title: Dive bomber

text: A dive bomber was vulnerable to low-level ground fire as it dived towards its target, since it was often headed in a straight line directly towards the defenders. At higher levels, this was less of a problem, as larger AA (anti-aircraft) shells were fused to explode at specific altitudes, which is impossible to determine while the plane is diving. In addition, most higher-altitude gunners and gunnery systems were designed to calculate the lateral movement of a target; while diving, the target appears almost stationary. Also, many AA mounts lacked the ability to fire directly up, so dive bombers were almost never exposed to fire from directly ahead.


title: Dive bomber

text: Dive brakes were employed on many designs to create drag which slowed the aircraft in its dive and increased accuracy. Air brakes on modern aircraft function in a similar manner in bleeding off excessive speed.


title: Dive bomber

text: It is difficult to establish how dive bombing originated. During World War I, the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) found its biplane two-seat bombers insufficiently accurate in operations on the Western Front. Commanders urged pilots to dive from their cruising altitude to under to have a better chance of hitting small targets, such as gun emplacements and trenches. As this exposed the aircraft and crew to destructive ground fire in their unprotected open cockpits, few followed this order. Some recorded altitude at the top and bottom of their dive in log books and in squadron records, but not the steepness of the dive. It was certainly not near-vertical, as these early aircraft could not withstand the stresses of a sustained vertical dive.


title: Dive bomber

text: The Royal Naval Air Service was bombing the Zeppelin sheds in Germany and in occupied Belgium and found it worthwhile to dive onto these sheds to ensure a hit, despite the increased casualties from ground fire. Again, the angle of dive in these attacks was not recorded.


title: Dive bomber

text: Beginning on 18 June 1918, the Royal Air Force (RAF), successor to the RFC, ordered large numbers of the Sopwith TF.2 Salamander, a single-seat biplane. The "TF" stood for "Trench Fighter", and the aircraft was designed to attack enemy trenches both with Vickers .303 machine guns and with bombs. Of the 37 Salamanders produced before the end of October 1918, only two were delivered to France, and the war ended before those saw action. Whether the Salamander counts in more modern parlance as a fighter-bomber or as a dive bomber depends on the definition of "dive". It had armoured protection for the pilot and a fuel system to attack at low level, but lacked dive brakes for a vertical dive.


title: Dive bomber

text: Heavy casualties resulting from air-to-ground attack on trenches set the minds of senior officers in the newly formed RAF against dive bombing. So not until 1934 did the Air Ministry issue specifications for both land-based and aircraft carrier-based dive bombers. The RAF cancelled its requirement and relegated the Hawker Henley dive bomber to other roles, while the Fleet Air Arm's Blackburn Skua was expected to do double duty: as a fighter when out of reach of land-based fighter support, and as a dive bomber. It had dive brakes that doubled as flaps for carrier landings. The Hawker Henley had a top speed only slower than the Hawker Hurricane fighter from which it was derived. The American and Japanese navies and the Luftwaffe chose vertical dive bombers whose low speed had dire consequences when they encountered modern fighters.


title: Dive bomber

text: The Royal Naval Air Service developed dive bombing as a tactic against Zeppelin hangars and formed and trained a squadron at Manchester for this task. On 8 October 1914, a Sopwith Tabloid with two bombs attacked a hangar at Düsseldorf after a dive to . On 14 November 1914, four Avro 504s attacked the Zeppelin factory at Friedrichshafen on Lake Constance, diving from to to ensure hits. As Zeppelins were tethered close to stores of hydrogen, results were often spectacular.


title: Dive bomber

text: The first use of dive bombing by the RFC, which had been urging its pilots to drop bombs at heights below in order to hit within of the target since February 1915, was later that year. On 27 November 1915, Lieutenant Duncan Grinnell-Milne arrived in his Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2c over railway marshalling yards near Lys in Northern France, to find the target already crowded by other bombers. He dived from to before releasing his bombs. A few weeks later, Lieutenant Arthur Gould dived to just to hit buildings near Arras.


title: Dive bomber

text: The Royal Flying Corps developed strafing with diving aircraft using both machine guns and small bombs as a deliberate tactic. At the Battle of Cambrai on 20 November 1917, 320 Mark IV tanks and 300 aircraft, mostly Sopwith Camels and Airco DH 5s with bombs, were used to suppress artillery and machine guns. The cost in pilots was very high, with casualties on some days reaching 30 percent. The initial impact at Cambrai was highly successful. The staff officer to the Royal Tank Corps Lieutenant-Colonel J. F. C. Fuller published findings which were later taken up by Heinz Guderian to form the basis for the blitzkrieg tactics of using dive bombers with tanks employed by the Germans in 1939–40.


title: Dive bomber

text: Second Lieutenant William Henry Brown, a Canadian from British Columbia serving with the RFC and flying a Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5a, made the first attack on a vessel on 14 March 1918, destroying an ammunition barge on a canal at Bernot near St Quentin, diving to to release his bombs. He was awarded the Military Cross for this and other exploits. Brown's technique was emulated by other British squadrons. But the heavy casualties to unprotected pilots cast a pall over the results and influenced RAF thinking for 20 years.


title: Dive bomber

text: The Royal Flying Corps was initially impressed with the potential of the dive bomber, but was aware of its suicidal nature. It ran a series of tests at the Armament Experimental station at Orfordness in Suffolk. Sopwith Camels and Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5as were used in early 1918 to dive bomb targets from various heights, with different bombs and with and without the use of the Aldis gunsight, which had been invented in 1916 to aid pilots to calculate the deflection required to hit a traversing enemy aircraft. In principle, it obviated the need for a vertical dive. The results showed that a vertical dive into the wind sighting along the top of rather than through the sight was best. But they were not considered good enough to justify the expected casualties. The Royal Air Force, which took over both army and naval aviation in April 1918, retired its Sopwith Salamander dive bombers at the end of the war.


title: Dive bomber

text: Colonel, later General, Billy Mitchell arrived in France with the first US Army and Air Force units soon after 6 April 1917 and began to organise the US Army Air Force flying French Salmson 2s, a spotter plane. The later Salmson 4 was to be a ground attack and dive bomber, but production was cancelled at the end of the war. Mitchell became a strong advocate of dive bombers after witnessing British and French aerial attacks. Mitchell by now assistant chief of the Air Service United States Army arranged tests with captured German and obsolete US ships in June and July 1921 and repeated over the next two years using Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5as as dive bombers and Handley Page O/400s and Martin NBS-1s as level bombers carrying bombs of different weights up to . The SMS "Ostfriesland" was sunk and so later were the USS "Alabama", USS "Virginia" and USS "New Jersey".


title: Dive bomber

text: Opposite conclusions were drawn by the RAF and USAS, from two very different tests regarding the usefulness of dive bombers, with the RAF concluding that the cost in pilots was too high to justify the results and the USAS considering it as a potent anti-ship weapon. Both naval staffs opposed the view taken by the respective airmen.


title: Dive bomber

text: In 1919, United States Marine Corps (USMC) pilot Lt. L. H. Sanderson mounted a rifle in front of the windshield of his Curtiss JN-4 (a training aircraft) as an improvised bomb sight, loaded a bomb in a canvas bag attached to the aircraft's underside, and made a solo attack in support of USMC troops trapped by Haitians during the United States occupation of Haiti. Sanderson's bomb hit its target and the raids were repeated. During 1920, Sanderson familiarised aviators of USMC units on the Atlantic coast with dive bombing techniques. Dive bombing was also used during the United States occupation of Nicaragua.


title: Dive bomber

text: As aircraft grew more powerful, dive bombing became a favoured tactic particularly against small targets such as ships. The United States Navy overcame its hostility to Mitchell's findings and deployed the Curtiss F8C Falcon biplane from 1925 on carriers, while the Marine Corps operated them from land bases as the Helldiver, a name later reused by Curtiss for other dive bombers.


title: Dive bomber

text: The Imperial Japanese Navy ordered the Heinkel He 50 in 1931 as a floatplane and carrier-based dive bomber and embarked some on new carriers from 1935 in a developed form as the Heinkel He 66, from which the Aichi D1A was further developed in Japan. The Luftwaffe confiscated a Chinese export shipment and ordered more.


title: Dive bomber

text: Navies increasingly operated carriers, which had a limited number of aircraft available for attack, each with only a small bomb load. Targets were often likely to be a small or fast-moving and the need for accuracy made dive bombers essential.


title: Dive bomber

text: Ernst Udet, a German First World War ace, persuaded Hermann Göring to buy two Curtiss Hawk IIs for the newly reformed Luftwaffe. Udet, then a stunt pilot, flew one in aerobatic displays during the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games. Due to his connections with the Nazi party, he became the development director of the Ministry of Aviation, where he pushed for dive bomber development.


title: Dive bomber

text: Dive bombing would allow a low-cost Luftwaffe to operate effectively in the tactical role. Against small targets, a single-engine dive bomber could achieve four times the accuracy at one tenth of the cost of a four engine heavy bomber, such as the projected Ural bomber, and it could reach the battlefield well ahead of field artillery. Soon the Luftwaffe issued a contract for its own dive bomber design, resulting in the Junkers K 47, which, following extensive trials, would in turn result in the Junkers Ju 87 "Stuka" (a contraction of "Sturzkampfflugzeug", literally "diving combat airplane").


title: Dive bomber

text: Several early Junkers Ju 87 dive bombers, which first flew in on 13 September 1935, were shipped secretly from Germany to Spain to assist General Francisco Franco's Nationalist rebels in the Spanish Civil War. Several problems appeared, including the tendency of the fixed undercarriage to sink into soft ground and an inability to take-off with a full bomb load. Condor Legion experience in Spain demonstrated the value of dive bombers especially on the morale of troops or civilians unprotected by air cover. The aircraft did not encounter opposing modern fighters, which concealed its vulnerability from the Luftwaffe. Udet was impressed with the Stuka's performance in Spain, so he ordered that the Junkers Ju 88 medium bomber should also be retrofitted as a dive bomber. He also insisted, against the advice of Ernst Heinkel, that the Heinkel He 177 bomber, ordered in November 1937, be able to dive bomb. Lack of a sufficiently powerful, reliable powerplant fatally compromised its utility, it never performed in the dive bomber role, and the requirement was eventually dropped.


title: Dive bomber

text: Some 23 Breda Ba 65s were flown by Italian pilots also in support of Nationalist Forces. First flown in 1935, it was a single-seat dive bomber carrying the same bomb load as the Stuka with a speed advantage in level flight.


title: Dive bomber

text: As the Royal Navy again took control of the Fleet Air Arm, it began to receive the Fairey Swordfish from 1936 and Blackburn Skuas from November 1938. The Skua had a secondary function of intercepting attacks by unescorted long-range bombers. With four 0.303 Browning guns and another rear-facing gun, it was expected to defend against air attack with a top speed of at sea level, which was a comparable low altitude speed with other navies' carrier borne fighters in 1938–39. The Royal Navy's dedicated, pre and early war, fleet fighter was the Gloster Sea Gladiator. The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) Mitsubishi A5M and USN Grumman F3F were nominally faster than the Skua but this speed was achieved at much higher altitude; at low altitudes the Skua was quite comparable in speed and was also better armed. The Swordfish was also capable of operating as a dive-bomber and in 1939 HMS "Glorious" used her Swordfish for a series of dive-bombing trials, during which 439 practise bombs were dropped at dive angles of 60, 67 and 70 degrees, against the target ship HMS "Centurion". Tests against a stationary target showed an average error of from a release height of and a dive angle of 70 degrees. Tests against a manoeuvring target showed an average error of from a drop height of and a dive angle of 60 degrees. The Fairey Albacore was also designed to act as a dive bomber and was used extensively in this role during World War Two.


title: Dive bomber

text: The British Air Ministry issued Specification 4/34 in 1934 for a ground attack aircraft with dive bombing capability. The Hawker Henley was a two-seat version of the Battle of Britain-winning Hawker Hurricane. It was fast at almost at sea level and in a dive, but development was delayed when Hurricane development took priority. Just 200 were built and it was relegated to target towing. The RAF ordered the US-built Vultee A-31 Vengeance in 1943, but it too was similarly relegated to target towing after a brief operation period in secondary theatres.


title: Dive bomber

text: The Curtiss SBC Helldiver was a biplane dive bomber that had been taken aboard the in 1934, but it was slow at . Fifty ex-US Navy examples were flown to Halifax, Nova Scotia by Curtiss pilots and embarked on the French aircraft carrier "Béarn" in a belated attempt to help France, which surrendered whilst they were mid-Atlantic. Five airframes left behind in Halifax later reached the RAF, which quickly relegated them to the status of ground instructional airframes for the training of mechanics.


title: Dive bomber

text: The Japanese introduced the Aichi D3A Val monoplane as a successor to the biplane Aichi D1A in 1940, with trials aboard the carriers "Kaga" and "Akagi". It was to prove a potent weapon against surface ships.


title: Dive bomber

text: Only the Wehrmacht learned from the Battle of Cambrai (1917) in using dive bombers in conjunction with tanks. The writings of Britain's Colonel J. F. C. Fuller a staff officer and Basil Liddell-Hart (a military journalist) propounded the concept of mobile tank forces supported by ground-attack aircraft creating a breakthrough. These were eagerly studied by the German army officer Heinz Guderian, who created the combination of Panzers and dive bombers that later proved so potent in Poland and France. The Ju 87 "Stuka" could be used as aerial artillery moving far ahead of the main forces with Panzers to smash enemy strong points without waiting for the horse-drawn artillery to catch up. It was central to the concept of Blitzkrieg which required close co-ordination between aircraft and tanks by radio.


title: Dive bomber

text: The RAF had chosen the single-engined Fairey Battle and the twin-engined Bristol Blenheim as its tactical bombers. Both were level bombers with similar bomb-loads and entered service in 1937. The US Army Air Corps (USAAC) adopted the Douglas A-20 Havoc, first flying in January 1939, for a similar role, although originally ordered by France. Many were also supplied to the Soviet Air Force, which also used the Ilyushin Il-2 Sturmovik ground-attack aircraft in huge numbers. None of these were dive bombers. No Allied Air Force operated a modern dive bomber at the outbreak of the Second World War, although both the Royal Navy and the US Navy had shipboard dive bombers.


title: Dive bomber

text: On 10 April 1940, 16 British Royal Navy Blackburn Skuas flying at extreme range from the naval air station at Hatston in Orkney led by Lieutenant Commander William Lucy sank the German cruiser "Königsberg" in Bergen harbour, whilst trying to prevent the German invasion of Norway. On the German side Stukas augmented or replaced artillery support for the Wehrmacht's lightly armed parachute and airborne troops.


title: Dive bomber

text: The invasion of Poland (September to October 1939) and the Battle of France (May to June 1940) saw the Stuka used to devastating effect. German "blitzkrieg" tactics used dive bombers in place of artillery to support highly mobile ground troops. The British Expeditionary Force had set up strong defensive positions on the west bank of the Oise River to block rapidly advancing German armour. Stukas quickly broke the defences, and the Wehrmacht forced a crossing long before German artillery arrived.


title: Dive bomber

text: On 12/13 May 1940, Stukas flew 300 sorties against strong French defensive positions at the Battle of Sedan. This enabled German forces to make a fast and unexpected breakthrough of the French lines, eventually leading to the German advance to the Channel and the cutting off of much of the Allied army.


title: Dive bomber

text: The skies over Sedan also showed the Stuka's weakness when met with fighter opposition; six French Curtiss H-75s attacked a formation of unescorted Ju 87s and shot down 11 out of 12 without loss. The Stuka was even more vulnerable to the Hawker Hurricane with its speed edge and eight machine guns, which it first met over France and then in larger numbers in the Battle of Britain (July to October 1940). Losses were such that the Luftwaffe rapidly withdrew Stukas from operations over the United Kingdom. A similar fate befell unescorted RAF Fairey Battles over France.


title: Dive bomber

text: The Stuka had 7.92mm machine guns or 20mm cannons mounted in the wings. Some were modified to destroy tanks with heavy calibre, 37mm "Bordkanone" BK 3,7 autocannons mounted in gun pods below the wings. They were very successful in this role in the early days (1941) of Operation Barbarossa before the Red Army Air Force countered with modern fighters, such as the Yakovlev Yak-1 and later the Yakovlev Yak-3.


title: Dive bomber

text: The most successful dive-bomber pilot, Hans-Ulrich Rudel, made 2,530 sorties. He contributed to the sinking of the Soviet battleship "Marat" at Kronstadt on 23 September 1941 using bombs. Later, flying a tank-buster Stuka with 20mm cannon, he claimed over 100 Soviet tanks destroyed, mostly at the Battle of Kursk in July 1943. The Ju 87G "Kanonenvogel", equipped with two 37mm BK 3,7 anti-tank guns, as suggested by Rudel, proved to be a lethal weapon in skilled hands. In the Soviet counter-offensive, Operation Kutuzov (July to August 1943), which concluded Kursk, the Luftwaffe claimed 35 tanks destroyed in a single day. Rudel co-wrote a post-war book about his experiences and consulted with the US Air Force.


title: Dive bomber

text: When Italy joined the war (10 June 1940) on the Axis side, the Regia Aeronautica shipped Breda Ba.65s to North Africa for use against the British but they also proved vulnerable. By February 1941 British fighters had shot down most of the Italian planes. In Morocco on 11 November 1942, American Curtiss P-40 Warhawks shot down 15 Ju 87Ds in one encounter.


title: Dive bomber

text: The United States Army Air Forces took delivery of a few North American P-51 Mustangs from a British order but, as there were no funds to buy more fighters, they were modified as dive bombers with a new wing and with dive brakes. First flown in October 1942 as the North American A-36 Apache, they arrived in Morocco in April 1943 to assist with driving the Afrika Korps out of Africa. The aircraft was very fast at low altitude. It was also accident-prone, achieving the highest casualty-rate during training of any USAAF aircraft and was officially restricted to no more than a 70-degree dive. The Apache did not fly with the RAF, but served with US squadrons in Sicily, Italy and, by late summer of 1943, was based in India for use over Burma and China. It proved to be an excellent dive-bomber and a good fighter: one ace in Italy shot down five German fighters.


title: Dive bomber

text: The Royal Navy's Fairey Swordfish and Fairey Albacore torpedo-dive bombers and Blackburn Skua fighter-bombers were replaced by Fairey Barracuda torpedo-dive bombers, which made repeated diving attacks on the German battleship "Tirpitz" which lay protected by torpedo nets in a Norwegian fjord during 1944. On 3 April 1944, in Operation Tungsten, 42 aircraft flying from the carriers HMS "Victorious" and HMS "Furious" scored 14 hits with and bombs and put the battleship out of action for over two months.


title: Dive bomber

text: The Soviet Union Armed Forces deployed the Arkhangelsky Ar-2 from 1940 to 1944 and the Petlyakov Pe-2 from 1941 to 1954.


title: Dive bomber

text: The Vultee Vengeance was developed in the US as a private venture dive bomber for export. It first flew in March 1941. It had a zero incidence wing, which was perfect for vertical dives as there was no lift from wing or tailplane in a dive. But it had to fly in a nose up attitude to maintain level flight, which made landings difficult. Initial orders were 300 for France, but France fell before they could be delivered. The RAF, with the cancellation of the Hawker Henley and having noted the success of Stukas in Poland, took delivery instead. It was considered too vulnerable to German fighters for use in Europe or North Africa, but large numbers flew in Burma from March 1943. It flew close support for General William Slim's Burma campaign bombing Japanese supply routes, bridges and artillery. It operated in the Royal Australian Air Force and Indian Air Force as well as the RAF. Some were held back for the United States Army Air Forces after the attack on Pearl Harbor, but did not see combat.


title: Dive bomber

text: Both the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and the United States Navy invested considerable effort on dive bombers. Japan started the war with a very good design, the carrier-borne Aichi D3A ("Val"). As the war progressed, the design became outdated due to its limited speed, due in part to the limited horsepower of its power plant and to the greater drag of its fixed main landing gear (a shortcoming shared by the Stuka).


title: Dive bomber

text: The main American dive bomber, the Douglas SBD Dauntless, had similar performance to the D3A Val. From December 1942, the Dauntless was replaced with the faster, but more complex and trouble-prone Curtiss SB2C Helldiver. Both American aeroplanes were ubiquitous, with 6,000 Dauntlesses and over 7,000 Helldivers built. Both the SBD and D3A were used at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. The Japanese sent 54 D3A Vals carrying bombs to attack parked aircraft at Wheeler Field and Ford Island. A flight of 18 Dauntlesses from arrived over Pearl Harbor just as the Japanese attacked. Seven were shot down and many others destroyed on the ground at Marine Corps Air Station Ewa At the Battle of the Coral Sea, Dauntlesses sank the light carrier "Shoho" and damaged the fleet carrier "Shokaku" together with Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo bombers.


title: Dive bomber

text: On 5 April 1942, the heavy cruisers and were leaving Colombo, Ceylon to join the British Eastern Fleet, but had been spotted by Japanese reconnaissance aircraft. They were attacked by a large number of Aichi D3As and both were sunk. On 9 April 1942 the Royal Navy aircraft carrier escorted by the destroyer were attacked by more than 32 Aichi D3As and both were sunk shortly before eight defending RN FAA Fairey Fulmars, of 806 Squadron, could reach them. The Fulmars shot down four D3As and damaged two while losing two Fulmars to the more numerous D3As.


title: Dive bomber

text: At the Battle of Midway on 4 June 1942, after most of the torpedo bombers had been shot down without a single hit, Dauntlesses from and found four Japanese carriers, in the vulnerable stage of refuelling and rearming aircraft for a second strike. The Combat Air Patrol of formidable Mitsubishi A6M Zeros had been drawn away, chasing torpedo bombers and escorting fighters, leaving a clear sky. "Soryu" and "Kaga" were ablaze within six minutes, while "Akagi", hit only once, suffered fatal damage as the single bomb ignited fuel and bombs in the hangar.


title: Dive bomber

text: Later on 4 June, "Yorktown" and "Enterprise" dive bombers inflicted fatal damage on the fourth Japanese carrier "Hiryu". Within hours the Imperial Japanese Navy had lost four of its aircraft carriers and many experienced naval airmen, both of which Japan would have difficulty in replacing. Further follow-up raids by SBDs and SB2Us from "Midway" and SBDs from "Yorktown", "Enterprise" and on 5–6 June sank the IJN heavy cruiser "Mikuma" and heavily damaged her sister ship "Mogami" and two escorting destroyers.


title: Dive bomber

text: The United States Army Air Forces took a version of the Dauntless with a different tailwheel tire and no arrester hook as the Douglas A-24 Banshee. In crates headed for the Philippines, they were diverted to Australia and operated from Charters Towers in Queensland. The Banshee was unable to contend with Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zeros. On 26 July 1942, just seven Banshees were sent to intercept a Japanese convoy supplying forces occupying New Guinea. Six were shot down.


title: Dive bomber

text: The Japanese Yokosuka D4Y Suisei, code-name Judy, began to replace the Vals after a very troublesome development on surviving larger Japanese carriers from March 1943. With a sleek fuselage, retracting landing gear and a powerful licensed Daimler-Benz 601 engine, it could outpace pursuing Grumman F4F Wildcats. To maximise speed and range, the Japanese had dispensed with armour protection and self-sealing fuel tanks, which proved to be very costly when the US Navy deployed the new "Essex"-class aircraft carriers, which each carried 36 of the faster Grumman F6F Hellcats. The Battle of the Philippine Sea on 19–20 June 1944 was a failure in terms of Japanese carriers hit, but the losses of Vals and Judies and their crews were enough to destroy the Japanese navy's ability to strike by air ever again.


title: Dive bomber

text: Henceforward attacks were mostly confined to kamikaze. The Japanese were now on the defensive. Japan's industrial output dropped from a peak in 1942, while that of the US increased by a quarter in two years from 1942 to 1944. Japanese wartime production of bombers of all types was just 16% of the US output.


title: Dive bomber

text: When the RAF were attempting to stop the Panzers of Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps in early 1942, a lack of dive bombers proved to be an impediment. However, the British Government's Chief Scientist, Henry Tizard, formed a panel of experts, which recommended using rockets. A rocket has a much flatter trajectory than a bomb, allowing it to be launched with reasonable accuracy from a shallow dive, and could be fitted on existing aircraft. The RAF used them on Hurricanes in June 1942 against Rommel's tanks. The British Army had used rockets against low-flying bombers during the Battle of Britain by enlarging the tube from to and fitting high explosive warheads; it became an anti-tank weapon. The more powerful Hawker Typhoon, originally developed as a fighter, proved even more effective, carrying eight RP-3 rockets and producing a similar effect to a naval destroyer's broadside.


title: Dive bomber

text: On 23 May 1943, a Fairey Swordfish destroyed "U-752" in the Atlantic, and five days later, a Lockheed Hudson of RAF Coastal Command sank "U-755" in the Mediterranean, using specialised rockets fitted with iron spikes which were fired at a shallow angle into the sea. Once under water, they curved upwards and punctured the pressure hull below the waterline, disabling or sinking the submarine.


title: Dive bomber

text: Caltech developed the High Velocity Aircraft Rocket (HVAR) with a warhead for the US Navy. It was rushed to Europe for use on D-Day and later used by Navy aircraft in the Pacific. By January 1943, American pilots who had been flying in RAF Eagle Squadrons before the US entered the war, converted from Supermarine Spitfires to Republic P-47 Thunderbolts to form the USAAF 4th Air Fighter Group. At over unladen, one of the biggest single engine fighter bombers of the war, it could carry ten HVARs.


title: Dive bomber

text: By late 1944, the RAF was able to hit stationary targets with greater accuracy from greater heights inflicting far more damage with less risk. On 12 November 1944, two Tallboy bombs were dropped by Avro Lancasters from and hit the German battleship "Tirpitz" at supersonic speeds, sinking it. The Tallboy was developed by Vickers designer Barnes Wallis who followed it up with the even larger Grand Slam earthquake bomb which was used to destroy railway viaducts and bridges, targets that could previously only be damaged in diving attacks. Wallis also designed a bomb that bounced across water to destroy the Eder and Moehne dams, which needed to be hit repeatedly at the same spot under water to be breached but had nets to protect against torpedoes.


title: Dive bomber

text: Pilots in the Pacific later developed a technique of skip bombing which required flying at low level and dropping a spherically nosed conventional bomb onto the sea, at a shallow angle, which then bounced back into the air.


title: Dive bomber

text: Although new aircraft could still dive towards their targets, they were no longer optimised for steep diving attacks. Through the pioneering efforts by the Luftwaffe's Fritz X and the USAAF's Azon, controlled-trajectory bombs evolved into today's smart bombs. A bomb can be dropped far from a target's air defences using a guidance system to hit the target, ensuring greater accuracy and minimising risk to the crew.


title: Dive bomber

text: Jet engines allowed higher speeds which made "toss bombing" possible, a reverse dive bombing method where an aircraft snaps up from low altitude as a bomb is released, throwing it upwards like a shot put.


title: Memory hierarchy

text: In computer architecture, the memory hierarchy separates computer storage into a hierarchy based on response time. Since response time, complexity, and capacity are related, the levels may also be distinguished by their performance and controlling technologies. Memory hierarchy affects performance in computer architectural design, algorithm predictions, and lower level programming constructs involving locality of reference.


title: Memory hierarchy

text: Designing for high performance requires considering the restrictions of the memory hierarchy, i.e. the size and capabilities of each component. Each of the various components can be viewed as part of a hierarchy of memories (m, m, ..., m) in which each member m is typically smaller and faster than the next highest member m of the hierarchy. To limit waiting by higher levels, a lower level will respond by filling a buffer and then signaling for activating the transfer.


title: Memory hierarchy

text: This is a general memory hierarchy structuring. Many other structures are useful. For example, a paging algorithm may be considered as a level for virtual memory when designing a computer architecture, and one can include a level of nearline storage between online and offline storage.


title: Memory hierarchy

text: The number of levels in the memory hierarchy and the performance at each level has increased over time. The type of memory or storage components also change historically. For example, the memory hierarchy of an Intel Haswell Mobile processor circa 2013 is:


title: Memory hierarchy

text: The lower levels of the hierarchy – from disks downwards – are also known as tiered storage. The formal distinction between online, nearline, and offline storage is:


title: Memory hierarchy

text: For example, always-on spinning disks are online, while spinning disks that spin-down, such as massive array of idle disk (MAID), are nearline. Removable media such as tape cartridges that can be automatically loaded, as in a tape library, are nearline, while cartridges that must be manually loaded are offline.


title: Memory hierarchy

text: Most modern CPUs are so fast that for most program workloads, the bottleneck is the locality of reference of memory accesses and the efficiency of the caching and memory transfer between different levels of the hierarchy. As a result, the CPU spends much of its time idling, waiting for memory I/O to complete. This is sometimes called the "space cost", as a larger memory object is more likely to overflow a small/fast level and require use of a larger/slower level. The resulting load on memory use is known as "pressure" (respectively "register pressure", "cache pressure", and (main) "memory pressure"). Terms for data being missing from a higher level and needing to be fetched from a lower level are, respectively: register spilling (due to register pressure: register to cache), cache miss (cache to main memory), and (hard) page fault (main memory to disk).


title: Memory hierarchy

text: Modern programming languages mainly assume two levels of memory, main memory and disk storage, though in assembly language and inline assemblers in languages such as C, registers can be directly accessed. Taking optimal advantage of the memory hierarchy requires the cooperation of programmers, hardware, and compilers (as well as underlying support from the operating system):


title: Memory hierarchy

text: Many programmers assume one level of memory. This works fine until the application hits a performance wall. Then the memory hierarchy will be assessed during code refactoring.


title: Mick Philpott

text: Michael Philpott (born 1956) is a British convicted killer who was found guilty in April 2013 of causing the deaths of six of his children by arson the previous May. Philpott, who had made several media appearances because of his benefits-funded lifestyle and polyamorous relationships, was sentenced to life imprisonment for the manslaughter of his children. The media had previously reported on his large family (seventeen children by multiple women), and his reliance on state benefits.


title: Mick Philpott

text: Following an eight-week trial, he and his wife Mairead, together with their friend Paul Mosley, were found guilty of the manslaughter of the six children in April 2013. Philpott was given a life sentence with a minimum term of fifteen years' imprisonment. Psychologist Glenn Wilson described Philpott as clinically a "psychopath" and "exhibitionist" with "antisocial personality disorder."


title: Mick Philpott

text: Mick Philpott's attitude to women has been described as "controlling", "domineering", "violent" and "manipulative". In July 1978, aged 21, Philpott attempted to murder Kim Hill, his girlfriend of two years; their relationship began when she was aged 15. He had previously shot Hill in the groin with a crossbow because he felt her dress had been too short, and had cracked her kneecap with a hammer when she paid too much attention to a baby she had been minding. Philpott attempted to kill Hill by stabbing her over a dozen times as she was lying in bed, because she sent him a letter saying she was leaving him. He also stabbed Hill's mother when she came to her daughter's aid. Hill suffered collapsed lungs and a punctured bladder, kidney and liver. Philpott was convicted of attempted murder of Hill, and grievous bodily harm with intent against her mother, and was sentenced to seven years in prison in December 1978. Philpott was released after three years and two months.


title: Mick Philpott

text: Philpott married Pamela Lomax in 1986. He had three children with Lomax, two sons and a daughter. Lomax said that Philpott was controlling, and she prayed he would move on to someone else. Her wish was fulfilled when Philpott met Heather Kehoe, then aged 14, in Rainworth, Nottinghamshire; Philpott was 37. On her 16th birthday, Kehoe ran away from her parents to live with Philpott. She gave birth to two children, both boys, in quick succession, but Philpott beat Kehoe because he wanted a daughter. Kehoe described Philpott teaching his older sons to be violent towards her. Philpott wanted Kehoe to produce more children, but she did not conceive again. In 1991, he was given a two-year conditional discharge for assault occasioning actual bodily harm after headbutting a colleague.


title: Mick Philpott

text: In 2000, Philpott met Mairead Duffy, a 19-year-old single mother born in England to an Irish family, who had left a previous volatile relationship. Duffy moved into Philpott's house shortly after, and the couple married in May 2003. In 2001, Philpott met Lisa Willis, a 16-year-old orphan and single mother, who became his mistress. Philpott invited Willis to move into his council house, which was larger than hers, in 2002. Willis served as bridesmaid at Philpott and Duffy's wedding. On 23 December 2002, having left Philpott, Kehoe gained legal custody of her two children. In 2010, Philpott was given a police caution for slapping Mairead and dragging her outside by her hair.


title: Mick Philpott

text: In 2006, Philpott was being heavily criticised in the tabloid media when he requested a larger council house for his family, which then consisted of his wife Mairead, then aged 25; his mistress Lisa Willis, then 22; and four children born to Mairead, three to Willis, and Willis's child conceived prior to meeting him. The 1978 conviction for attempted murder was revealed at this time. After Willis gave birth to her fourth child by Philpott, the press revealed that both she and Mairead were expecting babies, due in March 2007. Before their birth, Philpott appeared on "The Jeremy Kyle Show" to defend his lifestyle, saying that he would like to marry one woman and divorce the other, and added that he would have a vasectomy.


title: Mick Philpott

text: In 2007z Philpott appeared in an episode of the ITV documentary series "Ann Widdecombe Versus" in which the then Conservative MP Ann Widdecombe spent a week with him and tried to persuade him to change his lifestyle. Nancy Banks-Smith in "The Guardian" reported that Widdecombe gave him "a large slice of her mind", but "decamped" rather than sleep in his caravan. Widdecombe found Philpott three jobs, one of which was with a barrel-making firm, but he did not turn up for work on the first day and the job fell through. In the documentary, Philpott was shown to be living in a caravan in his garden, in which his wife and mistress would alternate in spending nights with him. Widdecombe said that Philpott did not care about anyone and that he used the word "bitch" to refer to both his wife and his mistress. Widdecombe also said she noticed that none of his children sought affection from him.


title: Mick Philpott

text: It was revealed during Philpott's manslaughter trial that Mairead became pregnant by another man whilst the couple were dogging, an activity in which they began to participate during 2011. Mairead had an abortion at Philpott's instruction.


title: Mick Philpott

text: A court hearing a week before the fire concerned a road rage incident during November 2011 in which Philpott had punched another driver, for which he had pleaded guilty to common assault, but denied dangerous driving. At the hearing, Philpott was bailed and was awaiting trial.


title: Mick Philpott

text: On 11 May 2012, the Philpott family's home at 18 Victory Road, Osmaston, Derby, was seriously damaged by fire at around 04:00. Five children (Jade, 10; John, 9; Jack, 7; Jesse, 6 and Jayden, 5), who had been asleep upstairs, all died at the scene, while their half-brother, Duwayne, 13, died in hospital two days later. All of these deaths were caused by smoke inhalation.


title: Mick Philpott

text: In the days following the fire, the family's local Catholic church held memorial services. On 16 May, Philpott and his wife held an emotional news conference, in which they purported to describe the events concerning the fire. A charity, Catch Me When I Fall, was set up by local residents to help the family of the children. A book of condolence at Derby Cathedral was later signed by hundreds of people. A fund to pay for the funerals raised over £11,000 by members of the public living in the same area as the Philpotts. The children's joint funeral took place on 22 June 2012 at St Mary's Church, Derby, with Mick and Mairead Philpott not attending as they had been remanded in custody charged with murder.


title: Mick Philpott

text: On 14 May, police stated that petrol had been found inside the letterbox to the Philpott residence, thus sparking a murder investigation. Willis, who had a court hearing over custody of her children with Philpott scheduled on the morning of the fire, was initially arrested on suspicion of murder along with her brother-in-law Ian Cousins, but both were released without charge. Meanwhile, witnesses reported that Philpott behaved strangely for someone who had recently lost several of his children, and appeared to like the media attention. The police bugged the Philpotts' hotel room and gained evidence confirming the couple were responsible for the fire, including the involvement of friend Paul Mosley, with whom Mairead was heard engaging in a sex act.


title: Mick Philpott

text: Philpott and Mairead were arrested on suspicion of murder on 28 May 2012. After seeking additional time for questioning, the couple were charged with murder on 30 May 2012. A discarded petrol container and glove had been found near the house, and in November forensic investigators discovered that the clothes of the Philpotts and Mosley had petrol on them. On 5 November, Mosley was arrested and charged with murder; this charge was later downgraded to manslaughter. Mosley had previously been arrested in the enquiry and was released on bail in June 2012. The charges against Philpott and Mairead were also reduced to manslaughter, as it was decided that the couple had not intended to kill their children. Instead, they had wanted to frame Willis for the fire, win back custody of the children and continue to claim benefits for them.


title: Mick Philpott

text: The trial commenced at Nottingham Crown Court on 12 February 2013. Richard Latham QC led the prosecution on behalf of the Crown Prosecution Service. Anthony Orchard QC led the defence for Philpott, Sean Smith QC led the defence for Mairead, and Benjamin Nolan QC led the defence for Mosley. On 2 April, Mick and Mairead, along with Mosley, were each found guilty of the manslaughter of the six children.


title: Mick Philpott

text: Sentencing was due to take place on 3 April, but was postponed as the judge, Mrs Justice Thirlwall, wanted more time to consider the sentence. Philpott's previous criminal convictions, which had not been revealed to the jury, were disclosed at this point. On 4 April, Philpott was sentenced to life imprisonment, with a minimum tariff of fifteen years, while Mairead and Mosley were each sentenced to seventeen years (of which they would need to serve at least half before any release on licence). On 29 November, an appeal by Mairead against the length of her sentence (not the verdict) was heard. The grounds of the appeal were mainly that Mairead was under the control of her husband and could not exercise a free choice in her conduct; the appeal was dismissed. Mairead was released on licence in 2020 after serving half of her sentence.


title: Final Score (2018 film)

text: Final Score is a 2018 action thriller film directed by Scott Mann and written by David T. Lynch and Keith Lynch, starring Dave Bautista (who previously worked with Mann in "Heist"), Ray Stevenson and Pierce Brosnan.


title: Final Score (2018 film)

text: Brothers Dimitri and Arkady Belav have led the revolution in the Russian state of Sakovya for independence. The revolution ultimately leads to Dimitri being killed in an airstrike and Arkady being captured, ending the revolution. After several years, Arkady and his men believe that Dimitri has faked his death, so they torture a man for information on where Dimitri is hiding in London.


title: Final Score (2018 film)

text: Meanwhile, in London, former US military soldier Michael Knox visits his late best friend's house to attend West Ham United football game with his niece, Danni. He had previously served in Afghanistan in an attack team alongside his best friend (who he explains "was like a brother") and was the only survivor of their last mission. Danni is grounded by her mother for delinquent behaviour, but Knox manages to fix the situation, and her mother gives her consent for Michael to take Danni to the football match.


title: Final Score (2018 film)

text: Arriving at the West Ham stadium, Upton Park, Danni expresses her frustration about her dad's death. Michael goes to get them both hot dogs, at which point Danni gets a text from a boy she fancies and decides to join him at his seat. Meanwhile, Arkady and his mercenaries covertly infiltrate the stadium, take over the control room and initiate a lockdown of the entire stadium. Taking Superintendent Steve Thompson hostage, Arkady threatens Thompson into cooperating with his team by threatening his family. Arkady then has his men blow up all transmission towers across the city to ensure that no communication will be made outside the stadium. Discovering Danni is missing from her seat, Knox seeks help with the cheeky stadium guard, Faisal Khan. Faisal reluctantly assists Knox to the control room. On their way, they run into one of Arkady's men posing as a guard near the lift, who ultimately attacks them, resulting in Michael killing him. Knox finds C-4 explosives in Andrei's jacket. He then uses the only working walkie-talkie to call the police about the situation, but Chief Commander Daniel Steed does not believe him and hangs up. After he kills two other men, Vlad and Anton, Knox brings the latter's body to a balcony and throws him down, smashing into concession stands and thereby summoning the police.


title: Final Score (2018 film)

text: Seeing this, Arkady and the other mercenaries infiltrate the news studio and kill the crew. Arkady has a reporter read a statement at gunpoint, demanding Dimitri's location, or they will blow up the stadium. As he finishes the statement, Arkady kills the reporter and two others on live television, which Danni's mom sees and prompts her to leave for the stadium. Steed is approached by Agent Cho, who explains that Dimitri fled Russia undercover, underwent plastic surgery, and was given amnesty in London. Cho says that he cannot meet the demands as handing Dimitri to Arkady will plunge the entire Russian region into chaos, endangering millions. Arkady's team learns the background of Knox and Danni, and they decide to take Danni hostage. Hearing them summoning Danni over the speaker, Knox rescues her with help from Faisal.


title: Final Score (2018 film)

text: Because Thompson's team failed to capture Danni, Arkady executes him. Knox, Faisal, and Danni ultimately discover the C4 explosives planted below the control room, and Knox alerts Steed about it. Hoping to stop the situation, Knox decides to take Dimitri by himself. On his way, Knox encounters and fights Tatiana, ultimately escaping and finding Dimitri and agreeing with agents now circling in a helicopter to bring Dimitri to be safely taken away, but he stipulates Danni must go with them. But Tatiana takes Danni hostage and knocks Faisal unconscious. Knox eliminates the other men before they get to the extraction point, but upon learning Danni is taken, Cho – who is under orders to ensure Dimitri stays dead – has his men shoot at Knox; however, the mercenaries fend off the helicopter. After they threaten Danni, Knox agrees to hand over Dimitri in exchange for her. Steed berates Cho for risking the lives of innocent people and takes control of the situation. A helicopter comes back and kills most of the other mercenaries, but Dimitri and Danni are captured. After Knox struggles with Tatiana, they both fall from a higher point in the stadium and she is fatally impaled by a pipe. Knox had managed to get and keep hold of the kill switch, but realizes it is fake; before dying, Tatiana explains that the bomb will blow up 90 minutes into the match no matter what.


title: Final Score (2018 film)

text: When Dimitri reunites with Arkady, Arkady vows to start the revolution again if Dimitri proves his loyalty by shooting Danni. But unwilling to let Arkady's madness destroy the region with another revolution, Dimitri shoots himself. With just a few minutes left, Faisal is able to evacuate the audience that is near the stadium's control room. Arkady takes control of the live broadcast holding onto Danni as Knox runs towards the control room from across the field, but he's too late and the bomb goes off, destroying the control room.


title: Final Score (2018 film)

text: But as he starts to mourn, Knox looks more closely at the frozen big screen which was not destroyed and notices a time difference in two clocks, realising that the live broadcast was pre-recorded 85 minutes into the match, and that both of them are probably alive. As the crowd stampedes towards exits, Knox hears Danni crying out and confronts Arkady. With a gun to her head, Knox tells Danni to "use her head" - she gets the hint and head butts Arkady, sending him briefly reeling and Knox kills him. Danni reunites with her worried mother who runs to her arms, and Steed thanks Knox for his bravery. Knox, Danni, her mother, and Faisal (who was near the blast but managed to survive as he rescued an older woman who he had argued with earlier) leave the stadium.


title: Final Score (2018 film)

text: The film was first announced in February 2016, represented as ""Die Hard" in a football stadium," written by The Lynch Brothers, to be produced by Signature Films and The Fyzz Facility, with Highland Films Group executive producing with a $20 Million budget, filmed at the Boleyn Ground, former home of West Ham United. In July 2016, Dave Bautista and Pierce Brosnan were announced to be headlining the cast, which also stars Julian Cheung, Russell Phillips and Alexandra Dinu, with director Scott Mann at the helm, scheduled to begin filming on 8 August 2016 at the stadium. Principal photography officially began on 15 August 2016.


title: Final Score (2018 film)

text: In June 2018, a teaser trailer was released by Sky Cinema, along with an announcement that the film would open in the UK and Ireland on 7 September 2018. The film released in cinemas and on the Sky Cinema subscription television service on the same day.


title: Final Score (2018 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of based on reviews from critics, with an average rating of . On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 53 out of 100 based on 8 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews"


title: Final Score (2018 film)

text: Alex Godfrey of "Time Out" praised the film, saying "It is wittier, warmer and more unpredictable than it has any right to be." Kevin Crust of "Los Angeles Times" gave a mixed review "The characters are familiar movie types sufficiently fleshed out and well performed to hit all the emotional and comedic cues. The fight scenes and stunts — especially a masterfully choreographed motorcycle chase throughout the stadium — and a lack of obvious CGI provide the requisite thrills."


title: Final Score (2018 film)

text: Pat Brown of "Slant Magazine" criticized the film, saying "To observe that the Dave Bautista-starring action flick Final Score is yet another Die Hard knockoff may be tiresome, but it's not as if the film gives one much of a choice, as it offers up a ceaseless barrage of scenes lifted from the John McTiernan classic."


title: Final Score (2018 film)

text: Several reviewers have noted similarities, both in terms of overall premise and individual scenes, between this release and 1995's "Sudden Death". In that film, a fire marshal played by Jean-Claude Van Damme must stop a group of armed robbers, who have captured his daughter and planted bombs throughout the venue, before time runs out on game seven of ice hockey's Stanley Cup Finals. Although he denied having seen "Sudden Death" prior to making "Final Score", director Scott Mann acknowledged the similarities, saying "It totally is kind of like it".


title: Beware the Batman

text: Beware the Batman is an American computer-animated television series based on the DC Comics superhero Batman. The series premiered in the United States on Cartoon Network on July 13, 2013, as part of their DC Nation block, replacing "". The series was produced by Warner Bros. Animation and DC Entertainment. The series ran on Cartoon Network until it was pulled from the schedule four months after its premiere, without official explanation. After the series was put on hiatus, the remaining episodes of the series began to air on Adult Swim's Toonami programming block, from July 27 to September 28, 2014.


title: Beware the Batman

text: The series is set during Bruce Wayne's early years as the Batman, following his initial period of battling organized crime. Over the course of the season, he hones his skills with the assistance of his butler Alfred Pennyworth. Bruce is introduced to Alfred's goddaughter Tatsu Yamashiro. Tatsu is a martial arts swordsmaster hired to act as Bruce's bodyguard, but also recruited to act as a superhero partner to Batman.


title: Beware the Batman

text: Crime-fighting vigilante Batman teams up with swordmistress Katana and his ex-secret agent butler Alfred Pennyworth to face the criminal underworld led by Anarky, Magpie, Ra's al Ghul, Tobias Whale, Phosphorus Rex, Professor Pyg, Mister Toad, Lady Shiva, Key, Killer Croc, and Humpty Dumpty. Anarky, in particular, was intended to be the main villain in the series.


title: Beware the Batman

text: While the developers allowed themselves license to stylize the characters' appearances, the villains were particularly designed to be "over the top".


title: Beware the Batman

text: After "Batman: The Brave and the Bold" ended its run in November 2011, a new series went under production, so that Batman could return to a more "serious tone". With Batman receiving a new sidekick, Outsiders member Katana, Register even commented that "Katana is gonna be his new Robin, but not necessarily." The series was a 3D computer-animated format, similar to the earlier ""s animation style.


title: Beware the Batman

text: In the wake of the 2012 Aurora, Colorado shooting, which occurred during a screening of the Batman movie "The Dark Knight Rises", it was announced that the series content would be altered in order to make the firearms in the show look less realistic. In addition initial announcements for the series were accompanied with promotional art that was not intended for public release, depicting Alfred as a gun-toting butler. This upset fans of the Batman mythos, who argued against Alfred's participation in Batman's exploits, and his use of deadly firearms as against the Batman's principles. In response to fan criticism, producer Glen Murakami acknowledged that this poster image was an inaccurate representation of what the character's actual role would be. He elaborated that the poster was intended to be an action-themed shot that displayed the cast of characters, but that Alfred's portrayal had been misleadingly made more exciting. "You can't have an action pose of a guy standing with a tray", joked Murakami. Mitch Watson also noted the problem presented if Alfred were fighting alongside Batman, as he would be recognized as Bruce Wayne's butler, and thus reveal the identity of Batman. Regardless, both producers insisted that Alfred would remain true to his intended characterization as a mentor to Batman, who could potentially help Batman if a story plot called for it. Scott Thill, technology and pop culture commentator for "Wired" magazine, praised the initial choice to debut the villain Anarky on television, claiming the character was relevant following the rise of the Occupy movement and the hacktivist activities of Anonymous.


title: Beware the Batman

text: In promoting the series, Warner Bros. debuted a trailer a month prior to the series premier, featuring action sequences from the first three episodes, highlighting Batman, Professor Pyg and Toad, Magpie, and Anarky. On July 2, the opening title sequence was released to "Entertainment Weekly", a week prior to the series premiere. It depicts Batman, Alfred, Katana, and the Batmobile, in a stylized red background with stark red lighting effects, contrasted by dark shadows and silhouettes. The show's opening theme is composed by the indie rock band the Dum Dum Girls.


title: Beware the Batman

text: The requirements of 3D animation at times necessitated that inanimate objects such as ships and city streets were built, rather than simply drawn, creating a need for the completion of entire set designs. This would increase production times, but later allow the developers to bring cinematic qualities of lighting and camera play to the series. Batman's utility belt was fully recreated from cardboard and worn by producer Glen Murakami's design team, to test how the belt would function while in motion. "If you really built it, it would work", said Watson. Batarangs were designed to flip-open and function when retrieved from the belt. The Batmobile was also subjected to scrutiny, as a "certain amount of weight" was added to it as it moved on city streets, out of concern that it would be unbelievable otherwise.


title: Beware the Batman

text: Three months after the series premiere, "Beware the Batman" was pulled from the Cartoon Network schedule and put on hiatus on October 23, 2013. Cartoon Network did not provide an official explanation, leading fans to believe that the series had already been cancelled. Cartoon Network then moved the series to the Toonami programming block on the network's late-night Adult Swim block. Toonami first aired the series on Sunday, May 11, 2014, during the early-morning time slots. Cartoon Network then declared the series a financial failure and decided to "write it off", removing it from the network altogether. On September 28, Toonami ran a marathon consisting of the final seven unaired episodes to avoid abruptly ending the series run.


title: Beware the Batman

text: On February 18, 2014, the first 13 episodes of the series were released on Blu-ray and DVD in a collection titled "Beware The Batman: Season 1 Part 1 – Shadows of Gotham". The twelfth and thirteenth episodes had yet to air, despite being released on this collection. A second collection, titled "Beware The Batman: Season 1 Part 2 – Dark Justice", was released on September 30, 2014 containing the remaining 13 episodes of the show's only season.


title: Beware the Batman

text: Writers Mike W. Barr (co-creator of the character Katana), Scott Beatty, Matt Manning, and Ivan Cohen (who wrote the episode "Unique") and artists Luciano Vecchio and Dario Brizuela produced an original DC Comics comic book set in the continuity of the television series.


title: Peloton

text: In a road bicycle race, the peloton (from French, originally meaning 'platoon') is the main group or pack of riders. Riders in a group save energy by riding close (drafting or slipstreaming) to (particularly behind) other riders. The reduction in drag is dramatic; riding in the middle of a well-developed group, drag can be reduced to as little as 5%–10%. Exploitation of this potential energy saving leads to complex cooperative and competitive interactions between riders and teams in race tactics. The term is also used to refer to the community of professional cyclists in general.


title: Peloton

text: More formally, a peloton is defined as "two or more cyclists riding in sufficiently close proximity to be located either in one of two basic positions: (1) behind cyclists in zones of reduced air pressure, referred to as ‘drafting’, or (2) in non-drafting positions where air pressure is highest. Cyclists in drafting zones expend less energy than in front positions." A peloton has similarly been defined "as a group of cyclists that are coupled together through the mutual energy benefits of drafting, whereby cyclists follow others in zones of reduced air resistance." A peloton is a complex system, which means that collective behavior emerges from simple rules of cyclists' interactions.


title: Peloton

text: Pelotons are typically observed during bicycle races in which drafting is permitted, although pelotons also form from cyclist commuter traffic. Pelotons travel as an integrated unit in which each rider makes positional adjustments in response to the movements of adjacent riders and those ahead. Riders at the front are fully exposed to wind resistance, hence they experience higher fatigue loads than riders in drafting positions. After a period of time in front, leading riders maneuver farther back in the peloton to a drafting position to recover. Thus the peloton is in fluid motion as a continuous rotation of riders push from the back through to the leading edge, then falling away. Like bird flocks, peloton-like behavior that involves drafting or similar energy-saving mechanisms has been identified in a variety of biological systems.


title: Peloton

text: The shape or formation of the peloton changes according to multiple factors. Comparatively high power output efforts due to high-speeds on flat topography, a strong headwind or inclines (hills) tends to spread out or lengthen the formation, often into single file. A slow pace or brisk tailwind in which cyclists' power outputs are low result in compact formations such that riders ride side-by-side, often filling roads from one side to the other. When two or more groups of riders have reason to contest control of the peloton, several lines may form, each seeking to impose debilitating fatigue on the other teams. Fatigue is a decisive factor in the outcome of every race. Cyclists' range of peripheral vision is a significant factor in peloton formation.


title: Peloton

text: Thus these formations comprise two main phases of behavior: a compact, low-speed formation, and a single-file, high-speed formation. Peloton phases are indicated by thresholds in collective output that can be modeled mathematically and computationally. The principles of phase behavior identified by Trenchard et al. have been applied to optimize engineering problems.


title: Peloton

text: Similarly, these thresholds in peloton formations define transitions between peloton cooperative behavior and free-riding behavior. Cooperation and free-riding in pelotons have been studied using game theory and as a social dilemma, and have also been considered in terms of equivalencies to aspects of economic theory.


title: Peloton

text: Basic peloton behaviors have also been modelled with robots, and principles of peloton behavior have also been considered in relation to the future of collective robot behavior.


title: Peloton

text: Olds' analysis involved peloton breakaway and chasing groups. He identified the factors involved in determining the likelihood that a breakaway group would succeed in reaching the finish ahead of chasing groups. He identified the following critical factors: distance remaining in the race, the speed of the breakaway group, the number of riders in the both breakaway and chasing groups, how closely riders draft each other, course gradient and roughness, and headwinds and crosswinds (referred to as "demand" factors). Introducing riders' physiological variables including metabolic power production and time to exhausion ("supply" factors), Olds' presents an iterative algorithm for determining the mean power of each group and their relative times to exhaustion, thus determining whether the chasers will catch the breakaway.


title: Peloton

text: Olds' key findings include that group mean velocity increases rapidly as a function of group size up to five or six riders, and then continues to increase but only gradually up to about 20 cyclists; wheel spacing is a significant determinant of group speed due to drafting advantages; mean velocity falls as a function of distance remaining; the required lead time for a breakaway group falls rapidly as the number in the breakaway group increases up to about 10 riders, but flattens as the number of riders in the breakaway group approaches the number of riders in the chasing group. Similarly, Olds' observed that if the chase-group size is less than the size of the breakaway group and the wheel spacing among the chasers is greater than 3 meters, a chasing group will never catch a lead group, assuming other factors remain constant between the groups.


title: Peloton

text: Agent-based computer models allow for any number of independent "agents" with assigned attributes to interact according to programmed rules of behavior. In this way, simulated global behaviors emerge which can be studied for their properties and compared with actual systems. For their cyclist agents, Hoenigman et al. assigned individual maximum-power-outputs over a heterogeneous range among peloton cyclists and individual and team cooperative attributes in which agents share the most costly front position, or defect by seeking lower-cost drafting positions within the peloton, both according to some probabality. Hoenigman et al. introduced power equations from the literature for non-drafting and drafting positions, an approximate anaerobic threshold as a percentage of cyclists' maximum power when traveling alone without drafting, and a time-to-exhaustion parameter. The authors also introduced a "breakaway" state in which defecting riders increase their speeds to a higher threshold either to breakaway or to catch a group ahead.


title: Peloton

text: The authors performed experiments by varying the noted parameters over a simulated flat road race containing 15 teams of 10 riders. Cooperators (those willing to take the most costly front position) spend 5 minutes at the front, then rotate to the back of the pack. Defectors spend only one minute at the front. As the race approaches the end, strategies change such that each agent increases their output incrementally based on their remaining energy up to 100% of their maximum power output. Results of the model shows that weaker riders are better off defecting, while cooperation is a good strategy for stronger riders. The results are realistic when compared with real-world competitive cycling and demonstrate the effectiveness of this kind of agent-based model which facilitates accurate identification and analysis of underlying principles of system (in this case, peloton) behavior.


title: Peloton

text: In his 2013 agent-based peloton simulation, Erick Ratamero applied Wilenski's agent-based flocking model that incorporates three main dynamical parameters: alignment, separation and cohesion. Wilenski's model originates from Craig Reynolds' flocking model that incorporates the same parameters, which he described as velocity matching, collision avoidance, and flock centering.


title: Peloton

text: Ratamaro then applied Sayama's algorithm for cohesive and separating forces to adjust agents' acceleration based on their proportionate spacing within a defined field of vision. Ratamero then introduced cyclists' energetic parameters, adopting elements of Olds' equations for cyclists' energy expenditure, and cyclist performance results from Hoenigman, and Kyle's drafting equation. Ratamero then introduced a threshold energetic quantity to simulate the lactate threshold derived from Hoenigman, whereby cyclist-agents which expend energy above this level will fatigue and eventually fall back in position within the simulated peloton. Thus cyclist-agents expend their energy differentially within the peloton based on their positions and proximity to drafting positions.


title: Peloton

text: Ratamero's model demonstrates that cyclists tend to expend energy more efficiently by participating in well-organized lines in which cyclists advance toward the front, even though they might spend more time in front non-drafting positions than some cyclists internal to the peloton whose continual positional adjustments may result in less time in optimal drafting positions. Ratamero's model exhibits self-organized convection-like behavior which Trenchard described as a phase of peloton behavior.


title: Peloton

text: In their 2015 agent-based peloton simulation, Trenchard et al. applied Ratamero's dynamical model, but introduced a different way of modelling the energetic relationships between cyclist-agents. Whereas Ratamero applied a constant maximal sustainable output for all cyclists who then lose energy differentially according to their proximity to drafting positions, Trenchard et al. introduced different maximal sustainable capacities for each cyclist-agent whose positions are determined by the proportion of their maximal capacities to that of the front rider who sets the speed of the peloton. For this they apply the equation:


title: Peloton

text: where PCR is the "peloton convergence ratio", describing two coupled riders; the non-drafting front-rider sets the pace, while the follower obtains the drafting benefit of reduced power output at the same speed as the front rider. Two-cyclist coupling generalizes to multiple rider interactions.


title: Peloton

text: "d" expresses the follower’s energy savings due to drafting, as a fraction (percentage) of the front-rider’s power output;


title: Peloton

text: Thus, if P exceeds the follower's MSO, the follower will be unable to sustain the speed of the pace-setting front-rider and must decelerate to a speed less than or equal to that speed representative of the limitation of MSO. A drafting cyclist may operate at or below MSO. If the cyclist is at MSO while drafting but conditions change (e.g., the rider falls too far behind or too far to the side of the optimal drafting position, with respect to the leader), then the follower must decelerate. If she is below MSO while drafting but temporarily falls outside drafting range, she can increase power output to maintain the pace of the leader as long as she does not exceed MSO. This algorithm produces a realistic simulation of oscillating phase behavior between compact and stretched pelotons as speeds vary throughout the course of a race. Trenchard et al. tested the model against an actual set of MSOs for 14 cyclists who participated in a velodrome (track) race. The simulation test produced a realistic simulation of the actual race in terms of phase oscillations and cyclist's relative positions.


title: Peloton

text: Trenchard proposed a theoretical framework for peloton "protocooperative" behavior, a form of cooperation that emerges naturally from physical interactive principles as opposed to ones driven by human competitive, sociological or economic motivations. In this way, protocooperative behavior involves universal principles which Trenchard hypothesizes may be found in many biological systems involving energy saving mechanisms. The parameters of protocooperative behavior include: 1. two or more cyclists coupled by drafting benefit; 2. cyclists' power output or speed; and 3. cyclists' maximal sustainable outputs (MSO). The main characteristics of protocooperative behavior are: 1. a comparatively low-speed phase in which cyclists naturally pass each other and share highest-cost front positions; and 2. a free-riding phase (essentially the singe-file phase identified above), in which cyclists can maintain speeds of those ahead, but cannot pass. The threshold between these two phases is equivalent to the coefficient of drafting (d), below which cooperative behavior occurs and above which free-riding (single-file) occurs up to a second threshold when coupled cyclists diverge. Applying the PCR equation (noted above), the range of cyclists’ MSOs in the free-riding phase is equivalent to the energy savings benefit of drafting (1-d). When driven to maximal speeds, pelotons tend to sort into sub-groups such that their MSO ranges equal the free-riding range (1-d).


title: Peloton

text: 1. Weaker cyclists can sustain the pace of the strongest rider between PCR = d and PCR = 1 (d < PCR < 1), as free-riders. In this PCR range, equivalent to the energy savings (1-d), these cyclists cannot pass and share the most costly front position. Stronger cyclists in drafting positions will always be able to pass weaker cyclists ahead.


title: Peloton

text: 2. As speeds are increased up to maximal speeds set by the strongest riders, cyclists whose MSOs are below the PCR range (1-d), equivalent to the energy saved by drafting, will separate from the peloton (PCR ≥ 1).


title: Peloton

text: 3. Cyclists can engage in cooperative behavior (passing and sharing most costly front position) in combinations of MSOs at speeds such that PCR ≤ d.


title: Peloton

text: 4. These principles imply that if cyclists in a peloton exhibit a range of MSOs greater than the energy savings equivalent of drafting (1-d), over time and continual fluctuations in peloton speed, the peloton will divide such that sub-groups fit within the range equivalent of 1-d.


title: Peloton

text: It is this sorting behavior that Trenchard hypothesizes to be a universal evolutionary principle among biological systems coupled by an energy-saving mechanism, which he and collaborators have developed further in relation to extinct trilobites and slime mold


title: Peloton

text: While the riders at the very front encounter the greatest air resistance (and also those on the windward side when there is a significant crosswind), those behind the first few riders near the front have critical advantages.


title: Peloton

text: Being close to the front means that the rider can see and react to attacks from competitors, and changes in position, with far less effort. Gaps sometimes form in the peloton, and being close to the front reduces the risk of getting caught in the rear group if a break occurs in the peloton, for example, after a crash. Riders near the front are much less likely to have delays due to involvement in crashes.


title: Peloton

text: There is increasing risk of delays or injury from involvement in crashes as one falls farther back in the peloton. In addition, riders are increasingly affected by the accordion effect, in which a change in speed becomes amplified as it propagates to the back of the peloton. The riders following must anticipate and brake early to avoid collisions when the peloton slows. Touching wheels for even a moment normally results in a crash, which spreads across the field in chain reaction as the densely packed riders cannot avoid hitting downed riders and bikes. The entire peloton behind the crash may be stopped.


title: Peloton

text: Being close to the front is also critical in strong crosswind conditions. Cross winds create a significant fatigue penalty for everyone, unless riders form moving groups called echelons in which riders collaborate to form a 'paceline' in a racetrack pattern angled across the road, with the leading rider on the upwind side of the road. Riders for a paceline, such as an echelon, sequentially change positions at short intervals so that no one rider must long accumulate excessive fatigue from facing maximum wind resistance at the leading edge. Echelons are necessarily limited in size by the roadway's width.


title: Peloton

text: When a large peloton is exposed to a significant crosswind on a narrow road, the peloton cannot avoid breaking into a number of small echelons. Teams aware of wind conditions ahead, strong enough to move to the front, well experienced in echelon riding, can gain an important time advantage in these circumstances.


title: Peloton

text: It is critical for riders in contention to win a race to remain near (but not at) the front of the peloton, especially when approaching sharp turns that require braking. Resuming pace after a sharp turn (especially into wind) routinely causes division in a peloton. Once a division occurs, if the will and collective strength of those wisely placed at the front is greater than those behind, the gap between the groups will remain (or increase) to the end of the race, because the extra air resistance for a single rider attempting to move forward to reach the front group imposes an extravagant fatigue penalty, as compared to those who remained protected in the peloton. This is particularly true at high speed on flat roads.


title: Peloton

text: When a team maneuvers to the front of the peloton, it has placed itself in position to dictate the tempo of the race. Teams of riders may prefer a faster or slower tempo depending on the team's tactics.


title: Peloton

text: A few strong riders will always attempt to break away from the main peloton, attempting to build such a commanding lead early in the race that the peloton cannot catch up before the finish. Breakaways may succeed when break riders are strong, especially if none of the riders in the break is a danger man (in contention for a win in the overall contest), and if they all pull together as a team. The rider (or riders) who are in the lead and have also successfully broken away from the peloton are referred to as Tête de la Course (a French expression meaning “head of the race”). The peloton will not allow a break with a danger man to get far ahead. Strong teams who want to bring their sprinter into contention for the win come to the front of the peloton and dictate a harsh pace, imposing fatigue on rivals, meanwhile breakaway riders (who individually must spend much more time exposed to the wind than peloton members) sequentially succumb to fatigue and are normally caught. Otherwise successful breaks often fall into disarray just before the finish, where rider calculations regarding personal chances for victory destroy the uneasy break alliance, meanwhile the peloton is catching up quickly.


title: Peloton

text: Tactical factors also apply. Team tactics generally involve clustering their members within the peloton in order to maximize their ability to affect the peloton. For example, if a team member is currently in a breakaway group out in front of the main peloton, the remaining team members will normally make no attempt to accelerate the peloton, to maximize the chances of success for their breakaway group rider. Rarely, they may move to the front of the peloton, and actively seek to check the progress of the peloton at a critical moment. This tactic has the best chance of success on narrow roads, with tight turns, where a single team can fill the road from one side to the other.


title: Peloton

text: In races where the finish is on flat roads, within a few kilometers from the finish, strong teams form into lines, with their principal sprint contender at the rear. The leading rider of each contending team drives forward at the highest pace he can achieve, until he reaches the limit of his endurance, when he then pulls off to the side, allowing the succeeding team member in line to drive forward to his limit. The team sprinter slipstreams at the rear to minimize fatigue due to air resistance until the last hundred meters or so, when the sprinter will choose the moment to dash out from behind his lead-out rider to charge to the finish at the highest possible speed.


title: Shenyang J-5

text: The Shenyang J-5 (Chinese: 歼-5) (NATO reporting name "Fresco") is a Chinese-built single-seat jet interceptor and fighter aircraft derived from the Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17. The J-5 was exported as the F-5 and was originally designated Dongfeng-101 (East Wind-101) and also Type 56 before being designated J-5 in 1964.


title: Shenyang J-5

text: The MiG-17 was license-built in China and Poland into the 1960s. The People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) obtained a number of Soviet-built MiG-17 Fresco-A day fighters, designated J-4 in the early 1950s. To introduce modern production methods to Chinese industry the PLAAF obtained plans for the MiG-17F Fresco-C day fighter in 1955, along with two completed pattern aircraft, 15 knockdown kits, and parts for ten aircraft. The first Chinese-built MiG-17F, (serialed "Zhong 0101"), produced by the Shenyang factory, performed its initial flight on 19 July 1956 with test pilot Wu Keming at the controls.


title: Shenyang J-5

text: Plans were obtained in 1961 for the MiG-17PF interceptor and production began, as the J-5A (F-5A), shortly afterwards. At this time the Sino-Soviet split occurred, causing much disruption to industrial and technical projects, so the first J-5A did not fly until 1964, when the type was already obsolete. A total of 767 J-5s and J-5As had been built when production ended in 1969.


title: Shenyang J-5

text: The Chinese also built a two-seat trainer version of the MiG-17, designated the Chengdu JJ-5 (Jianjiji Jiaolianji - Fighter Trainer - FT-5), from 1968, by combining the two-seat cockpit of the MiG-15UTI, the VK-1A engine of the J-5, and the fuselage of the J-5A. All internal armament was deleted and a single Nudelman-Richter NR-23 23 mm cannon was carried in a ventral pack. Production of the JJ-5 reached 1,061 when it ceased in 1986, with the type exported to a number of countries.


title: Shenyang J-5

text: The J-5 and JJ-5 saw widespread use by the PLAAF until supplanted by more capable aircraft the Shenyang J-6 and later Chengdu J-7.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: Six Flags AstroWorld, also known simply as AstroWorld, was a seasonally operated amusement park in Houston, Texas. Owned and operated by Six Flags, the park was situated between Kirby Drive and Fannin Street, directly south of I-610. The park opened on June 1, 1968, and was developed originally and constructed as part of the Astrodomain, the brainchild of local philanthropist and former Houston mayor Roy Hofheinz, who intended it to complement the Astrodome. The Hofheinz family sold AstroWorld to Six Flags in 1978.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: Notable rides featured at the park included the Texas Cyclone, a wooden roller coaster built in 1976 that was modeled after the well-known Coney Island Cyclone, and Thunder River, considered the world's first successful river rapids ride when it opened in 1980. WaterWorld, an adjacent water park, was acquired and added to AstroWorld in 2002. Following declining revenue, rising property value, and other issues facing Six Flags, the company closed AstroWorld permanently after its final day of operations on October 30, 2005, the final night of Fright Fest. Many rides were sold at auction or relocated to other Six Flags' properties, and demolition of the remaining structures was completed by mid-2006.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: Judge Roy Hofheinz, who was one of the original owners of the Houston Astros baseball team and spearheaded the lobbying effort that resulted in Harris County financing the construction of the Astrodome, founded the "Astrodomain" holding company after the Astrodome's opening in 1965. It owned in south Houston surrounding the Astrodome. Hofheinz continued to develop the Astrodomain, creating AstroWorld (1968), the Astrohall convention center (which hosted twice-daily stagings of the now-defunct Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus in 1969; Hofheinz had acquired the circus in December 1967), and four hotels with a capacity of 5,600 guests to serve visitors: the Astroworld Motor Hotel (with a private suite for Hofheinz on the ninth floor), Holiday Inn-Astroworld, Howard Johnson Motor Lodge-Astroworld, and Sheraton Inn-Astroworld.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: In 1967, Hofheinz initially denied that preliminary work for an amusement park had been underway, but later announced on September 16 that approximately half of the remaining land, , was being developed for a park to be named "Astroworld". Hofheinz showed an architectural model of the park and announced that Randall Duell and Associates had designed it; Duell, a Hollywood set designer and architect, had previously designed Six Flags Over Texas. An initial $25 million investment paid for extensive landscaping and a long pedestrian viaduct spanning the I-610 freeway, the first privately owned, publicly accessible span over a federal highway. Lloyd, Morgan & Jones designed the bridge.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: Additional design work for the park was performed by I. A. Naman & Associates (air conditioning); Lockwood, Andrews & Newnam (electrical); Walter P Moore (structural); Turner, Collie & Braden (civil engineering); and Linesch & Reynolds (landscape architects). of fill was required for the site, because of its low elevation and drainage issues. Dozier Specialty, who had previously worked on Colt Stadium, was the general contractor. The name AstroWorld was selected following Houston's designation as the home of the Johnson Space Center in 1965, paying homage to the nation's crewed space programs.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: Executives commissioned Ed Henderson, a Disney animator, to build a scale replica of the park and design maps for park guests. Henderson's model of AstroWorld, measuring , was built as a publicity preview of the park in 1967. Architecture students at Rice University and the University of Houston sculpted many of the buildings. It was displayed in the window of Foley's, a downtown department store, then moved to Hofheinz's Astrodome suite once the park opened; as an Easter egg, a model of Hofheinz's black Cadillac is parked in a private lot in the northwest corner of the park's model. After the park closed in 2005, the model was discovered sawed into six pieces in a warehouse, then returned to Henderson. He stored it in his garage before it was displayed in fall 2010 at the Optical Project gallery, operated by artists Bill Davenport and Francesca Fuchs. In 2011, it was sold to I. A. Naman and Associates, the same firm that had designed the park's outdoor air conditioning; they donated the model to the Houston Public Library.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: The Hofheinz family, Roy and his three children (Roy Jr., Fred, and Dene), shared ownership of the park. Hofheinz hosted a press preview in May 1968; Leonard Traube wrote the park "has a beautifully realized continuity and layout calculated to move traffic in such a way as to make practical the policy of a single gate admission for virtually everything on the grounds", referring to the Duell loop that routes visitors through each part of the park.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: AstroWorld opened on June 1, 1968, just south of the Astrodome, creating a multi-facility entertainment complex; 50,000 guests visited the park during the first weekend. Hofheinz enlisted two of his grandchildren to launch the amusement park with the release of 2,000 balloons. An initial workforce of 1,200 collected tickets at a price of $4.50 for adults and $3.50 for children. Stan McIlvaine, who had formerly operated Six Flags Over Texas, was the first general manager of AstroWorld. Two of the park's sixteen attractions were not operational on opening day.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: Marvel McFey, the park's official mascot (branded the "Ambassador of Happiness"), was introduced in 1972. He was accompanied by a menagerie of "animal gypsies": Winston Wolf (the sheriff of AstroWorld); Pigs One, Two, and Three (mischievous tricksters named Quiz, Chiquito, and Harpo); Percy Penguin; Pierre Le Rat (the resident artist); Flopper Rabbit (a country bumpkin); Beethoven Bear (a checkers champion); Samantha Skunk ("a bright purple and pink flower child"); Frieda Frog (McFey's secretary); and Lester Lion (a frustrated baseball player). In addition to their in-park greeting and show duties, Marvel and his caravan of Enchanted Animals represented AstroWorld at many civic functions. Rolly Crump designed and built the character costumes.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: In 1970, just two years after the opening of Astroworld, Hofheinz survived a stroke that left him in a wheelchair. The enterprise announced a $38 million long-range financing program in 1972, with notes held by General Electric Credit Corp., Ford Motor Credit Co., and HNC Realty. Those creditors assumed control of the Astrodomain in 1974. Astrodomain sold the hotels to Servico Inc. in May 1976. Hofheinz liquidated his interest in the company a short time later.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: Six Flags purchased a 20-year operating lease for AstroWorld in mid-1975. The following year, Six Flags AstroWorld introduced a new, high-speed roller coaster, the Texas Cyclone. A new playground named "The Magical World of Marvel McFey" was added to Children's World for the 1977 season. That same year, Robert Cartmell named the Texas Cyclone the best roller coaster in the world. The formal purchase of AstroWorld by Six Flags concluded in 1978. In 1978, the new attraction was Greezed Lightnin', a high-acceleration loop roller coaster.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: McFey's tenure as the park's mascot ended in 1984 as Bugs Bunny and other "Looney Tunes" characters moved into the Enchanted Kingdom for the 1985 season; AstroWorld's parent corporation, Six Flags, had acquired the license to use the "Looney Tunes" characters in 1984 for its theme parks from Marriott along with the Great America in Gurnee theme park; Marriott had held the license since 1976 for its twin Great America parks.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: Six Flags continued to change ownership, being purchased by Bally Manufacturing in 1982, then by a private equity firm, Wesray Corporation, in 1987. Time Warner acquired a minority stake in 1990 and owned the company outright by September 1993. During Astroworld's first twenty years, it entertained more than thirty million visitors. The amusement park persisted while new competitors in Houston emerged and failed, including Busch Gardens, Hanna–Barbera Land, and SeaArama Marineworld. Attendance increased during these earlier years. In the early 1990s, the Six Flags parks gained access to DC Comics characters through its corporate owner, Time Warner; was installed at AstroWorld for the 1993 season. In February 1998, Premier Parks, led by CEO Kieran Burke, acquired Six Flags Entertainment Corporation. In 1984, Premier, originally Tierco, a property management group, hired Gary Story to rehabilitate one of its properties, an older park named Frontier City in Oklahoma City; Story's successful turnaround of that park started the company's theme park acquisition program.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: The Six Flags acquisition was part of an ambitious Premier Parks purchasing program, which bought 31 amusement parks in four years, including the 12 Six Flags parks. Burke received a $2 million bonus for completing the Six Flags acquisition. However, Six Flags failed to turn a profit for five straight years after the 1998 acquisition, announcing a $122 million loss for the first half of 2003; capital expenditures began to be scaled back because of its debt load. In August 2005, Six Flags announced it was selling its chain of parks. One month later, on September 12, Burke announced AstroWorld would be closed and demolished at the end of the 2005 season. The company cited issues such as declining attendance, rising property value, and conflicts involving off-site parking at Reliant Stadium, which houses the Houston Texans football team and the Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo (HLSR). In 1997, the combined attendance of AstroWorld and Water World was 2.27 million visitors; AstroWorld alone was ranked as the 28th most attended theme park in the United States with 1.99 million guests. AstroWorld attendance ranked 35th overall among all theme parks in 2000, 37th overall in 2002, 36th overall in 2003, and 39th overall in 2004, which was eighth among all Six Flags parks in 2004. A contractual agreement that allowed Six Flags patrons to park at Reliant Stadium expired in August 2005, and attempts to extend it failed. CFO Jim Dannhauser cited the expired parking arrangement as a "contributing factor" in the decision to close. Burke later explained in 2014 the decision was based on "[AstroWorld's] condition and location and the costs to modernize ... we had big offers pouring in for the land at the time and it just made more sense to close it." The final date of park operation was October 30, 2005. Following the closure, most of the park's assets, including rides and equipment, were sold during a three-day public auction held January 6–8, 2006.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: Company executives expected to sell the land for as much as $150 million, but ultimately received less than half that amount. After spending $20 million to demolish the park and clear the land, Six Flags sold the cleared property for $77 million in 2006 to Angel/McIver Interests, a land development firm based in Conroe, Texas. By that time, Burke had been removed as CEO. In 2009, the former Astroworld site was still vacant. The land tract was reported as taking up . The land owners hired real estate consultants, Croswell Torian Commercial Properties, to subdivide and market the property to other developers under the "SouthPoint" brand, though no development had yet occurred. The original tract purchased by Hofheinz was reduced by : were acquired by Harris County Metro and another piece of the tract on the northwest corner sold to a car dealership.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: The Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo (HLSR) are the owners of a record-holding of cleared land bounded by West Bellfort Drive, Fannin Street, Kirby Drive, and I-610. The original amusement park site occupied of that. Parts of the tract were developed, and other parts were undeveloped; the HLSR was using some of that property for overflow parking and conveying those visitors over the long pedestrian viaduct, the last remnant of the former amusement park. Though the site includes a great field of grass, the land is stabilized and partly paved with asphalt, so it can be used for parking.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: There were ten themed areas by the early 1980s. WaterWorld, an adjacent water park built in 1983, became part of AstroWorld in 2002. The park's outdoor concert venue, the Southern Star Amphitheatre, opened in 1980. Well-known musicians and bands performed at the amphitheater over the years, including The Beach Boys, the Grateful Dead, and Bob Dylan.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: The Alpine Sleigh Ride, Astrowheel, and Mill Pond were among the park's original sixteen rides. The Alpine Sleigh Ride "[took] passengers in roller coasters fashion over a mountain and through snow storms and waterfalls". Its opening was delayed by three weeks after the park's opening day. The water skimmer ride Mill Pond was not operational on opening day for mechanical reasons as well as the late arrival of two "water bug" cars. The Black Dragon debuted within the first year.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: To compensate for the humidity in Houston, the park included more than 2,400 tons of cooling with vents in the shaded areas of the park, which AstroWorld called "the largest outdoor air conditioning system in the world" at its opening. Additional air conditioning systems were fitted to the Alpine Sleighs, blowing gusts of refrigerated air over guests at .


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: The "610 Limited" was the park's perimeter railroad, originally operating two steam locomotives, each -scale 4-4-0, which were built by Bob Harpur. Each original train had an engine, tender, and four cars for a capacity of 250 passengers, carrying them at speeds up to over of track. The No. 2 train was sold for scrap to Gary Norton in 1986 and served at Silverwood Theme Park briefly before the engine was sold to private owners and restored in Georgetown, California; the coaches remain in service at Silverwood. No. 1 remained in limited operation after diesel locomotives were relocated from Six Flags Magic Mountain; after AstroWorld closed, No. 1 was sold in January 2006, restored, and returned to service on the Pacific Coast Railroad at Santa Margarita Ranch in April as "Caroline". In addition, Harper Goff designed a custom railcar for Judge Hofheinz, named the "Astrodoma", designed to run on the same tracks; it was stored alongside its locomotive in 1976 after the park was sold to Six Flags, and remained undisturbed before it was sold in 2018.


title: Six Flags AstroWorld

text: Bamboo Shoot (a log flume later named Ozarka Splash) and the Serpent junior coaster were installed in 1969. Bamboo Shoot took riders on a course at speeds up to ; each of the 25 boats carried four adults or six children. Serpent carried 24 passengers on a track in six cars. The Alpine Carousel (also known as the Dentzel Carousel, after its manufacturer) in Alpine Village also was added for the 1969 season. It was originally built in 1895 and operated from 1907 to 1967 in Forest Park (formerly Eichelberger Park) in Hanover, Pennsylvania. After Forest Park was sold to make way for a shopping center, AstroWorld purchased the carousel and moved it to Houston. It retained its original pipe organ and drums, and the menagerie of animals included lions, ostriches, pigs, camels, horses, rabbits, giraffes, and tigers. Some animals on the outside ring were swapped from a D. C. Muller and Bros. carousel that had previously operated at Pen Mar Park between 1907 and 1943; August Karst operated both the Pen Mar and Forest parks. The Brass Ring Carousel Company of Sun Valley, California, purchased the carousel before the 2006 auction of AstroWorld assets, and restored it for a private museum.