title: Silverstein (band)

text: Silverstein has been described as post-hardcore, emo, screamo, indie rock and hardcore punk. Their influences include Metallica, Megadeth, Slayer, The Get Up Kids, Sunny Day Real Estate, Mineral, Knapsack, NOFX, Rancid, Lagwagon, and Pennywise.


title: Find Me (novel)

text: Find Me is a 2019 novel by writer André Aciman. The novel follows the lives of Samuel "Sami" Perlman, his son Elio Perlman, and Oliver, characters established in Aciman's 2007 novel "Call Me By Your Name".


title: Find Me (novel)

text: The novel is split into four sections: Tempo, Cadenza, Capriccio, and Da Capo. Each of the sections focuses on a different character's point of view, and this is not stated explicitly. The sections vary in length, with Tempo being the longest at almost half the book and Da Capo the shortest.


title: Find Me (novel)

text: Ten years after the events of "Call Me By Your Name", Sami Perlman meets a younger woman named Miranda while traveling by train to Rome. The two quickly grow close, and strike up a romantic relationship. While in Rome, the couple visit Miranda's ailing father, attend a public lecture held by Sami, and meet with Elio.


title: Find Me (novel)

text: Five years later, Elio works as a piano teacher in Paris. At a concert he meets an older man named Michel, and they begin a romantic relationship. They visit Michel's childhood home in the French countryside, and end their relationship amicably several weeks later.


title: Find Me (novel)

text: Several years later, Oliver works as a professor at a college in New Hampshire. He is married with children, but harbors nostalgia for the time he spent with Elio as a college student. He reunites with Elio in Italy, and they reconnect romantically. Though Sami has died, he fathered a child with Miranda, whom they named Oliver.


title: Find Me (novel)

text: On December 6, 2017, when asked about a proposed sequel to the film adaptation of "Call Me by Your Name", Aciman replied that "the problem with a sequel is that you need plot." On December 3, 2018, Aciman announced on his Twitter account that he was writing a sequel to "Call Me by Your Name". The novel's title and release date were officially confirmed on March 20, 2019.


title: Find Me (novel)

text: The novel was published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux on October 29, 2019. The audiobook is read by actor Michael Stuhlbarg, who portrayed Elio's father, Sami Pearlman, in the film adaptation of "Call Me by Your Name".


title: Find Me (novel)

text: Ahead of its release, on October 11, 2019, "Vanity Fair" published an exclusive excerpt from the novel, along with two illustrations by Jenny Kroik.


title: Find Me (novel)

text: "Find Me" was met with mixed reviews from literary critics, with review aggregator Book Marks reporting five negative and six mixed reviews among 26 total.


title: Nostalgia Critic

text: Nostalgia Critic is an American review comedy web series created, directed by and starring web comedian Douglas "Doug" Walker. The series initially launched on YouTube on July 3, 2007, before moving to Walker's own site, That Guy with the Glasses, then to Channel Awesome. The show follows Walker as the title character, a bitter and sarcastic critic who mostly reviews films and television shows from his childhood and recent past, usually with comically exaggerated rage. The show often alternates the Critic's angry rants and humor with analysis of the episode's subject. Some of the films he reviewed (such as "", "The Garbage Pail Kids Movie", and "Batman & Robin") are generally considered as the worst films ever made.


title: Nostalgia Critic

text: Walker briefly retired the series on August 14, 2012, to work on other projects, even writing the character out of existence in the Channel Awesome film "To Boldly Flee". On January 22, 2013, Walker announced the show's return in a narrative video called "The Review Must Go On". The show subsequently returned with a more narrative and sketch-driven sixth season, beginning on February 5, 2013, with a review of "The Odd Life of Timothy Green". Most episodes still retain the original clip using format.


title: Nostalgia Critic

text: The series was initially launched on YouTube on July 3, 2007, with a review of "Transformers", but episodes were frequently removed by the website following complaints of copyright infringement. In April 2008, the videos were taken down from YouTube but an arrangement between the company and content host Blip in 2009 resulted in them being featured on YouTube once more.


title: Nostalgia Critic

text: The announcement of a spin-off, called "The Nostalgia Chick", was created in "The Search for the Nostalgia Chick" (August 10, 2008). The concept was for a female host to review female-targeted "nostalgic" films and television, and though it was presented as a contest, it was predetermined that all three candidates would end up on the site: Lindsay Ellis (who reviewed Disney's "Pocahontas"), Krissy Diggs (who reviewed "Sailor Moon"), and Kaylyn Saucedo (who reviewed "The Last Unicorn"). Ellis, then using the name "The Dudette," took the Nostalgia Chick title, as announced on the site, "Nostalgia Chick Winner!" (September 15, 2008). Diggs and Saucedo then joined That Guy with the Glasses as That Chick with the Goggles and Marzgurl, respectively.


title: Nostalgia Critic

text: On September 14, 2012, Walker announced the retirement of "Nostalgia Critic" and that it would no longer be a weekly production, as he and his brother felt that they had gone as far as they could with the series. Walker then focused his efforts on another web series called "Demo Reel", but on January 22, 2013, Walker released a sketch short film titled "The Review Must Go On", announcing the return of the "Nostalgia Critic"; Malcolm Ray and Rachel Tietz of "Demo Reel" joined the series as side characters. On December 30, 2015, Nostalgia Critic aired its 300th episode, a review of "". On October 10, 2018, "Nostalgia Critic" aired its 400th episode, a countdown of the top 11 Stephen King movies. On October 14, 2020, it aired its 500th episode, a review of "The Stand".


title: Nostalgia Critic

text: The series focuses on the Nostalgia Critic, a short-tempered film reviewer looking back at films usually from his childhood and adolescence. GigaOM describes it as "high energy and shamelessly nerdy". Reuters described him as having "offbeat personalities". In each episode, the Critic restates important plot-points, guiding the viewer, while making jokes out of notable or questionable scenes. The reviews are interspersed with recurring memes, false or satirical dubbing of dialogue, comedic sketches and pop culture gagssuch as making fun of famous actors who starred in lesser-known roles before their rise to fame. The show also features special episodes, such as the "Top 11" list countdowns for his favorite or least favorite films, villains, or moments in television shows; and "Old vs. New" which compares the reboot of a popular film or series to the original.


title: Nostalgia Critic

text: Since the revival of the series in 2013, Walker occasionally produces an editorial which discusses relevant film topics; while still featuring the Critic persona, these videos are much less comedic and contain no sketches or other actors. Beginning with "Jurassic World" on June 23, 2015, the series also occasionally features "clipless reviews" of films that are still currently in theaters to avoid copyright infringement instead of stills and clips. These reviews instead feature scenes from the movies re-enacted comedically by Walker, his family and other Channel Awesome contributors.


title: Nostalgia Critic

text: Walker describes his philosophy thus: "[We need a critic of nostalgia] because everybody already does it. When we look at movies and shows from our youth, they're rarely as good as we remember them, and oftentimes it's quite humorous to compare what you liked then to what you like now. That's basically what the Nostalgia Critic is about, looking back at just how much nostalgia cloaked our vision in heavenly bliss and how bizarre the reality is." This is mostly reflected in the series, but sometimes he reviews whatever is popular at the moment.


title: Nostalgia Critic

text: "Nostalgia Critic" received a positive response with many praising the humor, characters, and Doug Walker's performance. Greg Weisman, producer of "Gargoyles", stated that he enjoyed the Critic's review of the show. Roger Ebert called the episode "A Tribute to Siskel and Ebert" "the best, funniest video about Siskel & Ebert I've ever seen". Walker later stated in his editorial titled "Farewell to Roger Ebert" that he has since had the quote framed and hung up on his wall, and in "The Making of a Nostalgia Critic Episode", it can be seen on his desk. Animation writer Paul Dini also thanked the Critic for his episode "The Top 11 "" Episodes". Seth Kearsley, director of "Eight Crazy Nights", praised the Critic's review of the movie on his Twitter account.


title: Nostalgia Critic

text: In 2014, Walker and Dante Basco collaborated in a countdown of the top eleven best episodes of the television series "Avatar: The Last Airbender", on which Basco had played the character Zuko. Both Bill Farmer, the voice of Goofy, and Jason Marsden, the voice of Max, praised Channel Awesome after watching the Critic's editorial, "Is Goofy Secretly Badass?" On August 27, 2017, the Critic did a crossover with fellow Channel Awesome critic, Nash Bozard. For "Here There Be Dragons", Bozard's review series about fantasy films and adaptations, the Nostalgia Critic and Nash reviewed the short-lived Syfy series "The Dresden Files". In 2019, Walker released a music video review of "Pink Floyd – The Wall", accompanied by a standalone album, titled "The Wall – Nostalgia Critic", featuring Corey Taylor and Rob Scallon. This received overwhelmingly poor reviews from critics and viewers.


title: Vadivelu filmography

text: Vadivelu is an Indian actor, comedian and playback singer. Since the 1990s, he has acted mainly as a comedian in Tamil films and is renowned for his slapstick comedies. Vadivelu has won the Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Comedian five times for his works in "Kaalam Maari Pochu" (1996), "Vetri Kodi Kattu" (2000), "Thavasi" (2001), "Imsai Arasan 23m Pulikesi" (2006) and "Kathavarayan" (2008). He has also won the Filmfare Award for Best Comedian – Tamil two times for his work in "Chandramukhi" (2005) and "Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei" (2006). He has won the Vikatan Award for Best Comedian in "Pokkiri" (2007). He also won the Vijay Award for Best Comedian for his work in "Marudhamalai" (2007) and was nominated three times in the Best Comedian category for his work in "Aadhavan" (2009), "Nagaram" (2010) and "Kaavalan" (2011). He has acted as a hero in four films in "Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei" (2006), "Indiralohathil Na Azhagappan" (2008), "Tenaliraman" (2014) and "Eli" (2015).


title: Gottlob Frege

text: Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege (; ; 8 November 1848 – 26 July 1925) was a German philosopher, logician, and mathematician. He was a mathematics professor at the University of Jena, and is understood by many to be the father of analytic philosophy, concentrating on the philosophy of language, logic, and mathematics. Though he was largely ignored during his lifetime, Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932), Bertrand Russell (1872–1970), and, to some extent, Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) introduced his work to later generations of philosophers. Frege is widely considered to be the greatest logician since Aristotle, and one of the most profound philosophers of mathematics ever.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: His contributions include the development of modern logic in the "Begriffsschrift" and work in the foundations of mathematics. His book the "Foundations of Arithmetic" is the seminal text of the logicist project, and is cited by Michael Dummett as where to pinpoint the linguistic turn. His philosophical papers "On Sense and Reference" and "The Thought" are also widely cited. The former argues for two different types of meaning and descriptivism. In "Foundations" and "The Thought", Frege argues for Platonism against psychologism or formalism, concerning numbers and propositions respectively. Russell's paradox undermined the logicist project by showing Frege's Basic Law V in the "Foundations" to be false.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: Frege was born in 1848 in Wismar, Mecklenburg-Schwerin (today part of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern). His father Carl (Karl) Alexander Frege (1809–1866) was the co-founder and headmaster of a girls' high school until his death. After Carl's death, the school was led by Frege's mother Auguste Wilhelmine Sophie Frege (née Bialloblotzky, 12 January 1815 – 14 October 1898); her mother was Auguste Amalia Maria Ballhorn, a descendant of Philipp Melanchthon and her father was Johann Heinrich Siegfried Bialloblotzky, a descendant of a Polish noble family who left Poland in the 17th century. Frege was a Lutheran.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: In childhood, Frege encountered philosophies that would guide his future scientific career. For example, his father wrote a textbook on the German language for children aged 9–13, entitled "Hülfsbuch zum Unterrichte in der deutschen Sprache für Kinder von 9 bis 13 Jahren" (2nd ed., Wismar 1850; 3rd ed., Wismar and Ludwigslust: Hinstorff, 1862) (Help book for teaching German to children from 9 to 13 years old), the first section of which dealt with the structure and logic of language.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: Frege studied at and graduated in 1869. His teacher Gustav Adolf Leo Sachse (5 November 1843 – 1 September 1909), who was a poet, played the most important role in determining Frege's future scientific career, encouraging him to continue his studies at the University of Jena.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: Frege matriculated at the University of Jena in the spring of 1869 as a citizen of the North German Confederation. In the four semesters of his studies he attended approximately twenty courses of lectures, most of them on mathematics and physics. His most important teacher was Ernst Karl Abbe (1840–1905; physicist, mathematician, and inventor). Abbe gave lectures on theory of gravity, galvanism and electrodynamics, complex analysis theory of functions of a complex variable, applications of physics, selected divisions of mechanics, and mechanics of solids. Abbe was more than a teacher to Frege: he was a trusted friend, and, as director of the optical manufacturer Carl Zeiss AG, he was in a position to advance Frege's career. After Frege's graduation, they came into closer correspondence.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: His other notable university teachers were Christian Philipp Karl Snell (1806–86; subjects: use of infinitesimal analysis in geometry, analytic geometry of planes, analytical mechanics, optics, physical foundations of mechanics); Hermann Karl Julius Traugott Schaeffer (1824–1900; analytic geometry, applied physics, algebraic analysis, on the telegraph and other electronic machines); and the philosopher Kuno Fischer (1824–1907; Kantian and critical philosophy).


title: Gottlob Frege

text: Starting in 1871, Frege continued his studies in Göttingen, the leading university in mathematics in German-speaking territories, where he attended the lectures of Rudolf Friedrich Alfred Clebsch (1833–72; analytic geometry), Ernst Christian Julius Schering (1824–97; function theory), Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804–91; physical studies, applied physics), Eduard Riecke (1845–1915; theory of electricity), and Hermann Lotze (1817–81; philosophy of religion). Many of the philosophical doctrines of the mature Frege have parallels in Lotze; it has been the subject of scholarly debate whether or not there was a direct influence on Frege's views arising from his attending Lotze's lectures.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: In 1873, Frege attained his doctorate under Ernst Christian Julius Schering, with a dissertation under the title of "Ueber eine geometrische Darstellung der imaginären Gebilde in der Ebene" ("On a Geometrical Representation of Imaginary Forms in a Plane"), in which he aimed to solve such fundamental problems in geometry as the mathematical interpretation of projective geometry's infinitely distant (imaginary) points.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: Frege married Margarete Katharina Sophia Anna Lieseberg (15 February 1856 – 25 June 1904) on 14 March 1887.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: Though his education and early mathematical work focused primarily on geometry, Frege's work soon turned to logic. His marked a turning point in the history of logic. The "Begriffsschrift" broke new ground, including a rigorous treatment of the ideas of functions and variables. Frege's goal was to show that mathematics grows out of logic, and in so doing, he devised techniques that separated him from the Aristotelian syllogistic but took him rather close to Stoic propositional logic.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: A frequently noted example is that Aristotle's logic is unable to represent mathematical statements like Euclid's theorem, a fundamental statement of number theory that there are an infinite number of prime numbers. Frege's "conceptual notation", however, can represent such inferences. The analysis of logical concepts and the machinery of formalization that is essential to "Principia Mathematica" (3 vols., 1910–13, by Bertrand Russell, 1872–1970, and Alfred North Whitehead, 1861–1947), to Russell's theory of descriptions, to Kurt Gödel's (1906–78) incompleteness theorems, and to Alfred Tarski's (1901–83) theory of truth, is ultimately due to Frege.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: One of Frege's stated purposes was to isolate genuinely logical principles of inference, so that in the proper representation of mathematical proof, one would at no point appeal to "intuition". If there was an intuitive element, it was to be isolated and represented separately as an axiom: from there on, the proof was to be purely logical and without gaps. Having exhibited this possibility, Frege's larger purpose was to defend the view that arithmetic is a branch of logic, a view known as logicism: unlike geometry, arithmetic was to be shown to have no basis in "intuition", and no need for non-logical axioms. Already in the 1879 "Begriffsschrift" important preliminary theorems, for example, a generalized form of law of trichotomy, were derived within what Frege understood to be pure logic.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: This idea was formulated in non-symbolic terms in his "The Foundations of Arithmetic" ("Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik", 1884). Later, in his "Basic Laws of Arithmetic" ("Grundgesetze der Arithmetik", vol. 1, 1893; vol. 2, 1903; vol. 2 was published at his own expense), Frege attempted to derive, by use of his symbolism, all of the laws of arithmetic from axioms he asserted as logical. Most of these axioms were carried over from his "Begriffsschrift", though not without some significant changes. The one truly new principle was one he called the : the "value-range" of the function "f"("x") is the same as the "value-range" of the function "g"("x") if and only if ∀"x"["f"("x") = "g"("x")].


title: Gottlob Frege

text: The crucial case of the law may be formulated in modern notation as follows. Let {"x"|"Fx"} denote the extension of the predicate "Fx", that is, the set of all Fs, and similarly for "Gx". Then Basic Law V says that the predicates "Fx" and "Gx" have the same extension if and only if ∀x["Fx" ↔ "Gx"]. The set of Fs is the same as the set of Gs just in case every F is a G and every G is an F. (The case is special because what is here being called the extension of a predicate, or a set, is only one type of "value-range" of a function.)


title: Gottlob Frege

text: In a famous episode, Bertrand Russell wrote to Frege, just as Vol. 2 of the "Grundgesetze" was about to go to press in 1903, showing that Russell's paradox could be derived from Frege's Basic Law V. It is easy to define the relation of "membership" of a set or extension in Frege's system; Russell then drew attention to "the set of things "x" that are such that "x" is not a member of "x"". The system of the "Grundgesetze" entails that the set thus characterised "both" is "and" is not a member of itself, and is thus inconsistent. Frege wrote a hasty, last-minute Appendix to Vol. 2, deriving the contradiction and proposing to eliminate it by modifying Basic Law V. Frege opened the Appendix with the exceptionally honest comment: "Hardly anything more unfortunate can befall a scientific writer than to have one of the foundations of his edifice shaken after the work is finished. This was the position I was placed in by a letter of Mr. Bertrand Russell, just when the printing of this volume was nearing its completion." (This letter and Frege's reply are translated in Jean van Heijenoort 1967.)


title: Gottlob Frege

text: Frege's proposed remedy was subsequently shown to imply that there is but one object in the universe of discourse, and hence is worthless (indeed, this would make for a contradiction in Frege's system if he had axiomatized the idea, fundamental to his discussion, that the True and the False are distinct objects; see, for example, Dummett 1973), but recent work has shown that much of the program of the "Grundgesetze" might be salvaged in other ways:


title: Gottlob Frege

text: Frege's work in logic had little international attention until 1903 when Russell wrote an appendix to "The Principles of Mathematics" stating his differences with Frege. The diagrammatic notation that Frege used had no antecedents (and has had no imitators since). Moreover, until Russell and Whitehead's "Principia Mathematica" (3 vols.) appeared in 1910–13, the dominant approach to mathematical logic was still that of George Boole (1815–64) and his intellectual descendants, especially Ernst Schröder (1841–1902). Frege's logical ideas nevertheless spread through the writings of his student Rudolf Carnap (1891–1970) and other admirers, particularly Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951).


title: Gottlob Frege

text: Frege is one of the founders of analytic philosophy, whose work on logic and language gave rise to the linguistic turn in philosophy. His contributions to the philosophy of language include:


title: Gottlob Frege

text: As a philosopher of mathematics, Frege attacked the psychologistic appeal to mental explanations of the content of judgment of the meaning of sentences. His original purpose was very far from answering general questions about meaning; instead, he devised his logic to explore the foundations of arithmetic, undertaking to answer questions such as "What is a number?" or "What objects do number-words ('one', 'two', etc.) refer to?" But in pursuing these matters, he eventually found himself analysing and explaining what meaning is, and thus came to several conclusions that proved highly consequential for the subsequent course of analytic philosophy and the philosophy of language.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: Frege's 1892 paper, "On Sense and Reference" ("Über Sinn und Bedeutung"), introduced his influential distinction between "sense" ("Sinn") and "reference" ("Bedeutung", which has also been translated as "meaning", or "denotation"). While conventional accounts of meaning took expressions to have just one feature (reference), Frege introduced the view that expressions have two different aspects of significance: their sense and their reference.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: "Reference" (or "Bedeutung") applied to proper names, where a given expression (say the expression "Tom") simply refers to the entity bearing the name (the person named Tom). Frege also held that propositions had a referential relationship with their truth-value (in other words, a statement "refers" to the truth-value it takes). By contrast, the "sense" (or "Sinn") associated with a complete sentence is the thought it expresses. The sense of an expression is said to be the "mode of presentation" of the item referred to, and there can be multiple modes of representation for the same referent.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: The distinction can be illustrated thus: In their ordinary uses, the name "Charles Philip Arthur George Mountbatten-Windsor", which for logical purposes is an unanalyzable whole, and the functional expression "the Prince of Wales", which contains the significant parts "the prince of ξ" and "Wales", have the same "reference", namely, the person best known as Prince Charles. But the "sense" of the word "Wales" is a part of the sense of the latter expression, but no part of the sense of the "full name" of Prince Charles.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: These distinctions were disputed by Bertrand Russell, especially in his paper "On Denoting"; the controversy has continued into the present, fueled especially by Saul Kripke's famous lectures "Naming and Necessity".


title: Gottlob Frege

text: Frege's published philosophical writings were of a very technical nature and divorced from practical issues, so much so that Frege scholar Dummett expressed his "shock to discover, while reading Frege's diary, that his hero was an anti-Semite." After the German Revolution of 1918–19 his political opinions became more radical. In the last year of his life, at the age of 76, his diary contained political opinions opposing the parliamentary system, democrats, liberals, Catholics, the French and Jews, who he thought ought to be deprived of political rights and, preferably, expelled from Germany. Frege confided "that he had once thought of himself as a liberal and was an admirer of Bismarck", but then sympathized with General Ludendorff. In an entry dated 5 May 1924 Frege expressed agreement with an article published in Houston Stewart Chamberlain's "Deutschlands Erneuerung" which praised Adolf Hitler. Frege recorded the belief that it would be best if the Jews of Germany would "get lost, or better would like to disappear from Germany." Some interpretations have been written about that time. The diary contains a critique of universal suffrage and socialism. Frege had friendly relations with Jews in real life: among his students was Gershom Scholem, who greatly valued his teaching, and it was he who encouraged Ludwig Wittgenstein to leave for England in order to study with Bertrand Russell. The 1924 diary was published posthumously in 1994. Frege apparently never spoke in public about his political viewpoints.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: Frege was described by his students as a highly introverted person, seldom entering into dialogues with others and mostly facing the blackboard while lecturing. He was, however, known to occasionally show wit and even bitter sarcasm during his classes.


title: Gottlob Frege

text: "Begriffsschrift: eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelsprache des reinen Denkens" (1879), Halle an der Saale: Verlag von Louis Nebert (online version).


title: Gottlob Frege

text: "Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik: Eine logisch-mathematische Untersuchung über den Begriff der Zahl" (1884), Breslau: Verlag von Wilhelm Koebner (online version).


title: Gottlob Frege

text: "Grundgesetze der Arithmetik", Band I (1893); Band II (1903), Jena: Verlag Hermann Pohle (online version).


title: Gottlob Frege

text: "Logical Investigations" (1918–1923). Frege intended that the following three papers be published together in a book titled "Logische Untersuchungen" ("Logical Investigations"). Though the German book never appeared, the papers were published together in "Logische Untersuchungen", ed. G. Patzig, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1966, and English translations appeared together in "Logical Investigations", ed. Peter Geach, Blackwell, 1975.


title: Ashokasundari

text: Ashokasundari (Sanskrit: अशोकसुन्दरी, ) is a Hindu goddess and daughter of the deities Shiva and Parvati. She is referenced in the "Padma Purana", which narrates her story. The goddess is mostly venerated in South India in the form of Bala Tripurasundari.


title: Ashokasundari

text: Ashokasundari was created from the wish-fulfilling tree Kalpavriksha when Parvati wished for a daughter to reduce her loneliness. The words in her name are derived from her creation. "Ashoka" refers to the easing of Parvati's "shoka", which means "sorrow", while "sundari" means "beautiful girl".


title: Ashokasundari

text: The birth of Ashokasundari is recorded in the "Padma Purana". In one of the variants of the tale of Nahusha, Parvati once requested Shiva to take her to the most beautiful garden in the world. As per her wishes, Shiva took her to Nandanvana, where Parvati saw a tree known as Kalpavriksha which could fulfill any wish. Since Kartikeya, the son of Parvati, had grown up and left Kailash, as a mother it caused immense grief and loneliness to her. She asked for a daughter from the wish-fulfilling tree to end her loneliness. Her wish was granted and Ashokasundari was born. Parvati prophesied that Ashokasundari would marry Nahusha of the lunar dynasty, who would be equal to Indra, the king of heaven.


title: Ashokasundari

text: Once, Ashokasundari was roaming in Nandanvana with her maids, a rakshasa (demon) called Hunda saw her and fell in love with her. However, the goddess rejected the advances of the demon and informed him about her destiny to marry Nahusha. Hunda disguised himself as a widow, whose husband was killed by him, and asked Ashokasundari to accompany her to her hermitage. The goddess went with the disguised demon and reached his palace. She discovered his treachery and cursed him to be killed by Nahusha and escaped to her parents' abode, Mount Kailash.


title: Ashokasundari

text: Hunda kidnaps the infant Nahusha from his palace, however, he is rescued by a maid of Hunda and given under the sage Vashistha's care. After a few years, Nahusha grows up and understands about his destiny to kill Hunda. Hunda abducts Ashokasundari and tells her that he had killed Nahusha. The goddess was consoled by a Kinnara couple who informed her of Nahusha's wellbeing and prophesied that she would mother a powerful son called Yayati and a hundred beautiful daughters. Nahusha fought Hunda and defeated him after a fierce battle and rescued Ashokasundari, whom he married. Over course of time, in absence of Indra, Nahusha was temporarily made the regent of heaven.


title: Ashokasundari

text: Ashokasundari finds very little mention in Hindu mythology; her tale only appears in the "Padma Purana". Her appearance in a television series Devon Ke Dev Mahadev on the life of Shiva and Parvati brought her to the notice of many. She later appeared in other series, such as Vighnaharta Ganesh.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: In astronautics, the Hohmann transfer orbit () is an orbital maneuver used to transfer a spacecraft between two orbits of different altitudes around a central body. Examples would be used for travel between low Earth orbit and the Moon, or another solar planet or asteroid. In the idealized case, the initial and target orbits are both circular and coplanar. The maneuver is accomplished by placing the craft into an elliptical transfer orbit that is tangential to both the initial and target orbits. The maneuver uses two impulsive engine burns: the first establishes the transfer orbit, and the second adjusts the orbit to match the target.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: The Hohmann maneuver often uses the lowest possible amount of impulse (which consumes a proportional amount of delta-v, and hence propellant) to accomplish the transfer, but requires a relatively longer travel time than higher-impulse transfers. In some cases where one orbit is much larger than the other, a bi-elliptic transfer can use even less impulse, at the cost of even greater travel time.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: The maneuver was named after Walter Hohmann, the German scientist who published a description of it in his 1925 book "Die Erreichbarkeit der Himmelskörper" ("The Attainability of Celestial Bodies"). Hohmann was influenced in part by the German science fiction author Kurd Lasswitz and his 1897 book "Two Planets"


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: When used for traveling between celestial bodies, a Hohmann transfer orbit requires that the starting and destination points be at particular locations in their orbits relative to each other. Space missions using a Hohmann transfer must wait for this required alignment to occur, which opens a launch window. For a mission between Earth and Mars, for example, these launch windows occur every 26 months. A Hohmann transfer orbit also determines a fixed time required to travel between the starting and destination points; for an Earth-Mars journey this travel time is about 9 months. When transfer is performed between orbits close to celestial bodies with significant gravitation, much less delta-v is usually required, as the Oberth effect may be employed for the burns.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: They are also often used for these situations, but low-energy transfers which take into account the thrust limitations of real engines, and take advantage of the gravity wells of both planets can be more fuel efficient.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: The diagram shows a Hohmann transfer orbit to bring a spacecraft from a lower circular orbit into a higher one. It is an elliptic orbit that is tangential both to the lower circular orbit the spacecraft is to leave (cyan, labeled "1" on diagram) and the higher circular orbit that it is to reach (red, labeled "3" on diagram). The transfer orbit (yellow, labeled "2" on diagram) is initiated by firing the spacecraft's engine to add energy and raise the apogee. When the spacecraft reaches apogee, a second engine firing adds energy to raise the perigee, putting the spacecraft in the larger circular orbit.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: Due to the reversibility of orbits, a similar Hohmann transfer orbit can be used to bring a spacecraft from a higher orbit into a lower one; in this case, the spacecraft's engine is fired in the opposite direction to its current path, slowing the spacecraft and lowering its perigee to that of the elliptical transfer orbit. The engine is then fired again at the lower distance to slow the spacecraft into the lower circular orbit.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: The Hohmann transfer orbit is based on two instantaneous velocity changes. Extra fuel is required to compensate for the fact that the bursts take time; this is minimized by using high-thrust engines to minimize the duration of the bursts. For transfers in Earth orbit, the two burns are labelled the "perigee burn" and the "apogee burn" (or "apogee kick"); more generally, they are labelled "periapsis" and "apoapsis" burns. Alternately, the second burn to circularize the orbit may be referred to as a "circularization burn".


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: An ideal Hohmann transfer orbit transfers between two circular orbits in the same plane and traverses exactly 180° around the primary. In the real world, the destination orbit may not be circular, and may not be coplanar with the initial orbit. Real world transfer orbits may traverse slightly more, or slightly less, than 180° around the primary. An orbit which traverses less than 180° around the primary is called a "Type I" Hohmann transfer, while an orbit which traverses more than 180° is called a "Type II" Hohmann transfer.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: Transfer orbits can go more than 360° around the sun. These multiple-revolution transfers are sometimes referred to as Type III and Type IV, where a Type III is a Type I plus 360°, and a Type IV is a Type II plus 360°.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: A Hohmann transfer orbit can be used to transfer an object's orbit towards another object, as long as they share a common, more massive body which they orbit around. In the context of Earth and the Solar System, this includes any object which orbits the Sun. An example of where a Hohmann transfer orbit could be used is to bring an asteroid, orbiting the Sun, into contact with the Earth.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: For a small body orbiting another much larger body, such as a satellite orbiting Earth, the total energy of the smaller body is the sum of its kinetic energy and potential energy, and this total energy also equals half the potential at the average distance formula_1 (the semi-major axis):


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: Therefore, the delta-"v" (Δv) required for the Hohmann transfer can be computed as follows, under the assumption of instantaneous impulses:


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: where formula_13 and formula_16 are respectively the radii of the departure and arrival circular orbits;


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: the smaller (greater) of formula_13 and formula_16 corresponds to the periapsis distance (apoapsis distance) of the Hohmann elliptical transfer orbit. Typically, formula_21 is given in units of m/s, as such be sure to use meters, not kilometers, for formula_13 and formula_16. The total formula_24 is then:


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: Whether moving into a higher or lower orbit, by Kepler's third law, the time taken to transfer between the orbits is


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: (one half of the orbital period for the whole ellipse), where formula_27 is length of semi-major axis of the Hohmann transfer orbit.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: In application to traveling from one celestial body to another it is crucial to start maneuver at the time when the two bodies are properly aligned. Considering the target angular velocity being


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: angular alignment α (in radians) at the time of start between the source object and the target object shall be


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: Consider a geostationary transfer orbit, beginning at "r" = 6,678 km (altitude 300 km) and ending in a geostationary orbit with "r" = 42,164 km (altitude 35,786 km).


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: In the smaller circular orbit the speed is 7.73 km/s; in the larger one, 3.07 km/s. In the elliptical orbit in between the speed varies from 10.15 km/s at the perigee to 1.61 km/s at the apogee.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: Therefore the Δv for the first burn is 10.15 − 7.73 = 2.42 km/s, for the second burn 3.07 − 1.61 = 1.46 km/s, and for both together 3.88 km/s.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: This is "greater" than the Δv required for an escape orbit: 10.93 − 7.73 = 3.20 km/s. Applying a Δv at the Low Earth orbit (LEO) of only 0.78 km/s more (3.20−2.42) would give the rocket the escape velocity, which is less than the Δv of 1.46 km/s required to circularize the geosynchronous orbit. This illustrates the Oberth effect that at large speeds the same Δv provides more specific orbital energy, and energy increase is maximized if one spends the Δv as quickly as possible, rather than spending some, being decelerated by gravity, and then spending some more to overcome the deceleration (of course, the objective of a Hohmann transfer orbit is different).


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: As the example above demonstrates, the Δ"v" required to perform a Hohmann transfer between two circular orbits is not the greatest when the destination radius is infinite. (Escape speed is times orbital speed, so the Δv required to escape is  − 1 (41.4%) of the orbital speed.) The Δv required is greatest (53.0% of smaller orbital speed) when the radius of the larger orbit is 15.5817... times that of the smaller orbit. This number is the positive root of , which is formula_30. For higher orbit ratios the required for the second burn decreases faster than the first increases.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: When used to move a spacecraft from orbiting one planet to orbiting another, the situation becomes somewhat more complex, but much less delta-"v" is required, due to the Oberth effect, than the sum of the delta-"v" required to escape the first planet plus the delta-"v" required for a Hohmann transfer to the second planet.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: For example, consider a spacecraft travelling from Earth to Mars. At the beginning of its journey, the spacecraft will already have a certain velocity and kinetic energy associated with its orbit around Earth. During the burn the rocket engine applies its delta-"v", but the kinetic energy increases as a square law, until it is sufficient to escape the planet's gravitational potential, and then burns more so as to gain enough energy to get into the Hohmann transfer orbit (around the Sun). Because the rocket engine is able to make use of the initial kinetic energy of the propellant, far less delta-"v" is required over and above that needed to reach escape velocity, and the optimum situation is when the transfer burn is made at minimum altitude (low periapsis) above the planet. The delta-"v" needed is only 3.6 km/s, only about 0.4 km/s more than needed to escape Earth, even though this results in the spacecraft going 2.9 km/s faster than the Earth as it heads off for Mars (see table below).


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: At the other end, the spacecraft will need a certain velocity to orbit Mars, which will actually be less than the velocity needed to continue orbiting the Sun in the transfer orbit, let alone attempting to orbit the Sun in a Mars-like orbit. Therefore, the spacecraft will have to decelerate in order for the gravity of Mars to capture it. This capture burn should optimally be done at low altitude to also make best use of the Oberth effect. Therefore, relatively small amounts of thrust at either end of the trip are needed to arrange the transfer compared to the free space situation.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: However, with any Hohmann transfer, the alignment of the two planets in their orbits is crucial – the destination planet and the spacecraft must arrive at the same point in their respective orbits around the Sun at the same time. This requirement for alignment gives rise to the concept of launch windows.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: It is possible to apply the formula given above to calculate the Δv in km/s needed to enter a Hohmann transfer orbit to arrive at various destinations from Earth (assuming circular orbits for the planets). In this table, the column labeled "Δv to enter Hohmann orbit from Earth's orbit" gives the change from Earth's velocity to the velocity needed to get on a Hohmann ellipse whose other end will be at the desired distance from the Sun. The column labeled "v exiting LEO" gives the velocity needed (in a non-rotating frame of reference centered on the earth) when 300 km above the Earth's surface. This is obtained by adding to the specific kinetic energy the square of the speed (7.73 km/s) of this low Earth orbit (that is, the depth of Earth's gravity well at this LEO). The column "Δv from LEO" is simply the previous speed minus 7.73 km/s.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: Note that in most cases, Δ"v" from LEO is less than the Δ"v" to enter Hohmann orbit from Earth's orbit.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: To get to the Sun, it is actually not necessary to use a Δ"v" of 24 km/s. One can use 8.8 km/s to go very far away from the Sun, then use a negligible Δ"v" to bring the angular momentum to zero, and then fall into the Sun. This can be considered a sequence of two Hohmann transfers, one up and one down. Also, the table does not give the values that would apply when using the Moon for a gravity assist. There are also possibilities of using one planet, like Venus which is the easiest to get to, to assist getting to other planets or the Sun.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: The bi-elliptic transfer consists of two half-elliptic orbits. From the initial orbit, a first burn expends delta-v to boost the spacecraft into the first transfer orbit with an apoapsis at some point formula_31 away from the central body. At this point a second burn sends the spacecraft into the second elliptical orbit with periapsis at the radius of the final desired orbit, where a third burn is performed, injecting the spacecraft into the desired orbit.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: While they require one more engine burn than a Hohmann transfer and generally require a greater travel time, some bi-elliptic transfers require a lower amount of total delta-v than a Hohmann transfer when the ratio of final to initial semi-major axis is 11.94 or greater, depending on the intermediate semi-major axis chosen.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: Low-thrust engines can perform an approximation of a Hohmann transfer orbit, by creating a gradual enlargement of the initial circular orbit through carefully timed engine firings. This requires a change in velocity (delta-"v") that is greater than the two-impulse transfer orbit and takes longer to complete.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: Engines such as ion thrusters are more difficult to analyze with the delta-"v" model. These engines offer a very low thrust and at the same time, much higher delta-"v" budget, much higher specific impulse, lower mass of fuel and engine. A 2-burn Hohmann transfer maneuver would be impractical with such a low thrust; the maneuver mainly optimizes the use of fuel, but in this situation there is relatively plenty of it.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: If only low-thrust maneuvers are planned on a mission, then continuously firing a low-thrust, but very high-efficiency engine might generate a higher delta-"v" and at the same time use less propellant than a conventional chemical rocket engine.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: Going from one circular orbit to another by gradually changing the radius simply requires the same delta-"v" as the difference between the two speeds. Such maneuver requires more delta-"v" than a 2-burn Hohmann transfer maneuver, but does so with continuous low thrust rather than the short applications of high thrust.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: The amount of propellant mass used measures the efficiency of the maneuver plus the hardware employed for it. The total delta-"v" used measures the efficiency of the maneuver only. For electric propulsion systems, which tend to be low-thrust, the high efficiency of the propulsive system usually compensates for the higher delta-V compared to the more efficient Hohmann maneuver.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: Transfer orbits using electrical propulsion or low-thrust engines optimize the transfer time to reach the final orbit and not the delta-v as in the Hohmann transfer orbit. For geostationary orbit, the initial orbit is set to be supersynchronous and by thrusting continuously in the direction of the velocity at apogee, the transfer orbit transforms to a circular geosynchronous one. This method however takes much longer to achieve due to the low thrust injected into the orbit.


title: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: In 1997, a set of orbits known as the Interplanetary Transport Network (ITN) was published, providing even lower propulsive delta-"v" (though much slower and longer) paths between different orbits than Hohmann transfer orbits. The Interplanetary Transport Network is different in nature than Hohmann transfers because Hohmann transfers assume only one large body whereas the Interplanetary Transport Network does not. The Interplanetary Transport Network is able to achieve the use of less propulsive delta-"v" by employing gravity assist from the planets.


title: Penei Sewell

text: Penei Sewell ( ; born October 9, 2000) is an American football offensive tackle for the Detroit Lions of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Oregon, where he won the Outland and Morris trophies in 2019.


title: Penei Sewell

text: Sewell opted out of his junior season in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic before being drafted seventh overall by the Lions in the 2021 NFL Draft. A native of American Samoa, he and his family moved to the continental United States in 2012, settling in Utah. He is the older brother of Noah Sewell.


title: Penei Sewell

text: Sewell was born on October 9, 2000, in Malaeimi, a village in American Samoa near the capital of Pago Pago. As a child, he would begin playing American football alongside his three brothers after his father Gabriel became a coach of the sport. Seeing the potential for his children to make it to the National Football League (NFL), Gabriel would move his family to St. George, Utah in 2012. There, Sewell attended and played football at Desert Hills High School. As a senior in 2018, he played in the US Army All-American and Polynesian Bowls before committing to the University of Oregon to play college football for the Oregon Ducks.


title: Penei Sewell

text: Sewell became an immediate starter during his freshman year for the Ducks in 2018, starting seven games but missing six due to a high ankle sprain. He returned in 2019 and won the Morris Trophy and Outland Trophy. In addition, he and former Alabama quarterback Tua Tagovailoa were selected as co-recipients of the 2019 Polynesian College Football Player of the Year award. Sewell opted out of the 2020 season due to the COVID-19 pandemic and declared for the 2021 NFL Draft.


title: Penei Sewell

text: Regarded as one of the best overall prospects in the 2021 NFL Draft, Sewell was selected seventh overall by the Detroit Lions. He tested positive for COVID-19 in May 2021 and had to sit out of minicamp. He signed his four-year rookie contract, worth $24.1 million, the same month.


title: Penei Sewell

text: Sewell has three brothers: Gabriel, Nephi, and Noah. Gabriel is a linebacker for the Philadelphia Stars in the USFL, Nephi is a linebacker for the New Orleans Saints, and Noah is a linebacker for Oregon. The brothers are nephews of former NFL players Isaac Sopoaga and Richard Brown.


title: GNU Project

text: The GNU Project () is a free software, mass collaboration project announced by Richard Stallman on September 27, 1983. Its goal is to give computer users freedom and control in their use of their computers and computing devices by collaboratively developing and publishing software that gives everyone the rights to freely run the software, copy and distribute it, study it, and modify it. GNU software grants these rights in its license.


title: GNU Project

text: In order to ensure that the "entire" software of a computer grants its users all freedom rights (use, share, study, modify), even the most fundamental and important part, the operating system (including all its numerous utility programs) needed to be free software. According to its manifesto, the founding goal of the project was to build a free operating system, and if possible, "everything useful that normally comes with a Unix system so that one could get along without any software that is not free." Stallman decided to call this operating system "GNU" (a recursive acronym meaning ""GNU's not Unix!""), basing its design on that of Unix, a proprietary operating system. Development was initiated in January 1984. In 1991, the Linux kernel appeared, developed outside the GNU project by Linus Torvalds, and in December 1992 it was made available under version 2 of the GNU General Public License. Combined with the operating system utilities already developed by the GNU project, it allowed for the first operating system that was free software, commonly known as Linux.


title: GNU Project

text: The project's current work includes software development, awareness building, political campaigning, and sharing of new material.


title: GNU Project

text: Richard Stallman announced his intent to start coding the GNU Project in a Usenet message in September 1983.


title: GNU Project

text: When the GNU project first started they had an Emacs text editor with Lisp for writing editor commands, a source level debugger, a yacc-compatible parser generator, and a linker. The GNU system required its own C compiler and tools to be free software, so these also had to be developed. By June 1987, the project had accumulated and developed free software for an assembler, an almost finished portable optimizing C compiler (GCC), an editor (GNU Emacs), and various Unix utilities (such as codice_1, codice_2, codice_3, codice_4 and codice_5). They had an initial kernel that needed more updates.


title: GNU Project

text: Once the kernel and the compiler were finished, GNU was able to be used for program development. The main goal was to create many other applications to be like the Unix system. GNU was able to run Unix programs but was not identical to it. GNU incorporated longer file names, file version numbers, and a crashproof file system. The GNU Manifesto was written to gain support and participation from others for the project. Programmers were encouraged to take part in any aspect of the project that interested them. People could donate funds, computer parts, or even their own time to write code and programs for the project.


title: GNU Project

text: The origins and development of most aspects of the GNU Project (and free software in general) are shared in a detailed narrative in the Emacs help system. (C-h g runs the Emacs editor command describe-gnu-project.) It is the same detailed history as at their web site.


title: GNU Project

text: The GNU Manifesto was written by Richard Stallman to gain support and participation in the GNU Project. In the GNU Manifesto, Stallman listed four freedoms essential to software users: freedom to run a program for any purpose, freedom to study the mechanics of the program and modify it, freedom to redistribute copies, and freedom to improve and change modified versions for public use. To implement these freedoms, users needed full access to the source code. To ensure code remained free and provide it to the public, Stallman created the GNU General Public License (GPL), which allowed software and the future generations of code derived from it to remain free for public use.


title: GNU Project

text: Although most of the GNU Project's output is technical in nature, it was launched as a social, ethical, and political initiative. As well as producing software and licenses, the GNU Project has published a number of writings, the majority of which were authored by Richard Stallman.


title: GNU Project

text: The GNU project uses software that is free for users to copy, edit, and distribute. It is free in the sense that users can change the software to fit individual needs. The way programmers obtain the free software depends on where they get it. The software could be provided to the programmer from friends or over the Internet, or the company a programmer works for may purchase the software.


title: GNU Project

text: Copyleft is what helps maintain free use of this software among other programmers. Copyleft gives the legal right to everyone to use, edit, and redistribute programs or programs' code as long as the distribution terms do not change. As a result, any user who obtains the software legally has the same freedoms as the rest of its users do.


title: GNU Project

text: The GNU Project and the Free Software Foundation sometimes differentiate between "strong" and "weak" copyleft. "Weak" copyleft programs typically allow distributors to link them together with non-free programs, while "strong" copyleft strictly forbids this practice. Most of the GNU Project's output is released under a strong copyleft, although some is released under a weak copyleft or a lax, push-over free software license.


title: GNU Project

text: The first goal of the GNU project was to create a whole free-software operating system. Because UNIX was already widespread and ran on more powerful machines, compared to contemporary CP/M or MS-DOS machines of time, it was decided it would be a Unix-like operating system. Richard Stallman later commented that he considered MS-DOS "a toy".


title: GNU Project

text: By 1992, the GNU project had completed all of the major operating system utilities, but had not completed their proposed operating system kernel, GNU Hurd. With the release of the Linux kernel, started independently by Linus Torvalds in 1991, and released under the GPLv2 with version 0.12 in 1992, for the first time it was possible to run an operating system composed completely of free software. Though the Linux kernel is not part of the GNU project, it was developed using GCC and other GNU programming tools and was released as free software under the GNU General Public License. Most compilation of the Linux kernel is still done with GNU toolchains, but it is currently possible to use the Clang compiler and the LLVM toolchain for compilation.


title: GNU Project

text: As of present, the GNU project has not released a version of GNU/Hurd that is suitable for production environments since the commencement of the GNU/Hurd project over .


title: GNU Project

text: A stable version (or variant) of GNU can be run by combining the GNU packages with the Linux kernel, making a functional Unix-like system. The GNU project calls this GNU/Linux, and the defining features are the combination of:


title: GNU Project

text: Within the GNU website, a list of projects is laid out and each project has specifics for what type of developer is able to perform the task needed for a certain piece of the GNU project. The skill level ranges from project to project but anyone with background knowledge in programming is encouraged to support the project.


title: GNU Project

text: The packaging of GNU tools, together with the Linux kernel and other programs, is usually called a Linux distribution (distro). The GNU Project calls the combination of GNU and the Linux kernel "GNU/Linux", and asks others to do the same, resulting in the GNU/Linux naming controversy.


title: GNU Project

text: The GNU Free System Distribution Guidelines (GNU FSDG) is a system distribution commitment used to explain what it means for an installable system distribution (such as a Linux distribution) to qualify as free (libre), and help distribution developers make their distributions qualify.


title: GNU Project

text: Mostly, the list describes distributions that are a combination of GNU packages with a Linux-libre kernel (a modified Linux kernel that removes binary blobs, obfuscated code, and portions of code under proprietary licenses) and consist only of free software (eschewing proprietary software entirely). Distributions that have adopted the GNU FSDG include Dragora GNU/Linux-Libre, gNewSense, GNU Guix System, Hyperbola GNU/Linux-libre, Parabola GNU/Linux-libre, Trisquel GNU/Linux, Ututo, and a few others.


title: GNU Project

text: The Fedora Project's distribution license guidelines were used as a basis for the FSDG. The Fedora Project's own guidelines, however, currently do not follow the FSDG, and thus the GNU Project does not consider Fedora to be a fully free (libre) GNU/Linux distribution.


title: GNU Project

text: From the mid-1990s onward, with many companies investing in free software development, the Free Software Foundation redirected its funds toward the legal and political support of free software development. Software development from that point on focused on maintaining existing projects, and starting new projects only when there was an acute threat to the free software community. One of the most notable projects of the GNU Project is the GNU Compiler Collection, whose components have been adopted as the standard compiler system on many Unix-like systems.


title: GNU Project

text: The GNOME desktop effort was launched by the GNU Project because another desktop system, KDE, was becoming popular but required users to install Qt, which was then proprietary software. To prevent people from being tempted to install KDE and Qt, the GNU Project simultaneously launched two projects. One was the Harmony toolkit. This was an attempt to make a free software replacement for Qt. Had this project been successful, the perceived problem with the KDE would have been solved. The second project was GNOME, which tackled the same issue from a different angle. It aimed to make a replacement for KDE that had no dependencies on proprietary software. The Harmony project didn't make much progress, but GNOME developed very well. Eventually, the proprietary component that KDE depended on (Qt) was released as free software. GNOME has since dissociated itself from the GNU Project and the Free Software Foundation; and is now independently managed by the GNOME Project.


title: GNU Project

text: GNU Enterprise (GNUe) is a meta-project started in 1996, and can be regarded as a sub-project of the GNU Project. GNUe's goal is to create free "enterprise-class data-aware applications" (enterprise resource planners, etc.). GNUe is designed to collect Enterprise software for the GNU system in a single location (much like the GNOME project collects Desktop software).


title: GNU Project

text: In 2001, the GNU Project received the USENIX Lifetime Achievement Award for "the ubiquity, breadth, and quality of its freely available redistributable and modifiable software, which has enabled a generation of research and commercial development".


title: Invesco

text: Invesco Ltd. is an American independent investment management company that is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, with additional branch offices in 20 countries. Its common stock is a constituent of the S&P 500 and trades on the New York stock exchange. Invesco operates under the Invesco, Trimark, Invesco Perpetual, WL Ross & Co and Powershares brand names.


title: Invesco

text: Invesco (then officially spelled with all-capital letters: INVESCO) was created in Atlanta in 1978 when Citizens & Southern National Bank divested its money management operations. In 1988, the company was purchased by the British firm Britannia Arrow, based in London, which later took the INVESCO name. In 1997 INVESCO PLC merged with AIM Investments. Upon completion of the merger the company adopted the name Amvescap. In 2007 the company reverted to the Invesco name.


title: Invesco

text: Since 2000 Invesco has grown through acquisitions such as the ETF firm PowerShares Capital Management and the restructuring of WL Ross & Co.


title: Invesco

text: In 2004, the company agreed to a $450 million settlement with the Attorneys General of New York, Colorado and the SEC after allegations of improper trading practices.


title: Invesco

text: In May 2007 the company changed their name to Invesco (initial cap only) PLC, moved its primary stock market listing from the London Stock Exchange to the NYSE and became domiciled in Bermuda, adopting the name Invesco Ltd. As a result, the company's shares were withdrawn from the FTSE 100 Index and added to the Russell 1000 Index. In November 2007, Invesco moved its headquarters from London to Atlanta.


title: Invesco

text: Invesco planned to list the PowerShares Global Progressive Transportation Portfolio (PTRP on the Nasdaq Stock Market). This fund was closed in 2010.


title: Invesco

text: On October 19, 2009, Invesco bought Morgan Stanley's Retail Unit, including Van Kampen Investments for $1.5 billion.


title: Invesco

text: In April 2010, Invesco Aim became Invesco. Later that year, it was reported that Invesco had plans to introduce a Risk parity commodity fund according to regulatory filings.


title: Invesco

text: In September 2017, Invesco agreed to buy Guggenheim Investment's exchange-traded fund business for $1.2 Billion in cash.


title: Invesco

text: On October 18, 2018, Invesco purchased OppenheimerFunds from MassMutual for about $5.7 billion in stock.


title: Invesco

text: In March 2020 amid a major stock market crash triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic, Invesco Mortgage Capital Inc., a branch handling Real Estate Investment Trusts, announced they were unable to cover margin calls due to dramatic devaluations and investors selling shares. The company also announced they would delay dividend payments.


title: Shakuhachi

text: The bamboo end-blown flute now known as the was developed in Japan in the 16th century and is called the . A bamboo flute known as the , which is quite different from the current style of , was introduced to Japan from China in the 7th century and died out in the 10th century. After a long blank period, the appeared in the 15th century, and then in the 16th century, the was developed in Japan. The flourished in the 18th century during the Edo period, and eventually the also died out. The developed in Japan is longer and thicker than the and has one finger hole less. It is longer and thicker than and is superior in volume, range, scale and tone quality. Today, since the shakuhachi generally refers only to , the theory that the is an instrument unique to Japan is widely accepted.


title: Shakuhachi

text: The is traditionally made of bamboo, but versions now exist in ABS and hardwoods. It was used by the monks of the Fuke Zen of Zen Buddhism in the practice of (blowing meditation).


title: Shakuhachi

text: Thus, the compound word means "one eight " (), the standard length of a . Other vary in length from about 1.3 up to 3.6 . Although the sizes differ, all are still referred to generically as .


title: Shakuhachi

text: are usually made from the root end of ("Phyllostachys bambusoides") bamboo culm and are extremely versatile instruments. Professional players can produce virtually any pitch they wish from the instrument, and play a wide repertoire of original Zen music, ensemble music with , , and , folk music, jazz, and other modern pieces.


title: Shakuhachi

text: Much of the 's subtlety (and player's skill) lies in its rich tone colouring, and the ability for its variation. Different fingerings, embouchures and amounts of can produce notes of the same pitch, but with subtle or dramatic differences in the tone colouring. Holes can be covered partially and pitch varied subtly or substantially by changing the blowing angle. The pieces rely heavily on this aspect of the instrument to enhance their subtlety and depth.


title: Shakuhachi

text: Unlike a recorder, where the player blows into a duct—a narrow airway over a block which is called a "fipple"—and thus has limited pitch control, the player blows as one would blow across the top of an empty bottle (though the has a sharp edge to blow against called ) and therefore has substantial pitch control. The term literally translates as "to the mouth that sings", referring to the upper and main hole of the flute where the mouthpiece or blowing edge is created by a natural diagonal cut in the bamboo.


title: Shakuhachi

text: The history of the shows a variety of designs of inlaid mouthpieces that vary between certain traditional Japanese schools of . Thus, the Kinko Ryu, Myoan and Tozan Ryu, differ in different features in their line of mouthpiece design, coinciding in them the total non-use in their inlay of the semi-circumference formed by the natural cut of the mouthpiece in the bamboo. Beyond the fact that these inlaid forms were a hallmark of styles and schools, the fact of inlaying a mouthpiece historically could respond to a way of repairing the instrument due to wear or damage in particular in its blowing edge.


title: Shakuhachi

text: The five finger holes are tuned to a minor pentatonic scale with no half-tones, but using techniques called and , in which the blowing angle is adjusted to bend the pitch downward and upward, respectively, combined with embouchure adjustments and fingering techniques the player can bend each pitch as much as a whole tone or more. Pitches may also be lowered by or partially covering finger holes. Since most pitches can be achieved via several different fingering or blowing techniques on the , the timbre of each possibility is taken into account when composing or playing thus different names are used to write notes of the same pitch which differ in timbre. The has a range of two full octaves (the lower is called / , the upper, ) and a partial third octave ( ) though experienced players can produce notes up to E7 (2637.02Hz) on a 1.8 shakuhachi. The various octaves are produced using subtle variations of breath, finger positions and embouchure.


title: Shakuhachi

text: In traditional repertoire, instead of tonguing for articulation like many Western wind instruments, hitting holes (, ) with a very fast movement is used and each note has its corresponding repeat fingerings; e.g., for repeating C5 the 5th hole (D5's tone hole) is used.


title: Shakuhachi

text: A 1.8 produces D4 (D above Middle C, 293.66Hz) as its fundamental—the lowest note it produces with all five finger holes covered, and a normal blowing angle. In contrast, a 2.4 has a fundamental of A3 (A below Middle C, 220Hz). As the length increases, the spacing of the finger holes also increases, stretching both fingers and technique. Longer flutes often have offset finger holes, and very long flutes are almost always custom made to suit individual players. Some , in particular those of the Nezasaha (Kimpu-ryū) school, are intended to be played on these longer flutes.


title: Shakuhachi

text: Due to the skill required, the time involved, and the range of quality in materials to craft bamboo , one can expect to pay from US$1,000 to US$8,000 for a new or used flute. Because each piece of bamboo is unique, cannot be mass-produced, and craftsmen must spend much time finding the correct shape and length of bamboo, curing it for more or less of a decade in a controlled environment and then start shaping the bore for almost a year using paste—many layers of a mixture including and and finished with lacquer—for each individual flute to achieve correct pitch and tonality over all notes. Specimens of extremely high quality, with valuable inlays, or of historical significance can fetch US$20,000 or more. Plastic or PVC have some advantages over their traditional bamboo counterparts: they are lightweight, extremely durable, nearly impervious to heat and cold, and typically cost less than US$100. made of wood are also available, typically costing less than bamboo but more than synthetic materials. Nearly all players, however, prefer bamboo, citing tonal qualities, aesthetics, and tradition.


title: Shakuhachi

text: The is derived from the Chinese bamboo-flute. The bamboo-flute first came to Japan from China during the 7th century. This style of bamboo flute, also called , was used for playing , but died out in the 10th century. Eight remain in the Shōsō-in Treasure Repository. There are no records of musical scores related to the , so details such as its playing method and scale are unknown. The average length was , the diameter of the finger holes was , and there were 6 finger holes – 5 at the front, 1 at the back.


title: Shakuhachi

text: In the 15th century, the appeared. It is characterized by a single bamboo joint in the middle of the tube. Although it flourished in the 17th century, it gradually fell into disuse due to the development and popularity of the superior , and was no longer used by the 19th century. The average length was , the outer diameter was , and there were 5 finger holes – 4 at the front, 1 at the back.


title: Shakuhachi

text: The flute now known as the was developed in Japan in the 16th century and is called the . This style of is longer and thicker than the older , and its volume, range, scale, and tone are superior to those of the older . It is made from the base of the bamboo, and the average length is , which corresponds to 1 8 ; the outside diameter is , and there are 5 finger holes – 4 at the front, 1 at the back.


title: Shakuhachi

text: During the medieval period, were most notable for their role in the Fuke sect of Zen Buddhist monks, known as ("priests of nothingness" or "emptiness monks"), who used the shakuhachi as a spiritual tool. Their songs (called ) were paced according to the players' breathing and were considered meditation () as much as music.


title: Shakuhachi

text: Travel around Japan was restricted by the shogunate at this time, but the Fuke sect managed to wrangle an exemption from the , since their spiritual practice required them to move from place to place playing the and begging for alms (one famous song reflects this mendicant tradition: ; "One two three, pass the alms bowl"). They persuaded the to give them exclusive rights to play the instrument. In return, some were required to spy for the shogunate, and the sent several of his own spies out in the guise of Fuke monks as well. This was made easier by the that the Fuke wore over their heads, a symbol of their detachment from the world.


title: Shakuhachi

text: In response to these developments, several particularly difficult pieces, e.g. , became well known as "tests": if one could play them, they were a real Fuke monk. If they could not, they were probably a spy and might very well be killed if they were in unfriendly territory.


title: Shakuhachi

text: With the Meiji Restoration, beginning in 1868, the shogunate was abolished and so was the Fuke sect, in order to help identify and eliminate the 's holdouts. The very playing of the was officially forbidden for a few years. Non-Fuke folk traditions did not suffer greatly from this, since the tunes could be played just as easily on another pentatonic instrument. However, the repertoire was known exclusively to the Fuke sect and transmitted by repetition and practice, and much of it was lost, along with many important documents.


title: Shakuhachi

text: When the Meiji government did permit the playing of again, it was only as an accompanying instrument to the , , etc. It was not until later that were allowed to be played publicly again as solo pieces.


title: Shakuhachi

text: The has traditionally been played almost exclusively by men in Japan, although this situation is rapidly changing. Many teachers of traditional music indicate that a majority of their students are women. The 2004 Big Apple Festival in New York City hosted the first-ever concert of international women masters. This festival was organized and produced by Ronnie Nyogetsu Reishin Seldin, who was the first full-time master to teach in the Western hemisphere. Nyogetsu also holds 2 Dai Shihan (Grand Master) licenses, and has run KiSuiAn, the largest and most active Dojo outside Japan, since 1975.


title: Shakuhachi

text: The has grown in international popularity in recent decades. The first non-Japanese person to become a master was American-Australian Riley Lee. Lee was responsible for the World Festival being held in Sydney, Australia over 5–8 July 2008, based at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music. Riley Lee played the in Dawn Mantras which was composed by Ross Edwards especially for the Dawn Performance, which took place on the sails of the Sydney Opera House at sunrise on 1 January 2000 and was televised internationally.


title: Shakuhachi

text: The creates a harmonic spectrum that contains the fundamental frequency together with even and odd harmonics and some blowing noise. Five tone holes enable musicians to play the notes D-F-G-A-C-D. Cross (or fork) fingerings, half-covering tone holes, and blowing cause pitch sharpening, referred to as intonation anomaly. Especially the second and third harmonic exhibit the well-known timbre. Even though the geometry of the is relatively simple, the sound radiation of the is rather complicated. Sound radiating from several holes and the natural asymmetry of bamboo create an individual spectrum in each direction. This spectrum depends on frequency and playing technique.


title: Shakuhachi

text: The International Shakuhachi Society maintains a directory of notable professional, amateur, and teaching players.


title: Shakuhachi

text: Recordings in each of these categories are available; however, more albums are catalogued in categories outside the traditional realm. As of 2018, players continue releasing records in a variety of traditional and modern styles.


title: Shakuhachi

text: The first recording appeared in the United States in the late 1960s. Gorō Yamaguchi recorded "A Bell Ringing in the Empty Sky" for Nonesuch Explorer Records on LP, an album which received acclaim from "Rolling Stone" at the time of its release. One of the pieces featured on Yamaguchi's record was , also called (Crane's Nesting). NASA later chose to include this track as part of the Golden Record aboard the Voyager spacecraft.


title: Shakuhachi

text: are often used in modern film scores, for example those by James Horner. Films in which it is featured prominently include: "The Karate Kid" parts II and III by Bill Conti, "Legends of the Fall" and "Braveheart" by James Horner, "Jurassic Park" and its sequels by John Williams and Don Davis, and "The Last Samurai" by Hans Zimmer and "Memoirs of a Geisha" by John Williams.


title: Shakuhachi

text: Renowned Japanese classical and film-score composer Toru Takemitsu wrote many pieces for and orchestra, including his well-known "Celeste", "Autumn" and "November Steps".


title: Shakuhachi

text: The sound of the is also featured from time to time in electronica, pop and rock, especially after being commonly shipped as a "preset" instrument on various synthesizers and keyboards beginning in the 1980s.


title: Red Ventures

text: Red Ventures is an American media company, which owns and operates brands such as Lonely Planet, CNET, ZDNet, The Points Guy, Healthline and Bankrate. Red Ventures focuses on sites that dispense news, advice, and reviews. The company's corporate headquarters is located in Indian Land, South Carolina, a suburb of Charlotte, North Carolina.


title: Red Ventures

text: Red Ventures was formed on September 29, 1999, in Fort Mill, South Carolina by Ric Elias and Dan Feldstein. Before its 2020 acquisitions, the company has grown into an international presence with more than 100 brands, 3,000 employees, and operations in the United Kingdom and Brazil.


title: Red Ventures

text: In 2015, the company got a $250 million investment from Silver Lake. That same year, it doubled the size of its headquarters and bought postal services company Imagitas from Pitney Bowes.


title: Red Ventures

text: On September 14, 2020, Red Ventures agreed to purchase the CNET Media Group from ViacomCBS for $500 million. On December 1, 2020, Red Ventures bought Lonely Planet from Tennessee-based NC2 Media.


title: Frenulum

text: A frenulum (or frenum, plural: frenula or frena, from the Latin "frēnulum", "little bridle", the diminutive of "frēnum") is a small fold of tissue that secures the motion of a mobile organ in the body.


title: Frenulum

text: Frenula on the human body include several in the mouth, some in the digestive tract, and some connected to the external genitalia.


title: Frenulum

text: An overly short oral or genital frenulum may require a frenulectomy or frenuloplasty to achieve normal mobility.


title: Frenulum

text: The word frenulum also refers to a bristle present at the root of the hindwing of most moths which engages with a small hook or tuft on the forewing (the retinaculum) to join the wings together.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: Ram Prasad Bismil ( Hindi: राम प्रसाद "बिस्मिल") (11 June 1897 — 19 December 1927) was an Indian poet, writer, revolutionary and an Indian freedom fighter who participated in the Mainpuri Conspiracy of 1918, and the Kakori Conspiracy of 1925, and fought against British Raj. He also had a good command over Urdu and the Hindi languages and was an accomplished poet, composing in these languages using the pen names Ram, Agyat and Bismil, the latter through which he became famously known by. He was also a multilingual translator and his Hindi poem "Manipuri ki Pratigya" became very famous. Bismil was hanged on 19 December 1927 by the British for his revolutionary activities. He was associated with Arya Samaj where he got inspiration from "Satyarth Prakash", a book written by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. He also had a confidential connection with Lala Har Dayal through his guru Swami Somdev, a preacher of Arya Samaj. Bismil was one of the founding members of the revolutionary organization Hindustan Republican Association. Bhagat Singh praised him as a great poet-writer of Urdu and Hindi, who had also translated the books "Catherine" from English and "Bolshevikon Ki Kartoot" from Bengali.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: Ram Prasad Bismil was born on 11 June 1897 to Muralidhar Tomar and Moolmati in a Tomar Rajput family, who traced their roots to Barwai in Morena district of Madhya Pradesh, of Shahjahanpur district in erstwhile North-Western Provinces. He learned Hindi from his father at home and was sent to learn Urdu from a moulvi. He was admitted to an English-language school, despite his father's disapproval, and also joined the Arya Samaj in Shahjahanpur. Bismil showed a talent for writing patriotic poetry.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: As an 18-year-old student, Bismil read of the death sentence passed on Bhai Parmanand, a scholar and companion of Har Dayal. At that time he was regularly attending the Arya Samaj Temple at Shahjahanpur daily, where Swami Somdev, a friend of Paramanand, was staying. Angered by the sentence, Bismil composed a poem in Hindi titled "Mera Janm" (en: My Birth), which he showed to Somdev. This poem demonstrated a commitment to remove the British control over India.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: Bismil left school in the following year and travelled to Lucknow with some friends. The "Naram Dal" ("moderate faction" of the Indian National Congress) was not prepared to allow the Garam Dal to stage a grand welcome of Tilak in the city. They organised a group of youths and decided to publish a book in Hindi on the history of American independence, "America Ki Swatantrata Ka Itihas", with the consent of Somdev. This book was published under the authorship of the fictitious Babu Harivans Sahai and its publisher's name was given as Somdev Siddhgopal Shukla. As soon as the book was published, the government of Uttar Pradesh proscribed its circulation within the state.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: Bismil formed a revolutionary organisation called "Matrivedi" ("Altar of Motherland") and contacted Genda Lal Dixit, a school teacher at Auraiya. Somdev arranged this, knowing that Bismil could be more effective in his mission if he had experienced people to support him. Dixit had contacts with some powerful dacoits of the state. Dixit wanted to utilise their power in the armed struggle against the British rulers. Like Bismil, Dixit had also formed an armed organisation of youths called "Shivaji Samiti" (named after Shivaji Maharaj). The pair organised youths from the Etawah, Mainpuri, Agra and Shahjahanpur districts of United Province (now Uttar Pradesh) to strengthen their organisations.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: On 28 January 1918, Bismil published a pamphlet titled "Deshvasiyon Ke Nam Sandesh" ("A Message to Countrymen"), which he distributed along with his poem "Mainpuri Ki Pratigya" ("Vow of Mainpuri"). To collect funds for the party looting was undertaken on three occasions in 1918. Police searched for them in and around Mainpuri while they were selling books proscribed by the U.P. Government in the Delhi Congress of 1918. When police found them, Bismil absconded with the books unsold. When he was planning another looting between Delhi and Agra, a police team arrived and firing started from both the sides. Bismil jumped into the Yamuna and swam underwater. The police and his companions thought that he had died in the encounter. Dixit was arrested along with his other companions and was kept in Agra fort. From here, he fled to Delhi and lived in hiding. A criminal case was filed against them. The incident is known as the "Mainpuri Conspiracy". On 1 November 1919 the Judiciary Magistrate of Mainpuri B. S. Chris announced the judgement against all accused and declared Dixit and Bismil as absconders.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: From 1919 to 1920 Bismil remained inconspicuous, moving around various villages in Uttar Pradesh and producing several books. Among these was a collection of poems written by him and others, entitled "Man Ki Lahar", while he also translated two works from Bengali ("Bolshevikon Ki Kartoot" and "Yogik Sadhan") and fabricated "Catherine or Swadhinta Ki Devi" from an English text. He got all these books published through his own resources under "Sushilmala" – a series of publications except one "Yogik Sadhan" which was given to a publisher who absconded and could not be traced. These books have since been found. Another of Bismil's books, "Kranti Geetanjali", was published in 1929 after his death and was proscribed by British Raj in 1931.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: In February 1920, when all the prisoners in the Manipuri conspiracy case were freed, Bismil returned home to Shahjahanpur, where he agreed with the official authorities that he would not participate in revolutionary activities. This statement of Ram Prasad was also recorded in vernacular before the court.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: In 1921, Bismil was among the many people from Shahjahanpur who attended the Ahmedabad Congress. He had a seat on the dias, along with the senior congressman Prem Krishna Khanna, and the revolutionary Ashfaqulla Khan. Bismil played an active role in the Congress with Maulana Hasrat Mohani and got the most debated proposal of "Poorna Swaraj" passed in the General Body meeting of Congress. Mohandas K. Gandhi, who was not in the favour of this proposal became quite helpless before the overwhelming demand of youths. He returned to Shahjahanpur and mobilised the youths of United Province for non-co-operation with the Government. The people of U.P. were so much influenced by the furious speeches and verses of Bismil that they became hostile against British Raj. As per statement of Banarsi Lal (approver) made in the court – "Ram Prasad used to say that independence would not be achieved by means of non-violence."


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: In February 1922 some agitating farmers were killed in Chauri Chaura by the police. The police station of Chauri Chaura was attacked by the people and 22 policemen were burnt alive. Gandhi, without ascertaining the facts behind this incident, declared an immediate stop the non-co-operation movement without consulting any executive committee member of the Congress. Bismil and his group of youths strongly opposed Gandhi in the Gaya session of Indian National Congress (1922). When Gandhi refused to rescind his decision, its then-president Chittranjan Das resigned. In January 1923, the rich group of party formed a new Swaraj Party under the joint leadership of Moti Lal Nehru and Chittranjan Das, and the youth group formed a revolutionary party under the leadership of Bismil.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: With the consent of Lala Har Dayal, Bismil went to Allahabad where he drafted the constitution of the party in 1923 with the help of Sachindra Nath Sanyal and another revolutionary of Bengal, Dr. Jadugopal Mukherjee. The basic name and aims of the organisation were typed on a "Yellow Paper" and later on a subsequent Constitutional Committee Meeting was conducted on 3 October 1924 at Cawnpore in U.P. under the Chairmanship of Sachindra Nath Sanyal.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: This meeting decided the name of the party would be the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA). After a long discussion from others Bismil was declared there the District Organiser of Shahjahanpur and Chief of Arms Division. An additional responsibility of Provincial Organiser of United Province (Agra and Oudh) was also entrusted to him. Sachindra Nath Sanyal, was unanimously nominated as National Organiser and another senior member Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, was given the responsibility of Coordinator, Anushilan Samiti. After attending the meeting in Kanpur, both Sanyal and Chatterjee left the U.P. and proceeded to Bengal for further extension of the organisation.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: A pamphlet entitled as "The Revolutionary" was distributed throughout the United Province in India in the beginning of January 1925. Copies of this leaflet, referred to in the evidence as the "White Leaflet", were also found with some other alleged conspirators of Kakori Conspiracy as per judgement of the Chief Court of Oudh. A typed copy of this manifesto was found with Manmath Nath Gupta. It was nothing but the Manifesto of H.R.A. in the form of a four paged printed pamphlet on white paper which was circulated secretly by post and by hands in most of the districts of United Province and other parts of India.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: This pamphlet bore no name of the printing press. The heading of the pamphlet was: "The Revolutionary" (An Organ of the Revolutionary Party of India). It was given first number and first issue of the publication. The date of its publication was given as 1 January 1925.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: Bismil executed a meticulous plan for looting the government treasury carried in a train at Kakori, near Lucknow in U.P. This historical event happened on 9 August 1925 and is known as the Kakori train robbery. Ten revolutionaries stopped the 8 Down Saharanpur-Lucknow passenger train at Kakori – a station just before the Lucknow Railway Junction. German-made Mauser C96 semi-automatic pistols were used in this action. Ashfaqulla Khan, the lieutenant of the HRA Chief Ram Prasad Bismil gave away his Mauser to Manmath Nath Gupta and engaged himself to break open the cash chest. Eagerly watching a new weapon in his hand, Manmath Nath Gupta fired the pistol and accidentally shot and killed passenger Ahmed Ali, who had gotten down from the train to see his wife in the ladies compartment.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: More than 40 revolutionaries were arrested whereas only 10 persons had taken part in the decoity. Persons completely unrelated to the incident were also captured. However some of them were let off. The government-appointed Jagat Narain Mulla as public prosecutor at an incredible fee. Dr. Harkaran Nath Mishra (Barrister M.L.A.) and Dr. Mohan Lal Saxena (M.L.C.) were appointed as defence counsel. The defence committee was also formed to defend the accused. Govind Ballabh Pant, Chandra Bhanu Gupta and Kripa Shankar Hajela defended their case. The men were found guilty and subsequent appeals failed. On 16 September 1927, a final appeal for clemency was forwarded to the Privy Council in London but that also failed.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: Following 18 months of legal process, Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Roshan Singh and Rajendra Nath Lahiri were sentenced to death. Bismil was hanged on 19 December 1927 at Gorakhpur Jail, Ashfaqulla Khan at the Faizabad Jail and Thakur Roshan Singh at Naini Allahabad Jail. Lahiri had been hanged two days earlier at Gonda Jail.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: Bismil's body was taken to the Rapti river for a Hindu cremation, and the site became known as "Rajghat."


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: Bismil published a pamphlet titled "Deshvasiyon ke nam sandesh" (en: A message to my countrymen). While living underground, he translated some of Bengali books viz. "Bolshevikon Ki Kartoot" (en: The Bolshevik's programme) and "Yogik Sadhan" (of Arvind Ghosh). Beside these a collection of poems "Man Ki Lahar" (en: A sally of mind) and "Swadeshi Rang" was also written by him. Another "Swadhinta ki devi: Catherine" was fabricated from an English book into Hindi. All of these were published by him in "Sushil Mala" series. Bismil wrote his autobiography while he was kept as condemned prisoner in Gorakhpur jail.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: The autobiography of Ram Prasad Bismil was published under the cover title of "Kakori ke shaheed" by Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi in 1928 from Pratap Press, Cawnpore. A rough translation of this book was prepared by the Criminal Investigation Department of United Province in British India. Translated book was circulated as confidential document for official and police use throughout the country.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: He immortalised the poem Sarfaroshi Ki Tamanna, Man Ki Lahar and Swadeshi Rang as a war cry during the British Raj period in India. It was first published in journal "Sabah", published from Delhi.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: Shaheed Smarak Samiti of Shahjahanpur established a memorial at Khirni Bagh mohalla of Shahjahanpur city where Bismil was born in 1897 and named it "Amar Shaheed Ram Prasad Bismil Smarak". A statue made of white marble was inaugurated by the then Governor of Uttar Pradesh Motilal Vora on 18 December 1994 on the eve of the martyr's 69th death anniversary.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: The Northern railway zone of Indian Railways built the Pt Ram Prasad Bismil railway station, from Shahajahanpur.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: There is a memorial to the Kakori conspiracists at Kakori itself. It was inaugurated by the prime minister of India, Indira Gandhi, on 19 December 1983.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: The Government of India issued a multicoloured commemorative postal stamp on 19 December 1997 in Bismil's birth centenary year.


title: Ram Prasad Bismil

text: The government of Uttar Pradesh had named a park after him: Amar Shaheed Pt. Ram Prasad Bismil Udyan is near Rampur Jagir village, where Bismil lived underground after the Mainpuri conspiracy case in 1919.


title: Ionic radius

text: Ionic radius, "r", is the radius of a monatomic ion in an ionic crystal structure. Although neither atoms nor ions have sharp boundaries, they are treated as if they were hard spheres with radii such that the sum of ionic radii of the cation and anion gives the distance between the ions in a crystal lattice. Ionic radii are typically given in units of either picometers (pm) or angstroms (Å), with 1 Å = 100 pm. Typical values range from 31 pm (0.3 Å) to over 200 pm (2 Å).


title: Ionic radius

text: The concept can be extended to solvated ions in liquid solutions taking into consideration the solvation shell.


title: Ionic radius

text: Ions may be larger or smaller than the neutral atom, depending on the ion's electric charge. When an atom loses an electron to form a cation, the other electrons are more attracted to the nucleus, and the radius of the ion gets smaller. Similarly, when an electron is added to an atom, forming an anion, the added electron increases the size of the electron cloud by interelectronic repulsion.


title: Ionic radius

text: The ionic radius is not a fixed property of a given ion, but varies with coordination number, spin state and other parameters. Nevertheless, ionic radius values are sufficiently transferable to allow periodic trends to be recognized. As with other types of atomic radius, ionic radii increase on descending a group. Ionic size (for the same ion) also increases with increasing coordination number, and an ion in a high-spin state will be larger than the same ion in a low-spin state. In general, ionic radius decreases with increasing positive charge and increases with increasing negative charge.


title: Ionic radius

text: An "anomalous" ionic radius in a crystal is often a sign of significant covalent character in the bonding. No bond is "completely" ionic, and some supposedly "ionic" compounds, especially of the transition metals, are particularly covalent in character. This is illustrated by the unit cell parameters for sodium and silver halides in the table. On the basis of the fluorides, one would say that Ag is larger than Na, but on the basis of the chlorides and bromides the opposite appears to be true. This is because the greater covalent character of the bonds in AgCl and AgBr reduces the bond length and hence the apparent ionic radius of Ag, an effect which is not present in the halides of the more electropositive sodium, nor in silver fluoride in which the fluoride ion is relatively unpolarizable.


title: Ionic radius

text: The distance between two ions in an ionic crystal can be determined by X-ray crystallography, which gives the lengths of the sides of the unit cell of a crystal. For example, the length of each edge of the unit cell of sodium chloride is found to be 564.02 pm. Each edge of the unit cell of sodium chloride may be considered to have the atoms arranged as Na∙∙∙Cl∙∙∙Na, so the edge is twice the Na-Cl separation. Therefore, the distance between the Na and Cl ions is half of 564.02 pm, which is 282.01 pm. However, although X-ray crystallography gives the distance between ions, it doesn't indicate where the boundary is between those ions, so it doesn't directly give ionic radii.


title: Ionic radius

text: Landé estimated ionic radii by considering crystals in which the anion and cation have a large difference in size, such as LiI. The lithium ions are so much smaller than the iodide ions that the lithium fits into holes within the crystal lattice, allowing the iodide ions to touch. That is, the distance between two neighboring iodides in the crystal is assumed to be twice the radius of the iodide ion, which was deduced to be 214 pm. This value can be used to determine other radii. For example, the inter-ionic distance in RbI is 356 pm, giving 142 pm for the ionic radius of Rb. In this way values for the radii of 8 ions were determined.


title: Ionic radius

text: Wasastjerna estimated ionic radii by considering the relative volumes of ions as determined from electrical polarizability as determined by measurements of refractive index. These results were extended by Victor Goldschmidt. Both Wasastjerna and Goldschmidt used a value of 132 pm for the O ion.


title: Ionic radius

text: Pauling used effective nuclear charge to proportion the distance between ions into anionic and a cationic radii. His data gives the O ion a radius of 140 pm.


title: Ionic radius

text: A major review of crystallographic data led to the publication of revised ionic radii by Shannon. Shannon gives different radii for different coordination numbers, and for high and low spin states of the ions. To be consistent with Pauling's radii, Shannon has used a value of "r"(O) = 140 pm; data using that value are referred to as "effective" ionic radii. However, Shannon also includes data based on "r"(O) = 126 pm; data using that value are referred to as "crystal" ionic radii. Shannon states that "it is felt that crystal radii correspond more closely to the physical size of ions in a solid." The two sets of data are listed in the two tables below.


title: Ionic radius

text: For many compounds, the model of ions as hard spheres does not reproduce the distance between ions, formula_1, to the accuracy with which it can be measured in crystals. One approach to improving the calculated accuracy is to model ions as "soft spheres" that overlap in the crystal. Because the ions overlap, their separation in the crystal will be less than the sum of their soft-sphere radii.


title: Ionic radius

text: where formula_6 is an exponent that varies with the type of crystal structure. In the hard-sphere model, formula_6 would be 1, giving formula_8.


title: Ionic radius

text: For example, for crystals of group 1 halides with the sodium chloride structure, a value of 1.6667 gives good agreement with experiment.