title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The Austro-Hungarian Army (, literally "Ground Forces of the Austro-Hungarians"; , literally "Imperial and Royal Army") was the ground force of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy from 1867 to 1918. It was composed of three parts: the joint army (, "Common Army", recruited from all parts of the country), the Imperial Austrian Landwehr (recruited from Cisleithania), and the Royal Hungarian Honvéd (recruited from Transleithania).


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: In the wake of fighting between the Austrian Empire and the Hungarian Kingdom and the two decades of uneasy co-existence following, Hungarian soldiers served either in mixed units or were stationed away from Hungarian areas. With the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 the new tripartite army was brought into being. It existed until the disestablishment of the Austro-Hungarian Empire following World War I in 1918.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The joint "Imperial and Royal Army" ( or "k.u.k.") units were generally poorly trained and had very limited access to new equipment because the governments of the Austrian and Hungarian parts of the empire often preferred to generously fund their own units instead of outfitting all three army branches equally. All of the Honvédség and the Landwehr regiments were composed of three battalions, while the joint army k.u.k. regiments had four.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The long-standing white infantry uniforms were replaced in the later half of the 19th century with dark blue tunics, which in turn were replaced by the pike grey M1908 uniform used in the initial stages of World War I. In September 1915, field gray was adopted as the new official uniform colour. As the KuK Army was plagued with supply shortages, when the new Field-gray uniforms were first introduced, remaining stocks of the preexisting Pike-grey uniforms remained in use alongside the newer Feldgrau model.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The last known surviving member of the Austro-Hungarian Army was World War I veteran Franz Künstler, who died in May 2008 at the age of 107.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The major decisions 1867-1895 were made by Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen, who was the cousin of the Emperor Franz Joseph and his leading advisor in military affairs. According to historians John Keegan and Andrew Wheatcroft:


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: In the wake of defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War Austria-Hungary avoided major wars in the era between 1867 and 1914 but engaged in a number of minor military actions. Nevertheless, the general staff maintained plans for major wars against neighboring powers, especially Italy, Serbia and Russia. By contrast, the main enemies Russia and Serbia had engaged in large scale warfare in the decade before the First World War.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: In the late 19th century the army was used to suppress unrest in urban areas of the empire: in 1882 and 1887 in Vienna and notably against German nationalists at Graz and Czech nationalists in Prague in November 1897. Soldiers under the command of Conrad von Hotzendorf were also used against Italian rioters in Trieste in 1902.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The most significant action by soldiers of the Dual Monarchy in this period was the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the summer of 1878. When troops under the command of Josip Filipović and Stjepan Jovanović entered the provinces expecting little or no resistance, they were met with ferocious opposition from elements of both Muslim and Orthodox populations there. Despite setbacks at Maglaj and Tuzla, Sarajevo was occupied in October. Austro-Hungarian casualties amounted to over 5,000 and the unexpected violence of the campaign led to recriminations between commanders and political leaders.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: In 1868, the number of active-duty troops in the army was 355,000, and the total could be expanded to 800,000 upon mobilization. However, this was significantly less than the European powers of France, the North German Confederation and Russia, each of which could field more than one million men. Though the population of the empire had risen to nearly 50 million by 1900, the size of the army was tied to ceilings established in 1889. Thus, at the start of the 20th century, Austria-Hungary conscripted only 0.29% of its population, compared to 0.47% in Germany, 0.35% in Russia and 0.75% in France. The 1889 army law was not revised until 1912, which allowed for an increase in annual conscriptions.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The ethnic make-up of the enlisted ranks reflected the diversity of the empire the army served; in 1906, out of every 1000 enlisted men, there were 267 Germans, 223 Hungarians, 135 Czechs, 85 Poles, 81 Ukrainians, 70 Bosniaks and Serbs, 61 Romanians, 38 Slovaks, 26 Slovenes, and 14 Italians.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: To aid communication between the multitude of ethnicities, the army developed a simple language called Army Slavic, based primarily on Czech.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: From a religious standpoint, the Austro-Hungarian army officer corps was dominated by Roman Catholics. In 1896, out of 1000 officers, 791 were Roman Catholics, 86 Protestants, 84 Jews, 39 Greek-Orthodox, and one Uniate. Of the pre–World War military forces of the major European powers, the Austro-Hungarian army was almost alone in its regular promotion of Jews to positions of command. While the Jewish population of the lands of the Dual Monarchy 4.4% including Bosnia and Herzegovina), Jews made up nearly 18% of the reserve officer corps. There were no official barriers to military service for Jews, but in later years this tolerance eroded to some extent, as important figures such as Conrad von Hötzendorf and Archduke Franz Ferdinand sometimes expressed anti-Jewish sentiments. Franz Ferdinand was also accused (by Conrad) of discriminating against Protestant officers.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The Austro-Hungarian Empire often suffered from a lack of military interpreters, and proved to be a major force in the partial dysfunctioning and blunders of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. Nearly all officers of the upper ranks spoke German (specifically Austrian German), and because only a fraction of soldiers spoke German, this produced a logistical obstacle for organizing the military. Likewise the lack of mutual intelligibility between speakers of Hungarian and German led to a feeling of resentment by many non-Austrian soldiers. The delivery of orders was particularly ineffective, and the bureaucratic and dysfunctional system led to individual ethnic units becoming isolated from the overall high command.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: This in turn led ethnic tensions and political violence in the empire, as such language battalions began instigating mutinies and revolts against the Austrian commanders, whom they saw as out of touch. Desertion and revolts were most common amongst Slavic battalions, particularly the Czech-Slovakian battalions, however all battalions during the war suffered from these logistical challenges. The battalions' use of languages that were not understood by the Austrian commanders also led to it being extremely difficult to impossible to discover attempts at desertion or revolt.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: Following the 1867 constitutional arrangements, the Reichsrat was dominated by German Liberals, who generally regarded the army as a relic of feudalism. In Budapest, legislators were reluctant to authorize funds for the joint army but were generous with the Hungarian branch of the army, the Honvédség. In 1867 the military budget accounted for about 25% of all government spending, but the economic crash of 1873 hit Austria-Hungary hard and foreign observers questioned whether the Dual Monarchy could manage a major war without subsidies. Despite increases throughout the 1850s and 1860s, in the latter half of the century Austria-Hungary was still spending less on its army than were other major European powers. While the budget continued to rise—from 262 million crowns in 1895 to 306 million in 1906—this was still far less "per capita" than for other major European states, including Italy, and about on par with Russia, which had a much larger population. Further contributing to the monarchy's military weakness was the low rate of conscription: Austria-Hungary conscripted only 0.29% of its population annually, compared to 0.47% in Germany and 0.75% in France. Attempts to increase the yearly intake of recruits were proposed but repeatedly blocked by officials in Budapest until an agreement was reached in 1912.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: In the emerging field of military aviation, Austria-Hungary lagged behind other European states. While balloon detachments had been established in 1893, they were mostly assigned to the fortress artillery, except for a brief period from 1909 to 1911 when they were under command of the multifaceted Verkehrs Brigade. Realization that heavier-than-air machines were necessary or useful came late, and Austria-Hungary acquired only five airplanes by 1911. In 1914 the budget for military aviation was approximately th the amount spent by France. Austria-Hungary entered the war with only 48 first-line aircraft.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: Austria-Hungary had a complex military structure. The country had three main distinct ground forces. As a union the Monarchy had a common government of three ministers (Minister of the Imperial Household and Foreign Affairs; Minister of War and Minister of Finance). The Imperial Minister of War had authority over the Common Army and the Navy.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The Common Army was the premier land force. It was the best equipped and had the main role to secure the borders of the Monarchy. In case of war it was to absorb the Austrian Landwehr and the Hungarian Honvéd within its command structure. For that reason the Common Army was organised in army corps even in peacetime, while the Landwehr and Honvéd were organised in territorial districts. The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were governed as a condominium between the Austrian and the Hungarian parts of the dual monarchy. As such the local troops of Bosnian Riflemen were subordinated through the Governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Imperial Minister of War. The general peacetime order of battle of the Common Army included:


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The Austrian part of the monarchy (officially called Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, unofficially and for short "Cisleithania") had its own government. It included the Imperial and Royal Ministry of National Defence (completely independent from the Imperial War Ministry). In peacetime it had complete authority and responsibility for the Imperial-Royal Landwehr and its:


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The Hungarian part of the monarchy (officially called Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, unofficially and for short Transleithania) also had its own government. One of its ministries was the Royal Hungarian Honvéd Ministry (also completely independent from the Imperial War Ministry). In peacetime it had complete authority and responsibility for the:


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: After war was declared, 3.35 million men (including the first call-up of the reserves and the 1914 recruits) gathered for action.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The Austro-Hungarian Imperial Army was officially under the control of the Commander-in-Chief, Emperor Franz Josef. By 1914, however, Franz Josef was 84 years old and the chief of staff, Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, effectively had more power over the armed forces. Conrad favored an aggressive foreign policy and advocated the use of military action to solve Austria-Hungary's territorial disputes with Italy and Serbia.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: Archduke Friedrich, Duke of Teschen was appointed Supreme Commander of the Austro-Hungarian army by Franz Joseph on July 11, 1914. It was thought he would not interfere with the operational and tactical plans of Conrad von Hötzendorf. Friedrich remained Supreme Commander until February 1917, when Emperor Charles I decided to assume the office himself.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The Imperial-Royal Landwehr ("k.k. or kaiserlich österreichisch/königlich böhmisch") was the standing army of Austria responsible for the defence of Austria itself.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The Royal Hungarian Landwehr ("königlich ungarische Landwehr") or Royal Hungarian Honvéd ("k.u. Honvéd") was the standing army of Hungary. A part of the Honvéd was the Royal Croatian Landwehr (Kraljevsko hrvatsko domobranstvo), which consisted of 1 infantry division (out of 7 in Honvéd) and 1 cavalry regiment (out of 10 in the Honvéd).


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The infantry regiments of the k.u.k. army had four battalions each; the infantry regiments of the k.k. and k.u. Landwehr had three battalions each, except the 3rd Regiment of the "Tiroler Landesschützen" (Tyrolian fusiliers), that had also four battalions.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: In 1915 units that had nicknames or names of honour lost them by order of the War Ministry. Thereafter units were designated only by number. For instance, the "k.u.k. Infanterie-Regiment (Hoch und Deutschmeister) Nr. 4" became "Infanterie-Regiment No. 4" (4th Infantry Regiment).


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The Landsturm consisted of men aged 34 to 55 who belonged to the Austria k.k. Landsturm and the Hungarian k.u. Landsturm. The Landsturm formed 40 regiments totaling 136 battalions in Austria and 32 regiments totaling 97 battalions in Hungary. The Landsturm was a reserve force intended to provide replacements for the first line units. However, the Landsturm provided 20 brigades who took to the field with the rest of the army.


title: Austro-Hungarian Army

text: The Standschützen (singular: "Standschütze") were originally rifle guilds and rifle companies that had been formed in the 15th and 16th centuries, and were involved time and again in military operations within the borders of the Austrian County of Tyrol. A "Standschütze" was a member of a "Schützenstand" ("shooting club"), into which he was enrolled, which automatically committed him to the voluntary, military protection of the state of Tyrol (and Vorarlberg). In effect they were a type of Tyrolean local militia or home guard.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: Kimya Dawson (born November 17, 1972) is an American folk singer-songwriter, one half of the anti-folk duo the Moldy Peaches. Dawson's work with the Moldy Peaches earned them a cult following and critical acclaim, with their 2001 song "Anyone Else But You" landing a spot in multiple acclaimed indie film soundtracks. "Anyone Else But You" as performed by Michael Cera and Elliot Page charted on the Billboard Hot 100 after its prominent inclusion in the 2007 film "Juno", the soundtrack of which includes several songs by Dawson and her associated musical acts. The song remains Dawson's highest charting single to date. In addition to their work with the Moldy Peaches, Dawson has released seven solo studio albums and collaborated with various other artists from a diverse range of genres, including Aesop Rock, They Might Be Giants, The Mountain Goats, and Third Eye Blind.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: Dawson became well known as co-founder of the Moldy Peaches alongside Adam Green. Since the Moldy Peaches went on hiatus in 2004 Dawson has released a string of lo-fi homemade albums and toured widely in North America and Europe. Dawson's children's album, "Alphabutt", was released on September 10, 2008. Song titles include "The Alphabutt Song," "Seven Hungry Tigers," "Little Monster Babies," "Wiggle My Tooth" and "Pee Pee in the Potty," and collaborators include former Third Eye Blind guitarist Kevin Cadogan and a number of Dawson's other musical friends and their children. They have also been invited to participate in the "Sesame Street" television program.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: In September 2012, they appeared in a campaign called "30 Songs / 30 Days" to support "", a multi-platform media project inspired by Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn's book.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: Dawson's songs are featured in the films "The Guatemalan Handshake" and "Glue", both of which were shown at the Olympia Film Festival in November 2007.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: In 2008 Dawson contributed the song "Anthrax"—about 9/11—to the soundtrack of the "Body of War" documentary.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: "Anyone Else But You", a song they recorded with the Moldy Peaches, was used in the documentary "Murderball", about a team of wheelchair rugby players. This song was also used in the film "Juno". The melody of this song, with new lyrics, was used in a commercial for Atlantis.com.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: Critics warmly received the music in "Juno", where Dawson's "sweetly melancholic acoustic-strummed tunes" helped define the character of a pregnant young teenager who decides to have her baby. Dawson helped choose many of the songs for the "Juno" film, helping to set the film's mood. The soundtrack was voted by "NPR" listeners as the 14th best of the year in a listener poll for 2008. Dawson sings about diverse topics:


title: Kimya Dawson

text: Dawson's authentic persona has a demeanor which is "sheepish and guileless and awkward in a way that you really can't fake" and who sometimes looks "legitimately terrified" during performances, according to "Village Voice" music critic Rob Harvilla.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: Five of Dawson's solo songs, two from Antsy Pants, as well as one from the Moldy Peaches, are included on the "Juno" soundtrack, released in December 2007. Composer Mateo Messina also based the film's score on Dawson's music.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: The soundtrack album, after two weeks topping Billboard's Digital Albums chart, reached No. 8 on the "Billboard" 200, in its first week of release. In its first full week of physical release the album sold 68,000 copies, reaching No. 3 on the Soundscan album chart. It missed out on the No. 1 spot by only 2,600 copies. The following week it jumped to #2, while selling 15% fewer copies (58,000), just 2,000 copies behind first place. In the album's third week of physical release it finally made the No. 1 spot on the Billboard 200 and Soundscan charts, selling 65,000 copies. The soundtrack for Juno won a Grammy for Best Compilation Soundtrack in 2009, beating out American Gangster, August Rush, Mamma Mia and Sweeney Todd.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: Dawson performs on recordings by Ben Kweller, They Might Be Giants, The Mountain Goats, John Wayne Shot Me, Your Heart Breaks, and The Terrordactyls.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: The Third Eye Blind track "Self-Righteous" on their album "Out of the Vein" features a duet with Dawson and Third Eye Blind's lead singer Stephan Jenkins. Dawson also appears on the Third Eye Blind album, Ursa Major, on the track "Why Can't You Be". This song was available as a bonus track on the iTunes Store download.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: Regina Spektor collaborated with Dawson on the song "Fire" on the "Hidden Vagenda" album. Dawson also collaborated with fellow antifolk Jeffrey Lewis. They made a band called 'The Bundles,' with Jack Lewis and drummer, Anders Griffen, though released the songs under the name "Kimya Dawson and Jeffrey Lewis", on a split with Jeffrey Lewis and Diane Cluck.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: Under the name Geniusis, Dawson released the free album "Holiday Rampage" alongside Aesop Rock, Johnny Druelinger, Jason Carmer and Quinn Tuffinuff.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: In February 2011, Dawson recorded a Daytrotter session with Aesop Rock, in which they performed three songs together. This session was later released in May 2011. Dawson and Aesop collaborated under the name The Uncluded to release an album, "Hokey Fright".


title: Kimya Dawson

text: Dawson released the solo album "Thunder Thighs" in October 2011. The album features guest performances by Aesop Rock, John Darnielle of the Mountain Goats, Nikolai Fraiture of the Strokes, Forever Young Senior Citizen Rock & Roll Choir, Olympia Free Choir, Quinn Tuffinuff, Daniel Bryan, Dawson's child Panda and more.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: They have performed numerous times with Paul Baribeau, whom they references several times in their songs.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: Dawson played "An Evening of Awesome at Carnegie Hall" with John Green and Hank Green on January 15, 2013.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: On February 11, 2013, Dawson released their first music video as The Uncluded on YouTube, a group featuring Aesop Rock and themselves. The single is titled "Earthquake". Their debut album "Hokey Fright" was released on May 7, 2013. The video for their third single "Delicate Cycle" has a cameo of Lil Bub.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: On Christmas Day in Port Townsend, Washington in 1998, Dawson accidentally overdosed on whiskey and prescription pills. Dawson suffered a grand mal seizure and vomited blood, which Dawson then inhaled. To the surprise of Dawson's doctors, Dawson woke up from a coma in a hospital the next day.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: Dawson moved to Bedford Hills, New York, in December 2005. In 2006, Dawson married musician Angelo Spencer. In July 2006, Dawson gave birth to a child, Panda, and in November 2006 moved the new family to Olympia, Washington.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: Dawson is good friends with AEW wrestler Bryan Danielson (aka Daniel Bryan), who appears as a guest artist on the "Thunder Thighs" track "Captain Lou", written in homage to wrestling manager Lou Albano.


title: Kimya Dawson

text: Dawson once inadvertently started a rumor that they are a cousin of The Strokes' drummer Fabrizio Moretti.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: Death (distinguished as Mistress Death or Lady Death) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is a cosmic entity based on the personification of death. It first appeared in "Captain Marvel" #26 (Jun. 1973) and was created by Mike Friedrich and Jim Starlin.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: The entity appears in the title "War Is Hell" and forces soldier John Kowalski to undergo a number of lives and deaths as punishment for doing nothing to prevent the invasion of Poland, with Kowalski eventually becoming an aspect of Death; in the title "Ghost Rider" posing as "Death Ryder" to test Johnny Blaze and becoming fascinated with the Titan Thanos, and the mercenary Deadpool.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: Death is an abstract entity, embodiment of life ending in the Marvel Universe, and the opposite of Eternity, embodiment of the universe. Death is predominantly depicted as a skeleton cloaked in a black or purple robe, and at times appears as a Caucasian human female.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: A storyline in the title "Captain Marvel" showcases Thanos' scheme to conquer the universe, as the character becomes determined to prove his love for Death by destroying all life. Although Thanos obtains the artifact the Cosmic Cube and succeeds in taking control of the universe, Death abandons the character when he is defeated by the combined might of Captain Marvel, Drax the Destroyer and the Avengers. Two Marvel Annuals feature Thanos as he tries to "woo" Death back (courtesy of the Infinity Gems with which he plans to extinguish every star in the galaxy), but is killed in a final battle with the Avengers, Captain Marvel and Adam Warlock. When Captain Marvel is dying from cancer, Thanos returns to the character in a vision and introduces him to the entity Death. Marvel willingly surrenders his life and embraces the entity.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: In Marvel's first limited series "Contest of Champions", Death agrees to a game of strategy with the Elder of the Universe the Grandmaster. The Grandmaster wins the game and Death provides him with the power (via the Golden Globe of Life) to resurrect the Collector, a fellow Elder. Only then does Death reveal that the Golden Globe is an empty instrument that needs to be powered by a life-force equal to that of the being who is to be restored. To resurrect the Collector, the Grandmaster sacrifices his life and takes the Collector's place in the Realm of the Dead. In the limited series "Secret Wars II" the entity Beyonder takes human form and visits Earth. It decides to "save" mankind, and in doing so destroys Death. The Beyonder is then shown there is a need for Death and transforms his friend, a human reporter name Dave, into Death's new personification.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: In an "Avengers" Annual, the Grandmaster reveals his sacrifice was a ruse as he's able to steal Death's powers and via another deception tricks the entity into banishing all Elders from the Realm of the Dead, effectively rendering them immortal. The threads of this storyline continue in the title "Silver Surfer" where a group of 11 Elders conspires to use the Infinity Gems to kill the cosmic entity Galactus and thereby destroy reality itself. After their plan is thwarted, Galactus devours 5 Elders, assuming that his status as a being who transcends Death and Eternity means that he does not have to abide by Death's vow. However, Galactus finds the Elders difficult to absorb and Death is displeased that Galactus has chosen to ignore her vow. Subsequently, when 3 Elders – the Astronomer; Possessor, and Trader – threaten to use the Infinity Gems to prevent the In-Betweener from hurling Galactus (with their brother Elders still inside him) into a black hole, the conceptual being responds by summoning Death and forcing her to negate the 3 Elders against her will, a transgression that Death finds heinous.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: The limited series "The Thanos Quest," reveals that Death perceives an imbalance in the universe and a gradual shift towards life rather than death; the entity resurrects Thanos. Thanos successfully collects the Infinity Gems, and attempts to converse with Death on its own level. The irony is the character is now superior to Death, and as such Death may not speak with him (a fact relayed via one of Death's minions). The story continues in a consecutive limited series "The Infinity Gauntlet", in which Thanos then wipes half the beings in the universe from existence as proof of his love for Death; the entity remains and watches as he battles Earth's metahumans, but after they are defeated, Death joins the cosmic pantheon in trying to defeat Thanos. Though the cosmic entities are unsuccessful, Thanos eventually loses the Infinity Gems and is defeated.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: The mercenary Deadpool is depicted having a humorous exchange with the entity in a "Deadpool Annual". He becomes infatuated with Death after having a number of near-death experiences. During the "Funeral for a Freak" storyline, Death appears to reciprocate the feeling, and a jealous Thanos prevents Deadpool from dying and joining the entity by cursing him with immortality. In the second volume of "Captain Marvel", Death reunites with Thanos to confront the Death God Walker, who tries unsuccessfully to court Death. Death hides within the body of Marlo Chandler (girlfriend of Rick Jones) in an attempt to escape Walker. The entity eventually destroys Walker and then leaves the body of Marlo, although Marlo retains a connection to Death which (in extreme circumstances) allows her to access the cosmic powers of Death.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: The limited series "" continues to explore the relationship between Death and Thanos. As the entity reveals to Thanos that their energies merged when he was resurrected, creating an offspring called the Rot. Death and Thanos work together to destroy their offspring, and it is at this time that Death finally addresses Thanos and admits to feeling "love" for him. The pair also share a kiss in the limited series "", moments before Thanos, possessing the artifact the Heart of the Universe, recreates the universe minus a critical flaw that would have destroyed it.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: During the limited series "Annihilation", Thanos joins the fight to stop the Annihilation Wave, and during the war is killed by his old foe Drax the Destroyer. When the hero Nova is near death from injuries sustained in battle, he glimpses Death and Thanos standing together watching him. The second volume of the "Guardians of the Galaxy" features a new development: Phyla-Vell, the heroine Quasar, agrees to become the new avatar of Oblivion (an aspect of Death) in exchange for the freedom of lover Heather Douglas.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: In "The Thanos Imperative", the Captain Marvel of the Cancerverse, called Lord Mar-Vell, using a ritual to the Many-angled ones that involves sacrificing the Avatar of Death, is able to destroy Death's M-body and remove her from his universe. In the last issue of this 6-part mini-series, it is revealed that Thanos, upon coming back to life, has been completely removed from the realm of death and can no longer die. In a twist he appears to accept Lord Mar-Vell's proposal to be a sacrifice so the Many-angled ones can invade the 616 universe; however, this proves a trap set by Death herself in order to get close to Mar-Vell. By destroying him, she kills every living thing in the Cancerverse, initiates its and the Fault's collapse, and even injures the Many-angled ones to such a degree that it will take them eons to heal.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: During the "Chaos War" storyline, Daimon Hellstrom mentions to Hercules that Death has fled their reality upon Amatsu-Mikaboshi triumphing in the realms of the dead, causing the souls of the deceased to be unleashed upon the Earth, and rendering the victims of the siege, whose injuries might otherwise prove fatal, merely locked in a deathless limbo.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: Following the "" storyline, Death has appeared in Las Vegas under the guise of Marlo Chandler to talk with Ben Reilly -the clone of Spider-Man, recently brought back to life and spending some time acting as the new Jackal- initially instructing him to go after a duo of teen punks randomly shooting civilians around the city, claiming that she is testing what he will do about this discovery. Ben manages to find the criminals, shooting one of them twice with his own gun but avoiding causing fatal injuries, but when he is attacked by his "brother" and fellow clone Kaine after the death of a girl Reilly had been trying to treat for a serious illness, Marlo appears and kills Kaine with a single touch. "Marlo" subsequently identifies herself as Death and explains that she has an "interest" in Reilly as no other person has been brought back to life so often. She reveals that he has "died" so many times that his soul has become corrupted and if he undergoes one more resurrection, he will likely suffer so much spiritual damage that his soul will be broken for good. She offers Reilly the chance to restore Cassandra Mercury's daughter Abigail or Kaine to life before she departs. When Reilly asks her to save both of them and kill him instead, Death not only heals the other two, but also restores Reilly to a healthy physical appearance. Death also affirms that he has made a start on his efforts to redeem himself of his sins as the Jackal and to become a hero again. However, after Ben Reilly brutally beats a civilian who was responsible for the theft of food donations to a charity drive, Death reveals that the healing of his scars only remains so long as Reilly does not compromise his status as a hero, with the aforementioned beating leading to him regaining scars around his right eye.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: As the embodiment of death, Death is an immortal and powerful cosmic abstract entity, which has no real physical body. The character possesses nigh infinite knowledge and power, being able to manipulate time and reality. The character has complete control over death and can therefore kill or resurrect individuals. Death occasionally appears as a humanoid female so as to be able to be perceived by lesser beings, and resides inside a pocket dimension known as the Realm of Death.


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: Marco Vito Oddo of "Collider" referred to Death as a "fan-favorite cosmic entity," saying, "Death was born alongside the universe and is the embodiment of destruction. While that might sound ominous, destruction is needed to maintain balance, making Lady Death one of the fundamental forces keeping the universe together." David Harth of "CBR.com" called Death one of the "bravest gods in Marvel Comics", writing, "Death is one of the most powerful forces in the Marvel Universe. She rarely speaks, approaching those she deigns to appear to with the silence of the grave. She is, in a strange way, the definition of bravery. She has no fear at all because in a real way she is fear. Her power and the role she plays in the universe is as the thing most feared, which puts her above fear." Kayleigh Donaldson of "Syfy" said, "It’s no wonder that modern pop culture has enjoyed fleshing out its grim heroes beyond their skeletal foundations. [..] In Marvel Comics, Lady Death's power is so alluring, and the woman herself so hypnotically sexy, that Thanos tries to destroy half of all living beings in the universe just to impress her."


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: Nat Brehmer of "Screen Rant" wrote, "Many fans were expecting, or at least hoping, to see Death in "Infinity War" because of her ties to Thanos. However, that obviously didn’t happen. In the comics, Thanos was in love with Death to the point that he would eliminate half the cosmos just to please her, and when that didn’t impress her, he made a female version of himself to be his companion just to make Lady Death jealous. This really couldn’t have been directly adapted to film. At the end of the day, Death is the living embodiment of unshakable mortality and too powerful to really have a part to play within the MCU." Marc Buxton of "Den of Geek" asserted, "Where there is Thanos, there is Death. Thanos’ beloved, the hooded embodiment of the end, should make an appearance before the Thanos saga is over. Something about that cloaked figure and her skull visage standing next to Thanos is so iconic. Death’s inclusion would make audiences understand (and fear) Thanos as he tries to burn a galaxy to win her love."


title: Death (Marvel Comics)

text: In the series "Earth X", Death used the secret that Thanos' mother was a Skrull to trick him into believing she is his mother. When the deception is revealed, Thanos uses the Ultimate Nullifier to destroy Death.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: The Pilatus PC-6 Porter is a single-engined STOL utility aircraft designed by Pilatus Aircraft of Switzerland. First flown in 1959, the PC-6 was produced at Pilatus Flugzeugwerke in Stans, Switzerland. It has been built in both piston engine- and turboprop-powered versions, and was produced under licence for a time by Fairchild Hiller in the United States.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: On 4 May 1959, the first prototype, powered by a 254 kW (340 shp) piston engine, made its maiden flight. In early May 1961, the first "Turbo Porter", powered by a Turbomeca Astazou II turboprop engine, performed its initial flight. In comparison to its earlier piston engine-powered incarnation, the Astazou II-equipped "Turbo Porter" had an increased gross capacity and top speed, as well as benefitting from the engine's automatic handling functions. These benefits came at the expense of a greater initial purchase cost and higher fuel consumption. Both the piston and turbine-engine versions of the PC-6 became quickly known for their Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL) capabilities, requiring only a very short takeoff run before being ready for rotation prior to taking off.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: The initial turbine-powered models of the PC-6 were equipped with the Astazou II powerplant, however complaints of the reliability of this engine were made. Another early turboprop powerplant that became available for the PC-6 was the Garrett Air Research TPE 331. Some operators such as Air America chose to retrofit their Astazou II-powered PC-6s with the TPE 331 engine in its place. In May 1996, the first PC-6 to be equipped with the Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A engine performed its maiden flight.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: To offset rising labour and manufacturing costs in Switzerland, Pilatus distributed manufacturing work on the PC-6 to other countries; in 1993, Czech Republic-based Letov Kbely began manufacturing activity upon the type. Its unit cost in 2010 was $1,900,000. In 2013, Pilatus formed a joint venture with Beijing Tian Xing Jian Yu Science Co., Ltd. to locally manufacture the PC-6 and the newer Pilatus PC-12 in Chongqing, China; initially this facility performed subassembly work on the fuselage, and later other elements such as the wings and moving surfaces, which were conveyed to Pilatus' final assembly facility in Stans, Switzerland. Global production of the PC-6 shall be eventually transferred to the Chongqing facility. On 11 December 2014, the first Chinese-assembled PC-6 fuselage was completed. In 2014, the majority of PC-6s delivered that year were to Chinese customers. By April 2016, around 20 PC-6s were in operation in the Chinese market; the type has often been used to replace the Antonov An-2, being reportedly cheaper to operate.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: The Porter was also manufactured under license by Fairchild Hiller in the United States. Roughly 100 of these licence-produced aircraft would be completed, being mainly purchased by civil operators within the US. A number of Fairchild Hiller-built PC-6s were also procured for military operations during the Vietnam War. It received the designation "AU-23A Peacemaker" for service with the U.S. Air Force. The Peacemaker was fitted with a side-firing 20mm XM-197 Gatling cannon, four wing pylons and a centre fuselage station for external ordnance. However, the AU-23A proved to be troublesome in service. All of them were returned to the continental U.S. and placed into storage after only a single year of operation. In 1979, a pair of UV-20s were assigned to the aviation detachment of the Berlin Brigade in Germany due to their suitability for operating within the heavily restricted airspace; they were fitted for carrying either cargo, up to eleven passengers, or three litters with four medical attendants.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: After nearly 600 deliveries in six decades including about 90 Fairchild-Hiller built and 425 PT6-powered, but only 52 in the last ten years, Pilatus will close the orderbook from summer 2018 and will roll off the last one in early 2019 while parts production will continue for at least 20 years.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: Due to pandemic delays, the last PC-6 Porter was instead delivered in December 2022 after 604 produced in 63 years.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: The Pilatus PC-6 Porter is a Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL) utility aircraft. The majority of aircraft are powered by a single Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A turboprop engine, which drives a fully reversible, constant-speed, three-bladed HC-B3TN-3D (or an alternative four-bladed HC-D4N-3P unit) Hartzell aluminium propeller via a reduction gearbox. Pilatus claims that it possesses unique STOL capabilities, capable of landing in places only otherwise accessible by rotorcraft. It is fully capable of being operated from unprepared rough airstrips, in remote areas, hot climates and at high altitudes in all-weather conditions. In particular, the undercarriage employed provides for high wing and propeller clearances, making the PC-6 less susceptible to damage than conventional nosewheel-type undercarriages. For further landing versatility, various types of landing gear may be optionally installed allowing it to operate from different types of terrain; options include floats for water landings and skis for landing on snow.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: Early models of the PC-6 were equipped with a full instrument panel as standard, and were reportedly easy for unfamiliar pilots to intuit. Later-manufactured PC-6s are equipped with a Garmin G950 glass cockpit in place of analog instrumentation; the majority of earlier-produced PC-6s can also be retrofitted with a glass cockpit. In addition to its flight functionality, the G950 system acts as a remote maintenance unit and electronic flight bag all in one. Two large 10.4-inch liquid-crystal displays (LCDs) are present, functioning as the Primary Flight Display for all key flight information and the Multi-function Display for system/mission management respectively; fully independent secondary flight instrumentation is also provided to provide backup altitude, attitude, and airspeed information in the event of complete electrical failure. The cockpit has been designed for single pilot operations; additional flight controls for a co-pilot can be optionally fitted. Other optional features include an autopilot (capable of operating within all phases of flight), traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS), terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS), weather radar, satellite phone, LIDAR, forward-looking infrared (FLIR) and lightning detector; in addition, onboard electrical and avionics equipment are readily modifiable to conform with customer requirements.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: The airframe is of a rugged and low-maintenance construction; featuring high levels of accessibility, interchangeability, and favourable manning levels. The wings, fuselage, and empennage are manufactured using conventional semi-monocoque construction techniques, the primary structure being composed of aluminium; the central structure retains critical strength despite the cutout areas for the sliding doors of the main cabin. Corrosion resistance is achieved via a combination of plating and a polyurethane-based enamel paint. The simple nature of the structure allows for ease of repair in the field. Features such as low-pressure tyres, twin-caliper disc brakes, and a highly energy-absorbent undercarriage enable the aircraft to be capable of operating from rough or otherwise challenging terrain.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: For role flexibility, individual aircraft can be easily converted between various mission types, such as transport, paradrop, aerial photography, surveillance, air medical services and search and rescue duties. A maximum of ten passengers, or a 2,200 lb payload, may be carried within the aircraft's main cabin area within the rear section of the fuselage; the standard passenger seats are designed to allow for rapid removal and may be stowed within an optional separate externally-accessed seat stowage compartment behind the main cabin. The main cabin area is furnished with soundproofing measures, ventilation, and heating as standard. A maximum of three fuel tanks can also be carried in the main cabin, accordingly reducing payload capacity, to increase the aircraft's flight endurance. In addition to the large sliding doors at either side of the main cabin, separate hinged doors are present on either side of the cockpit; an optional pilot-controlled trapdoor, to accommodate supply drops or surveillance payloads, may also be installed in the center of the cabin floor without any design changes required. Additional equipment include a firefighting system, aerial application system, underwing tanks, sand filters, propeller de-icing system, mudguard, tailwheel debris guard, oxygen system, and additional power distribution system.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: The PC-6 is noted for its "Short Takeoff and Landing" (STOL) performance on almost any type of terrain - it can take off within a distance of and land within a distance of while carrying a payload of 2,646 lbs (1,200 kg). Thanks to its STOL performance, the PC-6 holds the world record for highest landing by a fixed-wing aircraft, at , on the Dhaulagiri glacier in Nepal.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: Due to the type's favourable STOL characteristics, described by the magazine "Flying" as being "one of the most helicopter-like airplanes in terms of takeoff performance", Pilatus has deliberately marketed the PC-6 towards helicopter operators at times, feeling the type to be complementary to their typical mode of operation. According to Pilatus, the PC-6 can provide very similar surveillance capabilities to a rotorcraft at a significantly lower cost to operate and procure.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: During its early service, the PC-6 Porter was noted for its high level of comfort and usability against competing aircraft. The type has also proven to have a long service life; by 1993, roughly 440 of the 500 PC-6 Turbo Porters completed by that point were still in service.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: During the 1960s and 1970s, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)-controlled airline Air America operated up to 23 PC-6s at a time. Many of these were operated in the South-East Asia region, including South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. The type was used for various missions including paradropping supplies to troops, passenger transport, psy ops, reconnaissance, prisoner conveyance, airborne radio relay, and other intelligence operations.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: Since 1976, the Austrian Air Force has operated a fleet of 12 PC-6 Porters as the mainstay of their fixed-wing transport fleet; the type has been used in various support roles, including transport, Search and Rescue, firefighting, observation, target-towing and paradropping.


title: Pilatus PC-6 Porter

text: According to "Flying" magazine, around 40 per cent of all PC-6s in use in Europe during the early 1990s were being used by skydivers.


title: Angie Martinez

text: Angela Martinez (born January 9, 1971) is an American radio personality, rapper, singer, and actress. Nicknamed "The Voice of New York" during her two-decade tenure at New York City station HOT 97 (WQHT), she left that position in 2014 to join crosstown competitor Power 105.1 (WWPR). Martinez won the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) Marconi Radio Award for "Major Market Personality of the Year" in 2018, and was inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame in 2020.


title: Angie Martinez

text: Martinez got her first break in FM broadcasting at the age of 16 answering hot lines at the urban radio station WQHT ("Hot 97"). There she met popular DJ Funkmaster Flex, and began working as his protégé. Martinez quickly picked up on the craft of running a successful radio program. She hosted the Afternoon Drive weekdays, alongside HOT 97's DJ Enuff, where she interviewed the biggest names in music such as Jay-Z and Mariah Carey. She resigned from Hot 97 on June 18, 2014. She was announced to have signed on with Hot 97's main New York radio competitor, Power 105.1 (WWPR-FM) on June 19, 2014.


title: Angie Martinez

text: As an actress, Martinez received small roles in independent hip hop films such as "Blood Is Thicker Than Water" and "Paper Soldiers". She then appeared in "Brown Sugar" starring Taye Diggs, Queen Latifah and Sanaa Lathan. In October 2002, Martinez appeared in "Paid In Full". More recently, she appeared in "Video Girl" in 2011, "Generation Um..." in 2012, and in the docu-comedy television series "This Is Hot 97" in 2014.


title: Angie Martinez

text: In 1996, Martinez was encouraged to give rapping a shot by friend KRS-One. She appeared on his track "Heartbeat" from his 1997 album "I Got Next". After the song gained a strong fan following, another friend, Lil' Kim, offered her a spot on the "Ladies Night Remix" of her song "Not Tonight" for the "Nothing to Lose" soundtrack. Along with Missy Elliott, Lisa "Left Eye" Lopes and Da Brat, the ladies enjoyed one of the most successful singles of 1997. It peaked on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart at No. 6, and reached No. 3 on the Hip-Hop / R&B charts. The single sold over 1,000,000 copies and was certified Platinum. The ladies were nominated for two Grammy Awards that year, and were also invited to perform the song live on the MTV Video Music Awards.


title: Angie Martinez

text: A major label battle began to sign Martinez to a recording contract. Her appearance on other rapper's material was in high demand. She recorded songs with Mary J. Blige ("Christmas in the City"), Cuban Link ("Freak Out"), N.O.R.E. ("Oh No Remix"), Beenie Man ("Tell Me Remix") and Funkmaster Flex & Big Kap's compilation album "The Tunnel" ("Wow"). She also recorded interludes for mixtapes by Kid Capri, DJ Clue and DJ Kayslay. In 2001, she appeared in the music video for Jay-Z and R. Kelly's "Guilty Until Proven Innocent".


title: Angie Martinez

text: On April 17, 2001, she released her delayed debut album, "Up Close and Personal". The album included production by DJ Clue, Salaam Remi, Knobody and Rockwilder among others, and featured guest appearances by Jay-Z, Snoop Doggy Dogg, Mary J. Blige, Wyclef Jean, Busta Rhymes and Kool G. Rap. The first single, "Dem Thangzzz" was produced by The Neptunes, and also featured background vocals by Pharrell Williams and Q-Tip. The album debuted at No. 32 on the "Billboard" 200 Albums Chart, and No. 7 on the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Album Chart selling 69,000 its first week. The second single, "Coast 2 Coast" (Suavamente) featuring rapper Wyclef Jean re-sparked interest in the album. She promoted the album with magazine posters, in-store signings, club appearances and television appearances with MTV and BET.


title: Angie Martinez

text: Following her first album's release, Angie began work on a second record, 2002's "Animal House". In order to build anticipation for the record, she appeared on BET's "Rap City" and began a nationwide radio tour. She recorded a verse for the remix to her artist Sacario record "Live Big". It became the number one record in the tri-state area and coincidentally coincided with the release of Martinez's first single from her second album, "If I Could Go" which also featured Sacario and singer Lil' Mo. "If I Could Go" became a huge crossover hit on pop radio, climbing into the top 20 on The Billboard Hot 100 Chart. It became the No. 1 played on urban radio in 2002. The album, "Animal House" (named after Martinez's own production company and recording posse), was released on August 21, 2002. It entered the Billboard Hot 200 Albums Chart at No. 11, and the Billboard Hot Hip-Hop / R&B Charts selling 92,000 units in its first week. The follow-up single, "Take You Home" featuring R&B singer Kelis became a minor hit reaching the top 100 on the Billboard Hot 100. The album was more strongly received by critics and fans. Following the release of the album, she was featured on a remix for labelmate Lil' Mo's track "Gangster", and Nina Sky's hype single "Time to Go". Following this she announced she was retiring from the recording industry to concentrate on her other projects.


title: Angie Martinez

text: In 2002, Martinez was hired to be a judge on the second season of "American Idol", but quit after a few days of auditions, citing discomfort with crushing the dreams of auditioners.


title: Angie Martinez

text: Martinez's father was Puerto Rican and her mother was of Cuban and Dominican descent. She has a son born in 2003 with Tamir "Nokio" Ruffin of Dru Hill.


title: Angie Martinez

text: In 2014, Martinez ran the 2014 New York City Marathon in support of CC Sabathia's charity, the PitCCh In Foundation.


title: Angie Martinez

text: In late 2019, it was revealed that she had sustained major injuries, including a fractured lumbar and shattered vertebrae, in a serious car accident.


title: J. D. Williams

text: J.D. Williams (born May 22, 1978) is an American actor known for his starring roles in the HBO television programs "Oz" as Kenny Wangler, "The Wire" as Bodie Broadus and "Pootie Tang" as Froggy, "Surviving Family" (2012) as Bobby, "The Good Wife" (2010-2015) as Dexter, and in the main cast of "Saints & Sinners". He also starred in "Blood Brother" (2018) as Kayvon.


title: J. D. Williams

text: Williams was born in Newark, New Jersey. He attended Newark Arts High School, a performing arts public school in Newark. He portrayed a biracial 15-year-old dealing with racism and his father's infidelity in the play "A.M. Sunday" in late 2003 at Baltimore's Centerstage theater. He had a number of cameos and leading roles in R&B and hip-hop music videos between 2002 and 2005.


title: J. D. Williams

text: Williams appeared in "", a show based on a book by "The Wire" creator David Simon, where he guest-starred as Casper in the episode "The Why Chromosome". He had a small guest starring role in "The Sopranos" episode "46 Long" as Special K, an incompetent stickup man and one of Brendan Filone's goons. He went on to play series regular, inmate Kenny Wangler, in the first four seasons of "Oz". He then appeared in HBOs "The Wire" as Bodie Broadus, a Barksdale Organization drug dealer who slowly rises through the ranks throughout the seasons. In preparation for the role, he walked around Baltimore's inner city during the middle of the night a few days before the first taping; talking about this to AllHipHop, Williams stated "it was like 12 or 1:00 in the morning. I just threw on a black hoodie and walked around. I went to one of their hoods and watched that night. I learned not to do that no more, I was lucky I made it back that night." He is older than his character by 8 years.


title: J. D. Williams

text: According to his original HBO bio, he is credited with appearing in the film "Graffiti Bridge", but a 2003 interview with AllHipHop revealed that Williams was not in the movie. The page no longer exists, however. Tevin Campbell filled the cameo role with which Williams was credited.


title: J. D. Williams

text: Williams has had leading roles or cameo appearances in a number of R&B and hip-hop music videos. He has appeared as himself, a love interest, and characters resembling his role as a drug dealer on "The Wire".


title: J. D. Williams

text: In 2012, Williams had a major supporting role in the indie film "Surviving Family" as the ex-boyfriend of the main character. His character was a wounded veteran of the war in Iraq who had lost an eye in an IED attack and suffered from PTSD.


title: J. D. Williams

text: He has starred in a number of commercials, and played a delivery man in a FedEx commercial. He appeared as Lemond Bishop's Lieutenant "Dexter" in episodes of "The Good Wife".


title: Morphine (band)

text: Morphine was an American rock band formed by Mark Sandman, Dana Colley, and Jerome Deupree in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1989. Drummer Billy Conway also played in the band, frequently during Deupree's absence, though at times both played together. After five successful albums and extensive touring, they disbanded after lead vocalist Sandman died of a heart attack onstage in Palestrina, Italy, on July 3, 1999. Founding members have reformed into the band Vapors of Morphine, maintaining much of the original style and sound.


title: Morphine (band)

text: Morphine combined blues and jazz elements with more traditional rock arrangements, giving the band an unusual sound. Sandman sang distinctively in a "deep, laid-back croon", and his songwriting featured a prominent beat influence. The band themselves coined the label "low rock" to describe their music, which involved "a minimalist, low-end sound that could have easily become a gimmick: a 'power trio' not built around the sound of an electric guitar. Instead, Morphine expanded its offbeat vocabulary on each album."


title: Morphine (band)

text: The band enjoyed positive critical appraisal, but met with mixed results commercially. In the United States the band was embraced and promoted by the indie rock community, including public and college radio stations and MTV's "120 Minutes", which the band once guest-hosted, but received little support from commercial rock radio and other music television programs. This limited their mainstream exposure and support in their home country, while internationally they enjoyed high-profile success, especially in Belgium, Russia, Portugal, France and Australia.


title: Morphine (band)

text: Morphine was formed in 1989 by bassist and vocalist Mark Sandman, a member of the bluesy alternative rock band Treat Her Right, saxophonist Dana Colley, a former member of the local Boston group Three Colors, and drummer Jerome Deupree, who had played with Sandman in the Hypnosonics. Sandman, a prolific musician who frequently experimented with home-made instruments, played a single-stringed bass guitar of his own devising with a slide, although he later added a second string. Deupree briefly left the group for health reasons in 1991 and was temporarily replaced by Treat Her Right drummer Billy Conway. These years found the group building a strong local audience and touring occasionally.


title: Morphine (band)

text: With Deupree returning, they recorded their debut album, "Good", for the Boston-based Accurate/Distortion label in 1991. The album received positive reviews and increased the band's audience. The band subsequently signed to Rykodisc, who re-released "Good" under its own imprint.


title: Morphine (band)

text: "Cure for Pain", 1993's followup, increased the band's audience outside of New England, and singles like "Thursday" and "Buena" picked up some college radio play. During the recording of "Cure for Pain", Deupree was again replaced by Conway, although Deupree still played most of the percussion work on the album. After the album was completed, the band toured the United States, Europe, Japan and Australia.


title: Morphine (band)

text: In 1994, five songs from the album were prominently featured on the soundtrack of the film "Spanking the Monkey". The band returned to the studio in 1995 and produced "Yes". The album featured the single "Honey White," the music video for which appeared on the MTV animated series "Beavis and Butt-head", as had "Thursday". It also included "I Had My Chance," which was featured on the soundtrack for the film "Get Shorty".


title: Morphine (band)

text: After two years of touring, Morphine signed with DreamWorks Records, who released their major label debut, "Like Swimming", in 1997. It was a critical success, but did not break the band into the domestic mainstream as had been hoped. DreamWorks released a music video for the single "Early to Bed"; directed by Jamie Caliri and released in March 1997, the nightmarish yet humorous video became an instant favorite among fans and was later nominated for a Grammy award. The band also released "B-Sides and Otherwise", a collection of B-sides and live recordings, on Rykodisc this same year.


title: Morphine (band)

text: In the following time, Deupree once again began performing live and in the studio with the band, making the group a four-piece. The band's final studio album, "The Night", was completed in early 1999.


title: Morphine (band)

text: On July 3, 1999, Sandman collapsed on the stage of the festival at the Giardini del Principe in Palestrina, Italy, outside of Rome. He was soon pronounced dead of a heart attack and Morphine immediately disbanded. "The Night" was released in 2000. Posthumous Morphine releases followed shortly thereafter, including "Bootleg Detroit", an "official live bootleg", and "", both on Rykodisc.


title: Morphine (band)

text: Within a year of Sandman's death, Colley and Conway created Orchestra Morphine, a group of Sandman's friends and colleagues who toured to celebrate the music of the band and to raise funds for the Mark Sandman Music Education Fund. Orchestra Morphine mostly performed music from "The Night", but also included some other Morphine and Hypnosonics material as well. Orchestra Morphine still performs occasionally but no longer tours. Singer and guitarist Laurie Sargent, a member of Orchestra Morphine and former vocalist for the band Face to Face, later joined Colley and Conway in their first post-Morphine musical endeavor, Twinemen.


title: Morphine (band)

text: Conway and Colley also officially formed the Hi-n-Dry independent record label and studio, converting Sandman's workspace into a commercial enterprise. The label's roster includes a number of their friends, colleagues and other Boston-area musicians. In 2004, Hi-n-Dry released the Mark Sandman box set "Sandbox", which contained two CDs and a DVD of previously unreleased material spanning Sandman's musical career. The DVD featured clips from early Sandman shows, interviews from the Morphine tours, and various videos from other Sandman solo and group projects, such as Treat Her Right. However, for copyright reasons the box set did not contain any previously released material found in the Morphine catalog, Morphine videos, or promotional material produced by Rykodisc or DreamWorks Records.


title: Morphine (band)

text: In 2009, Colley and Deupree began regularly performing Morphine songs and new material as Members of Morphine (alternately, the Ever-Expanding Elastic Waste Band), with singer, bassist and guitarist Jeremy Lyons of New Orleans. In July 2009, the group played at Nel Nome Del Rock Festival in Palestrina, Italy, marking the ten-year anniversary of Sandman's death at the location in which it occurred. As of 2014, the group was renamed Vapors of Morphine and regularly performs in Boston and New Orleans, and holds a standing weekly gig at Atwood's Tavern in Cambridge, Massachusetts.


title: Morphine (band)

text: In 2009, Rhino Records released the two-disc set "At Your Service", composed of unreleased Morphine material.


title: Morphine (band)

text: As of 1999, Morphine has sold over 807,000 records in the United States, according to Nielsen SoundScan.


title: Morphine (band)

text: Morphine's instrumentation was unusual for a rock band: Sandman's primary instrument was a two-string bass guitar (with the strings usually tuned to a 5th or octave interval) played with a slide; however, on the group's records he added touches of guitar, piano, electronic organ, and other self-invented guitar instruments such as the tritar, featuring two guitar strings and one bass string. Colley played primarily baritone saxophone, along with soprano or tenor saxes, and the rare bass saxophone, and he sometimes played two saxes at once, a la Roland Kirk; he also played occasional percussion, and Dobro on a B-side.


title: History of chemistry

text: The history of chemistry represents a time span from ancient history to the present. By 1000 BC, civilizations used technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include the discovery of fire, extracting metals from ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, rendering fat into soap, making glass,


title: History of chemistry

text: The protoscience of chemistry, alchemy, was unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter and its transformations. However, by performing experiments and recording the results, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry. While both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with matter and its transformations, chemists are seen as applying scientific method to their work.


title: History of chemistry

text: The history of chemistry is intertwined with the history of thermodynamics, especially through the work of Willard Gibbs.


title: History of chemistry

text: A 100,000-year-old ochre-processing workshop was found at Blombos Cave in South Africa. It indicates that early humans had an elementary knowledge of chemistry. Paintings drawn by early humans consisting of early humans mixing animal blood with other liquids found on cave walls also indicate a small knowledge of chemistry.


title: History of chemistry

text: The earliest recorded metal employed by humans seems to be gold, which can be found free or "native". Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, around 40,000 BC.


title: History of chemistry

text: Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found native, allowing a limited amount of metalworking in ancient cultures. Egyptian weapons made from meteoric iron in about 3000 BC were highly prized as "daggers from Heaven".


title: History of chemistry

text: Arguably the first chemical reaction used in a controlled manner was fire. However, for millennia fire was seen simply as a mystical force that could transform one substance into another (burning wood, or boiling water) while producing heat and light. Fire affected many aspects of early societies. These ranged from the simplest facets of everyday life, such as cooking and habitat heating and lighting, to more advanced uses, such as making pottery and bricks and melting of metals to make tools.


title: History of chemistry

text: It was fire that led to the discovery of glass and the purification of metals; this was followed by the rise of metallurgy. During the early stages of metallurgy, methods of purification of metals were sought, and gold, known in ancient Egypt as early as 2900 BC, became a precious metal.


title: History of chemistry

text: Certain metals can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire: notably tin, lead and (at a higher temperature) copper. This process is known as smelting. The first evidence of this extractive metallurgy dates from the 6th and 5th millennia BC, and was found in the archaeological sites of the Vinča culture, Majdanpek, Jarmovac and Pločnik in Serbia. To date, the earliest copper smelting is found at the Belovode site; these examples include a copper axe from 5500 BC. Other signs of early metals are found from the third millennium BC in places like Palmela (Portugal), Los Millares (Spain), and Stonehenge (United Kingdom). However, as often happens in the study of prehistoric times, the ultimate beginnings cannot be clearly defined and new discoveries are ongoing.


title: History of chemistry

text: These first metals were single elements, or else combinations as naturally occurred. By combining copper and tin, a superior metal could be made, an alloy called bronze. This was a major technological shift that began the Bronze Age about 3500 BC. The Bronze Age was a period in human cultural development when the most advanced metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use) included techniques for smelting copper and tin from naturally occurring outcroppings of copper ores, and then smelting those ores to cast bronze. These naturally occurring ores typically included arsenic as a common impurity. Copper/tin ores are rare, as reflected in the absence of tin bronzes in western Asia before 3000 BC.


title: History of chemistry

text: After the Bronze Age, the history of metallurgy was marked by armies seeking better weaponry. States in Eurasia prospered when they made the superior alloys, which, in turn, made better armor and better weapons. Significant progress in metallurgy and alchemy was made in ancient India.


title: History of chemistry

text: The extraction of iron from its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than copper or tin. While iron is not better suited for tools than bronze (until steel was discovered), iron ore is much more abundant and common than either copper or tin, and therefore more often available locally, with no need to trade for it.


title: History of chemistry

text: Iron working appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, beginning the Iron Age. The secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines.


title: History of chemistry

text: The Iron Age refers to the advent of iron working (ferrous metallurgy). Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations. These include the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and Near East, ancient Iran, ancient Egypt, ancient Nubia, and Anatolia (Turkey), Ancient Nok, Carthage, the Greeks and Romans of ancient Europe, medieval Europe, ancient and medieval China, ancient and medieval India, ancient and medieval Japan, amongst others. Many applications, practices, and devices associated with or involved in metallurgy were established in ancient China, such as the innovation of the blast furnace, cast iron, hydraulic-powered trip hammers, and double-acting piston bellows.


title: History of chemistry

text: Philosophical attempts to rationalize why different substances have different properties (color, density, smell), exist in different states (gaseous, liquid, and solid), and react in a different manner when exposed to environments, for example to water or fire or temperature changes, led ancient philosophers to postulate the first theories on nature and chemistry. The history of such philosophical theories that relate to chemistry can probably be traced back to every single ancient civilization. The common aspect in all these theories was the attempt to identify a small number of primary classical elements that make up all the various substances in nature. Substances like air, water, and soil/earth, energy forms, such as fire and light, and more abstract concepts such as thoughts, aether, and heaven, were common in ancient civilizations even in the absence of any cross-fertilization: for example ancient Greek, Indian, Mayan, and Chinese philosophies all considered air, water, earth and fire as primary elements.


title: History of chemistry

text: Around 420 BC, Empedocles stated that all matter is made up of four elemental substances: earth, fire, air and water. The early theory of atomism can be traced back to ancient Greece and ancient India. Greek atomism was made popular by the Greek philosopher Democritus, who declared that matter is composed of indivisible and indestructible particles called "atomos" around 380 BC. Earlier, Leucippus also declared that atoms were the most indivisible part of matter (this coincided with a similar declaration by Indian philosopher Kanada in his Vaisheshika sutras around the same time period). Aristotle opposed the existence of atoms in 330 BC. A Greek text attributed to Polybus the physician (ca. 380 BC) argued that the human body is composed of four humours instead. Epicurus (fl. 300 BC) postulated a universe of indestructible atoms in which man himself is responsible for achieving a balanced life.


title: History of chemistry

text: With the goal of explaining Epicurean philosophy to a Roman audience, the Roman poet and philosopher Lucretius wrote "De rerum natura" (The Nature of Things) in 50 BC. In the work, Lucretius presents the principles of atomism; the nature of the mind and soul; explanations of sensation and thought; the development of the world and its phenomena; and explains a variety of celestial and terrestrial phenomena.


title: History of chemistry

text: The earliest alchemists in the Western tradition seemed to have come from Greco-Roman Egypt in the first centuries AD. In addition to technical work, many of them invented chemical apparatuses. The "bain-marie", or water bath, is named for Mary the Jewess. Her work also gives the first descriptions of the "tribikos" and "kerotakis". Cleopatra the Alchemist described furnaces and has been credited with the invention of the alembic. Later, Zosimos of Panopolis wrote books on alchemy, which he called "cheirokmeta", the Greek word for "things made by hand." These works include many references to recipes and procedures, as well as descriptions of instruments. Much of the early development of purification methods were described earlier by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia. He tried to explain those methods, as well as making acute observations of the state of many minerals.


title: History of chemistry

text: The elemental system used in medieval alchemy was developed primarily by the Persian-Arab alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān and was rooted in the classical elements of Greek tradition. His system consisted of the four Aristotelian elements of air, earth, fire, and water in addition to two philosophical elements: sulphur, characterizing the principle of combustibility, "the stone which burns"; and mercury, characterizing the principle of metallic properties. They were seen by early alchemists as idealized expressions of irreducible components of the universe and are of larger consideration within philosophical alchemy.


title: History of chemistry

text: The three metallic principles (sulphur to flammability or combustion, mercury to volatility and stability, and salt to solidity) became the "tria prima" of the Swiss alchemist Paracelsus. He reasoned that Aristotle's four-element theory appeared in bodies as three principles. Paracelsus saw these principles as fundamental and justified them by recourse to the description of how wood burns in fire. Mercury included the cohesive principle, so that when it left the wood (in smoke) the wood fell apart. Smoke described the volatility (the mercurial principle), the heat-giving flames described flammability (sulphur), and the remnant ash described solidity (salt).


title: History of chemistry

text: Alchemy is defined by the Hermetic quest for the philosopher's stone, the study of which is steeped in symbolic mysticism, and differs greatly from modern science. Alchemists toiled to make transformations on an esoteric (spiritual) and/or exoteric (practical) level. It was the protoscientific, exoteric aspects of alchemy that contributed heavily to the evolution of chemistry in Greco-Roman Egypt, in the Islamic Golden Age, and then in Europe. Alchemy and chemistry share an interest in the composition and properties of matter, and until the 18th century they were not separate disciplines. The term "chymistry" has been used to describe the blend of alchemy and chemistry that existed before that time.


title: History of chemistry

text: During the Renaissance, exoteric alchemy remained popular in the form of Paracelsian iatrochemistry, while spiritual alchemy flourished, realigned to its Platonic, Hermetic, and Gnostic roots. Consequently, the symbolic quest for the philosopher's stone was not superseded by scientific advances, and was still the domain of respected scientists and doctors until the early 18th century. Early modern alchemists who are renowned for their scientific contributions include Jan Baptist van Helmont, Robert Boyle, and Isaac Newton.


title: History of chemistry

text: In the Islamic World, the Muslims were translating the works of ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers into Arabic and were experimenting with scientific ideas. The Arabic works attributed to the 8th-century alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān introduced a systematic classification of chemical substances, and provided instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means. Some Arabic Jabirian works (e.g., the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") were later translated into Latin under the Latinized name "Geber", and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as pseudo-Geber, started to produce alchemical and metallurgical writings under this name. Later influential Muslim philosophers, such as Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and Avicenna disputed the theories of alchemy, particularly the theory of the transmutation of metals.


title: History of chemistry

text: There were several problems with alchemy, as seen from today's standpoint. There was no systematic naming scheme for new compounds, and the language was esoteric and vague to the point that the terminologies meant different things to different people. In fact, according to "The Fontana History of Chemistry" (Brock, 1992):


title: History of chemistry

text: The language of alchemy soon developed an arcane and secretive technical vocabulary designed to conceal information from the uninitiated. To a large degree, this language is incomprehensible to us today, though it is apparent that readers of Geoffery Chaucer's Canon's Yeoman's Tale or audiences of Ben Jonson's The Alchemist were able to construe it sufficiently to laugh at it.


title: History of chemistry

text: Chaucer's tale exposed the more fraudulent side of alchemy, especially the manufacture of counterfeit gold from cheap substances. Less than a century earlier, Dante Alighieri also demonstrated an awareness of this fraudulence, causing him to consign all alchemists to the Inferno in his writings. Soon afterwards, in 1317, the Avignon Pope John XXII ordered all alchemists to leave France for making counterfeit money. A law was passed in England in 1403 which made the "multiplication of metals" punishable by death. Despite these and other apparently extreme measures, alchemy did not die. Royalty and privileged classes still sought to discover the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life for themselves.


title: History of chemistry

text: There was also no agreed-upon scientific method for making experiments reproducible. Indeed, many alchemists included in their methods irrelevant information such as the timing of the tides or the phases of the moon. The esoteric nature and codified vocabulary of alchemy appeared to be more useful in concealing the fact that they could not be sure of very much at all. As early as the 14th century, cracks seemed to grow in the facade of alchemy; and people became sceptical. Clearly, there needed to be a scientific method in which experiments could be repeated by other people, and results needed to be reported in a clear language that laid out both what was known and what was unknown.


title: History of chemistry

text: Practical attempts to improve the refining of ores and their extraction to smelt metals was an important source of information for early chemists in the 16th century, among them Georg Agricola (1494–1555), who published his great work "De re metallica" in 1556. His work describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction and metallurgy of the time. His approach removed the mysticism associated with the subject, creating the practical base upon which others could build. The work describes the many kinds of furnace used to smelt ore, and stimulated interest in minerals and their composition. It is no coincidence that he gives numerous references to the earlier author, Pliny the Elder and his "Naturalis Historia". Agricola has been described as the "father of metallurgy".


title: History of chemistry

text: In 1605, Sir Francis Bacon published "The Proficience and Advancement of Learning", which contains a description of what would later be known as the scientific method. In 1605, Michal Sedziwój publishes the alchemical treatise "A New Light of Alchemy" which proposed the existence of the "food of life" within air, much later recognized as oxygen. In 1615 Jean Beguin published the "Tyrocinium Chymicum", an early chemistry textbook, and in it draws the first-ever chemical equation. In 1637 René Descartes publishes "Discours de la méthode", which contains an outline of the scientific method.


title: History of chemistry

text: The Dutch chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont's work "Ortus medicinae" was published posthumously in 1648; the book is cited by some as a major transitional work between alchemy and chemistry, and as an important influence on Robert Boyle. The book contains the results of numerous experiments and establishes an early version of the law of conservation of mass. Working during the time just after Paracelsus and iatrochemistry, Jan Baptist van Helmont suggested that there are insubstantial substances other than air and coined a name for them – "gas", from the Greek word "chaos". In addition to introducing the word "gas" into the vocabulary of scientists, van Helmont conducted several experiments involving gases. Jan Baptist van Helmont is also remembered today largely for his ideas on spontaneous generation and his 5-year tree experiment, as well as being considered the founder of pneumatic chemistry.


title: History of chemistry

text: Anglo-Irish chemist Robert Boyle (1627–1691) is considered to have initiated the gradual separation of chemistry from alchemy. Although skeptical of elements and convinced of alchemy, Boyle played a key part in elevating the "sacred art" as an independent, fundamental and philosophical discipline. He is best known for Boyle's law, which he presented in 1662, though he was not the first to discover it. The law describes the inversely proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a closed system.


title: History of chemistry

text: Boyle is also credited for his landmark publication "The Sceptical Chymist" (1661), which advocated for a rigorous approach to experimentation among chemists. In the work, Boyle questioned some commonly held alchemical theories and argued for practitioners to be more “philosophical” and less commercially focused. He rejected the classical four elements of earth, fire, air, and water, and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms and chemical reactions that could be subject to rigorous experiment.


title: History of chemistry

text: Boyle also tried to purify chemicals to obtain reproducible reactions. He was a vocal proponent of the mechanical philosophy proposed by René Descartes to explain and quantify the physical properties and interactions of material substances. Boyle was an atomist, but favoured the word "corpuscle" over "atoms". He commented that the finest division of matter where the properties are retained is at the level of corpuscles.


title: History of chemistry

text: Boyle repeated the tree experiment of van Helmont, and was the first to use indicators which changed colors with acidity. He also performed numerous investigations with an air pump, and noted that the mercury fell as air was pumped out. He also observed that pumping the air out of a container would extinguish a flame and kill small animals placed inside. Through his works, Boyle helped to lay the foundations for the chemical revolution two centuries later.


title: History of chemistry

text: In 1702, German chemist Georg Stahl coined the name "phlogiston" for the substance believed to be released in the process of burning. Around 1735, Swedish chemist Georg Brandt analyzed a dark blue pigment found in copper ore. Brandt demonstrated that the pigment contained a new element, later named cobalt. In 1751, a Swedish chemist and pupil of Stahl's named Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, identified an impurity in copper ore as a separate metallic element, which he named nickel. Cronstedt is one of the founders of modern mineralogy. Cronstedt also discovered the mineral scheelite in 1751, which he named tungsten, meaning "heavy stone" in Swedish.


title: History of chemistry

text: In 1754, Scottish chemist Joseph Black isolated carbon dioxide, which he called "fixed air". In 1757, Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt, while investigating arsenic compounds, creates Cadet's fuming liquid, later discovered to be cacodyl oxide, considered to be the first synthetic organometallic compound. In 1758, Joseph Black formulated the concept of latent heat to explain the thermochemistry of phase changes. In 1766, English chemist Henry Cavendish isolated hydrogen, which he called "inflammable air". Cavendish discovered hydrogen as a colorless, odourless gas that burns and can form an explosive mixture with air, and published a paper on the production of water by burning inflammable air (that is, hydrogen) in dephlogisticated air (now known to be oxygen), the latter a constituent of atmospheric air (phlogiston theory).


title: History of chemistry

text: In 1773, Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered oxygen, which he called "fire air", but did not immediately publish his achievement. In 1774, English chemist Joseph Priestley independently isolated oxygen in its gaseous state, calling it "dephlogisticated air", and published his work before Scheele. During his lifetime, Priestley's considerable scientific reputation rested on his invention of soda water, his writings on electricity, and his discovery of several "airs" (gases), the most famous being what Priestley dubbed "dephlogisticated air" (oxygen). However, Priestley's determination to defend phlogiston theory and to reject what would become the chemical revolution eventually left him isolated within the scientific community.


title: History of chemistry

text: In 1781, Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered that a new acid, tungstic acid, could be made from Cronstedt's scheelite (at the time named tungsten). Scheele and Torbern Bergman suggested that it might be possible to obtain a new metal by reducing this acid. In 1783, José and Fausto Elhuyar found an acid made from wolframite that was identical to tungstic acid. Later that year, in Spain, the brothers succeeded in isolating the metal now known as tungsten by reduction of this acid with charcoal, and they are credited with the discovery of the element.


title: History of chemistry

text: Italian physicist Alessandro Volta constructed a device for accumulating a large charge by a series of inductions and groundings. He investigated the 1780s discovery "animal electricity" by Luigi Galvani, and found that the electric current was generated from the contact of dissimilar metals, and that the frog leg was only acting as a detector. Volta demonstrated in 1794 that when two metals and brine-soaked cloth or cardboard are arranged in a circuit they produce an electric current.


title: History of chemistry

text: In 1800, Volta stacked several pairs of alternating copper (or silver) and zinc discs (electrodes) separated by cloth or cardboard soaked in brine (electrolyte) to increase the electrolyte conductivity. When the top and bottom contacts were connected by a wire, an electric current flowed through this voltaic pile and the connecting wire. Thus, Volta is credited with constructing the first electrical battery to produce electricity.


title: History of chemistry

text: Thus, Volta is considered to be the founder of the discipline of electrochemistry. A Galvanic cell (or voltaic cell) is an electrochemical cell that derives electrical energy from a spontaneous redox reaction taking place within the cell. It generally consists of two different metals connected by a salt bridge, or individual half-cells separated by a porous membrane.


title: History of chemistry

text: Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier demonstrated with careful measurements that transmutation of water to earth was not possible, but that the sediment observed from boiling water came from the container. He burnt phosphorus and sulfur in air, and proved that the products weighed more than the original samples, with the mass gained being lost from the air. Thus, in 1789, he established the Law of Conservation of Mass, which is also called "Lavoisier's Law."


title: History of chemistry

text: Repeating the experiments of Priestley, he demonstrated that air is composed of two parts, one of which combines with metals to form calxes. In "Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides" (1778), he demonstrated that the "air" responsible for combustion was also the source of acidity. The next year, he named this portion oxygen (Greek for acid-former), and the other azote (Greek for no life). Because of his more thorough characterization of it as an element, Lavoisier thus has a claim to the discovery of oxygen along with Priestley and Scheele. He also discovered that the "inflammable air" discovered by Cavendish – which he termed hydrogen (Greek for water-former) – combined with oxygen to produce a dew, as Priestley had reported, which appeared to be water. In "Reflexions sur le Phlogistique" (1783), Lavoisier showed the phlogiston theory of combustion to be inconsistent. Mikhail Lomonosov independently established a tradition of chemistry in Russia in the 18th century; he also rejected the phlogiston theory, and anticipated the kinetic theory of gases. Lomonosov regarded heat as a form of motion, and stated the idea of conservation of matter.


title: History of chemistry

text: Lavoisier worked with Claude Louis Berthollet and others to devise a system of chemical nomenclature, which serves as the basis of the modern system of naming chemical compounds. In his "Methods of Chemical Nomenclature" (1787), Lavoisier invented the system of naming and classification still largely in use today, including names such as sulfuric acid, sulfates, and sulfites. In 1785, Berthollet was the first to introduce the use of chlorine gas as a commercial bleach. In the same year he first determined the elemental composition of the gas ammonia. Berthollet first produced a modern bleaching liquid in 1789 by passing chlorine gas through a solution of sodium carbonate – the result was a weak solution of sodium hypochlorite. Another strong chlorine oxidant and bleach which he investigated and was the first to produce, potassium chlorate (KClO), is known as Berthollet's Salt. Berthollet is also known for his scientific contributions to the theory of chemical equilibrium via the mechanism of reversible reactions.


title: History of chemistry

text: Lavoisier's "Traité Élémentaire de Chimie" (Elementary Treatise of Chemistry, 1789) was the first modern chemical textbook, and presented a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear statement of the Law of Conservation of Mass, and denied the existence of phlogiston. In addition, it contained a list of elements, or substances that could not be broken down further, which included oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus, mercury, zinc, and sulfur. His list, however, also included light and caloric, which he believed to be material substances. In the work, Lavoisier underscored the observational basis of his chemistry, stating "I have tried...to arrive at the truth by linking up facts; to suppress as much as possible the use of reasoning, which is often an unreliable instrument which deceives us, in order to follow as much as possible the torch of observation and of experiment." Nevertheless, he believed that the real existence of atoms was philosophically impossible. Lavoisier demonstrated that organisms disassemble and reconstitute atmospheric air in the same manner as a burning body.


title: History of chemistry

text: With Pierre-Simon Laplace, Lavoisier used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced. They found the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion. Lavoisier believed in the radical theory, which stated that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical reaction, would combine with oxygen in reactions. He believed all acids contained oxygen. He also discovered that diamond is a crystalline form of carbon.


title: History of chemistry

text: Although many of Lavoisier's partners were influential for the advancement of chemistry as a scientific discipline, his wife Marie-Anne Lavoisier was arguably the most influential of them all. Upon their marriage, Mme. Lavoisier began to study chemistry, English, and drawing in order to help her husband in his work either by translating papers into English, a language which Lavoisier did not know, or by keeping records and drawing the various apparatuses that Lavoisier used in his labs. Through her ability to read and translate articles from Britain for her husband, Lavoisier had access to knowledge of many of the chemical advances happening outside of his lab. Furthermore, Mme. Lavoisier kept records of her husband's work and ensured that his works were published. The first sign of Marie-Anne's true potential as a chemist in Lavoisier's lab came when she was translating a book by the scientist Richard Kirwan. While translating, she stumbled upon and corrected multiple errors. When she presented her translation, along with her notes, to Lavoisier, her contributions led to Lavoisier's refutation of the theory of phlogiston.


title: History of chemistry

text: Lavoisier made many fundamental contributions to the science of chemistry. Following his work, chemistry acquired a strict, quantitative nature, allowing reliable predictions to be made. The revolution in chemistry which he brought about was a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of chemical balance, used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature. Further potential contributions were cut short when Lavoisier was beheaded during the French Revolution.


title: History of chemistry

text: In 1802, French American chemist and industrialist Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, who learned manufacture of gunpowder and explosives under Antoine Lavoisier, founded a gunpowder manufacturer in Delaware known as E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company. The French Revolution forced his family to move to the United States where du Pont started a gunpowder mill on the Brandywine River in Delaware. Wanting to make the best powder possible, du Pont was vigilant about the quality of the materials he used. For 32 years, du Pont served as president of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, which eventually grew into one of the largest and most successful companies in America.


title: History of chemistry

text: Throughout the 19th century, chemistry was divided between those who followed the atomic theory of John Dalton and those who did not, such as Wilhelm Ostwald and Ernst Mach. Although such proponents of the atomic theory as Amedeo Avogadro and Ludwig Boltzmann made great advances in explaining the behavior of gases, this dispute was not finally settled until Jean Perrin's experimental investigation of Einstein's atomic explanation of Brownian motion in the first decade of the 20th century.


title: History of chemistry

text: Well before the dispute had been settled, many had already applied the concept of atomism to chemistry. A major example was the ion theory of Svante Arrhenius which anticipated ideas about atomic substructure that did not fully develop until the 20th century. Michael Faraday was another early worker, whose major contribution to chemistry was electrochemistry, in which (among other things) a certain quantity of electricity during electrolysis or electrodeposition of metals was shown to be associated with certain quantities of chemical elements, and fixed quantities of the elements therefore with each other, in specific ratios. These findings, like those of Dalton's combining ratios, were early clues to the atomic nature of matter.


title: History of chemistry

text: Vladimir Markovnikov born in 1838, was a Russian Scientist who proceeded most of his work at Kazan University in Russia. In his time at the University he studied in a laboratory better known as "The Cradle of Russian Organic Chemistry". Butlerov was his teacher in his time at Kazan more or less a mentor in where he inherited lots of knowledge from which would contribute to his rule. In addition to his years at Kazan where he would graduate, he studied in Germany for two years expanding his knowledge of chemistry. Markovnikovs contributions to the fields of organic chemistry lead to his findings in his own rule in which he named after himself. The rule stated that hydrogen halides when added to alkenes and alkynes would add in a way that hydrogens would bond to the side of the carbon with the most hydrogen substituents. Products in chemistry that follow this rule were considered markvnikov and those that did not were considered anti-markovnikov products. In today's world this rule would be used to fuel what we call "green chemistry" or for lack of better terms atom efficiency where all the atoms in the reaction are being used as opposed to half or less. Markovnikov in a broader spectrum contributed to the region of regiochemistry or regioselectivity where atom substituents (mostly carbon) can be pre-determined based upon rules such as this. With his rule, Markovnikov revolutionized the areas of substition and elimination reactions with a better understanding of carbocation intermediates and transitions phases in a reaction. Because of these contributions in 1945 Alexander Erminingeldovich Arbuzov headed a branch of the chemistry department for the USSR at Kazan and it received an award based on the foundations of alumni Markovnikov. Even with his findings Markovnikovs rule was not the end all be all because there were found exceptions such as free radical addition and olefin metathesis. With his rule Markovnikov was able to contribute in the fields of petroleum products and alicylic compounds because they both contain needs for specified regioselectivity. Markovnikovs contributions were not brought out all by himself though. Names like Berichete, Michael, and Kharasch were major contributors allowing for Markovnikovs works to be published and seen around the world.


title: History of chemistry

text: Like it was mentioned before, Markovnikov was essential in the works of stereochemistry and regioselectivity. His rules are important in the chemical industry as alkenes or double bonds are present between many molecules that we use today for various products. Molecules that go against his rule or Anti-Markovnikov products are more common in the chemical industry which helps us to better understand how molecules add to carbon to carbon double bonds. He also proved his theories true with silver oxide tests whih in his case showed that bromine and iodine were bonded to the same carbon atom hence them adding to the less hydrogen substituated carbon atom. Hydrogen chloride and hydrogen bromide when added to an alkene were shown clearly as key representation of Markovnikovs rule so that it can be proven and tested today along with the following silver oxide test. But even with the evidence he had Markovnikov was not 100% about his work or even his own rule because at the time they lacked the technology to prove for sure that these forces occurred. With all these contributions we today are able to better understand bond angles on hybridized carbons. In order for certain bonds to form an atom may have to be at at certain angle where to atoms can meet and share electrons. Even with extensive research and rules such as Markovnikovs there are still many undiscovered mysteries in the field of organic synthesis.


title: History of chemistry

text: In 1803, English meteorologist and chemist John Dalton proposed Dalton's law, which describes the relationship between the components in a mixture of gases and the relative pressure each contributes to that of the overall mixture. Discovered in 1801, this concept is also known as Dalton's law of partial pressures.