title: Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour

text: Cavour had retired to his estate at Leri, out of politics but concerned about the King's alliance with Garibaldi's revolutionaries and his desire to renew the war with Austria without allied support. When the weak La Marmora cabinet resigned, Victor Emmanuel was reluctant to have Cavour as premier again due both to their quarrel over the treaty of Villafranca and Cavour's success in preventing the king from marrying his mistress after the queen's death. But Cavour was sent for on 20 January 1860.


title: Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour

text: Cavour agreed with Napoleon to cede Savoy and Nice to France, in order to annex Tuscany and Emilia to Piedmont. Plebiscites were arranged with huge majorities in all these provinces to approve the changes. Cavour managed to convince most that uniting Italy would make up for these territorial losses. With this, the first stage of unification was completed. It was now up to Garibaldi to overthrow the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and bring southern Italy into Piedmont's control.


title: Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour

text: Garibaldi was furious that his birthplace, Nice, had been ceded to France, and wished to recapture the city, but a popular insurrection in Palermo on 4 April 1860 diverted him southward. He requested a brigade of Piedmontese to take Sicily, but Cavour refused. So instead, Garibaldi raised a force of a thousand ("I Mille") redshirt volunteers. They landed at Marsala in Sicily on 11 May and won the battles of Calatafimi and Milazzo, gaining control of Sicily. Cavour attempted to annex Sicily to Piedmont, but Garibaldi and his comrade Francesco Crispi would not allow it.


title: Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour

text: Cavour persuaded Victor Emmanuel to write a letter to Garibaldi, requesting that he not invade the mainland; the letter was indeed sent, but the King secretly wished Garibaldi to invade. He wrote another letter asking him to go ahead, but this was apparently never sent. Cavour meanwhile attempted to stir up a liberal revolution in Naples, but the populace was unreceptive. Garibaldi invaded, attempting to reach Naples quickly before Cavour found a way to stop him. On 7 September he entered Naples, at that time the largest city in Italy, and unilaterally declared Victor Emmanuel the King of Italy. Garibaldi was now military dictator of southern Italy and Sicily, and he imposed the Piedmontese constitution but publicly demanded that Cavour be removed, which alienated him slightly from Victor Emmanuel.


title: Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour

text: Garibaldi was unwilling to stop at this point, and planned an immediate invasion of the Papal States. Cavour feared France in that case would declare war to defend the Pope and successfully stopped Garibaldi from initiating his attack. Garibaldi had been weakened by the Battle of Volturno, so Cavour quickly invaded the Papal regions of Umbria and Marche. This linked the territories conquered by Piedmont with those taken by Garibaldi. The King met with Garibaldi, who handed over control of southern Italy and Sicily, thus uniting Italy.


title: Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour

text: The relationship between Cavour and Garibaldi was always fractious: Cavour likened Garibaldi to "a savage" while Garibaldi memorably called Cavour "a low intriguer".


title: Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour

text: In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II declared the Kingdom of Italy, making Cavour Prime Minister of Italy. Cavour had many difficult issues to consider, including how to create a national military, which legal institutions should be retained in what locations, and especially the future of Rome. Most Italians thought Rome must be capital of a united Italy, but this conflicted with the temporal power of the Pope and also the independence of the Church. Cavour believed that Rome should remain the seat of "a free church in a free state", which would maintain its independence but give up temporal power. These issues would become known as the "Roman Question". Still Austrian Venetia was also a problem. Cavour recognized that Venice must be an integral part of Italy but refused to take a stance on how to achieve it, saying "Will the deliverance of Venice come by arms or diplomacy? I do not know. It is the secret of Providence." A motion approving of his foreign policy passed by a huge majority, basically only opposed by left-wing and right-wing extremist groups.


title: Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour

text: Creating Italy was no easy task, but ruling it proved a worse strain on the Prime Minister. In 1861, at the peak of his career, months of long days coupled with insomnia and constant worry took their toll on Cavour. He fell ill, presumably of malaria, and to make matters worse insisted upon being bled. His regular doctor would have refused, but he was not available; so Cavour was bled several times until it was nearly impossible to draw any blood from him. He was buried in Santena, near Turin.


title: Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour

text: After his death, Italy would gain Venice in 1866 in the course of the Third Italian War of Independence, connected to the Austro-Prussian War. The Capture of Rome completed the unification of Italy (aside from Trentino and Trieste) in 1870.


title: Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour

text: Today, many Italian cities, including Turin, Trieste, Rome, Florence, and Naples, have important streets, squares, piazzas, and metro stations named after Cavour, as well as Mazzini and Garibaldi. The clipper ship, "Camille Cavour", the battleship "Conte di Cavour", which fought both in World War I and World War II, and the new "Marina Militare" aircraft carrier "Cavour" is also named in his honor.


title: Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour

text: In 1865, the "Collegio dei Nobili", the oldest high school in Turin (founded 1568), and among the oldest and most prominent ones in Italy, was renamed the "Liceo Ginnasio statale "Camillo Benso di Cavour"" ("Liceo classico Cavour").


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast is a 2002 first- and third-person shooter video game. The Microsoft Windows and OS X versions were developed by Raven Software, and the Xbox and GameCube versions by Vicarious Visions; most versions were published by LucasArts, with only the OS X version published by Aspyr. The game is a sequel to 1997's "", and the third main installment in the "" series. The single-player campaign, set in the fictional "Star Wars" expanded universe two years after the "" expansion for "Dark Forces II", follows returning protagonist Kyle Katarn, a mercenary working for the New Republic and former Jedi who cut his connection to the Force. Katarn must return to his Jedi ways to stop a branch of the Imperial Remnant led by the Dark Jedi Desann from empowering their army with the Force.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: "Jedi Outcast" was developed using a more powerful game engine, id Tech 3. The hack and slash combat introduced in "Dark Forces II" was heavily reworked, becoming the main focus of the gameplay instead of the shooter elements, which are prominent only during the first few missions of the game. Players may wield blasters, lightsabers, and Force powers to engage enemies, with the latter being recommended in later stages of the game, as numerous lightsaber-wielding enemies are introduced. "Jedi Outcast" also features a multiplayer mode that allows players to compete in several different game modes online or over a local area network.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: Upon release, the game received largely positive reviews from critics, with its story and lightsaber combat being the main praised elements. A sequel and the final installment in the "Jedi Knight" series, "", was released in 2003. Both "Jedi Outcast" and "Jedi Academy" are considered landmark "Star Wars" titles for their revolutionary lightsaber combat. In September 2009, the game was re-released onto Steam and Direct2Drive alongside the rest of the "Jedi Knight" series. A Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 port with no multiplayer mode was released in September 2019. In 2021, "Jedi Outcast" was made backwards compatible on Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: "Jedi Outcast" allows the player to wield a variety of firearms from the "Star Wars" franchise, as well as lightsabers and Force powers. The player can choose whether to use first or third-person perspective for each weapon, including the lightsaber. Combat is standard for the shooter genre, offering players an array of energy and projectile weapons, plus a variety of explosives. Players have health and shield meters, each of which is replenished separately.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: "Jedi Outcast" places a strong emphasis on lightsaber combat. As in the films, lightsabers can be used to deflect shots from blasters. The game offers three lightsaber styles; fast, medium and strong, with each style differing from the others in terms of the speed of attacks and damage dealt. There are also a number of combos, many of which are unique to the selected saber style.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: Force powers (such as Push, Jump, and Lightning) are available in both single-player and multiplayer modes, but more powers can be used in the latter. The use of powers is restricted by a "Force Meter", which depletes with each use and gradually refills over time. The "level" of a Force power determines the strength of that power and the amount depleted from the Force meter during its use. The multiplayer mode divides players into Light Siders and Dark Siders, pitting each side against the other in team battles. Each side has access to both shared "Neutral" Force powers, which are mostly focused on increasing speed and athletic ability. There are also numerous powers unique to both Light and Dark sides. As in the previous games, Light Side powers are mainly focused around protection and healing, while Dark Side powers are openly aggressive. Unlike previous games, however, Kyle does not exclusively select Light or Dark powers in the single-player, instead receiving a selection of both.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: The single-player campaign follows Kyle Katarn as he moves through the levels in a linear manner, meeting friendly and hostile non-player characters (NPCs). Friendly NPCs will occasionally assist the player in combat. In addition to combat, the campaign features a variety of puzzles.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: When the game starts, Kyle has forsaken The Force after the events of the previous game, and as such, the player has no access to a lightsaber or any Force powers. However, after the first two missions, Kyle regains his Force abilities. As the game progresses the number of powers available, and their strength, increase. Progression of Force abilities is fixed, and cannot be customized. Having previously fallen to the Dark Side, Kyle has access to both Light Side powers (such as Force Heal and Jedi Mind Trick) and Dark Side powers (such as Force Lightning and Force Grip), along with neutral ones (such as Force Speed, Force Jump, Force Pull and Force Push).


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: "Jedi Outcast" features a set of multiplayer modes. In the PC and Macintosh versions, these can be played over a LAN or the Internet, but combat is limited to two players on the console versions. Multiplayer works by allowing members of the community to run their own dedicated servers that players can join via the in-game Multiplayer Server List, with server owners being able to dictate custom mods, maps and player models for their server. There are a variety of standardized game modes in Multiplayer (such as "Free-for-All", "Team Deathmatch" and "Capture the flag") which can be played with other players, bots, or both. Server owners can also build their own game modes for their server if they wish to do so. Players have limited customization control over their avatars, however there is the ability for players to import custom models on participating servers. They can choose the player model (with access to nearly every character in the game, as well as some characters from the films not seen in the single-player mode) and lightsaber color. Before a match, the server specifies the game rules, including "Force ranking", which controls how many points the players have available to allocate into Force powers. Players then customize their powers for the match. The server can also choose to disable normal weapons so as to create lightsaber-only matches.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: The single-player story is set in 12 ABY, eight years after the events of "Return of the Jedi" and around two years after "Mysteries of the Sith". As with the previous installments in the series, the player controls Kyle Katarn (voiced by Jeff Bennett), a former Jedi who has cut his links with the Force after almost succumbing to the Dark Side. At the start of the game he is a mercenary working for the New Republic.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: Over the course of the game, Kyle is joined by several characters that assist him in varying measures, including his mercenary partner and love interest Jan Ors (Vanessa Marshall); the sophisticated administrator of Cloud City, Lando Calrissian (Billy Dee Williams); and Jedi Grandmaster and leader of the Jedi Academy on Yavin IV, Luke Skywalker (Bob Bergen). The player also receives help from other Jedi and New Republic soldiers, while Mon Mothma (Carolyn Seymour), Chief-of-State of the New Republic, assigns Kyle and Jan missions during the early stages of the game.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: The story features four major antagonists and bosses: Desann (Mark Klastorin), a former student of the Jedi Academy, who turned to the Dark Side after killing a fellow student and leaving the Order; Tavion (Kath Soucie), Desann's apprentice; Galak Fyyar (Steve Blum), an admiral in the Imperial Remnant and Desann's second-in-command; and Reelo Baruk (Kevin Michael Richardson), a crime lord with ties to the Imperial Remnant who poses as a "respectable garbage collector" on Nar Shaddaa. Throughout the game, players fight different types of enemies, including mercenaries and Imperial stormtroopers. Halfway through the story, lightsaber-wielding enemies are introduced, namely the Reborn (thugs and soldiers who have been artificially infused with the Force), and Shadowtroopers (who sport lightsaber-resistant cortosis armor that also allows them to briefly turn invisible).


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: The game begins with Kyle Katarn and Jan Ors investigating a supposedly abandoned Imperial outpost on Kejim, finding it to be crawling with Imperial forces. They fight their way through the base, discovering a research center studying crystals similar to those used to power lightsabers. Tracing the crystals' origin, Kyle and Jan travel to Artus Prime, a mining colony turned into an Imperial stronghold, where the miners have been enslaved and experimented upon. Katarn thwarts the Imperial operation, but Jan is captured by the Dark Jedi Desann and his apprentice Tavion. Kyle tries to rescue her, but, having forsaken the ways of the Jedi, he is easily defeated by Desann, who orders Tavion to kill Jan before they leave.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: An enraged Kyle travels to the Valley of the Jedi (a major plot element in "Dark Forces II") to regain his Force powers, and then to the Jedi Academy to reclaim his lightsaber, which he had left with Luke Skywalker. Luke reveals Desann's origins to Kyle, and senses his anger through the Force, so he requests that Kyle complete a series of trials to prove he will not succumb to the Dark Side again. Kyle passes the tests and obtains his lightsaber, before travelling to Nar Shaddaa, where Luke told him to seek out Reelo Baruk, a Rodian gangster. While searching for him, Kyle runs into Lando Calrissian, who has been imprisoned in Reelo's dungeons. Lando reveals that Reelo is part of a cortosis smuggling operation in Cloud City, which has been taken over by the Empire and Reelo's men. After Kyle frees Lando, the pair make their escape in the latter's ship, the "Lady Luck"; killing Reelo when he tries to stop them.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: On Bespin, Lando drops Kyle off at the bottom of Cloud City, and while making his way up the city structure, the latter has his first encounters with the Reborn, Desann's Force-wielding soldiers. After helping Lando's men reclaim control of the city, Kyle finds and defeats Tavion, who, fearing for her life, reveals that Jan is alive and onboard Galak Fyyar's Star Destroyer, the "Doomgiver". Jan's faked death was just a ploy to trick Kyle into going to the Valley of the Jedi, which allowed Desann to follow him there and tap its power. Kyle spares Tavion and takes her ship to infiltrate the "Doomgiver", which is docked at the Cairn Installation, an Imperial base hidden on an asteroid in the Lenico Belt.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: At the base, Kyle runs into Luke, who informs him that Desann has used the Valley's energy to empower an army of Reborn which could number in the thousands. After fighting several Reborn together, Kyle and Luke split up to find the "Doomgiver". Along the way, the former has his first encounter with the Shadowtroopers, and discovers that the base is actually an assault ship construction facility, which is preparing for a full-scale planetary assault. As Kyle boards the "Doomgiver", he sees Luke fighting Desann outside the ship, but can't intervene because the Star Destroyer jumps into hyperspace. Kyle uses the ship's communications array to contact Rogue Squadron, and finds Jan in the detention block, who reveals that Desann was not specifically interested in the Valley of the Jedi, but rather the Jedi Academy, which he is invading just now to harvest its Force power. After killing Fyyar and destroying the "Doomgiver"s shield reactor, which leaves the ship open for attack, Kyle escapes with Jan in a safe pod, moments before Rogue Squadron destroy the "Doomgiver".


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: Kyle and Jan arrive on Yavin IV, in the middle of the Imperial invasion, and split up: the latter goes to assist the New Republic starfighters, while the former makes his way to the Jedi Academy on foot. After helping the Jedi students and Republic soldiers fend off the assault, Kyle ventures into the Academy's underground maze, and confronts Desann as he tries to absorb the power from the Force nexus at the centre. Kyle informs Desann of the "Doomgiver"s destruction and the Imperial army's defeat, and offers him the chance to rejoin the Jedi, but an enraged Desann refuses and attacks him. Kyle kills Desann and returns to the surface, where he reunites with Jan, as the New Republic arrests the surviving Imperial forces. Later, Luke thanks Kyle and Jan for their assistance, and offers to safeguard the former's lightsaber once more, but Kyle politely refuses, saying he is not ready to forsake the Force again.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: On May 17, 2001, at E3 2001, LucasArts announced that Raven Software were developing a third game in the "Jedi Knight" series. Some plot details were given, such as the locations visited in the game; Cloud City, Yavin IV, Smuggler's Moon and some planets original to the game. The following day at E3, LucasArts gave a demonstration of the game, showing the lightsaber and Force combat as well as the "buddy" system: in which certain NPCs would fight alongside the player. Technical details were also revealed: the game would use id Software's "Quake III Arena" engine, and the "GHOUL 2" animation system, seen in Raven's "". The polygon capacity of the engine had also been doubled. The game was also on display at id's QuakeCon 2001, where enemy AI and combat were demonstrated. LucasArts announced that the game would feature multiplayer, although due to being early in development little information was revealed.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: On July 17, 2001, multiplayer developer Pat Lipo made a post on his .plan file, revealing that Rich Whitehouse had been brought onto the development team to handle development of the game's multiplayer bots. Whitehouse moved on to tackle the entirety of the game's multiplayer codebase, and was subsequently credited as the game's sole multiplayer programmer. Designer Chris Foster has stated that most members of the team had many responsibilities due to its small size. One of the main tools used to design levels was Radiant.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: On January 16, 2002, LucasArts launched a new website for "Jedi Outcast" featuring an overview of the game and information regarding characters, weapons and Force powers. An FAQ, screenshots, concept art, images of player models and downloadable wallpapers were also available. A teaser trailer was released on February 8, showing the game's combat, weapons, characters and environments. On March 13, 2002, LucasArts announced that the game was on track for release later in the month. Two days later, they announced "Jedi Outcast" was ready for release, set to go on sale by March 29. A new trailer was also released. After the release, game programmer Mike Gummelt revealed that a request from the management led the team to disable the ability to sever the heads of non-droid enemies. He has also cited "Bushido Blade" as the inspiration for a lightsaber combat system which requires players to wait and strike at the right moment.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: The game's SDK was released on April 22, 2002. This included a level editor, map compiler, model viewer, and shader editor and viewer. Since its release, hundreds of mods have been submitted to sites such as FileFront. A 66 MB demo of the game was released on May 10, 2002, featuring the same level shown in an incomplete form at E3 2001, which did not feature in the final version. Two patches were subsequently released: version 1.03 and 1.04.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: At E3 2002, LucasArts announced that "Jedi Outcast" would be released on the GameCube and Xbox. On May 31, 2002, LucasArts and Aspyr announced that a Macintosh version of the game would be released. The Mac version was released on November 5, 2002, and the Xbox and GameCube versions on November 19 in North America and three days later in Europe.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: On November 15, 2006, LucasArts announced that "Jedi Outcast" would feature with "", "", "", "" and a 14-day trial of "Star Wars Galaxies" in a compilation release entitled "". It was released during the 2006 holiday season.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: A Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 port was announced on September 4, 2019; with a release date of September 24, 2019.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: Following Disney's decision to close LucasArts on April 3, 2013, the developers at Raven Software released the source code for the game on SourceForge under GNU GPL-2.0-only. A few days after release, the source code disappeared from SourceForge without explanation. SourceForge later explained to media outlet Kotaku that Raven Software had requested its removal. Kotaku speculated this was due to the presence of licensed code, such as for the Bink Video format from Rad Game Tools, that was not intended to be made public.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: However, prior to the removal a fork called "OpenJK" was created on GitHub with the problematic code parts already excised. The goal of the OpenJK community project is to "maintain and improve "Jedi Academy" + "Jedi Outcast" released by Raven Software." This includes the unification of the "Jedi Outcast" and "Jedi Academy" engines, maintaining the compatibility of previous releases, and providing source ports for Mac and Linux. Daily builds for Windows and early Linux builds are also available.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: The PC version holds an aggregate score of 89 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on thirty-five reviews.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: "Game Informer" scored the game 9.5 out of 10, with reviewer Andrew Reiner calling it "the quintessential "Star Wars" game and a feast for all FPS devotees." He also wrote, "without question, "Jedi Outcast" is the most enjoyable and accomplished "Star Wars" game yet." He was also extremely impressed with multiplayer, calling it "a highly addictive, over-the-top experience that all FPS players must see to believe." Brian Gee of Game Revolution gave the game an A−. He praised how authentically "Star Wars" the game felt, as well as the lightsaber interface, writing "I've played a ton of "Star Wars" games in my time, and I don't think any of them can match the excitement and fun of lightsaber play in "Jedi Outcast"."


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: "IGN" were also impressed, scoring the game 9 out of 10 and giving it an "Editor's Choice" award. Reviewer Steve Butts lauded the "tightly written, mature plot," and wrote "not only is this one of the greatest "Star Wars" games I've ever played, it's one of the best action games period." He also commended the "fantastic" graphics and "intelligent" level design, although he was critical of the puzzles, the lightsaber interface, and complained that "the game starts too slowly." GameSpot also scored the game 9 out of 10 and, like IGN, also gave it an "Editor's Choice" award. Reviewer Amer Ajami echoed IGN's criticisms of the "slow start" and "too much puzzle-solving." However, he was very impressed with the interface, arguing "never before has melee combat in a shooter been so effectively executed," and he concluded by saying "the game's strong points - especially its combat - overshadow whatever problems "Jedi Outcast" may have early on," calling it "simply one of the easiest games to recommend this year."


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: Game Over Online gave the game 93%, calling it "an intriguing juxtaposition of pieces of incredibly intense FPS action that had me on the edge of my seat combined with puzzle-like sections of such opacity that they made me want to kill myself." "Entertainment Weekly" gave it an A, stating that "the Force is strong with this one." "Maxim", however, gave it an eight out of ten and stated that "The Force is strong with this polished first-person shooter."


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: In a negative review, "X-Play" criticized the game as a "disturbance in the Force." Although reviewer Jason D'Aprile called the story "pretty good," the graphics "fantastic" and the audio effects "just right," he complained that the level design "succumbs to the Dark Side," citing "illogical and frustrating situations." He also considered the multiplayer mode "not very impressive" and gave the game 2 out of 5 stars. Eurogamer were also underwhelmed, scoring the game 7 out of 10. They criticized the slow start, the lightsaber interface and the AI. However, they did commend the atmosphere and some of the level design. They concluded that ""Jedi Outcast" is a rather patchy game, with moments of genius let down by a lack of consistency. The guns are derivative and rarely used once you get hold of your lightsaber, the melee combat clumsy and chaotic, the AI poor and some of the locations derivative and poorly designed."


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: In June 2007, GameTrailers's list of the 10 best "Star Wars" games saw "Jedi Outcast" rank at number one, with the editorial commenting that "This was certainly not the first time players had the opportunity to play as a Jedi in a video game, it was the first time you actually felt like one." They also praised the lightsaber and Force combat systems, a story which they felt was consistent with the films, and the cameos from some key "Star Wars" characters (namely Luke Skywalker and Lando Calrissian).


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: "Jedi Outcast" was nominated for "Computer Gaming World"s 2002 "Action Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to "". The editors wrote, ""Jedi Knight II" is a blast, and the force powers and lightsaber control are perfectly executed." However, they found it too lacking in originality and consistency to win the award.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: The Xbox version holds an aggregate score of 81 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on twenty-four reviews. The GameCube version holds scores of 75 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on seventeen reviews.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: The Xbox version was described as "truly fantastic" by the "Official Xbox Magazine", who scored it 9 out of 10. IGN were also impressed, scoring it 8.8 out of 10 and calling it "the best "Star Wars" experience on the Xbox". Reviewer Aaron Boudling praised how the controls had been mapped onto the Xbox Controller, but was highly critical of the game's lack of support for Xbox Live, and the absence of an online multiplayer mode. He also felt the graphics in the cutscenes were significantly weaker than the PC version. GameSpot scored it 8.3 out of 10, with reviewer Amer Ajami saying the port "retains the essence of what it must feel like to be an all-powerful Jedi, which was so well conveyed in the original PC game, without sacrificing much in the way of graphics, playability, or overall value. In fact, the game's complicated control scheme is better served on an Xbox controller than it is in the PC's typical mouse and keyboard setup." However, he too criticized the lack of Xbox Live support and the poor graphical quality of the cutscenes. Game Revolution gave the game a B+, praising the controls and atmosphere, but criticizing the AI and lack of Xbox Live support. Eurogamer were as unimpressed with the Xbox version as they had been with the PC version, scoring it 6 out of 10. Reviewer Kristan Reed found a lot of the problems with the game to be inherent to the original, not problems with the port - a slow beginning, poor AI, bad level design, repetitive puzzles. Reed called the lack of Xbox Live support "plain unacceptable" and concluded ""Jedi Outcast" is certainly an entertaining package when it gets things right, but it's also riddled with design flaws, technical flaws and various minor irritations that conspire to detract from your overall enjoyment. Given that it's also not Live (or even LAN) enabled, Xbox owners don't even have that crumb of comfort to elevate its status."


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: "GameSpot" scored the GameCube version 8.2 out of 10. As with the Xbox version, Ajami was critical of the cutscene graphics, but concluded that ""Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast" makes a fine addition to the Nintendo console's gradually growing list of action games." GameSpy gave the same version three-and-a-half stars out of five. Reviewer Scott Steinberg was critical of the game's slow start and the nature of some of the puzzles. Of the port, he wrote "This game was an award-winning game on a prior platform, so you'd be in the right to demand more. But from the perspective of a GameCube owner just getting your first taste of the galactic goodie that is the "Jedi Knight" series, things could have been a lot worse [...] "Jedi Knight II: Outcast" stands as a respectable effort, but disappointing reminder that when you swap content from platform to platform, something often gets lost in the transition." "IGN" scored it 7.2 out of 10, with reviewer Aaron Boudling arguing that the graphics and controls were significantly poorer than in either the PC or Xbox versions. Of the controls, Boulding wrote "While the Xbox version allows you to map your favorite moves to the black and white buttons for quick access, GameCube owners are out of luck and will have to fumble around with the D-Pad in the heat of battle." He concluded "It's obvious that no work at all went into trying to get this game to properly run on GameCube. The framerate is erratic and constantly alternates between smooth and choppy, further complicating the already clunky control system [...] If you're a multi-console owner, get the superior Xbox version to see a better realized port." Nintendo World Report scored it 6 out of 10, also citing the inferior controls and poorer graphics than the PC and Xbox versions; ""Jedi Outcast" ends up being a pretty terrible port of an excellent PC title. The trick to enjoying the GameCube incarnation will be coming to terms with the control and graphic inadequacies in the game and then being able to make yourself get over the "hump" so that you can enjoy the meat and potatoes of the whole experience."


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: It was a runner-up for "GameSpot"s annual "Best Shooter on GameCube" award, which went to "TimeSplitters 2".


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: In the United States, "Jedi Outcast"s computer version sold 390,000 copies and earned $17 million by August 2006. At the time, this led "Edge" to declare it the country's 39th-best-selling computer game, and best-selling "Jedi Knight" computer title, released since January 2000. Combined sales of all "Jedi Knight" computer games released during the 2000s, including "Jedi Outcast", reached 920,000 units in the United States by August 2006. "Jedi Outcast"s computer version also received a "Silver" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom.


title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

text: In the German market, "Jedi Knight II" debuted as the best-selling full-price computer game of April 2002. It dropped to fifth place in May, 11th in June and 21st in July. In August, the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) presented "Jedi Knight II" with a "Gold" certification, for sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Despite the early success of "Jedi Knight II"s computer version in the German market, it lost momentum at retail, reaching around 150,000 units sold by May 2003. The game's distributor attributed this to widespread illegal copying.


title: Lalitha Kumari

text: Lalitha Kumari (born 18 May 1967) is an Indian actress who worked in Tamil films. She is the daughter of Tamil actor C. L. Anandan and the younger sister of actress Disco Shanti.


title: Lalitha Kumari

text: Lalitha Kumari married actor Prakash Raj in 1994 and the couple has two daughters and a son (who died in 2004). The couple have got divorced in 2009.


title: Lalitha Kumari

text: Lalitha Kumari starred in many movies, alongside the likes of Goundamani, Senthil and other senior actors. She has also played major roles in films such as "Manadhil Urudhi Vendum", "Pudhu Pudhu Arthangal", "Pulan Visaranai" and "Sigaram". Lalitha Kumari has performed around 30 films and has made her mark in the Tamil film industry. In 1995, after her marriage to actor Prakash Raj, Kumari left the film industry.


title: Lalitha Kumari

text: She made her re-entry into Kollywood and South Indian cinema in the Tamil movie "Muriyadi," playing the wife of Sathyaraj's character. However the film was, and as of July 2022 still is, shelved and delayed due to unknown reasons.


title: My Hero Academia (season 1)

text: The first season of the "My Hero Academia" anime series was produced by Bones and directed by Kenji Nagasaki, with Yōsuke Kuroda handling series composition, Yoshihiko Umakoshi providing character designs and Yuki Hayashi composed the music. The season adapts Kōhei Horikoshi's original manga series of the same name from the beginning of the 1st volume to shortly after the 3rd volume over 13 episodes. Covered the first story arcs (chapters 1–21), "My Hero Academia" is set in a world where currently most of the human population has gained the ability to develop superpowers called with around 80% of the world population that has a Quirk. The story follows the adventures of Izuku Midoriya, a boy who dreams of becoming a superhero himself despite being Quirkless. He is scouted by Japan's greatest hero All Might, who passes his Quirk to him and helps to enroll him in U.A. High, the prestigious high school for heroes in training.


title: My Hero Academia (season 1)

text: The season initially ran from April 3 to June 26, 2016, on MBS in Japan, and was released on DVD and Blu-ray in five compilations, each containing two to three episodes, by Toho between June 29 and October 12, 2016. Funimation licensed the series for an English dubbed release in North America and released the episodes in a single DVD and Blu-Ray compilation on April 18, 2017. FunimationNow, Crunchyroll and Hulu are streaming the series outside of Asia. Animax Asia is simulcasting the series in the same day it airs. Eventually, their adaptation ran from May 5 to August 4, 2018, on Adult Swim as part of its Toonami programming block.


title: My Hero Academia (season 1)

text: Two pieces of theme music are used for this season: an opening theme and an ending theme. The opening theme is "The Day", performed by Porno Graffitti and the ending theme is "Heroes", performed by Brian the Sun.


title: My Hero Academia (season 1)

text: Toho released the series on DVD and Blu-ray in five volumes in Japan, with the first volume being released on June 29, 2016, and the last volume being released on October 12, 2016.


title: My Hero Academia (season 1)

text: The series was released in North America by Funimation, who released a limited edition combo set, a standard combo set, and a DVD set on April 18, 2017. Funimation also released the series in Australia and New Zealand through Universal Sony Pictures Home Entertainment, where it received a limited edition combo release. Universal Sony later released standard editions of the DVD and Blu-ray in Australia and New Zealand on August 15, 2018. Funimation later released the series in Australia and New Zealand via Madman Entertainment, with the combo release scheduled for December 4, 2019. In the UK and Ireland, Funimation distributed the limited edition combo release through Universal Pictures UK on May 15, 2019, and the standard edition DVD and Blu-ray through Manga Entertainment on June 10, 2019.


title: Trinity Church Cemetery

text: The parish of Trinity Church has three separate burial grounds associated with it in New York City. The first, Trinity Churchyard, is located in Lower Manhattan at 74 Trinity Place, near Wall Street and Broadway. Alexander Hamilton, Albert Gallatin, and Robert Fulton are buried in the downtown Trinity Churchyard.


title: Trinity Church Cemetery

text: The second Trinity parish burial ground is the St. Paul's Chapel Churchyard, which is also located in lower Manhattan (roughly ), six blocks north of Trinity Church. It was established in 1766. Both of these churchyards are closed to new burials.


title: Trinity Church Cemetery

text: Trinity's third place of burial, Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum, located in Hamilton Heights in Upper Manhattan, is one of the few active burial sites in Manhattan. Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum is listed on the National Register of Historic places and is the burial place of notable people including John James Audubon, John Jacob Astor IV, Mayor Edward I. Koch, Governor John Adams Dix, Ralph Ellison, and Eliza Jumel. In 1823 all burials south of Canal Street became forbidden by New York City due to city crowding, yellow fever, and other public health fears.


title: Trinity Church Cemetery

text: After considering locations in the Bronx and portions of the then-new Green-Wood Cemetery, in 1842 Trinity Parish purchased the plot of land now bordered by 153rd street, 155th street, Amsterdam, and Riverside to establish the Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum. The cemetery is located beside the Chapel of the Intercession that Audubon co-founded in 1846, but this chapel is no longer part of Trinity parish. James Renwick, Jr., is the architect of Trinity Church Cemetery and further updates were made by Calvert Vaux. The uptown cemetery is also the center of the Heritage Rose District of New York City.


title: Trinity Church Cemetery

text: A no-longer-extant Trinity Parish burial ground was the Old Saint John's Burying Ground for St. John's Chapel. This location is bounded by Hudson, Leroy and Clarkson streets near Hudson Square. It was in use from 1806 to 1852 with over 10,000 burials, mostly poor and young. In 1897, it was turned into St. John's Park, with most of the burials left in place. The park was later renamed Hudson Park, and is now James J. Walker Park. (This park is different from a separate St. John's Park, a former private park and residential block approximately one mile to the south that now serves as part of the Holland Tunnel access.)


title: Trinity Church Cemetery

text: In the northeast corner stands the Soldiers' Monument, with a plaque reading: "At a meeting of Citizens held at the City Hall of the City of New York June 8, 1852: It was resolved That the Erection of a becoming Monument with appropriate inscriptions by Trinity Church to the Memory of those great and good Men who died whilst in Captivity in the old Sugar House and were interred in Trinity Church Yard in this City will be an act gratifying not only to the attendants of this Meeting but to Every American Citizen."


title: Trinity Church Cemetery

text: The claim those prisoners are buried in Trinity Churchyard is disputed by Charles I. Bushnell, who argued in 1863 that Trinity Church would not have accepted them because it supported Great Britain. Historian Edwin G. Burrows explains how the controversy related to a proposal to build a public street through the churchyard.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: Omar () or Omar Farouk () is a historical Arab television drama miniseries-serial that was produced and broadcast by MBC1 and directed by the Syrian director Hatem Ali. Co-produced by Qatar TV, the series is based on the life of Omar ibn al-Khattab (also spelled 'Umar', 583–644), the second Caliph of Islam, and depicts his life from 18 years old until the moments of his death.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: The series faced large controversies due to its depiction of Omar, Abu Bakr, Uthman and Ali, the four Rashidun Caliphs, along with other characters, who some Muslims believe should not be depicted, much like Mohammad. The series consists of 31 episodes and was originally aired in the month of Ramadan since July 20, 2012. It was made at a cost of 200 million Saudi riyals and filmed in Morocco, primarily in the cities of Marakesh, Tangiers, El Jadida, Casablanca and Mohammedia.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: After the series was broadcast on MBC, it was dubbed into several languages for international broadcast and subtitled in English on YouTube; it received great support from many different Sunni scholarly bodies and people watching it.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: The series starts with one of the pilgrimage of caliph Omar where he delivers speeches to the pilgrims. The next scene comes with an exploration on Mecca of the caliph where he emotionally flashbacks to his own 18 year's life when he was a young boy working for his rude father Khattab ibn Nufayl. The flashback perspective of Omar shows all the past story of his life from when he was a wrestler, a businessman and above all one of the leaders of the Quraish, and then to his life after his conversion into Islam being one of the closest companions of Muhammad and an immensely devoted believer, a brave inspiration for all the contemporary Muslims and a bold warrior in all the contemporary Islamic battles. The story goes through the Meccan victory, Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr's legacy as caliph and his death, and finally Omar's legacy. From viewer's eye perspective, his legacy as caliph shows the biographical stories of improvements and complexities of his own caliphate till his assassination by Abu Lulu.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: The project was started on 30 September 2010 through an agreement signed by Middle East Broadcasting Center and Qatar Media agency (Qatar TV) to make a drama series on the life of Caliph Omar, scheduled to be aired during the Ramadan of 2011. The chief of MBC group Waleed al Ibrahim stated that, the drama would not aim at profits:


title: Omar (TV series)

text: Saudi producers, the Middle East Broadcasting Center (MBC), said the series is the largest ever Arabic production, with 30,000 actors and a technical team from 10 countries who toiled 300 days to make the 31-part series. The director Ali said that building a replica of Mecca and the surrounding area was a challenge that faced him until he and the crew finally chose a location in Morocco. The series needed a huge crew amount to 500 actors, actresses, and extras in one single day. Ali also pointed out, several scenes in the series were difficult to shoot like which elephant treads on one of the actors.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: The horses used in the series were brought from Eastern Europe and were trained together with the elephants to make them adapt to each other. The series featured many battle scenes on a large scale. Ali said it took them a total of 54 days with a rate of 12 hours a day and with the participation of 500 extras that were trained on this type of scenes.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: Two actors of this series, Hassan Al-Jundi and Muna Wassef, both acted (as Abu Jahl and Hind respectively) in the 1970s Arabic language film "Al Risalah" (الرسالة), the version of Moustapha Akkad's religious biopic "The Message" (a.k.a. "Mohammad, Messenger of God") made for the Arab World.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: Hassan Al-Jundi also acted as Kisra in the English language film while his counterpart in "Al Risalah" played the character of Abu Jahl in the same film.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: Hatem Ali commented that other filmmakers would follow in his footsteps with this taboo broken by him by portraying sensitive early Islamic peronalities like Rashidun Caliphs, by pointing to Majid Majidi, who was then developing the feature film about the Islamic prophet Muhammad's childhood.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: A board committee of scholars was created for maintaining the historicity of the script. The major members of the board were:


title: Omar (TV series)

text: Most of the episodes of the series contained many expensive computer-generated imagery (CGI) effects which were maintained by French CGI production BUF in association with Hecat, as well as title and ending theme also. Moreover, the sets of ancient Mecca and Medina and other sites in Arabia and elsewhere in the post classical era were also produced by the "Soora Studio", a Syrian set producer production, which previously made the sets of many other popular Arabic dramas.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: The original soundtrack was composed by Turkish musician Fahir Atakoglu. A nasheed or Arabic song praising Omar and describing a complete archive of the serial was featured after the scene of his assassination in the ending episode. The nasheed, entitled "Salamun Alayka Ya Omar Al Faarouq", was sung by the Kuwaiti Quran reciter Mishary Al-Afasy.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: Saleh Al-Fawzan, Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia (Abdul-Aziz ibn Abdullah Al Shaykh), Al-Azhar University, Abdul Azīz bin Fahd, Muhammad Al-Munajid, Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Saleh al-Maghamsi and many other Islamic scholars viewed the series negatively.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: The Grand Mufti of the Kingdom and the head of the Council of Senior Religious Scholars, Abdul-Aziz ibn Abdullah Al Shaykh, criminalized the dramatic action saying that those behind "Umar Al Farooq" series have committed a "grave mistake and a crime" by spending their money on the production of such TV work. He also said that he is against the idea of producing the series that "displays the biography of the rightly guided caliphs in a manner that is doomed to wound and criticism." In his Friday sermon, he called for "avoiding these devious ways, which are doomed to offend in these symbols." He added, "These films and series do not bring or mean goodness, and whatever those who prepared it who claim intellectual enlightenment, they are wrong in what they have walked and know that what they offer is dangerous, wrong and crime." The Sheikh did not differ in that from what was issued by Al-Azhar Al-Sharif, who had forbidden the embodiment of the Prophets, the Companions, the House of the Ten, and the Ten Missionaries of Paradise in any artwork.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: On other part, Sheikh Saleh Al-Fawzan, a member of the Senior Scholars Committee and a member of the Standing Committee for Issuing Fatwas, forbade watching the series, recalling "the consensus of scholars and the Muslim World League to prohibit the representation of the Companions, may God be pleased with them." Everything that comes from Qatar is doubtful of its intentions Many writers wondered why this seasonal controversy takes place around the Ramadan series ?, recalling the controversy raised by Mustafa El Akkad's "The Message".


title: Omar (TV series)

text: Muhammad Al-Munajjid criticized the series calling it as saying, "As for the topic of series, the question has been repeated, and I say: Oh Muslims, oh Muslims, oh Muslims, do you accept that, The character of Omar Ibn Al-Khattab is embodied by a man who is a Christian, a Christian? actor who plays the role of Omar Ibn Al-Khattab, is a Christian, we asked about him in Syria, they confirmed and said that, this is a Christian. And among who represents the roles of the senior companions in the series there are some esoteric Nusayris. One Nusairi esoteric represents a role of one of the senior Companions, then one plays the role of Atika (Umar's wife) Who? a bearded (man-like) woman. This obscene lady has other roles in passion and love. She plays the role of the woman of Omar Ibn Al-Khattab A great companion. And this criminal who represents this Omar role, the Christian, will stand, who plays Omar falsely, will stand with the woman who is foreign (ghair-mahram) to him as one of his wives. He will cry in front of her, crying, claiming that he is afraid of wronging people. She will calm down him by all means. Hear this, she said in interviews, she will calm down in various ways. I mean, for Allah's sake, what is this farce? What is this haram, that is committed by a Christian representing the role Of Omar. We do not have a way to know the biography of Omar except that a Christian comes to teach us the role of Omar. How did the nation learn in one thousand and four hundred years the life of Omar and the change of age from companions. What was in the khutbas, what was in lessons, in books What generations read books. We were unable to learn the biography of Omar except from soap operas represented by a lewd, A charlatan and a Kafir. What is this, (muslim) group? What is this. Beware beware. By God, the (muslim) nation (ummah). Where is the jealousy of our history? Where is the jealousy? Omar's character? How they will bring it. And how they would represent what a three- dimensional matter is. It shows military scenes and only dazzles viewers and directs technical. What is the issue, the issue of entertainment and the issue of enjoyment, watching these attractive colors, directing and cinematography. Hey guys, this is the history of Omar, the third best man in Islam. This great man who closed the door to corruption (fitnah) from the nation will come in the (drama) character of Omar, who resisted bidah (new innovation). The owner of Al-Durra (stick) (Umar) who denies this fights even cause to case hijab and his position towards it and his position towards it, that's why, We must have a stand, oh people, on this."


title: Omar (TV series)

text: Salman al-Awda, Yūsuf al-Qaraḍawī, Yasir Qadhi, Alī al-Sallabī and Khaled al-Musleh viewed the series positively.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: Zakir Naik gave a mixed review of the series, in a video of his official YouTube channel, he said, "99.9% drama or movie in the name of Islam today is not 100% Islamic and no one can give fatwa that watching them are halal. If you can live without seeing them, then don't see it. Read Quran and sahih hadith, it will be best and harmfree option. But if any Muslim is hooked on wathing hollywood and bollywood movies and dramas and feels too much hard to reject the habit of watching them, then it will be lesser sin for them in watching these series than seeing hollywood and bollywood vulgarism and obscenity...Firstly I will suggest them to watch The Message movie, then I will suggest them to watch Omar series... There is a series called Omar series, made on the life of Caliph Omar, made by MBC, funded by Qatar Foundation. There are not all things Islamic, there are ladies without hijab, there is music in it. But the verse of Quran they quoted somehow, it is wonderful, most of the hadith are authentic, a few of them are problematic."


title: Omar (TV series)

text: In reaction of Naik's view about the series, Assim Al-Haqim said, "This is like saying masturbation is better than fornication! Or calling that drinking wine, gambling and other different sins are better than shirk or kufr! What kind of logic is this?".


title: Omar (TV series)

text: The series later has been broadcast in the television channels of different countries such as Turkey, Indonesia, Kosovo, Iran, Tunisia, Egypt etc. either dubbed or with native subtitle.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: In the traditional Islamic accounts, there are two different stories found about the conversion of Umar, the story which has been depicted in the story, some scholars argue that the story is not authentic or reasonably weak according to reliable chain rather than declaring authenticity to the second story of conversion, where Omar became convinced to convert hearing the Quran recitation of Muhammad in prayer outside the Kaaba, then made himself hidden from the people for some days immediate after the conversion, and Al-As ibn Wa'il saved the converted Umar from the attack of enraged people. In the events of the Islamic prophet Muhammad's living era, Muhammad himself, his children and wives were not depicted but many direct actions of him have been shown redirected from any other sahaba near to him for the restrictions and limitations of Muhammad's visual depiction in the Islamic world. Although in a sequence before the death of Abu Bakr, there was a shadow depiction of Aisha shown silently conversing with her father. The dress code of male companions after conversion period was also controversial, mostly for wearing gowns below ankle, which was strongly prohibited by Muhammad, and tradition says that, all the companions always used to wear clothes over ankle. Besides, in the event of the battle of Yamama, the characters of the companions behind of Khalid bin Walid have been shown to give the slogan ""ya Muhammada"" (O, for Muhammad), which was a subject of controversy about historicity among some salafi clerics. They argued that it could not be told by them because calling on any other except Allah is a form of polytheism ("Shirk"). Historical reference says that Umayyah ibn Khalaf was killed by a group of Muslims led by Bilal ibn Rabah, but in the series, Bilal ibn Rabah has been shown to kill Umayyah ibn Khalaf by himself. In a scene of Caliphate of Abu Baqr, the character of Abu Bakr is seen wearing a thawb spreading it's back on the ground which is haram in Islam.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: As for the role of Omar is one of the first tools of the weakness of the work technically where the strange cold performance and the rigidity of features and divisions of his face, even with events that require a human interaction natural and unchanging.


title: Omar (TV series)

text: The series also missed the historical role of the Arab tribes allied to Quraish in the invasion of one of them, including the Ahbish of Kenana, as well as the role of Arab tribes in the invasion of the trench and Taif so that the work was limited to the tribe of Quraish as well as the tribe of Ghutfan and absent from work tribes that had a presence in the historical biography of these conversations, such as the tribe of Selim and Kenana The Bani Asad tribe, the Hawazin tribe and other Arab tribes on which the Arab community of the Arabian Peninsula was built at that time. According to the Sirat, the plan to assassinate the Prophet Muhammad by the Quraysh before the Hijra was delivered to the leaders of the Quraysh by Iblis Satan in the guise of a man in a black robe, but Abu Jahal is seen delivering the plan in the tenth episode of the play. Also, the first episodes of the series show the love affair of Wahshi ibn Harb with Rayhana bint Zayd, before and in the early days of the arrival of Islam, the historical authenticity of which is unknown, and Rayhana bint Zayd's later converted to Islam and many Muslim Sirat writers claimed her as a wife of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, thus showing her as embodiment and romantically seems to be seriously offensive to muslims.


title: Role-playing

text: Role-playing or roleplaying is the changing of one's behaviour to assume a role, either unconsciously to fill a social role, or consciously to act out an adopted role. While the "Oxford English Dictionary" offers a definition of role-playing as "the changing of one's behaviour to fulfill a social role", in the field of psychology, the term is used more loosely in four senses:


title: Role-playing

text: Many children participate in a form of role-playing known as make believe, wherein they adopt certain roles such as doctor and act out those roles in character. Sometimes make believe adopts an oppositional nature, resulting in games such as cops and robbers.


title: Role-playing

text: Historical re-enactment has been practiced by adults for millennia. The ancient Romans, Han Chinese, and medieval Europeans all enjoyed occasionally organizing events in which everyone pretended to be from an earlier age, and entertainment appears to have been the primary purpose of these activities. Within the 20th century historical re-enactment has often been pursued as a hobby.


title: Role-playing

text: Improvisational theatre dates back to the Commedia dell'Arte tradition of the 16th century. Modern improvisational theatre began in the classroom with the "theatre games" of Viola Spolin and Keith Johnstone in the 1950s. Viola Spolin, who was one of the founders the famous comedy troupe Second City, insisted that her exercises were games, and that they involved role-playing as early as 1946. She accurately judged role-playing in the theatre as rehearsal and actor training, or the playing of the role of actor versus theatre roles, but many now use her games for fun in their own right.


title: Role-playing

text: A role-playing game is a game in which the participants assume the roles of characters and collaboratively create stories. Participants determine the actions of their characters based on their characterisation, and the actions succeed or fail according to a formal system of rules and guidelines. Within the rules, they may improvise freely; their choices shape the direction and outcome of the games.


title: Role-playing

text: Role-playing can also be done online in the form of group story creation, involving anywhere from two to several hundred people, utilizing public forums, private message boards, mailing lists, chatrooms, and instant-messaging chat services to build worlds and characters that may last a few hours, or several years. Often on forum-based roleplays, rules, and standards are set up, such as a minimum word count, character applications, and "plotting" boards to increase complexity and depth of story.


title: Role-playing

text: There are different genres of which one can choose while role-playing, including, but not limited to, fantasy, modern, medieval, steam punk, and historical. Books, movies, or games can be, and often are, used as a basis for role-plays (which in such cases may be deemed "collaborative fan-fiction"), with players either assuming the roles of established canon characters or using those the players themselves create ("Original Characters") to replace—or exist alongside—characters from the book, movie, or game, playing through well-trodden plots as alternative characters, or expanding upon the setting and story outside of its established canon.


title: Role-playing

text: In psychology, an individual's personality can be conceptualized as a set of expectations about oneself and others and that these add up to role-playing or role-taking. Here, the role is fiction because it is not real but it has a degree of consistency. Role-playing is also an important part of a child's psychological development. For example, the instance when a child starts to define "I" and separate him or herself from an adult is the initial condition for and the result of role play. There are also experiments that found role-playing resulted in behavioral change such as the case of smokers who reported negative attitude towards smoking after being asked to pretend to be a person diagnosed with lung cancer.


title: Role-playing

text: Role-playing may also refer to role training where people rehearse situations in preparation for a future performance and to improve their abilities within a role. The most common examples are occupational training role-plays, educational role-play exercises, and certain military wargames.


title: Role-playing

text: One of the first uses of computers was to simulate real-world conditions for participants role-playing the flying of aircraft. Flight simulators used computers to solve the equations of flight and train future pilots. The army began full-time role-playing simulations with soldiers using computers both within full scale training exercises and for training in numerous specific tasks under wartime conditions. Examples include weapon firing, vehicle simulators, and control station mock-ups.


title: Role-playing

text: Role playing may also refer to the technique commonly used by researchers studying interpersonal behavior by assigning research participants to particular roles and instructing the participants to act as if a specific set of conditions were true. This technique of assigning and taking roles in psychological research has a long history. It has been used in the early classic social psychological experiments by Kurt Lewin (1939/1997), Stanley Milgram (1963), and Phillip Zimbardo (1971). Herbert Kelman suggested that role-playing might be "the most promising source" of research methods alternative to methods using deception (Kelman 1965).


title: Harry R. Truman

text: Harry R. Truman (October 30, 1896 – May 18, 1980) was an American businessman, bootlegger, and prospector. He


title: Harry R. Truman

text: lived near Mount St. Helens, an active volcano in the state of Washington, and was the owner and caretaker of Mount St. Helens Lodge at Spirit Lake near the base of the mountain. Truman came to fame as a folk hero in the months leading up to the volcano's 1980 eruption after refusing to leave his home despite evacuation orders. He was killed by a pyroclastic flow that overtook his lodge and buried the site under of volcanic debris.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: After Truman's death, his family and friends reflected on his love for the mountain. In 1981, Art Carney portrayed Truman in the docudrama film "St. Helens". He was commemorated in a book by his niece, and also in various pieces of music, including songs by Headgear, Billy Jonas, and Shawn Wright and the Brothers Band.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: Truman was born to foresters in Ivydale, West Virginia, in October 1896. He said he did not know his exact date of birth, but gave it as October 1896. Some noncontemporaneous sources have given his middle name as Randall, but Truman stated that he did not know his middle name, just the initial R. Truman's World War II draft registration card, dated April 27, 1942, lists his full name as "Harry Rainel Truman" and his date of birth as "Oct. 30, 1896."


title: Harry R. Truman

text: Truman's family moved west to Washington, drawn to the promise of cheap land and the successful timber industry in the Pacific Northwest; they settled on of farmland in the eastern portion of Lewis County, Washington.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: He attended high school in the city of Mossyrock, Washington then enlisted in the U.S. Army as a private in August 1917. He was assigned to the 100th Aero Squadron, 7th Squad, and trained as an aeromechanic. He served in France during World War I.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: During his service, he reportedly sustained injuries due to his audacious and independent nature. However, according to Washington State Archives, Truman served overseas from January 24, 1918, until February 1, 1919, but this record states he did not have wounds or injuries received in action and did not participate in any engagements. It also states he had a disability rating of zero at the time he was discharged.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: While en route to Europe, his troopship, "Tuscania", was sunk by a German U-boat in a torpedo attack off the coast of Ireland. Truman was honorably discharged on June 12, 1919, and he began prospecting, but failed to achieve his goal of becoming rich. He later became a bootlegger, smuggling alcohol from San Francisco to Washington during the Prohibition era.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: At some point, Truman returned to Chehalis, Washington, where he ran an automotive service station called Harry's Sudden Service. He also married the daughter of a sawmill owner; they had one daughter.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: Truman grew tired of civilization after a few years and leased from the Northern Pacific Railroad Company overlooking Spirit Lake in the wilderness near Mount St. Helens, a stratovolcano of the Cascade Range located in Skamania County, Washington. He settled near the base of the mountain and opened a gas station and a small grocery store; he eventually opened the Mount St. Helens Lodge, close to the outlet of Spirit Lake, which he operated for 52 years.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: During the 1930s, Truman divorced his first wife; he remarried in 1935. The second marriage was short, as he reportedly attempted to win arguments by throwing his wife into Spirit Lake, despite her inability to swim. He began dating a local girl, though he eventually married the girl's sister Edna, whom he called Edie. This third marriage held, and he and Edna operated the Mount St. Helens Lodge together until her death from a heart attack in 1978.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: In the Mount St. Helens area, Truman became notorious for his antics, once getting a forest ranger drunk so that he could burn a pile of brush. He poached, stole gravel from the U.S. Forest Service, and fished on American Indian land with a fake game warden badge. Despite their knowledge of these criminal activities, local rangers failed to catch him in the act. The Washington state government later changed the state sales tax, but Truman kept charging the same rate at his lodge. A tax agency employee rented a boat from him, but refused to pay his tax rate, so Truman pushed him into Spirit Lake.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: Truman was a fan of the cocktail drink consisting of Schenley whiskey and Coca-Cola. He owned a pink 1957 Cadillac, and he swore frequently. He loved discussing politics and reportedly hated Republicans, hippies, young children, and the elderly. He once refused to allow Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas to stay at his lodge, dismissing him as an "old coot". He changed his mind when he learned Douglas' identity, chased him for , to a neighboring lodge and convinced him to stay. When his wife Edna died in 1978, Truman closed his lodge and afterward only rented out a handful of boats and cabins during the summer.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: Truman became a minor celebrity during the two months of volcanic activity preceding the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, giving interviews to reporters and expressing his opinion that the danger was exaggerated. "I don't have any idea whether it will blow," he said, "but I don't believe it to the point that I'm going to pack up." Truman displayed little concern about the volcano and his situation: "If the mountain goes, I'm going with it. This area is heavily timbered, Spirit Lake is in between me and the mountain, and the mountain is a mile away, the mountain ain't gonna hurt me." Law-enforcement officials were incensed by his refusal to evacuate because media representatives kept entering the restricted zone near the volcano to interview him, endangering themselves in the process. Still, Truman remained steadfast. "You couldn't pull me out with a mule team. That mountain's part of Truman and Truman's part of that mountain."


title: Harry R. Truman

text: Truman told reporters that he was knocked from his bed by precursor earthquakes, so he responded by moving his mattress to the basement. He claimed to wear spurs to bed to cope with the earthquakes while he slept. He scoffed at the public's concern for his safety, responding to scientists' claims about the threat of the volcano that "the mountain has shot its wad and it hasn't hurt my place a bit, but those goddamn geologists with their hair down to their butts wouldn't pay no attention to ol' Truman."


title: Harry R. Truman

text: As a result of his defiant commentary, Truman became something of a folk hero, and was the subject of many songs and poems by children. One group of children from Salem, Oregon, sent him banners inscribed "Harry – We Love You", which moved him so much that he took a helicopter trip (paid for by "National Geographic") to visit them on May 14. He also received many fan letters, including several marriage proposals. A group of fifth graders from Grand Blanc, Michigan, wrote letters that brought him to tears. In return, he sent them a letter and volcanic ash, which the students later sold to buy flowers for his family after the eruption.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: He caused a media frenzy, appearing on the front page of "The New York Times" and "The San Francisco Examiner" and attracting the attention of "National Geographic", United Press International, and "The Today Show". Many major magazines composed profiles, including "Time", "Life", "Newsweek", "Field & Stream", and "Reader's Digest". A historian named Richard W. Slatta wrote that "his fiery attitude, brash speech, love of the outdoors, and fierce independence… made him a folk hero the media could adore." Slatta pointed to Truman's "unbendable character and response to the forces of nature" as a source of his rise to fame, and the interviews with him added "color" to reports about the events at Mount St. Helens. Truman was immortalized, according to Slatta, "with many of the embellished qualities of the western hero", and the media spotlight created a persona that was "in some ways quite different from his true character."


title: Harry R. Truman

text: As the likelihood of eruption increased, state officials tried to evacuate the area with the exception of a few scientists and security officials. On May 17, they attempted one final time to persuade Truman to leave, to no avail. The volcano erupted the next morning, and its entire northern flank collapsed. Truman and his 16 cats were alone together at his lodge, and all are presumed to have died in the eruption on May 18. He likely died of heat shock in less than a second, too quickly to register pain, before his body would have been inevitably all but entirely vaporized.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: The largest landslide in recorded history and a pyroclastic flow traveling atop the landslide engulfed the Spirit Lake area almost simultaneously, destroying the lake and burying the site of his lodge under of volcanic landslide debris. Authorities never found Truman's remains. Truman considered his cats family and mentioned them in almost all public statements. They too presumably perished in similar conditions.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: Friends hoped that Truman might have survived, as he had claimed to have provisioned an abandoned mine shaft with food and liquor in case of an eruption, but the lack of immediate warning of the oncoming eruption probably prevented him from escaping to the shaft before the pyroclastic flow reached his lodge (less than a minute after it began). Even if Truman had made it there, the aforementioned landslide would likely have suffocated him, and/or prevented his rescue. His sister Geraldine said that she found it hard to accept the reality of his death. "I don't think he made it, but I thought if they would let me fly over and see for myself that Harry's lodge is gone, then maybe I'd believe it for sure."


title: Harry R. Truman

text: Truman's niece Shirley Rosen added that her uncle thought he could escape the volcano but was not expecting the lateral eruption. She stated that her sister took him a bottle of Bourbon whiskey to persuade him to evacuate, but he was too afraid to drink alcohol at the time because he was unsure whether the shaking was coming from his body or the earthquakes. His possessions were auctioned off as keepsakes to admirers in September, 1980.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: Truman emerged as a folk hero for his resistance to the evacuation efforts. "The Columbian" wrote: "With his 10-dollar name and hell-no-I-won't-go attitude, Truman was a made-for-prime-time folk hero." His friends and family commented: "He was a very opinionated person." Truman's friend John Garrity added, "The mountain and the lake were his life. If he'd left and then saw what the mountain did to his lake, it would have killed him anyway. He always said he wanted to die at Spirit Lake. He went the way he wanted to go."


title: Harry R. Truman

text: Truman's niece Shirley stated, "He used to say that's my mountain and my lake and he would say those are my arms and my legs. If he would have seen it the way it is now, I don't think he would have survived." Truman's cousin Richard Ice commented that Truman's short period as a celebrity was "the peak of his life."


title: Harry R. Truman

text: Truman was the subject of the books "Truman of St. Helens: The Man and His Mountain" by his niece Shirley Rosen, and "The Legend of Harry Truman" by his sister Geri Whiting. He was portrayed by Art Carney, his favorite actor, in the 1981 docudrama "St. Helens". Memorabilia were sold in the area surrounding Mount St. Helens, including Harry Truman hats, pictures, posters, and postcards. A restaurant opened in Anchorage, Alaska, named after him, serving dishes such as Harry's Hot Molten Chili.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: According to "The Washington Star", more than 100 songs had been composed in Truman's honor by 1981, in addition to a commemorative album titled "The Musical Legend Of Harry Truman — A Very Special Collection Of Mount St. Helens’ Volcano Songs". He is the subject of the 2007 song "Harry Truman" written and recorded by Irish band Headgear. Lula Belle Garland wrote "The Legend of Harry And The Mountain," which was recorded in 1980 by Ron Shaw & The Desert Wind Band.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: Musicians Ron Allen and Steve Asplund wrote a country rock song in 1980 called "Harry Truman, Your Spirit Still Lives On". Billy Jonas included Truman's narrative in his song "Old St. Helen" in 1993.


title: Harry R. Truman

text: Truman Trail and Harry's Ridge in the Mount St. Helens region are named after him. The Harry R. Truman Memorial Park was named in his honor in Castle Rock, Washington, though it later was renamed Castle Rock Lions Club Volunteer Park.


title: Stone tool

text: A stone tool is, in the most general sense, any tool made either partially or entirely out of stone. Although stone tool-dependent societies and cultures still exist today, most stone tools are associated with prehistoric (particularly Stone Age) cultures that have become extinct. Archaeologists often study such prehistoric societies, and refer to the study of stone tools as lithic analysis. Ethnoarchaeology has been a valuable research field in order to further the understanding and cultural implications of stone tool use and manufacture.


title: Stone tool

text: Stone has been used to make a wide variety of different tools throughout history, including arrowheads, spearheads, hand axes, and querns. Stone tools may be made of either ground stone or knapped stone, the latter fashioned by a flintknapper.


title: Stone tool

text: Knapped stone tools are made from cryptocrystalline materials such as chert or flint, radiolarite, chalcedony, obsidian, basalt, and quartzite via a process known as lithic reduction. One simple form of reduction is to strike stone flakes from a nucleus (core) of material using a hammerstone or similar hard hammer fabricator. If the goal of the reduction strategy is to produce flakes, the remnant lithic core may be discarded once it has become too small to use. In some strategies, however, a flintknapper reduces the core to a rough unifacial, or bifacial preform, which is further reduced using soft hammer flaking techniques or by pressure flaking the edges.


title: Stone tool

text: More complex forms of reduction include the production of highly standardized blades, which can then be fashioned into a variety of tools such as scrapers, knives, sickles, and microliths. In general terms, Knapped stone tools are nearly ubiquitous in all pre-metal-using societies because they are easily manufactured, the tool stone is usually plentiful, and they are easy to transport and sharpen.


title: Stone tool

text: Archaeologists classify stone tools into industries (also known as complexes or technocomplexes) that share distinctive technological or morphological characteristics.


title: Stone tool

text: In 1969 in the 2nd edition of "World Prehistory", Grahame Clark proposed an evolutionary progression of flint-knapping in which the "dominant lithic technologies" occurred in a fixed sequence from Mode 1 through Mode 5. He assigned to them relative dates: Modes 1 and 2 to the Lower Palaeolithic, 3 to the Middle Palaeolithic, 4 to the Upper Paleolithic, and 5 to the Mesolithic, though there were other lithic technologies outside these Modes. Each region had its own timeline for the succession of the Modes: for example, Mode 1 was in use in Europe long after it had been replaced by Mode 2 in Africa.


title: Stone tool

text: Clark's scheme was adopted enthusiastically by the archaeological community. One of its advantages was the simplicity of terminology; for example, the Mode 1 / Mode 2 Transition. The transitions are currently of greatest interest. Consequently, in the literature the stone tools used in the period of the Palaeolithic are divided into four "modes", each of which designates a different form of complexity, and which in most cases followed a rough chronological order.


title: Stone tool

text: Stone tools found from 2011 to 2014 at the Lomekwi archeology site near Lake Turkana in Kenya, are dated to be 3.3 million years old, and predate the genus "Homo" by about one million years. The oldest known "Homo" fossil is about 2.4-2.3 million years old compared to the 3.3 million year old stone tools. The stone tools may have been made by "Australopithecus afarensis", the species whose best fossil example is Lucy, which inhabited East Africa at the same time as the date of the oldest stone tools, a yet unidentified species, or by "Kenyanthropus platyops" (a 3.2 to 3.5-million-year-old Pliocene hominin fossil discovered in 1999). Dating of the tools was by dating volcanic ash layers in which the tools were found and dating the magnetic signature (pointing north or south due to reversal of the magnetic poles) of the rock at the site.


title: Stone tool

text: Grooved, cut and fractured animal bone fossils, made by using stone tools, were found in Dikika, Ethiopia near (200 yards) the remains of Selam, a young "Australopithecus afarensis" girl who lived about 3.3 million years ago.


title: Stone tool

text: The earliest stone tools in the life span of the genus "Homo" are Mode 1 tools, and come from what has been termed the Oldowan Industry, named after the type of site (many sites, actually) found in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, where they were discovered in large quantities. Oldowan tools were characterised by their simple construction, predominantly using core forms. These cores were river pebbles, or rocks similar to them, that had been struck by a spherical hammerstone to cause conchoidal fractures removing flakes from one surface, creating an edge and often a sharp tip. The blunt end is the proximal surface; the sharp, the distal. Oldowan is a percussion technology. Grasping the proximal surface, the hominid brought the distal surface down hard on an object he wished to detach or shatter, such as a bone or tuber.


title: Stone tool

text: The earliest known Oldowan tools yet found date from 2.6 million years ago, during the Lower Palaeolithic period, and have been uncovered at Gona in Ethiopia. After this date, the Oldowan Industry subsequently spread throughout much of Africa, although archaeologists are currently unsure which Hominan species first developed them, with some speculating that it was "Australopithecus garhi", and others believing that it was in fact "Homo habilis". "Homo habilis" was the hominin who used the tools for most of the Oldowan in Africa, but at about 1.9-1.8 million years ago Homo erectus inherited them. The Industry flourished in southern and eastern Africa between 2.6 and 1.7 million years ago, but was also spread out of Africa and into Eurasia by travelling bands of "H. erectus", who took it as far east as Java by 1.8 million years ago and Northern China by 1.6 million years ago.


title: Stone tool

text: Eventually, more complex Mode 2 tools began to be developed through the Acheulean Industry, named after the site of Saint-Acheul in France. The Acheulean was characterised not by the core, but by the biface, the most notable form of which was the hand axe. The Acheulean first appears in the archaeological record as early as 1.7 million years ago in the West Turkana area of Kenya and contemporaneously in southern Africa.


title: Stone tool

text: The Leakeys, excavators at Olduvai, defined a "Developed Oldowan" Period in which they believed they saw evidence of an overlap in Oldowan and Acheulean. In their species-specific view of the two industries, Oldowan equated to "H. habilis" and Acheulean to "H. erectus". Developed Oldowan was assigned to "habilis" and Acheulean to "erectus". Subsequent dates on "H. erectus" pushed the fossils back to well before Acheulean tools; that is, "H. erectus" must have initially used Mode 1. There was no reason to think, therefore, that Developed Oldowan had to be "habilis"; it could have been "erectus". Opponents of the view divide Developed Oldowan between Oldowan and Acheulean. There is no question, however, that "habilis" and "erectus" coexisted, as "habilis" fossils are found as late as 1.4 million years ago. Meanwhile, African "H. erectus" developed Mode 2. In any case a wave of Mode 2 then spread across Eurasia, resulting in use of both there. "H. erectus" may not have been the only hominin to leave Africa; European fossils are sometimes associated with "Homo ergaster", a contemporary of "H. erectus" in Africa.


title: Stone tool

text: In contrast to an Oldowan tool, which is the result of a fortuitous and probably ex tempore operation to obtain one sharp edge on a stone, an Acheulean tool is a planned result of a manufacturing process. The manufacturer begins with a blank, either a larger stone or a slab knocked off a larger rock. From this blank he or she removes large flakes, to be used as cores. Standing a core on edge on an anvil stone, he or she hits the exposed edge with centripetal blows of a hard hammer to roughly shape the implement. Then the piece must be worked over again, or retouched, with a soft hammer of wood or bone to produce a tool finely Knapped all over consisting of two convex surfaces intersecting in a sharp edge. Such a tool is used for slicing; concussion would destroy the edge and cut the hand.


title: Stone tool

text: Some Mode 2 tools are disk-shaped, others ovoid, others leaf-shaped and pointed, and others elongated and pointed at the distal end, with a blunt surface at the proximal end, obviously used for drilling. Mode 2 tools are used for butchering; not being composite (having no haft) they are not very appropriate killing instruments. The killing must have been done some other way. Mode 2 tools are larger than Oldowan. The blank was ported to serve as an ongoing source of flakes until it was finally retouched as a finished tool itself. Edges were often sharpened by further retouching.


title: Stone tool

text: Eventually, the Acheulean in Europe was replaced by a lithic technology known as the Mousterian Industry, which was named after the site of Le Moustier in France, where examples were first uncovered in the 1860s. Evolving from the Acheulean, it adopted the Levallois technique to produce smaller and sharper knife-like tools as well as scrapers. Also known as the "prepared core technique", flakes are struck from worked cores and then subsequently retouched. The Mousterian Industry was developed and used primarily by the Neanderthals, a native European and Middle Eastern hominin species, but a broadly similar industry is contemporaneously widespread in Africa.


title: Stone tool

text: The widespread use of long blades (rather than flakes) of the Upper Palaeolithic Mode 4 industries appeared during the Upper Palaeolithic between 50,000 and 10,000 years ago, although blades were produced in small quantities much earlier by Neanderthals. The Aurignacian culture seems to have been the first to rely largely on blades. The use of blades exponentially increases the efficiency of core usage compared to the Levallois flake technique, which had a similar advantage over Acheulean technology which was worked from cores.


title: Stone tool

text: Mode 5 stone tools involve the production of microliths, which were used in composite tools, mainly fastened to a shaft. Examples include the Magdalenian culture. Such a technology makes much more efficient use of available materials like flint, although required greater skill in manufacturing the small flakes. Mounting sharp flint edges in a wood or bone handle is the key innovation in microliths, essentially because the handle gives the user protection against the flint and also improves leverage of the device.


title: Stone tool

text: In prehistoric Japan, ground stone tools appear during the Japanese Paleolithic period, that lasted from around 40,000 BC to 14,000 BC. Elsewhere, ground stone tools became important during the Neolithic period beginning about 10,000 BC. These ground or polished implements are manufactured from larger-grained materials such as basalt, jade and jadeite, greenstone and some forms of rhyolite which are not suitable for flaking. The greenstone industry was important in the English Lake District, and is known as the Langdale axe industry. Ground stone implements included adzes, celts, and axes, which were manufactured using a labour-intensive, time-consuming method of repeated grinding against an abrasive stone, often using water as a lubricant. Because of their coarse surfaces, some ground stone tools were used for grinding plant foods and were polished not just by intentional shaping, but also by use. Manos are hand stones used in conjunction with metates for grinding corn or grain. Polishing increased the intrinsic mechanical strength of the axe. Polished stone axes were important for the widespread clearance of woods and forest during the Neolithic period, when crop and livestock farming developed on a large scale. They are distributed very widely and were traded over great distances since the best rock types were often very local. They also became venerated objects, and were frequently buried in long barrows or round barrows with their former owners.


title: Stone tool

text: During the Neolithic period, large axes were made from flint nodules by knapping a rough shape, a so-called "rough-out". Such products were traded across a wide area. The rough-outs were then polished to give the surface a fine finish to create the axe head. Polishing not only increased the final strength of the product but also meant that the head could penetrate wood more easily.


title: Stone tool

text: There were many sources of supply, including Grimes Graves in Suffolk, Cissbury in Sussex and Spiennes near Mons in Belgium to mention but a few. In Britain, there were numerous small quarries in downland areas where flint was removed for local use, for example.


title: Stone tool

text: Many other rocks were used to make axes from stones, including the Langdale axe industry as well as numerous other sites such as Penmaenmawr and Tievebulliagh in Co Antrim, Ulster. In Langdale, there many outcrops of the greenstone were exploited, and knapped where the stone was extracted. The sites exhibit piles of waste flakes, as well as rejected rough-outs. Polishing improved the mechanical strength of the tools, so increasing their life and effectiveness. Many other tools were developed using the same techniques. Such products were traded across the country and abroad.


title: Stone tool

text: Stone axes from 35,000 years ago are the earliest known use of a stone tool in Australia. Other stone tools varied in type and use among various Aboriginal Australian peoples, dependent on geographical regions and the type and structure of the tools varied among the different cultural and linguistic groups. The locations of the various artefacts, as well as whole geologic features, demarcated territorial and cultural boundaries of various linguistic and cultural groups' lands. They developed trade networks, and showed sophistication in working many different types of stone for many different uses, including as tools, food utensils and weapons, and modified their stone tools over the millennia to adapt to changing environments.Oral traditions carried the skills down through the ages.


title: Stone tool

text: Complex stone tools were used by the Gunditjmara of western Victoria until relatively recently. Many examples are now held in museums.


title: Stone tool

text: Flaked stone tools were made by extracting a sharp fragment of stone from a larger piece, called a core, by hitting it with a "hammerstone". Both the flakes and the hammerstones could be used as tools. The best types of stone for these tools are hard, brittle stones, rich in silica, such as quartzite, chert, flint, silcrete and quartz (the latter particularly in the Kimberleys of Western Australia). These were quarried from bedrock or collected as pebbles from watercourses and beaches, and often carried for long distances. The flake could be used immediately for cutting or scraping, but were sometimes modified in a process called reduction to sharpen or resharpen the flake.


title: Stone tool

text: Across northern Australia, especially in Arnhem Land, the "Leilira blade", a rectangular stone flake shaped by striking quartzite or silcrete stone, was used as a spear tip and also as a knife, sometimes long. Tasmania did not have spears or stone axes, but the peoples there used tools which were adapted to the climate and environment, such as the use of spongolite. In north-western Australia, "Kimberley point", a small triangular stone point, was created using kangaroo bone which had been shaped with stone into an awl, to make small serrations in the blade.


title: Stone tool

text: Apart from being used as weapons and for cutting, grinding (grindstones), piercing and pounding, some stones, notable ochres, were used as pigment for painting.


title: Stone tool

text: The invention of the flintlock gun mechanism in the sixteenth century produced a demand for specially shaped gunflints. The gunflint industry survived until the middle of the twentieth century in some places, including in the English town of Brandon.


title: Stone tool

text: Threshing boards with lithic flakes are used in agriculture from Neolithic, and are still used today in the regions where agriculture has not been mechanized and industrialized.


title: Stone tool

text: Glassy stones (flint, quartz, jasper, agate) were used with a variety of iron pyrite or marcasite stones as percussion fire starter tools. That was the most common method of producing fire in pre-industrial societies. Stones were later superseded by use of steel, ferrocerium and matches.


title: Stone tool

text: For specialist purposes glass knives are still made and used today, particularly for cutting thin sections for electron microscopy in a technique known as microtomy. Freshly cut blades are always used since the sharpness of the edge is very great. These knives are made from high-quality manufactured glass, however, not from natural raw materials such as chert or obsidian. Surgical knives made from obsidian are still used in some delicate surgeries, as they cause less damage to tissues than surgical knives and the resulting wounds heal more quickly. In 1975, American archaeologist Don Crabtree manufactured obsidian scalpels which were used for surgery on his own body.


title: Free cash flow

text: In corporate finance, free cash flow (FCF) or free cash flow to firm (FCFF) is the amount by which a business's operating cash flow exceeds its working capital needs and expenditures on fixed assets (known as capital expenditures). It is that portion of cash flow that can be extracted from a company and distributed to creditors and securities holders without causing issues in its operations. As such, it is an indicator of a company's financial flexibility and is of interest to holders of the company's equity, debt, preferred stock and convertible securities, as well as potential lenders and investors.


title: Free cash flow

text: Free cash flow can be calculated in various ways, depending on audience and available data. A common measure is to take the earnings before interest and taxes, add depreciation and amortization, and then subtract taxes, changes in working capital and capital expenditure. Depending on the audience, a number of refinements and adjustments may also be made to try to eliminate distortions.


title: Free cash flow

text: Free cash flow may be different from net income, as free cash flow takes into account the purchase of capital goods and changes in working capital.


title: Free cash flow

text: There are two differences between net income and free cash flow. The first is the accounting for the purchase of capital goods. Net income deducts depreciation, while the free cash flow measure uses last period's net capital purchases.


title: Free cash flow

text: The second difference is that the free cash flow measurement makes adjustments for changes in net working capital, where the net income approach does not. Typically, in a growing company with a 30-day collection period for receivables, a 30-day payment period for purchases, and a weekly payroll, it will require more working capital to finance the labor and profit components embedded in the growing receivables balance.


title: Free cash flow

text: When a company has negative sales growth, it's likely to lower its capital spending. Receivables, provided they are being timely collected, will also ratchet down. All this "deceleration" will show up as additions to free cash flow. However, over the long term, decelerating sales trends will eventually catch up.


title: Free cash flow

text: Net free cash Flow definition should also allow for cash available to pay off the company's short term debt. It should also take into account any dividends that the company means to pay.


title: Free cash flow

text: Net Free Cash Flow = Operation Cash flow – Capital Expenses to keep current level of operation – dividends – Current Portion of long term debt – Depreciation


title: Free cash flow

text: Here Capex Definition should not include additional investment on new equipment. However maintenance cost can be added.


title: Free cash flow

text: Current portion of LTD - This will be minimum debt that the company needs to pay in order to not default.


title: Free cash flow

text: Depreciation - This should be taken out since this will account for future investment for replacing the current PPE.


title: Free cash flow

text: If the net income category includes the income from discontinued operation and extraordinary income make sure it is not part of Free Cash Flow.


title: Free cash flow

text: Net of all the above give free cash available to be reinvested in operations without having to take more debt.


title: Free cash flow

text: Investment is simply the net increase (decrease) in the firm's capital, from the end of one period to the end of the next period:


title: Free cash flow

text: where "K" represents the firm's invested capital at the end of period "t". Increases in non-cash current assets may, or may not be deducted, depending on whether they are considered to be maintaining the status quo, or to be investments for growth.


title: Free cash flow

text: Unlevered free cash flow (i.e., cash flows before interest payments) is defined as EBITDA - CAPEX - changes in net working capital - taxes. This is the generally accepted definition. If there are mandatory repayments of debt, then some analysts utilize levered free cash flow, which is the same formula above, but less interest and mandatory principal repayments. The unlevered cash flow (UFCF) is usually used as the industry norm, because it allows for easier comparison of different companies’ cash flows. It is also preferred over the levered cash flow when conducting analyses to test the impact of different capital structures on the company.


title: Free cash flow

text: FCFF = After tax operating income + Noncash charges (such as D&A) - CAPEX - Working capital expenditures = Free cash flow to firm (FCFF)


title: Free cash flow

text: FCFE = Net income + Noncash charges (such as D&A) - CAPEX - Change in non-cash working capital + Net borrowing = Free cash flow to equity (FCFE)


title: Free cash flow

text: In a 1986 paper in the "American Economic Review", Michael Jensen noted that free cash flows allowed firms' managers to finance projects earning low returns which, therefore, might not be funded by the equity or bond markets. Examining the US oil industry, which had earned substantial free cash flows in the 1970s and the early 1980s, he wrote that: