title: Howler monkey

text: These large and slow-moving monkeys are the only folivores of the New World monkeys. Howlers eat mainly top canopy leaves, together with fruit, buds, flowers, and nuts. They need to be careful not to eat too many leaves of certain species in one sitting, as some contain toxins that can poison them. Howler monkeys are also known to occasionally raid birds' nests and chicken coops and consume the eggs. When in smaller groups (up to twelve individuals) and low rainfall (up to ), they are more frugivorous. In larger groups and increased rainfall, frugivory decreases as a result of competition and fast food depletion. As they digest fruit, more than 90% of the fruits' seeds are excreted without damage, which results in seed dispersal and distribution in tropical forests.


title: Howler monkey

text: Howlers use the upper-middle part of their sleeping tree and use large branches on 70% of nights which potentially allow for grouped sleeping or for resistance to weather conditions and risk of branch breaking. Their sleeping sites are usually close to morning feeding sites.


title: Howler monkey

text: While they are not usually aggressive, brown howler monkeys do not take well to captivity and are of bad-tempered and unfriendly disposition. However, the black howler monkey ("Alouatta caraya") is a relatively common pet in contemporary Argentina due to its gentle nature (in comparison to the capuchin monkey's aggressive tendencies), in spite of its lesser intelligence, as well as the liabilities of the size of its droppings and the male monkey’s loud vocalizations.


title: Howler monkey

text: John Lloyd Stephens described the howler monkeys at the Maya ruins of Copán as "grave and solemn, almost emotionally wounded, as if officiating as the guardians of consecrated ground". To the Mayas of the Classic period, they were the divine patrons of the artisans, especially scribes and sculptors. They were seen as gods in some tribes, and the long, sleek tail was worshipped for its beauty. Copán, in particular, is famous for its representations of howler monkey gods. Two howler monkey brothers play a role in the myth of the Maya Hero Twins included in the "Popol Vuh", a widely feared tale of soul and passion


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: Kamini Kaushal (born as Uma Kashyap, 24 February 1927) is an Indian actress who worked in Hindi films and television. She is noted for her roles in films such as "Neecha Nagar" (1946), which won the 1946 Palme d'Or (Golden Palm) at Cannes Film Festival and "Biraj Bahu" (1955), which won her the Filmfare Award for Best Actress in 1955.


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: She played lead heroine in films from 1946 to 1963, wherein her roles in "Do Bhai" (1947), "Shaheed" (1948), "Nadiya Ke Paar" (1948), "Ziddi" (1948), "Shabnam" (1949), "Paras" (1949), "Namoona" (1949), "Arzoo" (1950), "Jhanjar" (1953), "Aabroo" (1956), "Bade Sarkar" (1957), "Jailor" (1958), "Night Club" (1958) and "Godaan" (1963) are considered her career's best performances. She played character roles since 1963, and was critically acclaimed for her performance in "Shaheed" (1965). She appeared in three films of Rajesh Khanna, namely "Do Raaste" (1969), "Prem Nagar" (1974), "Maha Chor" (1976), in "Anhonee" (1973) with Sanjeev Kumar and in eight films with Manoj Kumar namely "Shaheed", "Upkar" (1967), "Purab Aur Paschim" (1970), "Shor" (1972), "Roti Kapda Aur Makaan" (1974), "Sanyasi" (1975), "Dus Numbri" (1976) and "Santosh" (1989). In the 2010s decade, she took brief but praised supporting roles in the action comedy "Chennai Express" (2013) and the romantic drama "Kabir Singh" (2019), both of which rank among the highest grossing Indian films.


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: Kamini Kaushal was born in Lahore. She is the youngest of two brothers and three sisters. She is the daughter of Prof. Shiv Ram Kashyap, Professor of Botany, University of Punjab at Lahore, British India (present-day Pakistan). Prof. Kashyap is widely regarded as the father of Indian Botany. Her father was a distinguished botanist who discovered six species of plants. She was only nine when her father died on 26 November 1934. She did her B.A. (honors) in English literature from Government College in Lahore. She got an offer to act in films through Chetan Anand in 1946 with "Neecha Nagar".


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: Talking about her teenage years, she said in an interview, "I had no time to fool. I didn't have any crush. I was busy swimming, riding, skating and doing radio plays on Akashwani, for which I was paid Rs 10." When her elder sister died in a car accident, leaving behind two daughters, Kaushal had to marry her brother-in-law, B.S. Sood in 1948. She set up home in Bombay where her husband was a chief engineer in Bombay Port Trust. Her elder sister's daughters are Kumkum Somani and Kavita Sahni. Kumkum Somani has written a book for children on Gandhi's philosophy and Kavita Sahni is an artist. Kamini had three sons after 1955, Rahul, Vidur and Shravan.


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: In the 1950s, the couple lived in a spacious manor-type house "Gateside" in Mazagaon, which was allotted to her husband by BPT.


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: Kamini had been a stage actress in Delhi during her college days from 1942 to 1945. She worked as a radio child artist with the name "Uma" in Lahore before the Partition, from 1937 to 1940. She said in an interview about whether she wanted to be an actress in her childhood: "I come from a very intellectual family. My dad, S. R. Kashyap, was a professor at Government College, Lahore and the President of the Science Congress. He'd written about 50 books on botany. Growing up, our family concentrated more on knowledge, but he never deterred us from doing anything we wanted as long as it was positive." Though she had no dreams of joining the film industry while being in college, she was a fan of actor Ashok Kumar. Once she said in an interview: "We were to perform for the war relief fund in college. Ashok Kumar and Leela Chitins were the chief guests. After the show we went to meet him. I thought of having some fun. As he stood talking to the students, I pulled his hair from behind."


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: Chetan Anand gave her the role of the leading heroine in his film "Neecha Nagar". This movie was done by her before marriage and released in 1946. She quoted in an interview, when asked about why her name was changed from Uma to Kamini: "Chetan's wife Uma Anand was also part of the film. My name also being Uma, he wanted a different name for me. I asked him to give me a name beginning with 'K' to match with the names of my daughters Kumkum and Kavita." She won an award at the Montreal Film Festival for her performance in her debut film.


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: She quoted in an interview about how she got her debut film: "Ravi Shankar was new, he had not done music for anybody. It was Zohra Segal's debut. Uma Anand (Chetan's wife) was with us in college — we were together. Chetan had been teaching at The Doon School and got to me through my brother.".


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: After "Neecha Nagar", she returned to Lahore, but offers started coming in, hence she used to come for shooting from Lahore. After her sudden marriage in 1947, she settled in Bombay with her husband. She became the first leading heroine to continue working as lead film heroine after her marriage as well. Kamini was one of the first well educated heroines (BA in English) in Hindi cinema. She learnt Bharatnatyam at Mumbai's Sri Rajarajeswari Bharata Natya Kala Mandir, where Guru T. K. Mahalingam Pillai, doyen among nattuvanars taught. Since 1948, Kamini Kaushal worked with all the top leading men of her time, such as Ashok Kumar, Raj Kapoor, Dev Anand, Raaj Kumar and Dilip Kumar.


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: In every film starring her as lead heroine, except when opposite Ashok Kumar, in the period 1947 to 1955, her name used to appear first in the credits before the leading hero's name appeared. Her pairing opposite Dilip Kumar was popular with audiences with box office hits such as "Shaheed" (1948), "Pugree", "Nadiya Ke Paar" (1949), "Shabnam" (1949) and "Arzoo" (1950)). The popularity as an actress increased with Filmistan's "Do Bhai" (1947), aided by Geeta Roy's impassioned singing of songs such as "Mera sundar sapna", which, incidentally, was shot in a single take. Kamini was paired opposite Dev Anand in his very first success, Bombay Talkies' production "Ziddi" (1948), a light romance. The pair followed this up with "Namoona". Kamini played the third angle to the Dev-Suraiya pair in "Shayar". In Raj Kapoor's directorial debut "Aag" (1948), she did a cameo as one of his three heroines (Nargis and Nigar were the other two), whose relationship with the hero doesn't fructify. She also starred with Raj Kapoor in "Jail Yatra".


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: Kamini Kaushal was the first lead heroine for whom Lata Mangeshkar ever sang for and it was for the film "Ziddi" in 1948. Kamini quoted in an interview: "Lata sang for me in "Ziddi" for the first time. That was the first time she sang for the leading lady in a film. Before that, she sang for actresses in supporting roles. Shamshad Begum and Surinder Kaur — whose voices had more bass — used to sing my songs. On the music credits on the record, Lata's name was not mentioned. Instead, it was mentioned that Asha sang the songs — Asha was my screen name (in the film "Ziddi"). That's why people thought I had sung it. The playback singers - Kishore Kumar and Lata Mangeshkar recorded their first duet - "Ye Kaun Aya Re" together in the 1948 film "Ziddi".


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: Her other successful films as lead heroine in films from 1946 to 1963 include "Paras" (1949), "Namoona", "Jhanjar", "Aabru", "Night Club", "Jailor", "Bade Sarkar", "Bada Bhai", "Poonam" and "Godaan". Kamini became a producer and signed on then-matinee idol Ashok Kumar in "Poonam" and "Night Club". She did lighthearted roles in "Chalis Baba Ek Chor" (1954) and also did serious tragedy genre roles in "Aas", "Ansoo" and "Jailor". In the Sohrab Modi-directed "Jailor" (1958), Kamini gave a goosebump-raising performance as Modi's wife, who is pushed towards adultery by his ruthless tyranny. Trilok Jetley, who adopted Premchand's famous story "Godaan" on screen, put his film on hold, while Kamini was pregnant with her second child, because he wanted to capitalise on the softness in her voice. Pandit Ravi Shankar composed the score for her first ("Neecha Nagar" in 1946) and last ("Godaan" in 1963) films as a heroine.


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: In 1965, she moved to playing character roles with a film called "Shaheed". She made the transition from playing leading heroine roles to character roles very easily. Her performances were appreciated in "Waris", "Vishwas", "Yakeen", "Aadmi Aur Insaan", "Uphaar", "Qaid", "Bhanwar", "Tangewala" and "Heeralaal Pannalaal". As a character artist she was a fixture in seven Manoj Kumar films - "Shaheed (1965 film)", "Upkar", "Purab Aur Paschim", "Sanyasi", "Shor", "Roti Kapda Aur Makaan", "Dus Numbari" and "Santosh" (1989). Kaushal has had a long stint in films with releases till 2014. She stunned audiences by playing a mercenary vamp with aplomb in the film "Anhonee" (1973). Kamini Kaushal played mother to Rajesh Khanna in "Prem Nagar" in 1974, and in "Maha Chor" in 1976, and as sister in law to Khanna in "Do Raaste".


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: Dilip Kumar, in his biography, has admitted his attraction to her while they acted in films together, but Kamini rejected his proposal as she was already married to her elder sister's widower and was taking care of her elder sister's kids. Dilip said that she was his first love. Kamini quoted in an interview on this: "We were both shattered. We were very happy with each other. We shared a great rapport. But what to do? That's life. I can't dump people and say 'Enough now, I'm going!' I had taken on the girls. I wouldn't be able to show my face to my sister. My husband, a fine human being, understood why it happened. Everyone falls in love."


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: She made a popular puppet show broadcast on the national channel at the time, "Doordarshan", which ran for a year (1989 to 1991), and was the first such children's series in Hindi. She stepped into writing children's stories. Her stories used to be published in the children's magazine "Paraag", featuring the antics of 'Bunty', and 'Chotbhai' and 'Motabhai' – who were all loosely based on her own son and his cousin contemporaries. She dabbled in television doing serials such as "Chand Sitare" on Doordarshan. In 1986, Kaushal made an animation film, "Meri Pari".


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: She appeared in "The Jewel in the Crown" (1984), a popular British television serial, as Aunt Shalini.


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: Kaushal worked in the highly popular serial "Shanno Ki Shaadi", on StarPlus. She played Bebe, the grandmother of Shanno, the main protagonist played by Divya Dutta. She also acted in Sri Adhikari Brothers' TV Serial "Waqt Ki Raftaar" (DD National).


title: Kamini Kaushal

text: She said in an interview: "I, along with only few Indian heroines like Saroja Devi, Bhanumathi Ramakrishna, Sowcar Janaki, Mala Sinha, Moushumi Chatterjee, Padmini and Sharmila Tagore were the few who got married early and had success in the film industry even after our marriages as well as led a happy married life."


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), previously called rational therapy and rational emotive therapy, is an active-directive, philosophically and empirically based psychotherapy, the aim of which is to resolve emotional and behavioral problems and disturbances and to help people to lead happier and more fulfilling lives.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: REBT posits that people have erroneous beliefs about situations they are involved in, and that these beliefs cause disturbance, but can be disputed with and changed.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) was created and developed by the American psychotherapist and psychologist Albert Ellis, who was inspired by many of the teachings of Asian, Greek, Roman and modern philosophers. REBT is the first form of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and was first expounded by Ellis in the mid-1950s; development continued until his death in 2007. Ellis became synonymous with the highly influential therapy. "Psychology Today" noted, "No individual—not even Freud himself—has had a greater impact on modern psychotherapy."


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: REBT is both a psychotherapeutic system of theory and practices and a school of thought established by Ellis. He first presented his ideas at a conference of the American Psychological Association in 1956 then published a seminal article in 1957 entitled "Rational psychotherapy and individual psychology", in which he set the foundation for what he was calling rational therapy (RT) and carefully responded to questions from Rudolf Dreikurs and others about the similarities and differences with Alfred Adler's individual psychology. This was around a decade before psychiatrist Aaron Beck first set forth his "cognitive therapy", after Ellis had contacted him in the mid-1960s. Ellis' own approach was renamed "Rational Emotive Therapy" in 1959, then the current term in 1992.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Precursors of certain fundamental aspects of rational emotive behavior therapy have been identified in ancient philosophical traditions, particularly to Stoics Marcus Aurelius, Epictetus, Zeno of Citium, Chrysippus, Panaetius of Rhodes, Cicero, and Seneca, and early Asian philosophers Confucius and Gautama Buddha. In his first major book on rational therapy, Ellis wrote that the central principle of his approach, that people are rarely emotionally affected by external events but rather by their thinking about such events, "was originally discovered and stated by the ancient Stoic philosophers." Ellis illustrates this with a quote from the "Enchiridion" of Epictetus: "Men are disturbed not by things, but by the views which they take of them." Ellis noted that Shakespeare expressed a similar thought in "Hamlet": "There's nothing good or bad but thinking makes it so." Ellis also acknowledges early 20th century therapists, particularly Paul Charles Dubois, though he only read his work several years after developing his therapy.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: The REBT framework posits that humans have both innate rational (meaning self-helping, socially helping, and constructive) and irrational (meaning self-defeating, socially defeating, and unhelpful) tendencies and leanings. REBT claims that people to a large degree consciously and unconsciously construct emotional difficulties such as self-blame, self-pity, clinical anger, hurt, guilt, shame, depression and anxiety, and behavior tendencies like procrastination, compulsiveness, avoidance, addiction and withdrawal by the means of their irrational and self-defeating thinking, emoting and behaving.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: REBT is then applied as an educational process in which the therapist often active-directively teaches the client how to identify irrational and self-defeating beliefs and philosophies which in nature are rigid, extreme, unrealistic, illogical and absolutist, and then to forcefully and actively question and dispute them and replace them with more rational and self-helping ones. By using different cognitive, emotive and behavioral methods and activities, the client, together with help from the therapist and in homework exercises, can gain a more rational, self-helping and constructive rational way of thinking, emoting and behaving.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: One of the main objectives in REBT is to show the client that whenever unpleasant and unfortunate activating events occur in people's lives, they have a choice between making themselves feel healthily or, self-helpingly, sorry, disappointed, frustrated, and annoyed or making themselves feel unhealthily and self-defeatingly horrified, terrified, panicked, depressed, self-hating and self-pitying. By attaining and ingraining a more rational and self-constructive philosophy of themselves, others and the world, people often are more likely to behave and emote in more life-serving and adaptive ways.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: A fundamental premise of REBT is that humans do not get emotionally disturbed by unfortunate circumstances, but by how they construct their views of these circumstances through their language, evaluative beliefs, meanings and philosophies about the world, themselves and others. This concept has been attributed as far back as the Stoic philosopher Epictetus, who is often cited as utilizing similar ideas in antiquity.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: In REBT, clients usually learn and begin to apply this premise by learning the "A-B-C"-"D-E-F" model of psychological disturbance and change. The following letters represent the following meanings in this model:


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: The A-B-C model states that it is not an "A", "a"dversity (or "a"ctivating event) that cause disturbed and dysfunctional emotional and behavioral "C"s, "c"onsequences, but also what people "B", irrationally believe about the "A", "a"dversity. "A", "a"dversity can be an external situation, or a thought, a feeling or other kind of internal event, and it can refer to an event in the past, present, or future.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: The "B"s, irrational beliefs that are most important in the "A-B-C" model are the explicit and implicit philosophical meanings and assumptions about events, personal desires, and preferences. The "B"s, "b"eliefs that are most significant are highly evaluative and consist of interrelated and integrated cognitive, emotional and behavioral aspects and dimensions. According to REBT, if a person's evaluative "B", "b"elief about the "A", "a"ctivating event is rigid, absolutistic, fictional and dysfunctional, the "C", the emotional and behavioral "c"onsequence, is likely to be self-defeating and destructive. Alternatively, if a person's belief is preferential, flexible, and constructive, the "C", the emotional and behavioral "c"onsequence is likely to be self-helping and constructive.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Through REBT, by understanding the role of their mediating, evaluative and philosophically based illogical, unrealistic and self-defeating meanings, interpretations and assumptions in disturbance, individuals can learn to identify them, then go to "D", "d"isputing and questioning the evidence for them. At "E, e"ffective new philosophy, they can recognize and reinforce the notion no evidence exists for any psychopathological "must", "ought" or "should" and distinguish them from healthy constructs, and subscribe to more constructive and self-helping philosophies. This new reasonable perspective leads to "F", new "f"eelings and behaviors appropriate to the "A" they are addressing in the exercise.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: One of the main pillars of REBT is that irrational and dysfunctional ways and patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving are contributing to human disturbance and emotional and behavioral self-defeatism and social defeatism. REBT generally teaches that when people turn flexible preferences, desires and wishes into grandiose, absolutistic and fatalistic dictates, this tends to contribute to disturbance and upset. These dysfunctional patterns are examples of cognitive distortions.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Albert Ellis has suggested three core beliefs or philosophies that humans tend to disturb themselves through:


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: REBT commonly posits that at the core of irrational beliefs there often are explicit or implicit rigid demands and commands, and that extreme derivatives like awfulizing, low frustration tolerance, people deprecation and overgeneralizations are accompanied by these. According to REBT, the core dysfunctional philosophies in a person's evaluative emotional and behavioral belief system are also very likely to contribute to unrealistic, arbitrary and crooked inferences and distortions in thinking. REBT therefore first teaches that when people in an insensible and devout way overuse absolutistic, dogmatic and rigid "shoulds", "musts", and "oughts", they tend to disturb and upset themselves.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Further, REBT generally posits that disturbed evaluations to a large degree occur through overgeneralization, wherein people exaggerate and globalize events or traits, usually unwanted events or traits or behavior, out of context, while almost always ignoring the positive events or traits or behaviors. For example, awfulizing is partly mental magnification of the importance of an unwanted situation to a catastrophe or horror, elevating the rating of something from bad to worse than it should be, to beyond totally bad, worse than bad to the intolerable and to a "holocaust". The same exaggeration and overgeneralizing occurs with human rating, wherein humans come to be arbitrarily and axiomatically defined by their perceived flaws or misdeeds. Frustration intolerance then occurs when a person perceives something to be too difficult, painful or tedious, and by doing so exaggerates these qualities beyond one's ability to cope with them.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Essential to REBT theory is also the concept of secondary disturbances which people sometimes construct on top of their primary disturbance. As Ellis emphasizes:


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: ""Because of their self-consciousness and their ability to think about their thinking, they can very easily disturb themselves about their disturbances and can also disturb themselves about their ineffective attempts to overcome their emotional disturbances.""


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Regarding cognitive-affective-behavioral processes in mental functioning and dysfunctioning, originator Albert Ellis explains:


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: ""REBT assumes that human thinking, emotion, and action are not really separate or disparate processes, but that they all significantly overlap and are rarely experienced in a pure state. Much of what we call emotion is nothing more nor less than a certain kind—a biased, prejudiced, or strongly evaluative kind—of thought. But emotions and behaviors significantly influence and affect thinking, just as thinking influences emotions and behaviors. Evaluating is a fundamental characteristic of human organisms and seems to work in a kind of closed circuit with a feedback mechanism: First, perception biases response, and then response tends to bias subsequent perception. Also, prior perceptions appear to bias subsequent perceptions, and prior responses appear to bias subsequent responses. What we call feelings almost always have a pronounced evaluating or appraisal element.""


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: REBT then generally proposes that many of these self-defeating cognitive, emotive and behavioral tendencies are both innately biological and indoctrinated early in and during life, and further grow stronger as a person continually revisits, clings and acts on them. Ellis alludes to similarities between REBT and the general semantics when explaining the role of irrational beliefs in self-defeating tendencies, citing Alfred Korzybski as a significant modern influence on this thinking.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: REBT differs from other clinical approaches like psychoanalysis in that it places little emphasis on exploring the past, but instead focuses on changing the current evaluations and philosophical thinking-emoting and behaving in relation to themselves, others and the conditions under which people live.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Insight 1 – People seeing and accepting the reality that their emotional disturbances at point C are only partially caused by the activating events or adversities at point A that precede C. Although A contributes to C, and although disturbed Cs (such as feelings of panic and depression) are much more likely to follow strong negative As (such as being assaulted or raped), than they are to follow weak As (such as being disliked by a stranger), the main or more direct cores of extreme and dysfunctional emotional disturbances (Cs) are people's irrational beliefs—the "absolutistic" (inflexible) "musts" and their accompanying inferences and attributions that people strongly believe about the activating event.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Insight 2 – No matter how, when, and why people acquire self-defeating or irrational beliefs (i.e. beliefs that are the main cause of their dysfunctional emotional-behavioral consequences), if they are disturbed in the present, they tend to keep holding these irrational beliefs and continue upsetting themselves with these thoughts. They do so not because they held them in the past, but because they still actively hold them in the present (often unconsciously), while continuing to reaffirm their beliefs and act as if they are still valid. In their minds and hearts, the troubled people still follow the core "musturbatory" philosophies they adopted or invented long ago or ones they recently accepted or constructed.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Insight 3 – No matter how well they have gained insights 1 and 2, insight alone rarely enables people to undo their emotional disturbances. They may feel better when they know, or think they know, how they became disturbed, because insights can feel useful and curative. But it is unlikely that people will actually get better and stay better unless they have and apply insight 3, which is that "there is usually no way to get better and stay better except by continual work and practice in looking for and finding one's core irrational beliefs"; actively, energetically, and scientifically disputing them; replacing one's absolute "musts" (rigid requirements about how things should be) with more flexible "preferences"; changing one's unhealthy feelings to healthy, self-helping emotions; and firmly acting against one's dysfunctional fears and compulsions. Only by a combined cognitive, emotive, and behavioral, as well as a quite persistent and forceful attack on one's serious emotional problems, is one likely to significantly ameliorate or remove them, and keep them removed.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: As explained, REBT is a therapeutic system of both theory and practice; generally one of the goals of REBT is to help clients see the ways in which they have learned how they often needlessly upset themselves, teach them how to "un-upset" themselves and then how to empower themselves to lead happier and more fulfilling lives. The emphasis in therapy is generally to establish a successful collaborative therapeutic working alliance based on the REBT educational model. Although REBT teaches that the therapist or counsellor is better served by demonstrating unconditional other-acceptance or unconditional positive regard, the therapist is not necessarily always encouraged to build a warm and caring relationship with the client. The tasks of the therapist or counselor include understanding the client's concerns from his point of reference and work as a facilitator, teacher and encourager.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: In traditional REBT, the client together with the therapist, in a structured active-directive manner, often work through a set of target problems and establish a set of therapeutic goals. In these target problems, situational dysfunctional emotions, behaviors and beliefs are assessed in regards to the client's values and goals. After working through these problems, the client learns to generalize insights to other relevant situations. In many cases after going through a client's different target problems, the therapist is interested in examining possible core beliefs and more deep rooted philosophical evaluations and schemas that might account for a wider array of problematic emotions and behaviors. Although REBT much of the time is used as a brief therapy, in deeper and more complex problems, longer therapy is promoted.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: In therapy, the first step often is that the client acknowledges the problems, accepts emotional responsibility for these and has willingness and determination to change. This normally requires a considerable amount of insight, but as originator Albert Ellis explains:


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: "Humans, unlike just about all the other animals on earth, create fairly sophisticated languages which not only enable them to think about their feeling, their actions, and the results they get from doing and not doing certain things, but they also are able to think about their thinking and even think about thinking about their thinking."


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Through the therapeutic process, REBT employs a wide array of forceful and active, meaning multimodal and disputing, methodologies. Central through these methods and techniques is the intent to help the client challenge, dispute and question their destructive and self-defeating cognitions, emotions and behaviors. The methods and techniques incorporate cognitive-philosophic, emotive-evocative-dramatic, and behavioral methods for disputation of the client's irrational and self-defeating constructs and helps the client come up with more rational and self-constructive ones. REBT seeks to acknowledge that understanding and insight are not enough; in order for clients to significantly change, they need to pinpoint their irrational and self-defeating constructs and work forcefully and actively at changing them to more functional and self-helping ones.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: REBT posits that the client must work hard to get better, and in therapy this normally includes a wide array of homework exercises in day-to-day life assigned by the therapist. The assignments may for example include desensitization tasks, i.e., by having the client confront the very thing he or she is afraid of. By doing so, the client is actively acting against the belief that often is contributing significantly to the disturbance.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Another factor contributing to the brevity of REBT is that the therapist seeks to empower the client to help himself through future adversities. REBT only promotes temporary solutions if more fundamental solutions are not found. An ideal successful collaboration between the REBT therapist and a client results in changes to the client's philosophical way of evaluating himself or herself, others, and his or her life, which will likely yield effective results. The client then moves toward unconditional self-acceptance, other-acceptance and life-acceptance while striving to live a more self-fulfilling and happier life.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Applications and interfaces of REBT are used with a broad range of clinical problems in traditional psychotherapeutic settings such as individual-, group- and family therapy. It is used as a general treatment for a vast number of different conditions and psychological problems normally associated with psychotherapy.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: In addition, REBT is used with non-clinical problems and problems of living through counselling, consultation and coaching settings dealing with problems including relationships, social skills, career changes, stress management, assertiveness training, grief, problems with aging, money, weight control etc. More recently, the reported use of REBT in sport and exercise settings has grown, with the efficacy of REBT demonstrated across a range of sports.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: REBT also has many interfaces and applications through self-help resources, phone and internet counseling, workshops & seminars, workplace and educational programmes, etc. This includes Rational Emotive Education (REE) where REBT is applied in education settings, Rational Effectiveness Training in business and work-settings and SMART Recovery (Self Management And Recovery Training) in supporting those in addiction recovery, in addition to a wide variety of specialized treatment strategies and applications.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: REBT and CBT in general have a substantial and strong research base to verify and support both their psychotherapeutic efficiency and their theoretical underpinnings. Meta-analyses of outcome-based studies reveal REBT to be effective for treating various psychopathologies, conditions and problems. Recently, REBT randomized clinical trials have offered a positive view on the efficacy of REBT.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: In general REBT is arguably one of the most investigated theories in the field of psychotherapy and a large amount of clinical experience and a substantial body of modern psychological research have validated and substantiated many of REBTs theoretical assumptions on personality and psychotherapy.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: The clinical research on REBT has been criticized both from within and by others. For instance, originator Albert Ellis has on occasions emphasized the difficulty and complexity of measuring psychotherapeutic effectiveness, because many studies only tend to measure whether clients merely feel better after therapy instead of them getting better and staying better. Ellis has also criticized studies for having limited focus primarily to cognitive restructuring aspects, as opposed to the combination of cognitive, emotive and behavioral aspects of REBT. As REBT has been subject to criticisms during its existence, especially in its early years, REBT theorists have a long history of publishing and addressing those concerns. It has also been argued by Ellis and by other clinicians that REBT theory on numerous occasions has been misunderstood and misconstrued both in research and in general.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Some have criticized REBT for being harsh, formulaic and failing to address deep underlying problems. REBT theorists have argued in reply that a careful study of REBT shows that it is both philosophically deep, humanistic and individualized collaboratively working on the basis of the client's point of reference. They have further argued that REBT utilizes an integrated and interrelated methodology of cognitive, emotive-experiential and behavioral interventions. Others have questioned REBTs view of rationality, both radical constructivists who have claimed that reason and logic are subjective properties and those who believe that reason can be objectively determined. REBT theorists have argued in reply that REBT raises objections to clients' irrational choices and conclusions as a working hypothesis and through collaborative efforts demonstrate the irrationality on practical, functional and social consensual grounds. In 1998 when asked what the main criticism on REBT was, Albert Ellis replied that it was the claim that it was too rational and not dealing sufficiently enough with emotions. He repudiated the claim by saying that REBT on the contrary emphasizes that thinking, feeling, and behaving are interrelated and integrated, and that it includes a vast amount of both emotional and behavioural methods in addition to cognitive ones.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: Ellis has himself in very direct terms criticized opposing approaches such as psychoanalysis, transpersonal psychology and abreactive psychotherapies in addition to on several occasions questioning some of the doctrines in certain religious systems, spiritualism and mysticism. Many, including REBT practitioners, have warned against dogmatizing and sanctifying REBT as a supposedly perfect psychological panacea. Prominent REBTers have promoted the importance of high quality and programmatic research, including originator Ellis, a self-proclaimed "passionate skeptic". He has on many occasions been open to challenges and acknowledged errors and inefficiencies in his approach and concurrently revised his theories and practices. In general, with regard to cognitive-behavioral psychotherapies' interventions, others have pointed out that as about 30–40% of people are still unresponsive to interventions, that REBT could be a platform of reinvigorating empirical studies on the effectiveness of the cognitive-behavioral models of psychopathology and human functioning.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: REBT has been developed, revised and augmented through the years as understanding and knowledge of psychology and psychotherapy have progressed. This includes its theoretical concepts, practices and methodology. The teaching of scientific thinking, reasonableness and un-dogmatism has been inherent in REBT as an approach, and these ways of thinking are an inextricable part of REBT's empirical and skeptical nature.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: As would be expected, REBT argues that mental wellness and mental health to a large degree results from an adequate amount of self-helping, flexible, logico-empirical ways of thinking, emoting and behaving. When a perceived undesired and stressful activating event occurs, and the individual is interpreting, evaluating and reacting to the situation rationally and self-helpingly, then the resulting consequence is, according to REBT, likely to be more healthy, constructive and functional. This does not by any means mean that a relatively un-disturbed person never experiences negative feelings, but REBT does hope to keep debilitating and un-healthy emotions and subsequent self-defeating behavior to a minimum. To do this, REBT generally promotes a flexible, un-dogmatic, self-helping and efficient belief system and constructive life philosophy about adversities and human desires and preferences.


title: Rational emotive behavior therapy

text: REBT clearly acknowledges that people, in addition to disturbing themselves, also are innately constructivists. Because they largely upset themselves with their beliefs, emotions and behaviors, they can be helped to, in a multimodal manner, dispute and question these and develop a more workable, more self-helping set of constructs.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: The series has been adapted by Toei Animation first as a feature film in 1996 and then a 148-episode anime television series broadcast from 1997 to 2000, and there has since been a live-action film, five live-action drama series, three live-action television specials and further animated features for cinema and television. A new anime television series adaptation, titled "The Kindaichi Case Files R (Returns)", began airing on April 5, 2014 and concluded on September 27, 2014. A second season began airing on October 3, 2015.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: In North America, the series was published in English by Tokyopop with the title "The Kindaichi Case Files". Only the first 17 volumes (the first series) have been released by Tokyopop.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: A new series, "37 Year Old Kindaichi Case Files", began in Kodansha's "seinen" manga magazine "Evening" in January 2018 and is set 20 years later, in which Hajime graduates high school, and becomes a manager of a PR firm, but is swung back into mysteries, despite quitting detective work.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: In 1995, the manga won the Kodansha Manga Award for shōnen. As of June 2019, the manga had over 100 million copies in circulation, making it one of the best-selling manga series.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: "Kindaichi" mysteries are whodunnit stories featuring (usually multiple) gruesome murders, often with a supernatural tinge. Frequently features a locked room mystery or other crimes, such as a murder occurring when all surviving suspects have (apparently) airtight alibis.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: A notable distinction of "The Kindaichi Case Files" is that the killers are not depicted as psychopathic murderers and the murders are never committed for financial reasons alone. The identified killers all have deep rooted problems, often involving great emotional trauma through the greed or thoughtlessness of others, as their reasons for committing the murder(s). Thus the killers are often portrayed as sympathetic figures, as opposed to cold, calculating killers in some other mystery series.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: "The Kindaichi Case Files" is written by Yōzaburō Kanari ("File" and "Case" series) and Seimaru Amagi (other series) and illustrated by Fumiya Satō. The series ran for twenty-five years in Kodansha's "shōnen" manga magazine "Weekly Shōnen Magazine" from October 28, 1992, to October 18, 2017. Six main series ran in the magazine: (1992–1997), collected in twenty-seven "tankōbon" volumes; (1997–2000), collected in six "tankōbon" volumes; (1998–2001), collected in ten "tankōbon" volumes; (2004–2011), collected in fourteen "tankōbon" volumes; (2012–2013), collected in five "tankōbon" volumes; and (2013–2017), collected in fourteen "tankōbon" volumes.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: In North America, Tokyopop licensed the series in 2003. 17 volumes have been published in North America from October 6, 2003, to May 13, 2008, before Tokyopop ceased the series' publication in July 2008.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: Another series, titled , set 20 years later, started in Kodansha's "seinen" manga magazine "Evening" on January 23, 2018. The first "tankōbon" volume was released on June 15, 2018. As of June 22, 2022, thirteen "tankōbon" volumes have been released. In January 2022, it was announced that the series would enter on hiatus.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: Another series, titled , began serialization in "Evening" on January 11, 2022. The first "tankōbon" volume was released on May 23, 2022.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: was published in "Weekly Shōnen Magazine" between 1998 and 2000, and compiled into two "tankōbon" volumes. started on "Manga Box" app in 2013 and finished in 2014, and compiled into one "tankōbon" volume published on May 9, 2014.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: A spin-off manga titled "Kindaichi Case Files: The Mini-Vacation" began serialization on April 23, 2014. "Kindaichi Case Files Spinoff: Criminal Case Files", written and illustrated by Shinpei Funatsu, was published from July 2017 to March 2020 and compiled into eight "tankōbon" volumes.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: A 4-panel comedy spin-off manga titled "Kinnyaichi Shonen no Jikenbo" began serialization in "Evening" on December 28, 2021.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: The novels were written by Seimaru Amagi and illustrated by Fumiya Satō. 9 volumes were released in Japan between September 22, 1994 and April 20, 2001.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: Produced by Toei Animation and directed by Daisuke Nishio, the anime adaptation of the original manga aired on Nippon Television between April 7, 1997 and September 11, 2000, spanning 148 episodes plus one special episode. In addition, two animated films were released on December 14, 1996 and August 21, 1999 respectively. Seven years after the conclusion of the TV anime, two new animated episodes were aired in Japan on November 12, 2007 and November 19, 2007 respectively.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: On April 6, 2007, DVD collector's box of "Kindaichi" was released by Warner Home Video to mark the 10th anniversary of airing of the original TV anime.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: To celebrate the 20th Anniversary of the series, two special episodes based on "The Black Magic Murders" were released on DVDs in November 2012 and February 2013.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: A revival of the anime television series, The File of Young Kindaichi Returns aired from April 5 to 27 September 2014. A second season aired from October 3, 2015 to March 26, 2016. They were streamed on Crunchyroll during their original broadcast, but are no longer available on the website.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: 7 "Kindaichi" video games were released as of September 17, 2009. All of them were released in Japan only. Many of the game voice actors differ from those in the anime version.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: Kodansha released two CD books in 1996 and 1997 respectively. Both have been made into anime. However, nearly all CD books voice actors are not the same as those in the anime version.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: NTV aired five live action series in 1995, 1996, 2001, 2014, and 2022. Specials were aired in 2005, 2013, and 2014.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: In the first adaptation, Tsuyoshi Dōmoto of Kinki Kids and Rie Tomosaka starred as Hajime Kindaichi and Miyuki Nanase for two seasons. They also starred in a live action film entitled "Shanghai Mermaid Legend Murder Case", directed by Yukihiko Tsutsumi, released on December 13, 1997 in Japan, adaptated from the "Kindaichi" novel of the same title.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: In the second adaptation, Jun Matsumoto of Arashi starred as Hajime Kindaichi, with Suzuki Anne as Miyuki Nanase.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: In the third adaptation in 2005, a special based on "The Legendary Vampire Murders" was aired featuring Kazuya Kamenashi of KAT-TUN and Ueno Juri as Kindaichi and Miyuki Nanase.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: In the fourth adaptation, Hey! Say! JUMP's Ryosuke Yamada starred as Hajime Kindaichi, while Haruna Kawaguchi portrayed Miyuki Nanase. In 2013, a special based on "Hong Kong Kowloon Treasure Murder Case" was aired, featuring Yamada and fellow JUMP member Daiki Arioka, with Haruna Kawaguchi, Vivian Hsu, Eric Tsang, Big Bang member Seungri, "Rookies" actor Kenta Kiritani and Taiwanese actor Chun Wu (Japanese voice dubber was Daisuke Namikawa, Jellal from "Fairy Tail"). In 2014, a special based on "Gate of Jail Private School Murder Case" aired, also featuring Yamada. Wu (Japanese voice dubber was Hiroki Touchi) and Kawaguchi, who appeared in the previous special, were also included, as well as 2PM's Nichkhun.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: In the fifth adaptation in 2022, Shunsuke Michieda of Naniwa Danshi starred as Hajime Kindaichi, and Moka Kamishiraishi portrayed Miyuki Nanase.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: In celebration of the 50th anniversary of "Weekly Shōnen Sunday" and "Weekly Shōnen Magazine", the two magazines collaborated to publish twelve biweekly magazines consisting of chapters from "Weekly Shōnen Sunday"s "Case Closed" and "Weekly Shōnen Magazine"s "The Kindaichi Case Files". The magazine ran between April 10, 2008 and September 25, 2008.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: As of March February 2012, the manga had over 90 million copies in circulation, making it one of the best-selling manga series. As of June 2019, the manga had over 100 million copies in circulation. "Kindaichi" tankōbon were ranked 2nd and 3rd in a Japanese Comic Ranking in October, 2009.


title: The Kindaichi Case Files

text: Allen Divers of Anime News Network said that while "The Kindaichi Case Files" "presents some whoppers", the series also has mysteries that are very "familiar", calling it "the Japanese version of the "Hardy Boys" or "Nancy Drew"". In "" Jason Thompson described the mystery scenarios as "inventive and intricate, offering genuine brain teasers", but criticized the artwork as "bland".


title: West Java

text: West Java (, , romanized "Jawa Kulon") is a province of Indonesia on the western part of the island of Java, with its provincial capital in Bandung. West Java is bordered by the province of Banten and the country's capital region of Jakarta to the west, the Java Sea to the north, the province of Central Java to the east and the Indian Ocean to the south. With Banten, this province is the native homeland of the Sundanese people, the second-largest ethnic group in Indonesia.


title: West Java

text: West Java was one of the first eight provinces of Indonesia formed following the country's independence proclamation and was later legally re-established on 14 July 1950. In 1966, the city of Jakarta was split off from West Java as a 'special capital region' (), with a status equivalent to that of a province, while in 2000 the western parts of the province were in turn split away to form a separate Banten province.


title: West Java

text: Even following these split-offs, West Java is the most populous province of Indonesia with a population of 48,274,160 as of the 2020 Census, which grew to 48,782,402 at mid 2021 according to the official estimates. The province's largest cities, Bekasi (a satellite city within the Jakarta metropolitan area) and Bandung, are the third and fourth most populous cities in Indonesia respectively. Bandung is also one of the most densely populated cities proper in the world.


title: West Java

text: The oldest human inhabitant archaeological findings in the region were unearthed in Anyer (the western coast of Java) with evidence of bronze and iron metallurgical culture dating to the first millennium AD. The prehistoric Buni culture (near present-day Bekasi) clay pottery were later developed with evidence found in Anyer to Cirebon. Artefacts (dated from 400 BC — AD 100), such as food and drink containers, were found mostly as burial gifts. There is also archaeological evidence in Batujaya Archaeological Site dating from the 2nd century and, according to Dr Tony Djubiantono, the head of Bandung Archaeology Agency, Jiwa Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, West Java was also built around this time.


title: West Java

text: One of the earliest known recorded histories in Indonesia is from the former Tarumanagara kingdom, where seven fourth-century stones are inscribed in Wengi letters (used in the Pallava period) and in Sanskrit describing the kings of the kingdom Tarumanagara. Records of Tarumanegara's administration lasted until the sixth century, which coincides with the attack of Srivijaya, as stated in the Kota Kapur inscription (AD 686).


title: West Java

text: The Sunda Kingdom subsequently became the ruling power of the region, as recorded on the Kebon Kopi II inscription (AD 932).


title: West Java

text: An Ulama, Sunan Gunung Jati, settled in Cirebon, intending to spread the word of Islam in the pagan town. Meanwhile, the Sultanate of Demak in central Java grew to an immediate threat against the Sunda kingdom. To defend against the threat, Prabu Surawisesa Jayaperkosa signed a treaty (known as the Luso-Sundanese Treaty) with the Portuguese in 1512. In return, the Portuguese were granted an accession to build fortresses and warehouses in the area, as well as forming trading agreements with the kingdom. This first international treaty of Sunda Kingdom with the Europeans was commemorated by the placement of the Padrao stone monument at the bank of the Ciliwung River in 1522.


title: West Java

text: Although the treaty with the Portuguese had been established, it could not come to realisation. Sunda Kalapa harbour fell under the alliance of the Sultanates of Demak and Cirebon (former vassal state of Sunda kingdom) in 1524 after their troops under Paletehan alias Fadillah Khan had conquered the city. In 1524–1525, their troops under Sunan Gunung Jati also seized the port of Banten and established the Sultanate of Banten which was affiliating with Demak. The war between the Sunda kingdom with Demak and Cirebon sultanates continued for five years until a peace treaty was made in 1531 between King Surawisesa and Sunan Gunung Jati. From 1567 to 1579, under the last king Raja Mulya, alias Prabu Surya Kencana, the Sunda kingdom declined, essentially under pressure from Sultanate of Banten. After 1576, the kingdom could not maintain its capital at Pakuan Pajajaran (present-day Bogor), and gradually the Sultanate of Banten took over the former Sunda kingdom's region. The Mataram Sultanate from central Java also seized the Priangan region, the southeastern part of the kingdom.


title: West Java

text: In the 16th century, the Dutch and the British trading companies established their trading ships in western Java after the fall of Sultanate of Banten. For the next three hundred years, western Java fell under the Dutch East Indies' administration. West Java was officially declared as a province of Indonesia in 1950, referring to a statement from Staatblad number 378. On 17 October 2000, as part of nationwide political decentralisation, Banten was separated from West Java and made into a new province. There have been recent proposals to rename the province Pasundan ("Land of the Sundanese") after the historical name for West Java.


title: West Java

text: Since the creation of West Java Province, the province of West Java was subdivided into four cities () and sixteen regencies (), excluding the four regencies which were separated off in 2000 to form the new Banten Province. Subsequently five new independent cities were created between 1996 and 2002 by separation from their surrounding regencies - Bekasi on 16 December 1996, Depok on 27 April 1999, Cimahi and Tasikmalaya on 21 June 2001, and Banjar on 11 December 2002. A 17th regency was formed on 2 January 2007 – West Bandung Regency – from the western half of Bandung Regency, and an 18th regency was formed in October 2012 – Pangandaran Regency – from the southern half of Ciamis Regency.


title: West Java

text: These 9 cities and 18 regencies are divided into 620 districts (), which comprise 1,576 urban villages () and 4,301 rural villages (). On 25 October 2013, the People's Representative Council (DPR) began reviewing draft laws on the establishment of 57 prospective new regencies (and eight new provinces), including a further three regencies in West Java – South Garut (Garut Selatan), North Sukabumi (Sukabumi Utara) and West Bogor (Bogor Barat) – but none of these three prospective regencies are shown separately on the map below, nor in the following table.


title: West Java

text: Notes: (a) the 2005 population is included in the total for Bandung Regency, of which West Bandung Regency was formerly part. (b) the 2005 population total for Ciamis Regency include the figure for the new Pangandaran Regency, created in 2012.


title: West Java

text: West Java borders Jakarta and Banten province to the west and Central Java to the east. To the north is the Java Sea. To the south is the Indian Ocean. Unlike most other provinces in Indonesia which have their capitals in coastal areas, the provincial capital, Bandung, is located in the mountainous area in the centre of the province. Banten Province was formerly part of West Java but was created a separate province in 2000. West Java, in the densely populated western third of Java, is home to almost one out of every five Indonesians.


title: West Java

text: West Java and Banten provinces, as a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, have more mountains and volcanoes than any of the other provinces in Indonesia. The vast volcanic mountainous region of inland West Java is traditionally known as Parahyangan (also known as Priangan or Preanger) which means "The abode of hyangs (gods)". It is considered as the heartland of the Sundanese people. The highest point of West Java is the stratovolcano Mount Cereme (3,078 meters) bordering Kuningan and Majalengka Regencies. West Java has rich and fertile volcanic soil. Agriculture, mostly traditional dry rice cultivation (known as "ladang" or "huma"), has become the primary way of life of traditional Sundanese people. Since the era of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), West Java has been known as a productive plantation area for coffee, tea, quinine, and many other cash crops. The mountainous region of West Java is also a major producer of vegetables and decorative flowering plants. The landscape of the province is one of volcanic mountains, rugged terrain, forest, mountains, rivers, fertile agricultural land, and natural sea harbours.


title: West Java

text: Flowing through Bandung Basin to the northeast is Citarum River, the longest and most important river in the province. This 300-km long river is the site of three dams, namely Cirata Dam, Saguling Dam, and Jatiluhur Dam.


title: West Java

text: Initially, the economy of the Sundanese people in West Java relied heavily on rice cultivation. Ancient kingdoms established in the province such as the Tarumanagara and Sunda Kingdom are known to have relied on rice taxes and agriculture revenues. The cycle of life of the ancient Sundanese people revolved around the rice crop cycle. Traditional rice harvest festivals such as the Seren Taun were important. The ancient goddess of rice, Nyai Pohaci Sanghyang Asri, is revered in Sundanese culture. Traditionally, Sundanese people often used dry rice cultivation ("ladang"). After the Mataram expanded to the Priangan area in the early 17th century following the Sultan Agung campaign against Dutch Batavia, "sawah" (wet rice cultivation) began to be adopted in the northern lowlands of West Java. Regencies such as Indramayu, Cirebon, Subang, Karawang and Bekasi are now well known as vital rice-producing areas. The mountainous region of West Java supplies vegetables, flower and much horticultural produce to Jakarta and Bandung, while animal farms in West Java produce dairy products and meats.


title: West Java

text: During the entire Dutch colonial era, West Java fell under Dutch administration centred in Batavia. The Dutch colonial government introduced cash crops such as tea, coffee, and quinine. Since the 18th century, West Java (known as "De Preanger") was known as a productive plantation area and became integrated with global trade and economy. Services such as transportation and banking were provided to cater for wealthy Dutch plantation owners. West Java is known as one of the earliest developed regions in the Indonesian archipelago. In the early 20th century, the Dutch colonial government developed infrastructures for economic purposes, especially to support Dutch plantations in the region. Roads and railways were constructed to connect inland plantations area with urban centres such as Bandung and the port of Batavia.


title: West Java

text: After Indonesian independence in 1945, West Java became a supporting region for Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia. Jakarta remained as the business and political centre of Indonesia. Several regencies and cities in West Java such as Bogor, Bekasi and Depok were developed as supporting areas for Jakarta and came to form the Greater Jakarta area or "Jabodetabek" (Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang and Bekasi). The northern area of West Java has become a major industrial area, with areas such as Bekasi, Cikarang and Karawang sprawling with factories and industries. The area in and around Bandung has also developed as an industrial area.


title: West Java

text: Based on the data from Indonesia State Secretary, the total area of rice fields in West Java Province in 2006 was 9,488,623 km which produced 9,418,882 tons of paddy in 2006, consisting of 9,103,800 tons rice field paddy and 315,082 tons farmland paddy. Palawija (non-rice food) production, reached 2,044,674 tons with productivity 179.28 quintal per ha. Nevertheless, the widest plant's width is for corn commodity which reaches 148,505 ha. West Java also produces horticulture consists of 2,938,624 tons vegetables, 3,193,744 tons fruits, and 159,871 tons medicines plants/ bio pharmacology.


title: West Java

text: Forest in West Java covers 764,387.59 ha or 20.62% from the total size of the province. It consists of productive forest 362,980.40 ha (9.79%), protected forest 228,727.11 ha (6.17%), and conservation forest 172,680 ha (4.63%). Mangrove forest reaches 40,129.89 ha, and spread in 10 regencies where coasts are available. Besides, there is also another protected forest of about 32,313.59 ha organised by Perum Perhutani Unit III West Java and Banten.


title: West Java

text: From the productive forest, in 2006 West Java harvested crop of about 200,675 m³ wood, although the need for wood in this province every year is about 4 million m³. Until 2006, populace forest's width 214,892 ha with wood production is about 893,851.75 m³. West Java also produces non-forest's crop which is potential enough to be developed as forestry work, such as silk, mushroom, pine, dammar, maleleuca, rattan, bamboo, and swallow bird's nest.


title: West Java

text: In the fishery sector, commodities include goldfish, nila fish, milkfish, freshwater catfish, windu shrimp, green mussel, gouramy, patin, seaweed and vaname shrimp. In 2006, this province harvested 560,000 tons of fish from fishery cultivation crop and brackish or 63.63% from fishery production total in West Java.


title: West Java

text: In the poultry field, dairy cow, domestic poultry, and ducks are common commodities in West Java. 2006 data stated that there are 96,796 dairy cows (25% of the national population), 4,249,670 sheep, 28,652,493 domestic poultries, and 5,596,882 ducks (16% of the national population). Now there are only 245,994 beef cattle in West Java (3% national population), whereas the need every year is about 300,000 beef cattle.


title: West Java

text: This province has many plantation crops, such as tea, cloves, coconut, rubber, cacao, tobacco, coffee, sugar, palm and akar wangi (Chrysopogon zizanioides). From all those commodities, cloves, coconut, rubber, cocoa, tobacco, and coffee are common in West Java. From area side, the best productivity, that is plan area's width equals with the plant's width that produces tobacco and sugar palm commodities. From the production side, the highest productivity is oil palm (6.5 tons per ha) and sugar palm (5.5 tons per ha).


title: West Java

text: West Java also has several mining operations. In 2006, it contributed 5,284 tons zeolite, 47,978 tons bentonite, iron sand, pozzolan cement, feldspar, and jewel barn/ gemstone. Precious stone mining potential generally is found in Garut, Tasikmalaya, Kuningan, and Sukabumi Regency areas.


title: West Java

text: As consequences of having many volcanoes, West Java has the potential of geothermal energy. There are eleven points of geothermal energy, and three, i.e. Papandayan, Ceremai, and Gede Pangrango have conducted pre-exploration.


title: West Java

text: Raw natural resources include chalk, several offshore oilfields in the Java Sea, and lumber. Most of the province is very fertile, with a mix of small farms and larger plantations. There are several hydropower dams, including Jatiluhur, Saguling, Cirata, and Jatigede.


title: West Java

text: Tourism is an important industry in West Java, and the Bandung and Puncak areas have long been known as popular weekend destinations for Jakartans. Today, Bandung has developed into a shopping destination, popular not only among locals, but also with neighbouring Malaysian and Singaporean visitors. The history-rich coastal city of Cirebon is also a cultural tourism destination since the city has several kratons and historical sites such as Gua Sunyaragi. Other tourist destinations include the Bogor Botanical Garden, Safari Park of Indonesia, Tangkuban Perahu crater, Pelabuhanratu Bay, Ciater hot springs, Kawah Putih crater to the south of Bandung, Pangandaran beach, and various mountain resorts in Cianjur, Garut, Tasikmalaya, and Kuningan.


title: West Java

text: The population of West Java was 43,053,732 at the 2010 Census and 48,274,160 at the 2020 Census, making it the most populous province of Indonesia, home to 18% of the national total on 1.8% of the country's land. Aside from the special district of Jakarta, it is the most densely populated province in the country with an average of 1,364.5 people per km (2020 Census). The average annual population growth rate recorded in the ten years to 2010 was 1.9%,


title: West Java

text: West Java is the native homeland of Sundanese people which forms the largest ethnic group in West Java. Since Jakarta and the surrounding area, including West Java, is the business and political centre of Indonesia, the province has attracted various people from other parts of Indonesia. The biggest minority is Javanese who migrated to the province centuries ago. Other Native Indonesian ethnic groups such as Minangkabau, Batak, Malay, Madurese, Balinese, Ambonese and many other Indonesians who migrated to and settled in West Java cities can also be easily found. The urban areas also have a significant population of Chinese Indonesians.


title: West Java

text: In addition to Indonesian, the official national language, the other widely spoken language in the province is Sundanese. In some areas near the southern borders with Central Java, Javanese is also spoken. The main language spoken in Cirebon and nearby areas (Majalengka, Indramayu, Sumber) is Cirebonese, a dialect of Javanese with Sundanese influence.


title: West Java

text: The Sundanese share the Java island with the Javanese and primarily live in West Java. Although the Sundanese live on the same island as the Javanese, their culture is distinct and likewise consider themselves to live in a separate cultural area called "Pasundan" or "Tatar Sunda". Someone moving from West Java to Central or East Java is literally said to be moving from Sunda to Java worlds. Bandung is considered as the cultural heartland of Sundanese people, and many indigenous Sundanese artforms were developed in this city. The nearby province of Banten is similar in this regard and is also considered to be part of "Pasundan" as well.


title: West Java

text: The musical arts of Sunda, which is an expression of the emotions of Sundanese culture, express politeness and grace of Sundanese. Degung orchestra consists of Sundanese gamelan.


title: West Java

text: In addition to the Sundanese forms of Gamelan in Parahyangan, the region of Cirebon retains its own distinct musical traditions. Amongst Cirebons' varying Gamelan ensembles the two most frequently heard are Gamelan Pelog (a non-equidistant heptatonic tuning system) and Gamelan Prawa (a semi-equidistant pentatonic tuning system). Gamelan Pelog is traditionally reserved for Tayuban, Wayang Cepak, and listening and dance music of the Kratons in Cirebon, while Gamelan Prawa is traditionally reserved for Wayang Purwa.


title: West Java

text: Cirebon also retains specialised Gamelan ensembles including Sekaten, which is played in the Kratons to mark important times in the Islamic calendar, Denggung, also a Kraton ensemble, which is believed to have some "supernatural powers", and Renteng, an ensemble found in both Cirebon and Parahyangan known for its loud and energetic playing style.


title: West Java

text: Tembang Sunda is a genre of Sundanese vocal music accompanied by a core ensemble of two Kacapi (zither) and a Suling (bamboo flute). The music and poetry of tembang Sunda are closely associated with the Parahyangan, the highland plateau that transverses the central and southern parts of Sunda. The natural environment of Priangan, an agricultural region surrounded by mountains and volcanoes, is reflected in some songs of the tembang Sunda.


title: West Java

text: Tarawangsa is a genuine popular art is performed on ensemble consists of tarawangsa (a violin with an end pin) and the jentreng (a kind of seven-stringed zither). It is accompanied by a secret dance called Jentreng. The dance is a part of a ritual celebrating the goddess of paddy Dewi Sri. Its ceremonial significance is associated with a ritual of thanksgiving associated with the rice harvest. Tarawangsa can also be played for healing or even purely for entertainment.


title: West Java

text: The three main types of Sundanese bamboo ensembles are angklung, calung, karinding and arumba. The exact features of each ensemble vary according to context, related instruments, and relative popularity.


title: West Java

text: Angklung is a generic term for sets of tuned, shaken bamboo rattles. Angklung consists of a frame upon which hang several different lengths of hollow bamboo. Angklungs are played like handbells, with each instrument played to a different note. Angklung rattles are played in interlocking patterns, usually with only one or two instruments played per person. The ensemble is used in Sundanese processions, sometimes with trance or acrobatics. Performed at life-cycle rituals and feasts (hajat), angklung is believed to maintain balance and harmony in the village. In its most modern incarnation, angklung is performed in schools as an aid to learning music.


title: West Java

text: The Angklung received international attention when Daeng Soetigna, from Bandung, expanded the angklung notations not only to play traditional pélog or sléndro scales but also diatonic scale in 1938. Since then, angklung is often played together with other Western musical instruments in an orchestra. One of the first well-known performances of angklung in an orchestra was during the Bandung Conference in 1955.


title: West Java

text: Like those in angklung, the instruments of the calung ensemble are of bamboo, but each consists of several differently tuned tubes fixed onto a piece of bamboo; the player holds the instrument in his left hand and strikes it with a beater held in his right. The highest-pitched calung has the highest number of tubes and the densest musical activity; the lowest-pitched, with two tubes, has the least. Calung is nearly always associated with earthy humour, and is played by men.


title: West Java

text: Arumba refers to a set of diatonically tuned bamboo xylophones, often played by women. It is frequently joined by modern instruments, including a drum set, electric guitar, bass, and keyboards.


title: West Java

text: "Wayang golek" is a traditional form of puppetry from Sunda. Unlike the better-known leather shadow puppets ("wayang kulit") found in the rest of Java and Bali, "wayang golek" puppets are made from wood and are three-dimensional, rather than two. They use a banana palm in which the puppets stand, behind which one puppeteer ("dalang") is accompanied by his "gamelan" orchestra with up to 20 musicians. The "gamelan" uses a five-note scale as opposed to the seven-note western scale. The musicians are guided by the drummer, who in turn is guided by signals from the puppet master dalang gives to change the mood or pace required. "Wayang golek" are used by the Sundanese to tell the epic play "Mahabarata", and various other morality-type plays.


title: West Java

text: Sandiwara Sunda is a type folk teather performed in Sundanese and presenting Sundanese themes, folklores and stories.


title: West Java

text: Sundanese dance shows the influence of the many groups that have traded and settled in the area over the centuries, and includes variations from graceful to dynamic syncopated drumming patterns, quick wrist flicks, sensual hip movements, and fast shoulder and torso isolations.


title: West Java

text: "Jaipongan" is probably the most popular traditional social dance of Sundanese people. It can be performed in solo, grups, or pair.


title: West Java

text: The "Tari Merak" (Peafowl Dance) is a female dance inspired by the movements of a peafowl and its feathers blended with the classical movements of the Sundanese dance.


title: West Java

text: Due to its proximity to Jakarta and its growing population and industry, West Java has the longest tolled highway road of any provinces. As of April 2015, there are several toll roads in West Java


title: West Java

text: In addition to completed highways there are some highways that are being built, one of them is Cileunyi–Sumedang–Dawuan (Cisumdawu) with length 60.1 kilometres.


title: West Java

text: Several other proposed toll roads are Bandung Intra-Urban Toll Road, Cileunyi–Tasikmalaya, and Jakarta Outer Ring Road 2 (a section of this road has been built).


title: West Java

text: Most cities and towns in West Java are served with narrow-gauge (mainly 1067mm) lines and connected to other provinces on Java Island. Jakarta's KRL Commuterline electric suburban trains run into the province to Bogor and Cikarang.


title: West Java

text: Bandung Husein Sastranegara International Airport serves direct domestic flights to Batam, Pekanbaru, Medan, Bandar Lampung, Surabaya, Yogyakarta, Denpasar, Semarang, Banjarmasin, Makassar, and also international services to/from Kuala Lumpur and Singapore. The Kertajati International Airport in Majalengka Regency is built to replace the Husein Sastranegara Airport and to ease air traffic at Soekarno–Hatta International Airport in Jakarta.


title: West Java

text: West Java is one of the most popular destinations for higher education in Indonesia. It has many well-known universities joined by many students from the entire country. Some of which are:


title: Aligarh

text: Aligarh (; formerly known as Allygarh, and Kol) is a city in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India. It is the administrative headquarters of Aligarh district, and lies northwest of state capital Lucknow and approximately southeast of the capital, New Delhi. The districts which adjoin Aligarh are Gautam Buddha Nagar, Bulandshahr, Sambhal, Badaun, Kasganj, Hathras, Etah and Mathura. As of 2011, Aligarh is the 53rd most populous city in India.


title: Aligarh

text: The recorded history of Aligarh begins with the establishment of the Aligarh Fort in the 16th century. It is a university town, notable as the seat of Aligarh Muslim University, which was founded here as Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875, initiating the Aligarh Movement.


title: Aligarh

text: Written references to the city commence only from 12th century onward; however, archeological records suggest that the town used to be inhabited by Jains. The area of Aligarh before the Ghurid conquest of the region, was under the sway of Dor Rajputs in twelfth century.


title: Aligarh

text: In 1194, Qutb-ud-din Aibak had mounted a successful invasion of the region and Hisam-ud-din Ulbak was installed as the first Muslim governor; court-historian Hasan Nizami noted Kol to be "one of the most celebrated fortresses of Hind". Beginning the 13th century, the place featured — as Kol or Koil — in multiple Persian (as well as non-Persian) Sultanate sources as a center of economic prominence esp. for production of distilled wine. By the mid-13th century, the town commanded enough importance for (would-be Sultan) Ghiyas ud din Balban to erect a minaret.


title: Aligarh

text: Under the Khiljis and Tughlaqs, the prominence continued unabated; it had become an "iqta" by the times of Alauddin Khalji.


title: Aligarh

text: Kol is mentioned in Ibn Battuta's "Rihla", when Ibn Battuta, along with 15 ambassadors representing Ukhaantu Khan, emperor of the Mongol Chinese Yuan dynasty, travelled to Kol city en route to the coast at Cambay (in Gujarat) in 1341. According to Battuta, it would appear that the district was then in a very disturbed state since the escort of the Emperor's embassy had to assist in relieving Jalali from an attacking body of Hindus and lost an officer in the fight. Ibn Batuta calls Kol "a fine town surrounded by mango groves". From these same groves the environs of Kol would appear to have acquired the name "Sabzabad" or "the green country".


title: Aligarh

text: In the reign of Akbar, Kol was made a Sirkar and included the "dasturs" of Marahra, Kol ba Haveli, Thana Farida and Akbarabad. Akbar and Jahangir visited Kol on hunting expeditions. Jahangir clearly mentions the forest of Kol, where he killed wolves.


title: Aligarh

text: During the time of Ibrahim Lodhi, Muhammad, son of Umar, was the governor of Kol. He built a fort at Kol and named the city Muhammadgarh, after himself, in 1524–25. Sabit Khan, who was then the governor of this region, rebuilt the old Lodhi fort and named the town Sabitgarh, after himself.


title: Aligarh

text: The ruler of Koil was Bargujar King Bahadur Singh who, in 1753, rose against the destruction of Hindu temples. The Jat ruler, Surajmal, with consent of Safdar Jang, occupied the fort of Koil. Bahadur Singh continued the battle from another fort and died fighting in what is known as the "Battle of Ghasera". It was renamed Ramgarh and Rao Durjan Singh Ponia of Bijauli was made the kiledar of the fort. When a Persian Mughal Shia commander, Najaf Khan, captured Ramgarh, he renamed it and gave it its present name of Aligarh. Aligarh Fort (also called Aligarh Qila), as it stands today, was built by French engineers under the control of French officers Benoît de Boigne and Perron.


title: Aligarh

text: The Battle of Aligarh was fought on 1 September 1803 during the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805) at Aligarh Fort. The British 76th Regiment, now known as the Duke of Wellington's Regiment besieged the fort, which was under the control of the French officer Perron, and established British rule. In 1804, the Aligarh district was formed by the union of the second, third and fourth British divisions with the addition of Anupshahr from Muradabad and Sikandra Rao from Etawa. On 1 August 1804, Claude Russell was appointed the first Collector of the new district.


title: Aligarh

text: Aligarh district is divided into five tehsils, namely Kol Tehsil, Khair Tehsil, Atrauli, Gabhana and Iglas. These tehsils are further divided into 12 blocks.


title: Aligarh

text: The city is administered by Nagar Nigam Aligarh (Municipal Corporation), which is responsible for performing civic administrative functions administered by Mayor and Municipal Commissioner (PCS Officer). Infrastructure development of the city is looked after by the Aligarh Development Authority (ADA) administered by Divisional Commissioner (chairman) and vice-chairman (PCS Officer).


title: Aligarh

text: Aligarh is the headquarters of Aligarh Police Range and Aligarh Division. A DIG looks after Aligarh for legal condition and law; a Commissioner looks for four districts of Aligarh Division (Aligarh, Etah, Hathras, Kasganj).


title: Aligarh

text: According to the 2011 Census, Aligarh has a total population of 874,408, of which 461,772 are males and 412,636 are females. Population in the age range 0–6 years is 119,543. The literacy rate is 59.15%, of which the male literacy rate is 63.42% and female literacy rate is 54.37%. The effective literacy rate of 7+ population of Aligarh was 68.5%, of which male literacy rate was 62.9% and the female literacy rate was 70.8%The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have a population of 138,184 and 332 respectively. There were 147363 households in Aligarh as of 2011. The city lies in the cultural region of Braj.


title: Aligarh

text: Aligarh is located at the coordinates . It has an elevation of approximately 178 metres (587 feet). The city is in the middle portion of the doab, the land between the Ganges and the Yamuna rivers. The Grand Trunk Road passes through it via NH-91 is 134 km from capital of India.


title: Aligarh

text: Aligarh has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen "BSh") a little too dry to be a monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate ("Cwa"). Summers start in April and are hot with temperatures peaking in May. The average temperature range is . The monsoon season starts in late June, continuing until early October, bringing high humidity. Aligarh gets most of its annual rainfall of during these months. Temperatures then decrease, and winter sets in December, and continues until February. Temperatures range between . Winters in Aligarh are generally mild, but 2011–12 experienced the lowest temperature of 1 °C. The fog and cold snaps are extreme.


title: Aligarh

text: The city is an agricultural trade centre. Agricultural product processing and manufacturing are important.


title: Aligarh

text: Aligarh is an important business center of Uttar Pradesh and is most famous for its lock industry. Aligarh locks are exported across the world. In 1870, Johnson & Co. was the first English lock firm in Aligarh. In 1890, the company initiated production of locks on a small scale here.


title: Aligarh

text: Aligarh is famous for its brass hardware and sculpture. Today, the city holds thousands of manufacturers, exporters, and suppliers involved in the brass, bronze, iron and aluminum industries.


title: Aligarh

text: Indian Diecasting Industries which manufactures aluminum and zinc die-casting parts is located at Sasni Gate in Aligarh.


title: Aligarh

text: Harduaganj Thermal Power Station (also referred as Kasimpur Power House) is 15 km from the city. Narora Atomic Power Station is located 50 km from Aligarh.


title: Aligarh

text: Aligarh hosts Heinz-sauce manufacturing unit in Manzurgarhi, Satha sugar mill on the Aligarh-Kasimpur Power House route and a cement factory of UltraTech Cement company.


title: Aligarh

text: Aligarh is a major educational hub, housing over 100 independent colleges and educational institutions. Notable tertiary institutions include:


title: Aligarh

text: Aligarh has several popular landmarks. Most notable few of them are Aligarh fort, Jama Masjid, Khereshwar Temple which is the birthplace of Swami Shri Haridas Ji, Dor fortress (1524), which is now in ruins, lies at the city's centre; its site is in the area now called Upper Fort (Balai Qila) and is occupied by an 18th-century mosque. The area Shah Jamal is very famous for a Sufi saint Syed Shah Jamal is also known as Shamsul Arifeen, of whom the tomb is located at Shahjamal area and surrounded by a graveyard. The Sufi Saint is mentioned by Ibn Battuta in his book "The Travels of Ibn Battuta". The saint is said to be of Sufi Chishtiya order.


title: Aligarh

text: The Annual Cultural Exhibition, popularly known as Numaish, is held at the exhibition ground in January and February. The land Numaish Ground was donated by Nawab Rehmat Ullah Khan Sherwani. The cultural shows take place at three grand stages (Kohinoor, Krishnanjali and Muktakash). In all, more than 150 stage events featuring artists from across India take place during a period of 28–30 days.


title: Aligarh

text: Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) is one of the oldest central universities. It was established by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan as Madrasatul Uloom Musalmanan-e-Hind in 1875–78 which later became Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College (MAO College). It was designed to train Muslims for government services in India and prepare them for advanced training in British universities. The Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College became Aligarh Muslim University in 1920. It is famous for its Law, Medical, and Engineering College.


title: Aligarh

text: Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences maintains 'Museum on History of Medicine and Sciences' and 'Museum on Arts, Culture and Orientalism'. It was established by a family Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman and Syed Ziaur Rahman at the heart of the city and near a busy market of Dodhpur.


title: Aligarh

text: Aligarh Junction railway station is the primary station for Aligarh city and is a major stop on the Delhi-Kolkata route. It is an A-Class railway station. It is one of the oldest railway station of this route. It connects Aligarh to the states of West Bengal, Odisha, Bihar, Jharkhand, north-east and most of Uttar Pradesh, and important stations of cities such as New Delhi railway station, Mumbai Central, Kolkata, Bhopal Junction railway station, Indore, Jammu, Gwalior, Lucknow, Jhansi, Puri, Kanpur Central railway station, Etawah Junction railway station, Tundla Junction railway station, Agra Cantonment railway station and Varanasi. Aligarh railway station handles over 136 trains daily (in both directions) and serves around 204,000 passengers every day. Aligarh has one Branch Railway Line to Bareily.


title: Aligarh

text: Aligarh is 140 km from New Delhi. It is one of the Division of UPSRTC. Uttar Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation (UPSRTC) buses serve cities all over the state and cities in Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana.


title: Aligarh

text: 1) Khair, Tappal, Palval, Faridabad, Delhi - The route is under construction between Khair and Palval and should be strictly avoided by cars. No toll charges.


title: Aligarh

text: 2) Khair, Tappal, Yamuna expressway, Noida, Greater Noida, Delhi, Gurgaon - Best and recommended route for Delhi, Noida, Gurgaon. Toll Charges are ₹120 between Aligarh and Delhi.


title: Aligarh

text: 3) Old GT Road, Bulandshahr, Ghaziabad, Delhi - NH 91 - It is a 4-lane highway. Toll charges are ₹190.


title: Aligarh

text: The nearest international airport from Aligarh is Indira Gandhi International Airport, New Delhi. It is 140 km from Aligarh.


title: Aligarh

text: Aligarh Airport, in Dhanipur, is under construction on NH 91. Dhanipur Air Strip is used as Flying Club. The Government of Uttar Pradesh signed a memorandum of understanding with the Airports Authority of India in February 2014 for the development of the airport. The land acquisition for airport will be initiated soon and after its development flight operations will be started under regional connectivity scheme.


title: Piper PA-31 Navajo

text: The Piper PA-31 Navajo is a family of cabin-class, twin-engined aircraft designed and built by Piper Aircraft for the general aviation market, most using Lycoming engines. It was also license-built in a number of Latin American countries. Targeted at small-scale cargo and feeder liner operations and the corporate market, the aircraft was a success. It continues to prove a popular choice, but due to greatly decreased demand across the general aviation sector in the 1980s, production of the PA-31 ceased in 1984.


title: Piper PA-31 Navajo

text: At the request of company founder William T. Piper, Piper began development of a six- to eight-seat twin-engined corporate and commuter transport aircraft in 1962 under the project name "Inca". The type, now designated the PA-31 and looking like a scaled-up Twin Comanche, was officially announced in late 1964 after its first flight on 30 September that year. It was a low-wing monoplane with a conventional tail, powered by two Lycoming TIO-540-A turbocharged engines in so-called "tiger shark" cowlings, a feature shared with the Twin Comanche and also the PA-23 Aztec. As testing proceeded two cabin windows were added to each side of the fuselage and the engines moved further forward. The PA-31, now named "Navajo" after a Native American tribe, was not certified by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) until 24 February 1966, and deliveries did not begin until the following year, after the type was recertified in mid-1966 with an increase in maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) from to .


title: Piper PA-31 Navajo

text: The PA-31-300 was the next model, certified by the FAA in June 1967. This model was the only one of the PA-31 series not to have turbocharged engines. A pair of Lycoming IO-540-M1A5 engines were fitted to the PA-31-300, driving two-bladed propellers. Following the introduction of the PA-31-300 the turbocharged model began to be known unofficially as the PA-31-310. The PA-31-300 was only produced in 1968 and 1969 and had the smallest production total for any PA-31 series model, with only 14 aircraft built.


title: Piper PA-31 Navajo

text: The next member of the family was also Piper's first pressurized aircraft, the PA-31P Pressurized Navajo, certified in late 1969. Development of the PA-31P had begun in January 1966, before the FAA had awarded the PA-31 a type certificate. The PA-31P was powered by Lycoming TIGO-541-E engines and compared to earlier models had a longer nose, fewer and smaller windows, fuel tanks in the engine nacelles and a one-piece airstair cabin entry door instead of the split pair of doors on the unpressurized models. MTOW was greatly increased at . Also known unofficially as the PA-31P-425, the PA-31P was produced from 1970 to 1977.


title: Piper PA-31 Navajo

text: In 1971, Piper introduced improvements to the PA-31 model. The Navajo B featured air conditioning, increased baggage space achieved by the addition of storage lockers in the rear part of extended nacelles, a third door next to the cabin entry doors to facilitate the loading of baggage, and an optional separate door for the pilot to enter the cockpit.


title: Piper PA-31 Navajo

text: In September 1972, Piper unveiled the PA-31-350 Navajo Chieftain, a stretched version of the Navajo B with more powerful engines and counter-rotating propellers to prevent critical engine handling problems. The fuselage was lengthened by , allowing for up to ten seats in total. Variants of the Lycoming TIO-540 developing were fitted to the Chieftain, with an opposite-rotation LTIO-540 installed on the right-hand wing; MTOW was increased to . The Chieftain's introduction was delayed by a flood at Piper's factory at Lock Haven, Pennsylvania, caused by Hurricane Agnes, and deliveries did not commence until 1973. In 1974, Piper used a Navajo B as the basis for developing a new model, the PA-31-325 Navajo C/R. The Navajo C/R had lower-power versions of the counter-rotating engines of the Chieftain, rated at . After certification of the PA-31-325 in May 1974, production commenced in the 1975 model year. The Navajo B was also superseded in the 1975 model year, by the Navajo C version of the PA-31 model.


title: Piper PA-31 Navajo

text: Piper established its T1000 Airliner Division in May 1981 at its Lakeland, Florida factory. There were two aircraft in the T1000 series. The T1020, or more accurately the PA-31-350T1020 was a PA-31-350 Chieftain optimized for and marketed for the commuter airline market. It featured reduced fuel capacity compared to the standard Chieftain, with the auxiliary fuel tanks in each wing of the Chieftain not fitted to the T1020. It also had reduced baggage capacity ( maximum instead of the Chieftain's maximum) and up to eleven seats. The first T1020 was delivered in December 1981. The second aircraft in the T1000 stable was the T1040 – the PA-31T3 model. The T1040 was a hybrid, featuring the main fuselage of the PA-31-350T1020 with the nose and tail of the PA-31T1 Cheyenne I. The wings were similar to the Cheyenne I's, but with reduced fuel capacity and baggage lockers in the engine nacelles similar to those of the Chieftain. An optional underbelly cargo pod was also available. The Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-11 turboprop engines were the same as those of the Cheyenne I. Deliveries of the T1040 began in July 1982. A T1050 variant with a fuselage stretch of and seating capacity for 17 was proposed as a factory conversion of existing aircraft, but did not proceed.


title: Piper PA-31 Navajo

text: The last member of the PA-31 family to enter production was the PA-31P-350 Mojave. Like the T1040 the Mojave was a hybrid, but whereas the T1040 was essentially a turboprop Chieftain the Mojave was more or less a piston-engined version of the Cheyenne. The Mojave combined the fuselage of the Cheyenne I with the tail of the Chieftain. The wings were similar to the Chieftain's, but with greater structural strength, a increase in wingspan and greater fuel capacity of . The engines were slightly different variants of the Chieftain's TIO-540 and LTIO-540, being fitted with intercoolers, and like the Chieftain, had baggage lockers on the rear part of the nacelles. The Mojave's MTOW of was higher than the Chieftain's. Certified in 1983, like the T1020 and T1040 the Mojave was introduced at a time of economic recession and was produced only in 1983 and 1984; combined production of the T1020, T1040 and Mojave amounted to fewer than 100 aircraft. Two experimental PA-31-353s were also built in the mid-1980s.


title: Piper PA-31 Navajo

text: The PA-31 series was manufactured under licence in several countries from kits of parts supplied by Piper. Chincul SACAIFI in Argentina assembled most of the series as the PA-A-31, PA-A-31-325, PA-A-31P and PA-A-31-350 and Aero Industrial Colombiana SA (AICSA) in Colombia assembled PA-31, PA-31-325 and PA-31-350 aircraft. The PA-31-350 Chieftain was also assembled under licence in Brazil by Embraer as the EMB 820C Navajo. In 1984, Embraer subsidiary company Indústria Aeronáutica Neiva began converting Embraer EMB 820Cs by installing Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 turboprop engines; Neiva called the converted aircraft the Carajá.


title: Piper PA-31 Navajo

text: The Navajo family is popular with air charter companies and small feeder airlines in many countries, and is also operated by private individuals and companies.


title: Freedom of speech by country

text: Freedom of speech is the concept of the inherent human right to voice one's opinion publicly without fear of government censorship or punishment. "Speech" is not limited to public speaking and is generally taken to include other forms of expression. The right is preserved in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and is granted formal recognition by the laws of most nations. Nonetheless, the degree to which the right is upheld in practice varies greatly from one nation to another. In many nations, particularly those with authoritarian forms of government, overt government censorship is enforced. Censorship has also been claimed to occur in other forms and there are different approaches to issues such as hate speech, obscenity, and defamation laws.


title: Freedom of speech by country

text: The following list is partially composed of the respective countries' government claims and does not fully reflect the "de facto" situation, however many sections of the page do contain information about the validity of the government's claims alongside said claims.


title: Freedom of speech by country

text: The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948, provides, in Article 19, that:


title: Freedom of speech by country

text: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.


title: Freedom of speech by country

text: Technically, as a resolution of the United Nations General Assembly rather than a treaty, it is not legally binding in its entirety on members of the UN. Furthermore, whilst some of its provisions are considered to form part of customary international law, there is dispute as to which. Freedom of speech is granted unambiguous protection in international law by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights which is binding on around 150 nations.


title: Freedom of speech by country

text: In adopting the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Monaco, Australia and the Netherlands insisted on reservations to Article 19 insofar as it might be held to affect their systems of regulating and licensing broadcasting.


title: Freedom of speech by country

text: The majority of African constitutions provide legal protection for freedom of speech, with the extent and enforcement varying from country to country.


title: Freedom of speech by country

text: Senegal has the most decisive freedom of expression of all African countries. It has many associations active in human rights and freedom of expression. Senegal also has the freedom to practice religion, or not practice a religion


title: Freedom of speech by country

text: Under apartheid, freedom of speech was curtailed under apartheid legislation such as the Native Administration Act 1927 and the Suppression of Communism Act, 1950. In light of South Africa's racial and discriminatory history, particularly the Apartheid era, the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa of 1996 precludes expression that is tantamount to the advocacy of hatred based on some listed grounds. Freedom of speech and expression are both protected and limited by a section in the South African Bill of Rights, chapter 2 of the Constitution. Section 16 makes the following provisions:


title: Freedom of speech by country

text: In 2005, the South African Constitutional Court set an international precedent in the case of "Laugh It Off Promotions CC v South African Breweries International" when it found that the small culture jamming company Laugh-it-Off's right to freedom of expression outweighs the protection of trademark of the world's second largest brewery. Currently, the South African National Assembly is considering passing a bill aimed at reducing hate speech and hate crimes.