balkar tribes, who had previously been subjugated by the Circassians, to rise up and join the Russian efforts. Military forces were sent into Kabardia, killing cattle and causing large numbers of inhabitants to flee into the mountains, with the land these inhabitants had once lived on being acquired for the Kuban Cossacks. The entirety of Kabardia (Eastern Circassia) was then declared property of the Russian government.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: General Yermolov accelerated his efforts in Kabardia, with the month of March 1822 alone seeing fourteen villages being displaced as Yermolov led expeditions. The construction of new defensive lines in Kabardia led to renewed uprisings, which were eventually crushed and the rebellious lords had their much needed peasant work forces freed by the Russian forces in order to discourage further uprisings. The area was placed under Russian military rule in 1822, as Kabardia eventually fully fell.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: While Eastern Circassia was being occupied, Russia was also engaged in a war with the Turks (Russo-Turkish War of 1806–1812) in order to free the Black Sea from Turkish influence, and sporadic wars had also flared up with other neighbours. In western Circassia, which Russia had previously been merely foraying into, a number of tribes were dominant; the Besleneys, Abadzekhs, Ubykhs, Shapsughs, Hatuqwai and Natukhaj, portrayed by Russian propaganda as savages in a possible attempt to curry favour from the international community. Russian and Circassian forces clashed repeatedly, particularly on the Kuban plains, where cavalry from both sides could manoeuvre freely.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Trade with Circassia could not be prevented, however, and both the Turkish and the English supplied Circassia with firearms and ammunition with which to fight the Russians. England also supplied several advisors, while Turkey attempted to persuade Circassia to start a Holy War (Jihad), which would draw support from other nations.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In only one year, 1830, arrived up to 200 Turkish and British ships delivering military aid to the shores of Circassia.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Meanwhile, Circassian commander, Jembulat Boletoqo, was leading his cavalry force into Russian territory. Only one Cossack regiment decided to fight the rising Circassian army on 23 October at the village of Sabl on the Barsukly River. Jembulat's forces surrounded the Cossacks and killed all of them in a saber attack.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In April 1823, Boletoqo and his forces along with Circassian lord Skhum's army attacked the Russian line. Lord Skhum was wounded in the cheek by a spear on each side and by a bullet around the spine. The Russians withdrew and left more than 20 prisoners to the Circassians. In May of the same year, the Circassians burned a large Russian fortress in Kruglolesskoe.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1823, Under the leadership of Boletoqo, Circassian cavalry headed for Russian camps. Half of the detachment consisted of Kabardians who fled Kabardia to continue fighting. Multiple Cossack armies were defeated by this detachment. Later in 1823, 30 Circassian regional leaders gathered in the village of Boletoqo behind the Belaya River. A plan was made to re-take Kabardia from the Russians. In 1832, Boletoqo tried to implement this plan, but failed.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In February 1824, the Russian army led by General Vlasov attacked the Circassian villages of Jambut, Aslan, Morza, and Tsab Dadhika and completely destroyed them, along with the inhabitants, despite the villages being loyal to the Russian Empire.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In the summer of 1825, Russian forces carried out several military operations. In 18 August, a group of Russian officers commanded by General Veliaminov burned the residency of Hajji Tlam, one of the elderly supporters of the Circassian resistance in Abadzekh, and killed his entire family. The village was alarmed and Circassian men and women took up arms and attacked the Russian soldiers who caused the killing. Before the Russians had time to retreat, they were completely destroyed by the attack from the Circassians.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 31 January, Jembulat burned down the fortress of Marevskoye as revenge. On 4 June 1828, Jembulat Boletoqo started his campaign into Russian lands with 2,000 cavalry under five flags of different Circassian principalities, as well as a Turkish flag as a symbol of their loyalty to Islam.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The Russians concluded that he intended to go to Kabarda in the middle of the Russian-Turkish war, and open a second front on the Terek and Sunja Rivers. Earl Paskevich ordered the 2nd Ulan division, returning from the Russia-Iran war, to move along the Georgian Military Road to cut off the route of the Circassians toward Kabarda. The 40th Eger battalion marched from Kabarda toward Jembulat. Yet, Jembulat suddenly changed his direction and headed toward the town of Georgievsk, the Russian administrative center in the Caucasus. The Circassian army stopped on a high hill at a distance from the Marinskaya fortress. Jembulat menaced the Volzhskiy regiment's left flank with all his forces, and won the battle.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Political analyst Khan-Giray observed that the situation changed for Great-Prince Jembulat “after the field marshal Paskevich left the region”. The new commander-in-chief, Baron Rosen, did not believe in human rights of the indigenous Circassians.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1827, Ismail Berzeg officially declared the military confederation of the Circassian tribes. By the end of 1839, he managed to unite a significant part of the population under his control.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In May 1828, Russian General Emmanuel raided all the way to inner parts of Circassia, plundering many villages. The Karachay-Balkars surrendered to General Emmanuel without any conflict or loss.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The Russians besieged Anapa in 1828. The Ottomans sought help from Circassians and the war lasted for two months and Osman Pasha, the Turkish commander of Anapa, had decided to surrender the fort, and Seferbiy himself led the negotiations to avoid potential bloodshed but was taken prisoner by the Russians. General Emanuel, a Russian general, then razed 6 Natukhay villages and many Shapsugh villages. He then passed the Kuban and burned 210 more villages.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1828, Aytech Qanoqo, a Circassian prince who lost his status in the Circassian Revolution, arrived at the Russian camp, where he took an oath of allegiance to the Russian Empire, changed his name to Aytek Konokov, converted to Christianity, took promise that his village would not be destroyed like the other Circassian villages, and accepted Russian citizenship. However, after seeing the failure of the Russian forces to quickly annex Circassia, he changed sides and turned to Islam again and started to fight for Circassia.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The Treaty of Adrianople was signed on 14 September 1829. According to the document, Circassia was given by the Ottoman Empire to Russia. Circassia was not a part of the Ottoman Empire, so it was not clear how this happened, and many, including German economist Karl Marx, criticised this event.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1830, an emergency council, attended by representatives from all over Circassia, convened to discuss the treaty. Most Circassian leaders believed the treaty was a hoax, not the real one, as they believed that the Ottoman Empire would never abandon the Circassians. And it was decided to send a delegation to the Ottoman sultan to examine the accuracy of the news.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Seferbiy Zaneqo, Nour Mohammad Haghur, and Tram were selected as delegates. They hoped to meet with the Ottoman caliph to ask the matter and receive a blessing. When they arrived, the Russian ambassador demanded their arrest. Following this, Zaneqo hid while the other two delegates returned to Circassia. After confirming that it is in fact the real treaty, the Circassians considered it invalid, arguing that because their territory had been independent of the Ottomans, Istanbul had no right to cede it. Circassian ambassadors were sent to England, France and Ottoman lands announcing that they deny this treaty under all conditions.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Zaneqo offered the Russians a white peace in which Circassia would remain independent and Russia would leave the region. The Russians wanted the Circassians to surrender unconditionally, but the Circassian stance was clear:


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Before 1830 Russia maintained a siege line along the Kuban River. There was constant raiding by both sides but no change in borders. In the late 1830s Russia gained increasing control of the coast. This slowed down after in 1834, the Circassian army under the command of Kizbech Tughuzhuqo defeated the Russian army of 12,000 men.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In early January 1831, Sefebiy Zaneqo organized several general meetings with Circassian leaders. Among other things, he put forward the idea of a possible reconciliation between the Circassians and Russia, on the stipulation that the Russians retreated behind the Kuban, however, this proposal was rejected.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1831, the Russian government considered the destruction of the Natukhaj tribe in favor of populating their land on the northern coast of the Black Sea with Cossacks. In late 1831, in retaliation for Circassian attacks against Cossack military bases, Russian General Frolov and his task force destroyed several villages. Beginning the night of November 20, a "horror campaign" was started, in which villages were surrounded by artillery weapons and shot at. The targets were local homes, as well as mosques. The operation was described in a report:


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In another report, General Rosen described how, in December 1831, 381 Circassians were captured by his forces and boasted about taking them prisoner and firing at villages, leaving 100 men and 50 women dead. He goes on to detail how when setting fire to a village, a Russian soldier named Midvideiv killed a Circassian who tried to stop him from burning down a mosque.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1833, Colonel Grigory Zass was appointed commander of a part of the Kuban Military Line with headquarters in the Batalpashinsk fortress. Colonel Zass received wide authority to act as he saw fit. He was a racist who considered Circassians to be an inferior race than Russians and other Europeans. The only way to deal with the Circassians, in his opinion, was to scare them away "just like wild animals." Zass advocated ruthless military methods predicated on this notion, including burning people alive, cutting off heads for enjoyment, burning populated villages to the ground, spreading epidemics on purpose, and mass rape of children. He kept a box under his bed with his collection of severed Circassian body parts.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Colonel Grigory Zass was a key figure in the Circassian genocide through ethnic cleansing. He operated on all areas of Circassia, but East Circassia was effected the most. It is estimated 70% of the East Circassian population died in the process.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In August 1833, Zass led his first expedition into Circassian territory, destroying as many villages and towns as possible. This was followed by a series of other expeditions. He attacked the Besleney region between November and December, destroying most villages, including the village of the double agent Aytech Qanoqo. He continued to exterminate the Circassian population between 1834 and 1835, particularly in the Abdzakh, Besleney, Shapsug, and Kabardian regions.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Zass' main strategy was to intercept and retain the initiative, terrorize the Circassians, and destroy Circassian settlements. After a victory, he would usually burn several villages and seize cattle and horses to show off, acts which he proudly admitted. He paid close attention to the enemy's morale. In his reports, he frequently boasted about the destruction of villages and glorified the mass murder of civilians.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In the end of 1836, the Armenians of Circassia declared their allegiance for Russia and begged Zass to locate them a place to live. In 1839, Zass established an Armenian colony in the region that had previously belonged to the Circassians. To make room for the Armenians, Circassian villages and the people who lived in them were destroyed. This year is regarded the official year of Armavir's establishment.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In October 1836, General Zass sent Jembulat Boletoqo word that he would like to make peace. This was a strategy, if Boletoqo came to the Russian fortress for explanation, he would be assassinated; in case he did not come, the Russians would claim that he was a warmonger.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Prince Boletoqo came to Zass’ residency. The general was not there for his first visit, but Zass told him to come at an exact date when he would certainly be in his residency. On his way to the Prochnyi Okop fortress, Great Prince Jembulat was killed by a Russian sniper who was hiding in the forest on the Russian bank of the Kuban River at the intersection with the Urup River.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1838, Zass spread false rumors about his serious illness, then staged his own death, weakening the Circassians' vigilance. On the same night, when the Circassians were celebrating their oppressor's death, the suddenly "resurrected" Zass launched a raid that destroyed two villages. He left the Caucasus in 1842.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: British adventurer James Stanislaus Bell arrived in Circassia by 1836, in order to provide military aid and medical relief to the Circassians. In November 1836 the Russian military brig "Ajax" detained his ship, in the port of Sujuk-Qale (now Novorossiysk). At the time of detention, 8 guns, 800 pounds of gunpowder, and a significant number of weapons had already been unloaded from its side. Bell was allowed to leave as he falsely introduced himself as a diplomat, but the ship and the cargo were confiscated in favor of the Russian government and included in the Russian Black Sea fleet.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Left without a ship, Bell remained in Circassia. He did not lose time and helped the Circassians in military affairs. By 1840, with the support of Polish deserters and Circassians trained by Bell, there were several attacks on Russian forts on the Black Sea and Gelendzhik cordon lines. The Circassians employed military tactics taught to them by Bell, such as taking fortifications by storm, and using artillery.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In May 1834, the Circassians launched a naval landing near Bombory, thus the fighting was carried over to the sea.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In October 1836, a naval battle was fought as Russian warship "Nartsiss" was attacked by 7 Circassian galleys. Russian captain Varnitskiy reported in his report that the Circassians fought in an organized manner, and that the Russians escaped at the last moment as a result of the fierce collision.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: By this time, Aytech Qanoqo had reformed his army and organized a campaign, but failed. After this failure, he saw little hope left for Circassia and switched to the Russian side again.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1837, Kizbech Tughuzhuqo attacked the right bank of the Kuban Russian fort. The Russians wanted to end the war already, and wanted to try another strategy. On April 13, 1838, Russian forces engaged the Circassian army in the estuary of River Sochi, and on May 12, 1838, the Russians landed at Tuapse with a naval invasion. The majority of engagements during this part of the conflict took place in the form of either amphibious landings on coastal towns in accordance with the directive laid out by the Tsar to secure possible ports, or by routing out Circassian forces entrenched in mountain strongholds. At Tuapse, the Russian landing had begun at 10:00 in the morning, and the Circassians were not beaten back from their positions until 5:00 in the afternoon, with the Russians suffering heavy casualties. On the following day, May 13, when arriving to request permission to remove their dead from the battlefield, a few Circassians leaders were killed.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1837, some Circassian leaders offered the Russians a white peace, arguing that no more blood should be shed. In response to this offer, the Russian army under the command of General Yermolov burnt 36 Circassian villages.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In February 1838, there was a fierce collision between 4 Circassian galleys and a Russian ship. The Russians ship was destroyed.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1839, Russian forces landed at Subashi and began construction of a fort, where they faced charges by Ubykh forces who were eventually driven back by shellfire from the Russian navy. Over 1000 soldiers then charged the Russian positions, however they were outflanked and overrun as they attempted to retreat. This pattern of attack by the Russian forces went on for several years. Qerzech Shirikhuqo played a big role in reforming and leading the Circassian armies at this time.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Later in 1839, the Circassians declared Bighuqal (Anapa) as their new capital and Hawduqo Mansur was declared the leader of the Circassian Confederation. Thus, all tribes of Circassia were nominally united.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The Siege of Lazarevsky took place on the night of February 7, 1840. After a 3-hour battle, the fortification was taken by the Circassians. The fort was then destroyed by Circassians, who did not want hostile elements in their land. Hawduqo mansur and Ismail Berzeg went on to capture two more forts with an army of 11,000 men.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1841, Circassian commander Ismail Berzeg participated in negotiations with the Russian military leaders in Sochi, but the negotiations ended in vain. The Russian leaders stated that the Circassians were "poor villagers waiting for help from the English". A Russian officer, Lorer, who witnessed Ismail Berzeg's meeting with the Russians, later wrote in his memoirs that Berzeg answered:


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In March 1842, the Russians attacked the villages on the plains. Thereupon, Circassians from Abdzakh, Shapsug, Ubykh, Hatuqway, Yegeruqway, Chemguy and Besleney living in the mountains came down from the mountains to help the Circassians who were exposed to Russian attacks on the plains. In front of the Ferz river, the army of the Russian commander Zass retreated with heavy losses.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In October 1842, in Hamish, the Russian-Georgian cavalry of 18,000 men was attacked by the regional Circassian army consisting of 5,000 men. The Circassians applied guerilla warfare while chanting verses from the Quran in order to distract the enemy and increase morale. Russian cavalry, confused and unprepared, was caught off guard as 3,500 Russian soldiers were killed. The remaining Russian forces retreated into Russian ships on the shore, as well as the Scotcha fortress.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1844, Aytech Qanoqo again switched sides, and joined Circassia against the Russian forces. On the night of August 26, he tried to siege the fortress of Grigory Zass, ultimately seeking revenge for his destroyed village, but failed. In September 26, he was killed in a battle against the Russians. Some sources claim he was going to the Russian camp in order to change sides again but was attacked by the Russians. His body, contrary to tradition, was not removed by the Circassians from the battlefield for janazah and went to the Russians.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Imam Shamil, the leader of Chechnya and Dagestan, wanted to unite Circassia under Islam, and sent three Sufi naibs for this mission.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The first Naib was Haji-Mohammad (1842–1844) who reached Circassia in May 1842. By October he was accepted as leader by the Shapsugs and some of the Natukhajs. Next February he moved south to Ubykh country but failed because he started a civil war. In the spring of 1844 he was defeated by the Russians, withdrew into the mountains and died there in May.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The second naib was Suleiman Effendi (1845) who arrived among the Abadzeks in February 1845. His main goal was to rise a Circassian force and to lead it back to Chechnya, but the Circassians did not want to lose their best fighters. After twice failing to lead his recruits through the Russian lines he surrendered and gave the Russians key information in exchange for money.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1848, an event took place that significantly influenced the history of the Caucasus and the general course of the Russo-Circassian War. Ambassadors came to Imam Shamil from the Abdzakh, one of the Circassian regions. They asked to be given a naib to be introduced to Islam properly and unite the peoples under the banner of the Imamate. Imam Shamil agreed to send Muhammad Amin in order to lead their struggle against the expansion of Russia. After learning that a warriorlike scholar has arrived, thousands of families moved to the Abdzakh region to accept his rule.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Calling himself "Naib", Muhammad Amin assumed full control over Circassia. His absolute rule was accepted by almost all Circassians. By the spring of 1849, the Abdzakh, Makhosh, Yegeruqway, and Chemguys declared their allegiance to the Naib; the Shapsugs along the Ubin River also promised support him with an alliance. The remaining small tribes had to power to resist him, and had to obey his orders.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In a short time, Naib succeeded in carrying out reforms in Circassia. He brought the Murtaziq units, previously used in Dagestan, to Circassia with a strategy of releasing prisoners of war in exchange for their conversion to Islam and loyalty.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Muhammad Amin disrupted the general strategy of the Circassians to stay on the defensive and directed 101 attacks against the Russian positions throughout 1849. The Russians, in turn, retaliated more severely against all Circassians.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The Russians, worried about Amin's rise strengthening Circassia, supported the opposition via arms supplies and financial support, as well as promises of high ranks as long as they topple Amin and submit Circassia to Russia. Despite the ongoing Russo-Circassian War, the opposition, mostly made up of nobles who lost their power, accepted these proposals. A significant part of the population, especially those who submitted recently, began to ignore the Naib's orders, causing the administrative system of Circassia to collapse.After the Crimean War started and the Ottomans joined the war against the Russians, Muhammad Amin took advantage of this to re-instate his rule. He managed to re-gain control in some parts of his former lands, and strengthened his rule further. On 9 October 1853, the Ottoman Sultan sent a letter to Imam Shamil and ordered him to declare a holy war against Russia. Muhammad Amin took it upon himself to lead the Circassian part of this holy war, and started mobilising against Russia. In 1853, Muhammad Amin gathered a Circassian army consisting of different tribes and planned an attack on Russian forts. Near Karachay territory, the Karachays attacked this Circassian army in order to stop this plan and promised full loyalty to Russia.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire, who did not recognize Muhammad Amin as the ruler of Circassia, was preparing to send Seferbiy Zaneqo, a former Circassian commander in the Russo-Circassian War who had declared loyalty to the sultan, to lead Circassia instead. Muhammad Amin strictly disagreed with this decision and complained to the Ottoman Grand Vizier in a letter and asked the Ottomans to recognize him. Muhammad Amin's complaint was rejected, and Seferbiy was declared as a pasha, and the leader of Circassians.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: Amin believed that the Ottomans were actually his enemies attempting to weaken his influence rather than assist him in any way. He went to Varna to declare his worries, and went to Istanbul to talk with the Sultan himself. The Sultan, on the condition that he becomes an Ottoman vassal, declared him a pasha as well.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: This led to an even more complex situation, as the Ottomans now recognized two different rulers of Circassia. Each one boasted about his own recognition, resulting in rising tensions. In March 1855, near the river of Shebzh, the first battle between Muhammad Amin and Seferbiy Zaneqo took place. In May 1856 another battle took place on the banks of the Sup River. In January 1857, the followers of Amin and Zaneqo fought again near Tuapse, and both sides suffered casualties.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In May 1857, Muhammad Amin returned to Istanbul. He was then arrested at the request of the Russian ambassador and exiled to Damascus. In September 1857, he escaped and returned to Circassia. He made some final efforts to establish authority, but failed. Russian-backed opposition leaders managed to remove Amin from power. Naib's army, the Murtaziqs, tried to gain power, but were defeated by the Abdzakh opposition. The Russian military, making use of the turmoil, quickly annexed the Abdzakh region, but did not keep any of the promises given to the Abdzakh opposition leaders. After the annexation of the region, most Abdzakh Circassians were forced to a death march in the winter as part of the Circassian genocide.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In the Paris treaty of 1856, British representative Earl of Clarendon insisted that Circassia remain an independent state, but French and Russian representatives wanted to give Circassian lands to Russia. When Clarendon then tried to make the treaty state that Russia could not build forts in Circassia, he was again thwarted by the French representative. The final treaty also extended amnesty to nationals that had fought for enemy powers, but since Circassia had never previously been under Russian control, Circassians were exempt, and thus Circassians were now placed under "de jure" Russian sovereignty by the treaty, with Russia under no compulsion to grant Circassians the same rights as Russian citizens elsewhere.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In 1854, Circassian forces under the command of Qerandiqo Berzeg set out to re-capture areas and forts taken by the Russian army, and succeeded partly. In the Circassian congress convened in Abin in 1857, it was decided to "continue the war against the Russians and be killed, rather than surrender and be killed".


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: In February 1857, Polish volunteers under the command of Teofil Lapinski arrived in the Caucasus to fight for Circassia. At the same year in 1857, Dmitry Milyutin published the document in which he argued that the Circassian people should be exterminated. According to Milyutin, the issue was not to take over the Circassian lands, but to put an end to the Circassians. Rostislav Fadeyev supported the proposal, saying "It is not possible to tame the Circassians, if we destroy half of them completely, the other half will lay down their weapons". In May 1859, elders from the Bjedugh negotiated a peace with Russia and submitted to the Tsar. Other tribes soon submitted to the Russians, including the Abadzekhs on November 20, 1859. By 1860 the Russians had seventy thousand soldiers in Circassia.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: According to Ivan Drozdov, for the most part, the Russian army preferred to indiscriminately destroy areas where Circassians resided. In September 1862, after attacking a Circassian village and seeing some of its inhabitants flee into the forest, General Yevdokimov bombarded that forest for six hours straight and ordered his men to kill every living thing, he then set the forest on fire to make sure no survivors are left. Drozdov reported to have overheard Circassian men taking vows to sacrifice themselves to the cannons to allow their family and rest of their villages to escape, and later more reports of groups of Circassians doing so were received.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: With the operation launched from the autumn of 1863, the Circassian villages and their supplies were to be burned, and this process was repeated until General Yevdokimov was convinced that all inhabitants of the region had died.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The remaining Circassians established an the Circassian Parliament in the capital city of Ş̂açə (Sochi) on 25 June 1861. Qerandiqo Berzeg was appointed as the head of the parliament. This parliament asked for help from Europe, arguing that they would be forced into exile soon.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: The Circassian Parliament negotiated with the Russian Tsar Alexander II in September 1861 to establish peace, expressing their readiness to accept Russian citizenship.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: After being convinced by his generals, the Russian Tsar declared that Circassia will not only be annexed to Russia unconditionally, but the Circassians will leave, and if the Circassian people do not accept forcefully migrating to Turkey, the Russian generals will see no problem in killing all Circassians. He gave the Circassian representatives a month to decide. Soon after, Russian General Kolyobakin invaded Sochi and destroyed the parliament and no other government publicly opposed this.


title: Russo-Circassian War

text: On April 9, 1864, "A Petition from Circassian leaders to Her Majesty Queen Victoria" was signed by the Circassians. The document requests British military aid, or at the worst case, humanitarian aid, to the Circassian people. It reads: