title: Chaldean Catholic Church

text: Tfinkdji's statistics also highlight the effect on the Chaldean Catholic Church of the educational reforms of the patriarch Joseph VI Audo. The Chaldean Catholic Church on the eve of the First World War was becoming less dependent on the monastery of Rabban Hormizd and the College of the Propaganda for the education of its bishops. Seventeen Chaldean bishops were consecrated between 1879 and 1913, of whom only one (Stephen Yohannan Qaynaya) was entirely educated in the monastery of Rabban Hormizd. Six bishops were educated at the College of the Propaganda (Joseph Gabriel Adamo, Toma Audo, Jeremy Timothy Maqdasi, Isaac Khudabakhash, Theodore Msayeh and Peter Aziz), and the future patriarch Yousef VI Emmanuel II Thomas was trained in the seminary of Ghazir near Beirut. Of the other nine bishops, two (Addai Sher and Francis David) were trained in the Syro-Chaldean seminary in Mosul, and seven (Philip Yaqob Abraham, Yaqob Yohannan Sahhar, Eliya Joseph Khayyat, Shlemun Sabbagh, Yaqob Awgin Manna, Hormizd Stephen Jibri and ) in the patriarchal seminary in Mosul.


title: Chaldean Catholic Church

text: The current Patriarch is Louis Raphaël I Sako, elected in January 2013. In October 2007, his predecessor, Emmanuel III Delly became the first Chaldean Catholic patriarch to be elevated to the rank of Cardinal within the Catholic Church.


title: Chaldean Catholic Church

text: A slight reform of the liturgy was effective since 6 January 2007, and it aimed to unify the many different uses of each parish, to remove centuries-old additions that merely imitated the Roman Rite, and for pastoral reasons. The main elements of variations are: the Anaphora said aloud by the priest, the return to the ancient architecture of the churches, the restoration of the ancient use where the bread and wine are readied before a service begins, and the removal from the Creed of the "Filioque" clause.


title: Chaldean Catholic Church

text: The Church's relations with its fellow Assyrians in the Assyrian Church of the East have improved in recent years. In 1994, Pope John Paul II and Patriarch Dinkha IV of the Assyrian Church of the East signed a "Common Christological Declaration". On the 20 July 2001, the Holy See issued a document, in agreement with the Assyrian Church of the East, named "Guidelines for admission to the Eucharist between the Chaldean Church and the Assyrian Church of the East", which confirmed also the validity of the Anaphora of Addai and Mari.


title: Chaldean Catholic Church

text: In 2015, while the patriarchate of the Assyrian Church of the East was vacant following the death of Dinkha IV, the Chaldean Patriarch Louis Raphaël I Sako proposed unifying the three modern patriarchates into a re-established Church of the East with a single Patriarch in full communion with the Pope. The Assyrian Church of the East respectfully declined this proposal citing "ecclesiological divergences still remaining" and proceeded with its election of a new patriarch.


title: Chaldean Catholic Church

text: Yakoub, Afram (2020). "The Path to Assyria: A call for national revival." Sweden: Tigris Press. ISBN 978-91-981541-6-0


title: Chaldean Catholic Church

text: Lundgren, Svante (2016). "The Assyrians - From Nineveh to Södertälje." Enschede, The Netherlands: Nineveh Press. ISBN 978-9198344127


title: Shower

text: A shower is a place in which a person bathes under a spray of typically warm or hot water. Indoors, there is a drain in the floor. Most showers have temperature, spray pressure and adjustable showerhead nozzle. The simplest showers have a swivelling nozzle aiming down on the user, while more complex showers have a showerhead connected to a hose that has a mounting bracket. This allows the showerer to hold the showerhead by hand to spray the water onto different parts of their body. A shower can be installed in a small shower stall or bathtub with a plastic shower curtain or door. Showering is common in Western culture due to the efficiency of using it compared with a bathtub. Its use in hygiene is, therefore, common practice.


title: Shower

text: The original showers were neither indoor structures nor man-made but were common natural formations: waterfalls. The falling water rinsed the bathers completely clean and was more efficient than bathing in a traditional basin, which required manual transport of both fresh and waste water. Ancient people began to reproduce these natural phenomena by pouring jugs of water, often very cold, over themselves after washing. There has been evidence of early upper class Egyptian and Mesopotamians having indoor shower rooms where servants would bathe them in the privacy of their own homes. However, these were rudimentary by modern standards, having rudimentary drainage systems and water was carried, not pumped, into the room. The ancient Greeks were the first people to have showers. Their aqueducts and sewage systems made of lead pipes allowed water to be pumped both into and out of large communal shower rooms used by elites and common citizens alike. These rooms have been discovered at the site of the city Pergamum and can also be found represented in pottery of the era. The depictions are very similar to modern locker room showers, and even included bars to hang up clothing. The ancient Romans also followed this convention; their famous bathhouses (Thermae) can be found all around the Mediterranean and as far out as modern-day England. The Romans not only had these showers but also believed in bathing multiple times a week, if not every day. The water and sewage systems developed by the Greeks and Romans broke down and fell out of use after the fall of the Roman Empire.


title: Shower

text: The first mechanical shower, operated by a hand pump, was patented in England in 1767 by William Feetham, a stove maker from Ludgate Hill in London. His shower contraption used a pump to force the water into a vessel above the user's head and a chain would then be pulled to release the water from the vessel. Although the system dispensed with the servant labour of filling up and pouring out buckets of water, the showers failed to catch on with the rich as a method for piping hot water through the system was not available. The system would also recycle the same dirty water through every cycle.


title: Shower

text: This early start was greatly improved in the anonymously invented English Regency shower design of circa 1810 (there is some ambiguity among the sources). The original design was over tall, and was made of several metal pipes painted to look like bamboo. A basin suspended above the pipes fed water into a nozzle that distributed the water over the user's shoulders. The water on the ground was drained and pumped back through the pipes into the basin, where the cycle would repeat itself. The original prototype was steadily improved upon in the following decades until it began to approximate the shower of today in its mode of operation. Hand-pumped models became fashionable at one point as well as the use of adjustable sprayers for different water flow. The reinvention of reliable indoor plumbing around 1850 allowed free-standing showers to be connected to a running water source, supplying a renewable flow of water. Modern showers were installed in the barracks of the French army in the 1870s as an economic hygiene measure, under the guidance of François Merry Delabost, a French doctor and inventor. As surgeon-general at Bonne Nouvelle prison in Rouen, Delabost had previously replaced individual baths with mandatory communal showers for use by prisoners, arguing that they were more economical and hygienic. First six, then eight shower stalls were installed. The water was heated by a steam engine and in less than five minutes, up to eight prisoners could wash simultaneously with only twenty litres of water. The French system of communal showers was adopted by other armies, the first being that of Prussia in 1879, and by prisons in other jurisdictions. They were also adopted by boarding schools, before being installed in public bathhouses. The first shower in a public bathhouse was in 1887 in Vienna. In France, public bathhouses and showers were established by Charles Cazalet, firstly in Bordeaux in 1893 and then in Paris in 1899.


title: Shower

text: Domestic showers are most commonly stall showers or showers combined with a bathtub. A stall shower is a dedicated shower area which uses a door or curtain to contain water spray. The shower/tub format saves bathroom space and enables the area to be used for either a bath or a shower and commonly uses a sliding shower curtain or door to contain the water spray. Showers may also be in a wet room, in which there is no contained shower area, or in a dedicated shower room, which does not require containment of water spray. Domestic showers can have a single shower head, multiple shower heads, handheld shower head(s) or other variations, all which may be adjustable as needed to varying degrees.


title: Shower

text: Many modern athletic and aquatic facilities provide showers for use by patrons, commonly in gender segregated changing rooms. These can be in the form of individual stalls shielded by curtains or a door or communal shower rooms. The latter are generally large open rooms with any number of shower heads installed either directly into the walls or on posts throughout the shower area. Open showers are often provided at public swimming pools and at popular beaches. Military forces around the world set up field showers to enable the washing away of dangerous residue from modern weapons such as caustic chemicals, deadly biological agents, and radioactive materials, which can harm forces on both sides of a conflict.


title: Shower

text: A wet room often refers to a bathroom without internal dedicated or raised areas which has an open shower. Structurally, a wet room requires the bathroom to have a gradient or slope towards a drain hole, and a foul air trap connecting the floor to the waste pipes. Depending on region, the term wet room can also encompass other rooms such as laundry rooms. In Norway, for example, any room with tap water and a drain in the floor is considered a wet room. Different jurisdictions often have special regulations concerning the design and construction of wet rooms to prevent damage from damp air or water leakage, e.g. mold. There are also often special regulations concerning electrical installations in wet rooms. For example, since water supplies often have their own electrical grounding, there can be an added risk of injury associated with ground faults, and some jurisdictions therefore require the installation of residual-current devices in wet rooms.


title: Shower

text: Shower usage in the latter half of the 20th century skyrocketed. Personal hygiene became a primary concern, and bathing every day or multiple times a day is common among Western cultures. Showering is generally faster than bathing and can use less water. In an average home, showers are typically the third largest water use after toilets and clothes washers. The average American shower uses and lasts for 8.2 minutes at an average flow rate of per minute. Showering is one of the leading ways people use water in the home, accounting for nearly 17 percent of residential indoor water use, which roughly equals to of water annually just for showering. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recommends to retrofit home showers with a shower head that uses less than to conserve water. However, many have hypothesized reducing flow rates of showerheads might cause users to take much longer showers. Other options to save water include using extra high pressure mist flow or design in sensors and valves to shut off or reduce water flow while people are not actively using the shower water.


title: Shower

text: Various measures can be taken to increase safety for those, especially elderly people, taking showers or baths. When a person takes a shower may indicate their social position. Blue collar workers and children have been found to be more likely to take a shower in the evening after work and school, whereas white collar workers have been found to shower in the morning before work. Some people take more than one shower each day, normally at their normal shower time, and after exercising. People also shower to cool off in hot weather, especially those unaccustomed to the climate. Used shower water can be employed as greywater.


title: Shower

text: Showering is mostly part of a daily routine primarily to promote cleanliness and prevent odor, disease and infection. Advances in science and medicine in the 19th century began to realize the benefit of regular bathing to an individual's health. As a result, most modern cultures encourage a daily personal hygiene regimen. Showering has also developed the reputation as a relaxing and generally therapeutic activity.


title: Shower

text: Designs for shower facilities vary by location and purpose. There are free-standing showers, but also showers which are integrated into a bathtub. Showers are separated from the surrounding area through watertight curtains (shower curtain), sliding doors, or folding doors, or shower blinds, in order to protect the space from spraying water. Showers with a level entry wet room are becoming very popular, especially due to improvements in waterproofing systems and prefabricated components. Places such as a swimming pool, a locker room, or a military facility have multiple showers. There may be communal shower rooms without divisions, or shower stalls (typically open at the top). Many types of showers are available, including complete shower units which are all encompassing showers that include the pan, walls, and often the shower head, as well as pieced together units in which the pan, shower head, and doors are purchased separately. Each type of shower poses different installation issues.


title: Shower

text: Though the installation requirements of each of shower will differ, the installation of a shower in general requires the laying of several water transportation pipes, including a pipe for hot water and for cold water, and a drainage pipe. It is important that the wet areas of a bathroom be waterproof, and multiple layers of waterproofing can be employed. Grout is used to fill gaps between tiles, but grout and tile setting materials are generally porous. Tiles are generally waterproof, though a shower pan must be installed beneath them as a safety to prevent water leakage. Thus small mosaic tiles offer less of a defense than large format tiles. Sub-tile waterproofing is important when tiles are being used. Best practice requires a waterproofing material to cover the walls and floor of the shower area that are then covered with tile, or in some countries with a sheet material like vinyl.


title: Shower

text: A shower may be equipped with a second emergency drain outside of the shower in case of overflow. An emergency overflow drain is required in Australia and some European countries.


title: Shower

text: A shower head is a perforated nozzle that distributes water over solid angle a focal point of use, generally overhead the bather. A shower uses less water than a full immersion in a bath. Some shower heads can be adjusted to spray different patterns of water, such as massage, gentle spray, strong spray, and intermittent pulse or combination modes. Hard water may result in calcium and magnesium deposits clogging the head, reducing the flow and changing the spray pattern. For descaling, various acidic chemicals or brushes can be used or some heads have rubber-like jets that can be manually descaled. A homemade remedy is to immerse it in a solution of water and vinegar for a while, since the vinegar is able to dissolve limescale. Some governments around the world set standards for water usage and regulate shower heads. For example, in the United States, residential and most commercial shower heads must flow no more than per minute per the Department of Energy ruling 10 CFR 430. Low-flow shower heads that have a water flow of equal or less than per minute (2.0 gallons per minute), can use water more efficiently by aerating the water stream, altering nozzles through advanced flow principles or by high-speed oscillation of the spray stream. The US EPA administers a voluntary water saving program, WaterSense, which can certify low-flow shower heads.


title: Shower

text: Curtains can be used in shower or bathtub enclosures with two main purposes: to provide privacy and to prevent water from flooding or spraying outside the shower or bathtub area. Shower and bathtub curtains usually surround the bath inside the tub or shower area and are held up with railings or curtain rods high on the wall or ceiling. To accommodate the different types of bathtub shapes, railings can come in different sizes and are flexible in their design.


title: Shower

text: Some people use two shower curtains: one that is inside the tub, which is mainly functional or decorative as well, and an outer shower curtain, which is purely decorative. The bottom portion of the inner curtain often comes with magnetic discs or suction cups which adhere to the bathtub itself.


title: Shower

text: Shower or bathtub doors are doors (also called screens) used in bathrooms that help keep water inside a shower or bathtub and are alternatives to shower curtains. They are available in many different styles such as framed or frameless, sliding or swing. They are usually constructed of aluminium, clear glass, plexiglass or tempered glass. Shower doors can come in many different hardware finishes and glass patterns that can match other bathroom hardware such as faucets and shower heads. There are also shower doors that are in a neo angle design for use on shower pans that have the neo design as well. The design of the shower pan is extremely important as the shower door must be the type required for the pan in order to work. A shower door requires plastic lining along the edges of the door to protect against water leaking out.


title: Black fly

text: A black fly or blackfly (sometimes called a buffalo gnat, turkey gnat, or white socks) is any member of the family Simuliidae of the Culicomorpha infraorder. It is related to the Ceratopogonidae, Chironomidae, and Thaumaleidae. Over 2,200 species of black flies have been formally named, of which 15 are extinct. They are divided into two subfamilies: Parasimuliinae contains only one genus and four species; Simuliinae contains all the rest. Over 1,800 of the species belong to the genus "Simulium".


title: Black fly

text: Most black flies gain nourishment by feeding on the blood of mammals, including humans, although the males feed mainly on nectar. They are usually small, black or gray, with short legs, and antennae. They are a common nuisance for humans, and many U.S. states have programs to suppress the black fly population. They spread several diseases, including river blindness in Africa ("Simulium damnosum" and "S. neavei") and the Americas ("S. callidum" and "S. metallicum" in Central America, "S. ochraceum" in Central and South America).


title: Black fly

text: Eggs are laid in running water, and the larvae attach themselves to rocks. Breeding success is highly sensitive to water pollution. The larvae use tiny hooks at the ends of their abdomens to hold on to the substrate, using silk holdfasts and threads to move or hold their place. They have foldable fans surrounding their mouths. The fans expand when feeding, catching passing debris (small organic particles, algae, and bacteria). The larva scrapes the fan's catch into its mouth every few seconds. Black flies depend on lotic habitats to bring food to them. They will pupate under water and then emerge in a bubble of air as flying adults. They are often preyed upon by trout during emergence. The larva of some South African species are known to be phoretic on mayfly nymphs.


title: Black fly

text: Adult males feed on nectar, while females exhibit anautogeny and feed on blood before laying eggs. Some species in Africa can range as far as from aquatic breeding sites in search of their blood meals, while other species have more limited ranges.


title: Black fly

text: Different species prefer different host sources for their blood meals, which is sometimes reflected in the common name for the species. They feed in the daytime, preferably when wind speeds are low.


title: Black fly

text: Black flies may be either univoltine or multivoltine, depending on the species. The number of generations a particular pest species has each year tends to correlate with the intensity of human efforts to control those pests.


title: Black fly

text: Work conducted at Portsmouth University in 1986–1987 indicates "Simulium" spp. create highly acidic conditions within their midguts. This acidic environment provides conditions ideally suited to bacteria that metabolise cellulose. Insects cannot metabolise cellulose independently, but the presence of these bacteria allows cellulose to be metabolised into basic sugars. This provides nutrition to the black fly larvae, as well as the bacteria. This symbiotic relationship indicates a specific adaptation, as fresh-flowing streams could not provide sufficient nutrition to the growing larva in any other way.


title: Black fly

text: Only four genera in the family Simuliidae, "Simulium", "Prosimulium", "Austrosimulium", and "Cnephia", contain species that feed on people, though other species prefer to feed on other mammals or on birds. "Simulium", the type genus, is the most widespread and is a vector for several diseases, including river blindness.


title: Black fly

text: Mature adults can disperse tens or hundreds of miles from their breeding grounds in fresh flowing water, under their own power and assisted by prevailing winds, complicating control efforts. Swarming behavior can make outdoor activities unpleasant or intolerable, and can affect livestock production. During the 18th century, the "Golubatz fly" ("Simulium colombaschense") was a notorious pest in central Europe. Even non-biting clouds of black flies, whether composed of males or of species that do not feed on humans or do not require a blood meal before egg laying, can form a nuisance by swarming into orifices.


title: Black fly

text: Bites are shallow and accomplished by first stretching the skin using teeth on the labrum and then abrading it with the maxillae and mandibles, cutting the skin and rupturing its fine capillaries. Feeding is facilitated by a powerful anticoagulant in the flies' saliva, which also partially numbs the site of the bite, reducing the host's awareness of being bitten and thereby extending the flies' feeding time. Biting flies feed during daylight hours only and tend to zero in on areas of thinner skin, such as the nape of the neck or ears and ankles.


title: Black fly

text: Itching and localized swelling and inflammation sometimes result from a bite. Swelling can be quite pronounced depending on the species and the individual's immune response, and irritation may persist for weeks. Intense feeding can cause "black fly fever", with headache, nausea, fever, swollen lymph nodes, and aching joints; these symptoms are probably a reaction to a compound from the flies' salivary glands. Less common severe allergic reactions may require hospitalization.


title: Black fly

text: Repellents provide some protection against biting flies. Products containing the active ingredient ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate (IR3535), DEET ("N","N"-diethyl-"meta"-toluamide), or picaridin are most effective. Some beauty products have been found effective, and their use as insect repellents have been approved by EPA (e.g., Skin So Soft). However, given the limited effectiveness of repellents, protecting oneself against biting flies requires taking additional measures, such as avoiding areas inhabited by the flies, avoiding peak biting times, and wearing heavy-duty, light-colored clothing, including long-sleeve shirts, long pants and hats. When black flies are numerous and unavoidable, netting that covers the head, like the “bee bonnets” used by beekeepers, can provide protection.


title: Black fly

text: Black flies are central to the transmission of the parasitic nematode "Onchocerca volvulus" which causes onchocerciasis, or "river blindness". It serves as the larval host for the nematode and acts as the vector by which the disease is spread. The parasite lives on human skin and is transmitted to the black fly during feeding.


title: Time constant

text: In physics and engineering, the time constant, usually denoted by the Greek letter (tau), is the parameter characterizing the response to a step input of a first-order, linear time-invariant (LTI) system. The time constant is the main characteristic unit of a first-order LTI system.


title: Time constant

text: In the time domain, the usual choice to explore the time response is through the step response to a step input, or the impulse response to a Dirac delta function input. In the frequency domain (for example, looking at the Fourier transform of the step response, or using an input that is a simple sinusoidal function of time) the time constant also determines the bandwidth of a first-order time-invariant system, that is, the frequency at which the output signal power drops to half the value it has at low frequencies.


title: Time constant

text: The time constant is also used to characterize the frequency response of various signal processing systems – magnetic tapes, radio transmitters and receivers, record cutting and replay equipment, and digital filters – which can be modelled or approximated by first-order LTI systems. Other examples include time constant used in control systems for integral and derivative action controllers, which are often pneumatic, rather than electrical.


title: Time constant

text: Time constants are a feature of the lumped system analysis (lumped capacity analysis method) for thermal systems, used when objects cool or warm uniformly under the influence of convective cooling or warming.


title: Time constant

text: Physically, the time constant represents the elapsed time required for the system response to decay to zero if the system had continued to decay at the initial rate, because of the progressive change in the rate of decay the response will have actually decreased in value to in this time (say from a step decrease). In an increasing system, the time constant is the time for the system's step response to reach of its final (asymptotic) value (say from a step increase). In radioactive decay the time constant is related to the decay constant (λ), and it represents both the mean lifetime of a decaying system (such as an atom) before it decays, or the time it takes for all but 36.8% of the atoms to decay. For this reason, the time constant is longer than the half-life, which is the time for only 50% of the atoms to decay.


title: Time constant

text: The right-hand side is the "forcing function" describing an external driving function of time, which can be regarded as the system "input", to which is the "response", or system output. Classical examples for are:


title: Time constant

text: where is the amplitude of the forcing function, is the frequency in Hertz, and is the frequency in radians per second.


title: Time constant

text: This behavior is referred to as a "decaying" exponential function. The time (tau) is referred to as the "time constant" and can be used (as in this case) to indicate how rapidly an exponential function decays.


title: Time constant

text: After a period of one time constant the function reaches = approximately 37% of its initial value. In case 4, after five time constants the function reaches a value less than 1% of its original. In most cases this 1% threshold is considered sufficient to assume that the function has decayed to zero – as a rule of thumb, in control engineering a stable system is one that exhibits such an overall damped behavior.


title: Time constant

text: (Response to a real cosine or sine wave input can be obtained by taking the real or imaginary part of the final result by virtue of Euler's formula.) The general solution to this equation for times , assuming is:


title: Time constant

text: For long times the decaying exponentials become negligible and the steady-state solution or long-time solution is:


title: Time constant

text: By convention, the bandwidth of this system is the frequency where drops to half-value, or where . This is the usual bandwidth convention, defined as the frequency range where power drops by less than half (at most −3 dB). Using the frequency in hertz, rather than radians/s ():


title: Time constant

text: The notation stems from the expression of power in decibels and the observation that half-power corresponds to a drop in the value of by a factor of 1/2 or by 3 decibels.


title: Time constant

text: The time constant remains the same for the same system regardless of the starting conditions. Simply stated, a system approaches its final, steady-state situation at a constant rate, regardless of how close it is to that value at any arbitrary starting point.


title: Time constant

text: For example, consider an electric motor whose startup is well modelled by a first-order LTI system. Suppose that when started from rest, the motor takes of a second to reach 63% of its nominal speed of 100 RPM, or 63 RPM—a shortfall of 37 RPM. Then it will be found that after the next of a second, the motor has sped up an additional 23 RPM, which equals 63% of that 37 RPM difference. This brings it to 86 RPM—still 14 RPM low. After a third of a second, the motor will have gained an additional 9 RPM (63% of that 14 RPM difference), putting it at 95 RPM.


title: Time constant

text: In fact, given "any" initial speed of a second later this particular motor will have gained an additional


title: Time constant

text: In an RL circuit composed of a single resistor and inductor, the time constant "formula_26" (in seconds) is


title: Time constant

text: Similarly, in an RC circuit composed of a single resistor and capacitor, the time constant formula_26 (in seconds) is:


title: Time constant

text: Electrical circuits are often more complex than these examples, and may exhibit multiple time constants (See Step response and Pole splitting for some examples.) In the case where feedback is present, a system may exhibit unstable, increasing oscillations. In addition, physical electrical circuits are seldom truly linear systems except for very low amplitude excitations; however, the approximation of linearity is widely used.


title: Time constant

text: In digital electronic circuits another measure, the FO4 is often used. This can be converted to time constant units via the equation formula_30.


title: Time constant

text: Time constants are a feature of the lumped system analysis (lumped capacity analysis method) for thermal systems, used when objects cool or warm uniformly under the influence of convective cooling or warming. In this case, the heat transfer from the body to the ambient at a given time is proportional to the temperature difference between the body and the ambient:


title: Time constant

text: where "h" is the heat transfer coefficient, and "A" is the surface area, "T" is the temperature function, i.e., "T"("t") is the body temperature at time "t", and "T" is the constant ambient temperature. The positive sign indicates the convention that "F" is positive when heat is "leaving" the body because its temperature is higher than the ambient temperature ("F" is an outward flux). If heat is lost to the ambient, this heat transfer leads to a drop in temperature of the body given by:


title: Time constant

text: where "ρ" = density, "c" = specific heat and "V" is the body volume. The negative sign indicates the temperature drops when the heat transfer is "outward" from the body (that is, when "F" > 0). Equating these two expressions for the heat transfer,


title: Time constant

text: In other words, larger masses "ρV" with higher heat capacities "c" lead to slower changes in temperature (longer time constant "τ"), while larger surface areas "A" with higher heat transfer "h" lead to more rapid temperature change (shorter time constant "τ").


title: Time constant

text: Comparison with the introductory differential equation suggests the possible generalization to time-varying ambient temperatures "T". However, retaining the simple constant ambient example, by substituting the variable Δ"T" ≡ ("T − T"), one finds:


title: Time constant

text: Systems for which cooling satisfies the above exponential equation are said to satisfy Newton's law of cooling. The solution to this equation suggests that, in such systems, the difference between the temperature of the system and its surroundings Δ"T" as a function of time "t", is given by:


title: Time constant

text: where Δ"T" is the initial temperature difference, at time "t" = 0. In words, the body assumes the same temperature as the ambient at an exponentially slow rate determined by the time constant.


title: Time constant

text: In an excitable cell such as a muscle or neuron, the time constant of the membrane potential formula_26 is


title: Time constant

text: The resistance across the membrane is a function of the number of open ion channels and the capacitance is a function of the properties of the lipid bilayer.


title: Time constant

text: The time constant is used to describe the rise and fall of membrane voltage, where the rise is described by


title: Time constant

text: Setting for "t" = formula_26 for the rise sets "V"("t") equal to 0.63"V". This means that the time constant is the time elapsed after 63% of "V" has been reached


title: Time constant

text: Setting for "t" = formula_26 for the fall sets "V"("t") equal to 0.37"V", meaning that the time constant is the time elapsed after it has fallen to 37% of "V".


title: Time constant

text: The larger a time constant is, the slower the rise or fall of the potential of a neuron. A long time constant can result in temporal summation, or the algebraic summation of repeated potentials. A short time constant rather produces a coincidence detector through spatial summation.


title: Time constant

text: In exponential decay, such as of a radioactive isotope, the time constant can be interpreted as the mean lifetime. The half-life "T" is related to the exponential time constant formula_26 by


title: Time constant

text: A time constant is the amount of time it takes for a meteorological sensor to respond to a rapid change in a measure, and until it is measuring values within the accuracy tolerance usually expected of the sensor.


title: Time constant

text: This most often applies to measurements of temperature, dew-point temperature, humidity and air pressure. Radiosondes are especially affected due to their rapid increase in altitude.


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: She-Ra: Princess of Power is an American animated series produced in 1985 by Filmation. A spin-off of Filmation's "He-Man and the Masters of the Universe" series, "She-Ra" was aimed primarily at a young female audience to complement "He-Man"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s popularity with young males. Unlike "He-Man", which was based on the "Masters of the Universe" toy line by Mattel, the creation of "She-Ra" was a collaboration between Filmation and Mattel. The initial group of characters and premise were created by uncredited writers Larry DiTillio and J. Michael Straczynski for Filmation, while the characters introduced later were designed by Mattel. Mattel provided financial backing for the series, as well as an accompanying toy line. The series premiered in 1985 and was ended in 1987, after 2 seasons and 93 episodes.


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: On March 22, 1985, Filmation released an animated film based on the series titled "He-Man and She-Ra: The Secret of the Sword". The film is composed of the first five episodes from the "She-Ra" television series: "Into Etheria", "Beast Island", "She-Ra Unchained", "Reunions" and "Battle for Bright Moon".


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: A rebooted series, "She-Ra and the Princesses of Power", premiered on Netflix on November 13, 2018, and concluded on May 15, 2020.


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: The series follows the adventures of Princess Adora, Prince Adam's (He-Man's) twin sister, who leads a group of freedom fighters known as the Great Rebellion in the fight to free Etheria from the tyrannical rule of Hordak and the Evil Horde. With her Sword of Protection, Adora can transform into She-Ra, just as Prince Adam can transform into He-Man.


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: Born on the planet Eternia to Queen Marlena and King Randor, Princess Adora is kidnapped at birth by Hordak and taken to Etheria. There she serves as a mind-controlled Horde Force Captain before He-Man rescues her. After reuniting with her parents on Eternia, She-Ra decides to return to Etheria and lead the Great Rebellion.


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: The first season of the series ran five days a week, like "He-Man". The second season aired Saturday mornings. "She-Ra" ended in 1986, and the character was not mentioned in the two subsequent He-Man animated series.


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: Many of the characters/locations/vehicles in the "Princess of Power" toyline share similarities to the pre-existing "Masters of the Universe" characters. Comparing "She-Ra" (left) with "He-Man" (right):


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: Reruns aired on USA Network from September 1988 to September 1989, and on Qubo Night Owl from September 27, 2010, to August 25, 2013. In 2010, Retro TV began airing reruns. Reruns have also aired on Me-TV, as well as Teletoon Retro in Canada.


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: The female "She-Ra" characters were released in the 1980s as part of the "Princess of Power" toy line, while The Evil Horde were incorporated into "Masters of the Universe". In the 2000s, an exclusive She-Ra toy was released for the "MOTU 200X" line. The later "Masters of the Universe Classics" toy line features characters from the entire franchise, including new action figures from the "She-Ra" cartoon series.


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: In the DC Comics series "Masters of the Universe", the title "Masters of the Universe #8" is a one-shot about She-Ra.


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: The most sought after set by collectors due to its 4X6 collectible art cards and extensive bonus features is the "BCI Eclipse LLC" (under its Ink & Paint classic animation entertainment brand) (under license from Entertainment Rights) released all 93 episodes of "She-Ra: Princess of Power" in 3 volumes on DVD (Region 1) in 2006–2007. Each episode on BCI Ink & Paint's DVD releases of "She-Ra, Princess of Power" was uncut, un-edited, digitally remastered and fully restored for optimum audio and video quality and presented in story continuity order. Each volume contains special features including different 4X6 collectible art cards, documentaries, character profiles, commentaries, retrospective interviews, storyboards, DVD-ROM pdf scripts, trivia, and photo galleries. In 2009, the releases were discontinued when BCI Eclipse ceased operations.


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: On May 31, 2010, Classic Media announced plans to re-release the series on DVD (Region 1). On September 28, 2010, they released Season 1, Volume 1 as a 2-disc set featuring 20 episodes. On January 24, 2011, Classic Media released "She-Ra: The Princess of Power - The Complete Series".


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: On October 19, 2009, Universal Pictures UK (under license from Classic Media) released Season 1, Volume 1 in the UK, exclusively through retailer HMV. In early 2010, other retailers, such as Amazon.co.uk, also began selling the series as a box set.


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: Madman Entertainment released the entire series on DVD (Region 4) in Australia, both in 3 volumes (similar to BCI Eclipse releases) and as a complete series set.


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: Universal Pictures Home Entertainment released all 93 episodes of the original 1985 series of "She-Ra: Princess of Power" on DVD in Region 1 on October 1, 2019. This release includes "He-Man & She-Ra: The Secret of the Sword" and "He-Man & She-Ra: A Christmas Special".


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: On December 12, 2017, DreamWorks Animation SKG and Netflix announced a new reboot series based on She-Ra was announced within DreamWorks Animation Television. The series is executive produced by award-winning author, ND Stevenson (creator of "Nimona" and "Lumberjanes"). On May 18, 2018, new voice actors and the official title were revealed. It was released on November 13, 2018. Unlike most reboots, this reboot shares very little in common with the original series outside of the character names. The reboot series is separate from the continuity of the original Masters of the Universe series, and is noted for exploring themes of gender and LGBTQ representation. This differs from the original series, which subtly explores themes such as racism, sexism, environmental conservation and animal rights.


title: She-Ra: Princess of Power

text: On September 13, 2021, Amazon announced that a live action She-Ra series is in development with DreamWorks Animation serving as an executive producer as the series will be a new, standalone story and will not be connected to the animated show. It was announced that Nicole Kassell will direct the series.


title: Rollin' 60s Neighborhood Crips

text: The Rollin 60s Neighborhood Crips is a street gang based in Los Angeles, California, originally formed in Los Angeles in 1976 from the Westside Crips and having since spread to other cities in the United States. Membership is estimated to be around 1,600 people, making it one of the largest gangs in the Los Angeles area. According to a news outlet in 2004, Rollin' 60s was "the largest black criminal street gang in the City of Los Angeles".


title: Rollin' 60s Neighborhood Crips

text: Members identify themselves by wearing the Seattle Mariners or Chicago White Sox logos and mark areas they are in with graffiti.


title: Rollin' 60s Neighborhood Crips

text: Two men identified as members of the Rollin' 60s were arrested for the 1984 murders of four members of professional football player Kermit Alexander's family. Police say the gang members got the address wrong and killed the wrong family.


title: Rollin' 60s Neighborhood Crips

text: Musician, businessman, and community activist Nipsey Hussle was a member of the Rollin 60s Neighborhood Crips.


title: Combatants Will Be Dispatched!

text: Having almost completed their conquest of Earth, the evil Kisaragi Corporation has decided to expand their operations to other Earth-like planets across the universe by sending Combat Agent 6 and newly developed combat droid Alice to a fantasy-like world via an untested teleporter. Shortly after arriving, 6 and Alice find themselves drafted into the Kingdom of Grace's military. However, 6 has to collect enough "Evil Points" to help Kisaragi establish a foothold on this new planet. 6 and Alice must balance their work for Kisaragi with saving the Kingdom of Grace and its Princess from the encroaching demon army.


title: Combatants Will Be Dispatched!

text: The first light novel volume was published on November 1, 2017 by Kadokawa Shoten under their Kadokawa Sneaker Bunko imprint. As of June 2022, seven volumes have been published. The light novel series is published in North America by Yen Press.


title: Combatants Will Be Dispatched!

text: A manga adaptation illustrated by Masaaki Kiasa began serialization in Media Factory's "Monthly Comic Alive" manga magazine on March 27, 2018. The series has been collected in eight "tankōbon" volumes. The manga series is also published in North America by Yen Press.


title: Combatants Will Be Dispatched!

text: During a livestream commemorating the first year anniversary of Kadokawa's "Kimirano" light novel website on March 15, 2020, it was announced that the series would receive an anime television series adaptation. The series was animated by J.C.Staff and aired from April 4 to June 20, 2021 on AT-X, Tokyo MX, KBS Kyoto, SUN, and BS-NTV. Hiroaki Akagi directed the series, with Yukie Sugawara handling the series' scripts, Sōta Suwa designing the characters, and Masato Kōda composing the series' music. Miku Itō performed the opening theme "No.6," while Miyu Tomita, Sayaka Kikuchi, Natsumi Murakami, and Minami Takahashi performed the ending theme "Home Sweet Home" as their respective characters. It ran for 12 episodes.


title: Combatants Will Be Dispatched!

text: Funimation co-produced the series and streamed it on its website in North America and the British Isles, in Europe through Wakanim, and in Australia and New Zealand through AnimeLab. Following Sony's acquisition of Crunchyroll, the series was moved to Crunchyroll. Muse Communication has licensed the series in Southeast Asia and South Asia, and streamed it on their Muse Asia YouTube channel and Bilibili.


title: Winter squash

text: Winter squash is an annual fruit representing several squash species within the genus "Cucurbita". Late-growing, less symmetrical, odd-shaped, rough or warty varieties, small to medium in size, but with long-keeping qualities and hard rinds, are usually called winter squash. They differ from summer squash in that they are harvested and eaten in the mature stage when their seeds within have matured fully and their skin has hardened into a tough rind. At this stage, most varieties of this vegetable can be stored for use during the winter. Winter squash is generally cooked before being eaten, and the skin or rind is not usually eaten as it is with summer squash.


title: Winter squash

text: Cultivars of winter squash that are round and orange are called pumpkins. In New Zealand and Australian English, the term "pumpkin" generally refers to the broader category called "winter squash".


title: Winter squash

text: Although winter squashes are grown in many regions, they are relatively economically unimportant, with few exceptions. They are grown extensively in tropical America, Japan, Northern Italy, and certain areas of the United States. The calabazas of the West Indies and the forms grown by the people of Mexico and Central America are not uniform, pure varieties but extremely variable in size, shape, and color. Since these species are normally cross-pollinated, it is now difficult to keep a variety pure.


title: Winter squash

text: Squash is a frost-tender plant meaning that the seeds do not germinate in cold soil. Winter squash seeds germinate best when the soil temperature is , with the warmer end of the range being optimal. It is harvested whenever the fruit has turned a deep, solid color and the skin is hard. Most winter squash is harvested in September or October in the Northern Hemisphere, before the danger of heavy frosts.


title: Winter squash

text: Raw winter squash (such as acorn or butternut) is 90% water, 9% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, it supplies 34 calories and is a moderate source (10-19% of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin C (15% DV) and vitamin B6 (12% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content (table). It is also a source of the provitamin A carotenoid, beta-carotene.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg is an international airport in the French Alsace region, in the administrative commune of Saint-Louis near the border tripoint between France, Germany, and Switzerland. It is northwest of the city of Basel, Switzerland, southeast of Mulhouse in France, and south-southwest of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany. The airport is jointly administered by France and Switzerland, governed by a 1949 international convention. The airport serves as a base for easyJet Switzerland and mainly features flights to European metropolitan and leisure destinations.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: Plans for the construction of a joint Swiss–French airport started in the 1930s but were halted by the Second World War. Swiss planners identified Basel as one of the four cities for which a main urban airport would be developed and recognized that the existing airfield at Sternenfeld in Birsfelden was too small and, due to the development of the adjacent river port facilities, unsuitable for expansion. The suburb of Allschwil was proposed for a new airport, and this would require being constructed across the Franco-Swiss border, leading to talks with French authorities centered on developing a single airport that would serve both countries, enhancing its international airport status.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: In 1946 talks resumed and it was agreed that an airport would be built north of Blotzheim, France. France would provide the land and the Swiss canton of Basel-Stadt would cover the construction costs. Basel-Stadt's Grand Council agreed to pay the costs for a provisional airport even before an international treaty was signed (which was not until 1949). Construction began on 8 March 1946 and a provisional airport with a runway was officially opened on 8 May.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: Between autumn 1951 and spring 1953, the east–west runway was extended to and the "Zollfreistrasse" (customs-free road) was constructed, allowing access from Basel to the departure terminal without passing through French border controls.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: The first enlargement project was approved by referendum in Basel in 1960 and, over the following decades, the terminals and runways were continually extended. The north–south runway was extended further to in 1972. In 1984, an annual total of 1 million passengers was reached. In 1987, the trademark name "EuroAirport Basel–Mulhouse–Freiburg" was introduced.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: In December 1998, Swissair inaugurated service to Newark. Aircraft used on this route included Airbus A310s and A330s. According to the local newspaper "bz Basel", Swissair mainly launched the link to prevent another airline from starting it first. The newspaper was possibly referring to Swiss World Airways, which had expressed its desire to connect the two cities. Swiss law stipulated that if a carrier based in the country introduced a route, no other Swiss airline could add that route to its network for ten years. Swissair also hoped the flight would attract people working for pharmaceutical companies in Basel. Crossair, a subsidiary of Swissair, code-shared on the route. The carrier operated a hub at the EuroAirport, from which it flew to 40 regional destinations. As a result, passengers travelling between Newark and one of those cities could change planes in Basel.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: Swissair announced in early 2000 that the connection to Newark would conclude in March. By this point, Swiss World Airways had shut down. Swissair explained that the flights suffered from low occupancy, although a "bz Basel" journalist commented that the airline did not advertise them well.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: A decision was made to enlarge the terminals again with a new "Y-finger" dock. The first phase was completed in 2002 and the second phase in 2005.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: Crossair was the largest airline at the Basel airport. Following the Swissair liquidation in 2001, the subsequent ending of services in early 2002, and the transformation of Crossair into Swiss International Air Lines, the number of flights from Basel fell and the new terminal was initially underused. In 2004 the low-cost carrier easyJet opened a base at Basel and the passenger totals rose again, reaching 4 million in 2006.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: From 2007 until 2009, Ryanair also flew to the airport for the first time. However, as a result of a dispute over landing fees, the airline closed all eight routes. More recently Ryanair announced it would return in April 2014, with the resumption of Basel–Dublin route as well as a short-lived revival of the Basel – London–Stansted route. Ryanair added a Basel-Zagreb route in December 2021.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: In December 2014, Swiss International Air Lines announced it would cease all operations at Basel by 31 May 2015 due to heavy competition from low-cost carriers. Swiss faced direct competition on five out of its six Basel routes, all of which were operated by Swiss Global Air Lines. The Lufthansa Group announced it would set up Eurowings' first base outside Germany at the EuroAirport as a replacement. However these plans were later cancelled in favour of Vienna International Airport.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: In January 2017, the removal of Basel/Mulhouse from Air Berlin and its Swiss subsidiary Belair's route networks was announced.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: EuroAirport is one of the few airports in the world operated jointly by two countries, in this case France and Switzerland. It is governed by a 1949 international convention. The headquarters of the airport's operations are located in Blotzheim, France. The airport is located completely on French soil; it also has a Swiss customs border and is connected to the Swiss customs area by a -long customs-free road to Basel, allowing air travellers access into Switzerland bypassing French customs clearance. The airport is operated via a state treaty established in 1946 wherein the two countries (Switzerland and France) are granted access to the airport without any customs or other border restrictions. The airport's board has eight members each from France and Switzerland and two advisers from Germany.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: The airport building is split into two separate sections: Swiss and French. Though the entire airport is on French soil and under French jurisdiction, the Swiss authorities have the authority to apply Swiss laws regarding customs, medical services and police work in the Swiss section, including the customs road connecting Basel with the airport. French police are allowed to execute random checks in the Swiss section as well.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: With Switzerland joining the Schengen Treaty in March 2009, the air side was rearranged to include a Schengen and non-Schengen zone. As border control is staffed by both Swiss and French border officers, passengers arriving from non-Schengen countries must approach the customs office of the country for which they have received the Schengen entry visa, which is either France or Switzerland. On the other hand, the Schengen area can be left from any Schengen area country.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: Due to its international status, EuroAirport has three IATA airport codes: BSL (Basel) is the Swiss code, MLH (Mulhouse) is the French code and EAP (EuroAirport) is the neutral code. Some booking systems show different ticket prices for flights to BSL and MLH, as one of them can be a domestic flight within France (with different rules on fuel taxation, etc.), and in some cases, tickets can be issued where a “flight” between BSL and MLH is shown on the itinerary. The airport's ICAO airport code is LFSB. LSZM, the old code, has been re-assigned to the airport of Mollis.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: In 2020, a French court decided that job contracts on the airport are governed by French labor laws, not Swiss ones. Basing on a 2012 agreement, the Swiss companies active on the airport have used Swiss labor regulations, which are more employer-friendly than the French ones. For example, the Swiss laws made it easier to dismiss workers, while the French rules prescribe a 35-hour week, earlier retirement, and much higher compensations in case of dismissals. In exchange, working under Swiss laws results in much higher wages.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: The EuroAirport consists of a single terminal building, a brick-style main area with four levels and the Y-shaped gate area attached to it. The basement ("Level 1") contains the access to the car park, the ground level ("Level 2") features the arrivals facilities. "Level 3" is the check-in area divided into halls 1–4 while the departure gates are located at "Level 4". The gate area features gates 1–2, 20–46, 60–61 and 78–87 of which gates 22–32 are used for non-Schengen flights. Six of the boarding gates feature jet bridges, the others are used for walk- or bus-boarding. As described above, the landside areas are uniquely divided into French and Swiss parts.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: The airport is connected to motorway A3 which leads from Basel to the southeast of Switzerland passing Zürich.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: As of 2021, the closest train station is the Saint-Louis-la-Chaussée station, some north of the terminal. There are plans to build a dedicated airport rail link opening some time in the 2020s.


title: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg

text: There are two town tramway systems in relatively close proximity to the airport - Basel tramway and Mulhouse tramway. As the former was extended across the border in the 2010s, there are plans to further extend it to serve the airport. Presently, the tramway serves St Louis SNCF Station, where you can change for the shuttle bus to the airport. Plans to extend the Mulhouse tramway to the airport do seem to be further from realization, however.


title: Bangladeshis

text: Bangladeshis ( ) are the citizens of Bangladesh, a South Asian country centered on the transnational historical region of Bengal along the eponymous bay.


title: Bangladeshis

text: Bangladeshi citizenship was formed in 1971, when the permanent residents of the former East Pakistan were transformed into citizens of a new republic. Bangladesh is the world's eighth most populous nation. The vast majority of Bangladeshis are ethnolingustically Bengalis, an Indo-Aryan people. The population of Bangladesh is concentrated in the fertile Bengal delta, which has been the center of urban and agrarian civilizations for millennia. The country's highlands, including the Chittagong Hill Tracts and parts of the Sylhet Division, are home to various tribal minorities.


title: Bangladeshis

text: Bengali Muslims are the predominant ethnoreligious group of Bangladesh with a population of 150.36 million, which makes up 91.04% of the country's population as of 2022. The minority Bengali Hindu population made up approximately 7.95% of the population of the country according to the 2022 Census Non-Bengali Muslims make up the largest immigrant community; while the Tibeto-Burman Chakmas, who speak the Indo-Aryan Chakma language, are the largest indigenous ethnic group after Indo-Aryan Bengalis. The Austroasiatic Santhals are the largest aboriginal community.


title: Bangladeshis

text: The Bangladeshi diaspora is concentrated in the Arab world, North America and the United Kingdom. A significant number of Non-Resident Bangladeshis (NRBs) have dual citizenship in different countries.


title: Bangladeshis

text: After Independence of Bangladesh in 1971, Bangladeshis, as a nationality, have been referred to by various terms:


title: Bangladeshis

text: None of these terms should be conflated with "Bengalis", the name of the predominant ethnic group in the country who make up the bulk of all Bangladeshis.


title: Bangladeshis

text: The region of Bengal was settled by people of diverse origins, including Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman and Austroasiatic ancestry, with the most ancient settlements traced back to 4000 YBP.


title: Bangladeshis

text: Bangladesh has a population of 166,303,498 as per 2021, January official projections. As per as 2020 estimation research, around 13 million Bangladeshis lives abroad in the various foreign nation's. The estimated total population of all Bangladeshis including the ones who are living in their country and abroad is about 180 million as per 2020-21 estimation.


title: Bangladeshis

text: Approximately 98% of the Bangladeshi population are Bengalis. East Bengal was a prosperous melting pot for centuries. It witnessed a synthesis of Islamic, North Indian and indigenous Bengali cultures. Today, Bengalis enjoy strong cultural homogeneity with a common standardized language and a variety of dialects.


title: Bangladeshis

text: Over 91.04% of the population are Bengali Muslims (150.36 million) as of 2022. This makes Bangladesh the world's third largest Muslim majority country after Indonesia and Pakistan. Bengali Muslims also make up the world's second largest Muslim ethnic group after Arab Muslims. Most Bangladeshi Muslims are member of the Sunni branch of Islam. There are significant minorities of the Shia and Ahmadiya branches. Bengali Hindus are the largest minority of Bangladesh, with a population between 13.1 million constituting 7.95% as per 2022 Census. Bangladesh has the third largest Hindu population in the world after India and Nepal. There are an estimated 400,000 Bengali Christians and 500,000 Bengali Buddhists.


title: Bangladeshis

text: The Bengali population is concentrated in Bengal delta, the coastal areas of Chittagong Division and the river valleys of Sylhet-Division.


title: Bangladeshis

text: An estimated 3 million Bangladeshi citizens are non-Bengali Muslim immigrants from different parts of South Asia. They include affluent sections of the country's merchant and business class, particularly Nizari Ismailism adherents. They also include former Stranded Pakistanis and their descendants. Bangladesh's non-Bengali Muslims are usually fluent in both Bengali and Hindustani. Also there are over 1 million Rohingya Muslim refugees living in Bangladesh who have came here during the period of (2016–17) crisis. On 28 September 2018, at the 73rd United Nations General Assembly, Bangladeshi Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina said there are 1.1-1.3 million Rohingya refugees now in Bangladesh.


title: Bangladeshis

text: In southeastern Bangladesh, the Chittagong Hill Tracts frontier has a district history. It was an exclusive zone for Tibeto-Burman tribes in Bengal during the British Raj. Today, the area makes up 10% of Bangladesh's territory. It is home to several indigenous ethnic groups in the three hill districts of Rangamati, Bandarban and Khagrachari. The three largest communities in the region have a Raja as their tribal chief who is recognized by the Government of Bangladesh.


title: Bangladeshis

text: There are several Austroasiatic, Tibeto-Burman and Indo-Aryan tribes which inhabit parts of northern and northeastern Bangladesh.


title: Bangladeshis

text: The basic social unit in a village is the family ("poribar" or "gushti"), generally consisting of a complete or incomplete patrilineally extended household ("chula") and residing in a homestead ("bari"). The individual nuclear family often is submerged in the larger unit and might be known as the house ("ghor"). Above the "bari" level, patrilineal kin ties are linked into sequentially larger groups based on real, fictional, or assumed relationships.


title: Bangladeshis

text: A significant unit larger than that of close kin is the voluntary religious and mutual benefit association known as "the society" ("shomaj" or "milat"). Among the functions of a "shomaj" might be the maintenance of a Mosque and support of a mullah. An informal council of "shomaj" elders ("matabdars" or "shordars") settles village disputes. Factional competition between the "motobdars" is a major dynamic of social and political interaction.


title: Bangladeshis

text: Groups of homes in a village are called "Paras", and each "para" has its own name. Several "paras" constitute a "mauza", the basic revenue and census survey unit. The traditional character of rural villages was changing in the latter half of the 20th century with the addition of brick structures of one or more stories scattered among the more common thatched bamboo huts.


title: Bangladeshis

text: Although farming has traditionally ranked among the most desirable occupations, villagers in the 1980s began to encourage their children to leave the increasingly overcrowded countryside to seek more secure employment in the towns. Traditional sources of prestige, such as landholding, distinguished lineage, and religious piety were beginning to be replaced by modern education, higher income, and steadier work. These changes, however, did not prevent rural poverty from increasing greatly.


title: Bangladeshis

text: In 2015, 34% of Bangladeshis lived in cities. Dhaka is the largest city in Bangladesh and one of the world's most populous megacities. Other important cities include Chittagong, Sylhet, Khulna, Rajshahi, Jessore, Barisal, Comilla, Narayanganj and Mymensingh. Most urban centers are rural administrative towns. Urban centers grew in number and population during the 1980s as a result of an administrative decentralization program that featured the creation of upazilas.


title: Bangladeshis

text: Bangladesh is noted for cultural pluralism within a Bengali Muslim majority. Traditional Bengali secularism has been an important contributor to the nation's society and ethos. The Bengali language is a fundamental element of Bangladeshi identity. It is a secular language which evolved between the 7th and 10th centuries, with an indigenous alphabet, and unites people of different faiths and regions. The Bengali Language Movement sowed the seeds of East Pakistani nationalism, ultimately culminating in the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. Since independence, the relationship between religion and the state has been controversial. Between 1972 and 1975, Bangladesh experienced socialism under a secular parliamentary system. Military coups ushered a sixteen-year presidential regime, which restored the free market and promoted moderate Islamism. In 1988, Islam was made the state religion. In 2010, the Bangladesh Supreme Court reaffirmed the principle of separation of mosque and state in the constitution. The government generally respects freedom of religion and ensures protection for minorities. Another debate on national identity concerns attitudes towards the Chittagong Hill Tracts. A low-level insurgency took place in the region to demand constitutional autonomy against Bengali settlements. Despite a peace treaty in 1997, the Bangladeshi government is yet to implement many of its commitments to protect adivasi land rights. However, the deletion in 1977 of "Bangalee" as the nationality term for the country's citizens, in order to be inclusive of non-Bengali minorities, also reflects attempts to build a more cosmopolitan Bangladeshi society.


title: Bangladeshis

text: The culture of Bangladesh has evolved with influences from diverse social societies. Bangladesh's main religion is Islam, which has played a critical part in influencing the country's culture.


title: Bangladeshis

text: The official language of Bangladesh is Bengali, which is shared with the neighboring Indian states of West Bengal, Assam, and Tripura. Bengali dialects vary between different regions of Bangladesh but Standard Bengali is the most widely used.


title: Bangladeshis

text: The oldest literary inscription in Bangladesh dates back to the 3rd century BCE. It was found at Mahasthangarh and is written in the Brahmi script. The language is Magadhi Prakrit. The Bengali language developed from Magadhi Prakrit, and it's written from Apabhramsa, between the 7th and 10th centuries. It once formed a single eastern Indo-Aryan language with Assamese and Odia, but later became distinct. It became an official language of the Sultanate of Bengal, where it was spoken as the main vernacular language. It absorbed vocabulary from Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit. Bengali is the 6th most spoken language in the world. The language was modernized during the Bengali Renaissance in the 19th century. It has influenced other languages in the region, including Chakma, Rohingya, Assamese, Odia and Nepali. The indigenous Bengali alphabets descended from Brahmi serves as the Bengali script.


title: Bangladeshis

text: The Bengali Language Movement in East Pakistan was a key catalyst for forming Bangladeshi identity. It is commemorated by UNESCO as International Mother Language Day, as part of worldwide efforts to preserve linguistic heritage.


title: Bangladeshis

text: Bangladesh is also home to number of minority indigenous languages, including Santhali, Garo, Marma, Chakma and Bisnupriya Manipuri.


title: Bangladeshis

text: Bangladeshi Muslims typically but not exclusively carry surnames that have Arabic, Persian, and Sanskrit origins. Bangladeshi Hindus have Sanskritized Bengali surnames. Many Bangladeshi Christians have Portuguese surnames. Buddhists have a mixture of Bengali and Tibeto-Burman surnames.


title: Money creation

text: Money creation, or money issuance, is the process by which the money supply of a country, or of an economic or monetary region, is increased. In most modern economies, money creation is controlled by the central banks. Money issued by central banks is termed base money. Central banks can increase the quantity of base money directly, by engaging in open market operations. However, the majority of the money supply is created by the commercial banking system in the form of bank deposits. Bank loans issued by commercial banks that practice fractional reserve banking expands the quantity of broad money to more than the original amount of base money issued by the central bank.


title: Money creation

text: Central banks monitor the amount of money in the economy by measuring monetary aggregates (termed broad money), consisting of cash and bank deposits. Money creation occurs when the quantity of monetary aggregates increase. Governmental authorities, including central banks and other bank regulators, can use policies such as reserve requirements and capital adequacy ratios to influence the amount of broad money created by commercial banks.


title: Money creation

text: The term "money supply" commonly denotes the total, safe, financial assets that households and businesses can use to make payments or to hold as short-term investment. The money supply is measured using the so-called "monetary aggregates", defined in accordance to their respective level of liquidity. In the United States, for example:


title: Money creation

text: The money supply is understood to increase through activities by government authorities, by the central bank of the nation, and by commercial banks.


title: Money creation

text: The authority through which monetary policy is conducted is the central bank of the nation. The mandate of a central bank typically includes either one of the three following objectives or a combination of them, in varying order of preference, according to the country or the region: Price stability, i.e. inflation-targeting; the facilitation of maximum employment in the economy; the assurance of moderate, long term, interest rates.


title: Money creation

text: The central bank is the banker of the government and provides to the government a range of services at the operational level, such as managing the Treasury's single account, and also acting as its fiscal agent (e.g. by running auctions), its settlement agent, and its bond registrar. A central bank cannot become insolvent in its own currency. However, a central bank can become insolvent in liabilities on foreign currency.


title: Money creation

text: Central banks operate in practically every nation in the world, with few exceptions. There are some groups of countries, for which, through agreement, a single entity acts as their central bank, such as the organization of states of Central Africa, which all have a common central bank, the Bank of Central African States; or monetary unions, such as the Eurozone, whereby nations retain their respective central bank yet submit to the policies of the central entity, the European Central Bank. Central banking institutions are generally independent of the government executive.


title: Money creation

text: The central bank's activities directly affect interest rates, through controlling the base rate, and indirectly affect stock prices, the economy's wealth, and the national currency's exchange rate. Monetarists and some Austrians argue that the central bank should control the money supply, through its monetary operations. Critics of the mainstream view maintain that central-bank operations can affect but not control the money supply.


title: Money creation

text: Open-market operations (OMOs) concern the purchase and sale of securities in the open market by a central bank. OMOs essentially swap one type of financial assets for another; when the central bank buys bonds held by the banks or the private sector, bank reserves increase while bonds held by the banks or the public decrease. Temporary operations are typically used to address reserve needs that are deemed to be transitory in nature, while permanent operations accommodate the longer-term factors driving the expansion of the central bank's balance sheet; such a primary factor is typically the trend of the money-supply growth in the economy. Among the temporary, open-market operations are repurchase agreements (repos) or reverse repos, while permanent ones involve outright purchases or sales of securities. Each open-market operation by the central bank affects its balance sheet.


title: Money creation

text: Monetary policy is the process by which the monetary authority of a country, typically the central bank (or the currency board), manages the level of short-term interest rates and influences the availability and the cost of credit in the economy, as well as overall economic activity.


title: Money creation

text: Central banks conduct monetary policy usually through open market operations. The purchase of debt, and the resulting increase in bank reserves, is called "monetary easing". An extraordinary process of monetary easing is denoted as "quantitative easing", whose intent is to stimulate the economy by increasing liquidity and promoting bank lending.


title: Money creation

text: The central bank, or other competent, state authorities (such as the treasury), are typically empowered to create new, physical currency, i.e. paper notes and coins, in order to meet the needs of commercial banks for cash withdrawals, and to replace worn and/or destroyed currency. The process does not increase the money supply, as such; the term "printing [new] money" is considered a misnomer.


title: Money creation

text: The banking system can expand the money supply of a country beyond the amount created or targeted by the central bank, creating most of the broad money in a process called the multiplier effect.


title: Money creation

text: Banks are limited in the total amount they can lend by their capital adequacy ratios, and their required reserve ratios. The required-reserves ratio obliges banks to keep a minimum, predetermined, percentage of their deposits at an account at the central bank.


title: Money creation

text: The theory holds that, in a system of fractional-reserve banking, where banks ordinarily keep only a fraction of their deposits in reserves, an initial bank loan creates more money than it initially lent out.


title: Money creation

text: The maximum ratio of loans to deposits is the required-reserve ratio , which is determined by the central bank, as


title: Money creation

text: Rather than holding the quantity of base money fixed, central banks have recently pursued an interest rate target to control bank issuance of credit indirectly so the ceiling implied by the money multiplier does not impose a limit on money creation in practice.


title: Money creation

text: The fractional reserve theory where the money supply is limited by the money multiplier has come under increased criticism since the financial crisis of 2007–2008. It has been observed that the bank reserves are not a limiting factor because the central banks supply more reserves than necessary and because banks have been able to build up additional reserves when they were needed. Many economists and bankers now believe that the amount of money in circulation is limited only by the demand for loans, not by reserve requirements.


title: Money creation

text: A study of banking software demonstrates that the bank does nothing else than adding an amount to the two accounts when they issue a loan. The observation that there appears to be no limit to the amount of credit money that banks can bring into circulation in this way has given rise to the often-heard expression that ""Banks are creating money out of thin air"". The exact mechanism behind the creation of commercial bank money has been a controversial issue. In 2014, a study titled "Can banks individually create money out of nothing? — The theories and the empirical evidence" empirically tested the manner in which this type of money is created by monitoring a cooperating bank's internal records:


title: Money creation

text: The credit theory of money, initiated by Joseph Schumpeter, asserts the central role of banks as creators and allocators of the money supply, and distinguishes between "productive credit creation" (allowing non-inflationary economic growth even at full employment, in the presence of technological progress) and "unproductive credit creation" (resulting in inflation of either the consumer- or asset-price variety).


title: Money creation

text: The model of bank lending stimulated through central-bank operations (such as "monetary easing") has been rejected by Neo-Keynesian


title: Money creation

text: The major argument offered by dissident analysis is that any bank balance-sheet expansion (e.g. through a new loan) that leaves the bank short of the required reserves may affect the return it can expect on the loan, because of the extra cost the bank will undertake to return within the ratios limits – but this does not and "will never impede the bank's capacity to give the loan in the first place". Banks first lend and "then" cover their reserve ratios: The decision whether or not to lend is generally independent of their reserves with the central bank or their deposits from customers; banks are not lending out deposits or reserves, anyway. Banks lend on the basis of lending criteria, such as the status of the customer's business, the loan's prospects, and/or the overall economic situation.


title: Money creation

text: "Monetary financing", also "debt monetization", occurs when the country's central bank purchases government debt. It is considered by mainstream analysis to cause inflation, and often hyperinflation. IMF's former chief economist Olivier Blanchard states that governments do not create money; the central bank does. But with the central bank's cooperation, the government can in effect finance itself by money creation. It can issue bonds and ask the central bank to buy them. The central bank then pays the government with money it creates, and the government in turn uses that money to finance the deficit. This process is called debt monetization. The description of the process differs in heterodox analysis. Modern chartalists state: the central bank does not have the option to monetize any of the outstanding government debt or newly issued government debt...[A]s long as the central bank has a mandate to maintain a short-term interest rate target, the size of its purchases and sales of government debt are not discretionary. The central bank's lack of control over the quantity of reserves underscores the impossibility of debt monetization. The central bank is unable to monetize the government debt by purchasing government securities at will because to do so would cause the short-term target rate to fall to zero or to any support rate that it might have in place for excess reserves.


title: Money creation

text: Monetary financing used to be standard monetary policy in many countries, such as Canada or France, while in others it was and still is prohibited. In the Eurozone, Article 123 of the Lisbon Treaty explicitly prohibits the European Central Bank from financing public institutions and state governments. In Japan, the nation's central bank "routinely" purchases approximately 70% of state debt issued each month, and owns, as of Oct 2018, approximately 440 trillion JP¥ (approx. $4trillion) or over 40% of all outstanding government bonds. In the United States, the 1913 Federal Reserve Act allowed federal banks to purchase short-term securities directly from the Treasury, in order to facilitate its cash-management operations. The Banking Act of 1935 prohibited the central bank from directly purchasing Treasury securities, and permitted their purchase and sale only "in the open market". In 1942, during wartime, Congress amended the Banking Act's provisions to allow purchases of government debt by the federal banks, with the total amount they'd hold "not [to] exceed $5 billion". After the war, the exemption was renewed, with time limitations, until it was allowed to expire in June 1981.


title: AC adapter

text: An AC adapter or AC/DC adapter is a type of external power supply, often enclosed in a case similar to an AC plug. Other common names include wall wart, power brick, wall charger, and power adapter. Adapters for battery-powered equipment may be described as chargers or rechargers (see also battery charger). AC adapters are used with electrical devices that require power but do not contain internal components to derive the required voltage and power from mains power. The internal circuitry of an external power supply is very similar to the design that would be used for a built-in or internal supply.


title: AC adapter

text: External power supplies are used both with equipment with no other source of power and with battery-powered equipment, where the supply, when plugged in, can sometimes charge the battery in addition to powering the equipment.


title: AC adapter

text: Use of an external power supply allows portability of equipment powered either by mains or battery without the added bulk of internal power components, and makes it unnecessary to produce equipment for use only with a specified power source; the same device can be powered from 120 VAC or 230 VAC mains, vehicle or aircraft battery by using a different adapter. Another advantage of these designs can be increased safety; since the hazardous 120 or 240 volt mains power is transformed to a lower, safer voltage at the wall outlet and the appliance that is handled by the user is powered by this lower voltage.


title: AC adapter

text: Originally, most AC/DC adapters were linear power supplies, containing a transformer to convert the mains electricity voltage to a lower voltage, a rectifier to convert it to pulsating DC, and a filter to smooth the pulsating waveform to DC, with residual ripple variations small enough to leave the powered device unaffected. Size and weight of the device was largely determined by the transformer, which in turn was determined by the power output and mains frequency. Ratings over a few watts made the devices too large and heavy to be physically supported by a wall outlet. The output voltage of these adapters varied with load; for equipment requiring a more stable voltage, linear voltage regulator circuitry was added. Losses in the transformer and the linear regulator were considerable; efficiency was relatively low, and significant power dissipated as heat even when not driving a load.


title: AC adapter

text: Early in the twenty-first century, switched-mode power supplies (SMPSs) became almost ubiquitous for this purpose due to their compact size and light weight relative to their power output ability. Mains voltage is rectified to a high direct voltage driving a switching circuit, which contains a transformer operating at a high frequency and outputs direct current at the desired voltage. The high-frequency ripple is more easily filtered out than mains-frequency. The high frequency allows the transformer to be small, which reduces its losses; and the switching regulator can be much more efficient than a linear regulator. The result is a much more efficient, smaller, and lighter device. Safety is ensured, as in the older linear circuit, because a transformer still provides galvanic isolation.


title: AC adapter

text: A linear circuit must be designed for a specific, narrow range of input voltages (e.g., 220–240 VAC) and must use a transformer appropriate for the frequency (usually 50 or 60 Hz), but a switched-mode supply can work efficiently over a very wide range of voltages and frequencies; a single 100–240 VAC unit will handle almost any mains supply in the world.


title: AC adapter

text: However, unless very carefully designed and using suitable components, switching adapters are more likely to fail than the older type, due in part to complex circuitry and the use of semiconductors. Unless designed well, these adapters may be easily damaged by overloads, even transient ones, which can come from lightning, brief mains overvoltage (sometimes caused by an incandescent light on the same power circuit failing), component degradation, etc. A very common mode of failure is due to the use of electrolytic capacitors whose equivalent series resistance (ESR) increases with age; switching regulators are very sensitive to high ESR (the older linear circuit also used electrolytic capacitors, but the effect of degradation is much less dramatic). Well-designed circuits pay attention to the ESR, ripple current rating, pulse operation, and temperature rating of capacitors.


title: AC adapter

text: Many inexpensive switched-mode AC adapters do not implement adequate filtering and/or shielding for electromagnetic interference that they generate. The nature of these high speed, high-energy switching designs is such that when these preventative measures are not implemented, relatively high energy harmonics can be generated, and radiated, well into the radio portion of the spectrum. The amount of RF energy typically decreases with frequency; so, for instance, interference in the medium wave (US AM) broadcast band in the one megahertz region may be strong, while interference with the FM broadcast band around 100 megahertz may be considerably less. Distance is a factor; the closer the interference is to a radio receiver, the more intense it will be. Even WiFi reception in the gigahertz range can be degraded if the receiving antennae are very close to a radiating AC adapter. A determination of if interference is coming from a specific AC adaptor can be made simply by unplugging the suspect adapter while observing the amount of interference received in the problem radio band. In a modern household or business environment, there may be multiple AC adapters in use; in such a case, unplug them all, then plug them back in one by one until the culprit or culprits is found.


title: AC adapter

text: External AC adapters are widely used to power small or portable electronic devices. The advantages include:


title: AC adapter

text: A survey of consumers showed widespread dissatisfaction with the cost, inconvenience, and wastefulness of the profusion of power adapters used by electronic devices. Science fiction author and satirist Douglas Adams wrote an essay bemoaning the profusion and confusion of power adapters, and calling for more standardization.


title: AC adapter

text: The issue of inefficiency of some power supplies has become well known, with U.S. president George W. Bush referring in 2001 to such devices as "Energy Vampires". Legislation is being enacted in the EU and a number of U.S. states, to reduce the level of energy wasted by some of these devices. Such initiatives include standby power and the One Watt Initiative.


title: AC adapter

text: But others have argued that these inefficient devices are low-powered, e.g., devices that are used for small battery chargers, so even if they have a low efficiency, the amount of energy they waste is less than 1% of household consumption of electric energy.


title: AC adapter

text: Considering the total efficiency of power supplies for small electronic equipment, the older mains-frequency linear transformer-based power supply was found in a 2002 report to have efficiencies from 20 to 75%, and have considerable energy loss even when powered up but not supplying power. Switched-mode power supplies (SMPSs) are much more efficient; a good design can be 80–90% efficient, and is also much smaller and lighter. In 2002 most external plug-in "wall wart" power adapters commonly used for low-power consumer electronics devices were of linear design, as well as supplies built into some equipment.


title: AC adapter

text: External supplies are usually left plugged in even when not in use, and consume from a few watts to 35 watts of power in that state. The report concluded that about 32 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) per year, about 1% of total electrical energy consumption, could be saved in the United States by replacing all linear power supplies (average efficiency 40–50%) with advanced switching designs (efficiency 80–90%), by replacing older switching supplies (efficiencies of less than 70%) with advanced designs (efficiency of at least 80%), and by reducing standby consumption of supplies to not more than 1 watt.


title: AC adapter

text: Since the report was published, SMPSs have indeed replaced linear supplies to a great extent, even in wall warts. The 2002 report estimated that 6% of electrical energy used in the U.S. "flows through" power supplies (not counting only the wall warts). The website where the report was published said in 2010 that despite the spread of SMPSs, "today's power supplies consume at least 2% of all U.S. electricity production. More efficient power supply designs could cut that usage in half".


title: AC adapter

text: Since wasted electrical energy is released as heat, an inefficient power supply is hot to the touch, as is one that wastes power without an electrical load. This waste heat is itself a problem in warm weather, since it may require additional air conditioning to prevent overheating, and even to remove the unwanted heat from large supplies.


title: AC adapter

text: External power adapters can fail, and can become separated from the product they are intended to power. Consequently, there is a market for replacement adapters. The replacement must match input and output voltages, match or exceed current capability, and be fitted with a matching connector. Many electrical products are poorly labeled with information concerning the power supply they require, so it is prudent to record the specifications of the original power supply in advance, to ease replacement if the original is later lost. Careful labeling of power adapters can also reduce the likelihood of a mixup which could cause equipment damage.


title: AC adapter

text: Some "universal" replacement power supplies allow output voltage and polarity to be switched to match a range of equipment. With the advent of switch-mode supplies, adapters which can work with any voltage from 110 VAC to 240 VAC became widely available; previously either 100–120 VAC or 200–240 VAC versions were used. Adapters which can also be used with motor vehicle and aircraft power "(see EmPower)" are available.


title: AC adapter

text: Four-way X connectors or six-way star connectors, also known as spider connectors, with multiple plug sizes and types are common on generic power supplies. Other replacement power supplies have arrangements for changing the power connector, with four to nine different alternatives available when purchased in a set. RadioShack sells universal AC adapters of various capacities, branded as "Enercell Adaptaplug", and fitted with two-pin female sockets compatible with their Adaptaplug connector lineup. This allows many different configurations of AC adapters to be put together, without requiring soldering. Philmore and other competing brands offer similar AC adapters with interchangeable connectors.


title: AC adapter

text: The label on a power supply may not be a reliable guide to the actual voltage it supplies under varying conditions. Many low-cost power supplies are "unregulated", in that their voltage can change considerably with load. If they are lightly loaded, they may put out much more than the nominal "name plate" voltage, which could damage the load. If they are heavily loaded, the output voltage may droop appreciably, in some cases well below the nominal label voltage even within the nominal rated current, causing the equipment being supplied to malfunction or be damaged. Supplies with linear (as against switched) regulators are heavy, bulky, and expensive.


title: AC adapter

text: Modern switched-mode power supplies (SMPSs) are smaller, lighter, and more efficient. They put out a much more constant voltage than unregulated supplies as the input voltage and the load current vary. When introduced, their prices were high, but by the early 21st century the prices of switch-mode components had dropped to a degree which allowed even cheap supplies to use this technology, saving the cost of a larger and heavier mains-frequency transformer.


title: AC adapter

text: Some universal adapters automatically set their output voltage and maximum current according to which of a range of interchangeable tips is fitted; tips are available to fit and supply appropriate power to many notebook computers and mobile devices. Different tips may use the same connector, but automatically supply different power; it is essential to use the right tip for the apparatus being powered, but no switch needs to be set correctly by the user. The advent of switch-mode power supplies has allowed adapters to work from any AC mains supply from 100 to 240 V with an appropriate plug; operation from standard 12 V DC vehicle and aircraft supplies can also be supported. With the appropriate adapter, accessories, and tips, a variety of equipment can be powered from almost any source of power.


title: AC adapter

text: A "Green Plug" system has been proposed, based on USB technology, by which the consuming device would tell the external power supply what kind of power is needed.


title: AC adapter

text: In early laptop computers, the power supply units were internal like in desktop computers. To facilitate portability by sparing physical space and reducing the weight, power supply units were externalized.


title: AC adapter

text: When a laptop computer is operated while recharging, the integrated circuitry which controls the charging makes use of a power supply unit's remaining electrical current capacity. This allows supplying the device's components with power during usage while maintaining an uncompromised constant charging speed.


title: AC adapter

text: The USB connector (and voltage) has emerged as a de facto standard in low-power AC adapters for many portable devices. In addition to serial digital data exchange, the USB standard also provides , up to ( over USB 3.0). Numerous accessory gadgets ("USB decorations") were designed to connect to USB only for DC power and not for data interchange. The USB Implementers Forum in March, 2007 released the USB Battery Charging Specification which defines, "...limits as well as detection, control and reporting mechanisms to permit devices to draw current in excess of the USB 2.0 specification for charging ...". Electric fans, lamps, alarms, coffee warmers, battery chargers, and even toys have been designed to tap power from a USB connector. Plug-in adapters equipped with USB receptacles are widely available to convert or power or automotive power to USB power (see photo at right).


title: AC adapter

text: The trend towards more-compact electronic devices has driven a shift towards the micro-USB and mini-USB connectors, which are electrically compatible in function to the original USB connector but physically smaller.


title: AC adapter

text: In 2012, a USB Power Delivery Specification was proposed to standardize delivery of up to 100 watts, suitable for devices such as laptop computers that usually depend on proprietary adapters.


title: AC adapter

text: The ITU published Recommendation ITU-T L.1000, "Universal power adapter and charger solution for mobile terminals and other hand-held ICT devices", which specifies a charger similar in most respects to that of the GSMA/OMTP proposal and to the European Common external power supply. The ITU recommendation was expanded and updated in June, 2011. The hope is to markedly reduce the profusion of non-interchangeable power adapters.


title: AC adapter

text: The European Union defined a Common external power supply for "hand-held data-enabled mobile phones" (smartphones) sold from 2010, intended to replace the many incompatible proprietary power supplies and eliminate waste by reducing the total number of supplies manufactured. Conformant supplies deliver 5 VDC via a micro-USB connector, with preferred input voltage handled ranging from 90 to 264 VAC.


title: AC adapter

text: In 2006 Larry Page, a founder of Google, proposed a and up to standard for almost all equipment requiring an external converter, with new buildings fitted with wiring, making external AC-to-DC adapter circuitry unnecessary.


title: AC adapter

text: (full name "IEC Technical Specification 62700: DC Power supply for notebook computer"), which was published on February 6, 2014.


title: Fireball (album)

text: Fireball is the fifth album by English rock band Deep Purple, released in 1971 and the second with the Mk II line-up. It was recorded at various times between September 1970 and June 1971. It became the first of the band's three UK No. 1 albums, though it did not stay on the charts as long as its predecessor, "Deep Purple in Rock". Even though the album has sold over a million copies in the UK, it has never received a certification there.