title: Brain Salad Surgery

text: Because of its length, "Karn Evil 9: 1st Impression" had originally been split into two parts for vinyl, with a fade-out at the end of side 1 and a fade-in at the beginning of side 2. Some early CD editions continued to split the track, but since then it has been presented as a single, uninterrupted piece.


title: Brain Salad Surgery

text: In 2008, a remastered and expanded three-disc 35th-anniversary deluxe edition was released by Sanctuary Records, a subsidiary label of Universal Music Group at that time. Disc 1 (CD) contained the original album, remastered by Paschal Byrne. Disc 2 (CD) consisted of different recordings and mixes of tracks associated with "Brain Salad Surgery", as well as two bonus tracks: "When the Apple Blossoms Bloom in the Windmills of Your Mind I'll Be Your Valentine" and "Brain Salad Surgery". Disc 3 was a hybrid SACD containing the original album in stereo and surround sound. For the 5.1 mix, the 2000 Rhino version was taken.


title: Brain Salad Surgery

text: In 2014, a limited six-disc super deluxe box set edition was released by Legacy/Sony Music. Disc 1 (CD) contained the original album, remastered by Andy Pearce. Disc 2 (CD) was composed of bonus tracks associated with "Brain Salad Surgery". Disc 3 (CD) contained a new stereo version of the album. The original and new stereo versions in high resolution along with a brand new 5.1 surround sound mix by Jakko Jakszyk were featured on Disc 4 (DVD-Audio). "The Manticore Special Documentary" film, photo gallery, and Giger's original artwork were included in Disc 5 (DVD-Video). Finally, Disc 6 was a 180gm vinyl record with the original album. A cut-down three-disc edition, which consisted of the Discs 1, 2, and 4 (but without the 5.1 mix), received international release around the same time. In Japan, the 40th anniversary 3 disc edition, on the Victor Entertainment label, contains the new stereo and 5.1 surround mixes as well as original stereo mixes on DVD-audio on the first disc, the original album remastered on the second disc, and on the third disc the Alternate Brain Salad Surgery with bonus tracks.


title: Brain Salad Surgery

text: Upon its initial release, the album was met with a remarkably polarized critical reception. Gordon Fletcher of "Rolling Stone" considered that although Emerson, Lake & Palmer managed to vanquish "insufficient intensity and lack of worthy material" of their previous records in live performances, these flaws overwhelmed all the group's positives in the studio, resulting in things like "Brain Salad Surgery", which was deemed as a "sadly uneven album from a group with technical gifts equal to that of any British trio". In particular, he counted the lyrics of "Still...You Turn Me On" to be somewhat overblown and dismissed "Benny the Bouncer" as "a needless nonsensical whimsey". Writing for "The Village Voice", Robert Christgau, who had never been favourable towards Emerson, Lake & Palmer, submitted a review, which consisted entirely of rhetorical questions, and assigned the album a very low "C−" rating. On the other side, Pete Erskine of "Sounds" was positive about the record, calling it the group's "most uncluttered and melodic album to date and certainly their rockiest". Before its release in the United States in December 1973, "Brain Salad Surgery" was reviewed by "Billboard" and described as "a complex, exciting sonic experience which touches on several bases—heavy rock, flowing jazz and some zesty pop material".


title: Brain Salad Surgery

text: Retrospective response has been predominantly favourable. AllMusic contributor Bruce Eder cited the record as "Emerson, Lake & Palmer's most successful and well-realized album, and their most ambitious as a group, as well as their loudest". He summarized that it represents "a high point that the trio would never again achieve, or even aspire to". Paul Stump, in his 1997 "History of Progressive Rock", characterized the album as frustratingly uneven, but highlighted the "demonic" version of "Toccata" and the group instrumental workout in the third part of "Karn Evil 9" as among the band's finest moments. While reviewing the box set "A Time and a Place" for the online "All About Jazz" magazine, John Kelman mentioned "Brain Salad Surgery" as a "crowning masterpiece" and the group's "undeniable high water mark". The album was included in the musical reference book "1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die", where it was called "the most fully realized—and still decidedly brazen—ELP statement".


title: Brain Salad Surgery

text: In 2005, "Q Classic" and "Mojo" magazines placed "Brain Salad Surgery" at number 5 on their "40 Cosmic Rock Albums", which was published in the special edition "Pink Floyd & The Story of Prog Rock". In 2015, it was ranked the 12th greatest progressive rock album of all time by "Rolling Stone", whose reviewer Will Hermes characterised the record as "prescient and pretty damn rocking".


title: Brain Salad Surgery

text: Soon after the recording sessions ended and the tracks were mixed in October 1973, the group rehearsed for their upcoming world tour to promote the album. Spanning from 14 November 1973 to 21 August 1974, and including 100 live performances, it comprised four parts: Leg 1—North America (from 14 November 1973 to 18 December 1973, 28 shows), Leg 2—North America (from 24 January 1974 to 6 April 1974, 29 shows), Leg 3—Europe (from 18 April 1974 to 1 June 1974, 26 shows), and Leg 4—North America (from 26 July 1974 to 21 August 1974, 17 shows).


title: Brain Salad Surgery

text: On stage, Emerson, Lake & Palmer mixed the complex musicianship of their material with theatrics which attracted criticism. These included Emerson playing a grand piano while it revolved in mid-air, and abusing the Hammond organ by sticking knives in the manuals, throwing it around the stage and letting it feed back, while Palmer played on a revolving drum kit. The group carried almost 40 tons of equipment, which took five hours to unpack and set up, including a 30-channel board discrete quadraphonic public address sound system provided by International Entertainers Service, and a state-of-the-art lighting system, designed by Judy Rasmussen, which consisted of large ladders at each corner of the stage and two arches installed above the performance area.


title: Brain Salad Surgery

text: Their 2 February 1974 concert, which was played in the main arena at the Anaheim Convention Center in Anaheim, California, was documented on the three-disc anthology "Welcome Back, My Friends, to the Show That Never Ends ~ Ladies and Gentlemen", released on 19 August 1974. Much of the performance was also used for broadcasting on the American rock music radio show "King Biscuit Flower Hour". The live album reached number 6 on the UK charts and number 4 on the "Billboard" 200, which was the highest U.S. chart position the trio ever achieved.


title: Brain Salad Surgery

text: Arguably the most high-profile performance was on 6 April 1974, when Emerson, Lake & Palmer co-headlined with Deep Purple at the California Jam festival, held at the Ontario Motor Speedway in Ontario, California, with an attendance of 350,000 paying fans. Only 55 minutes of the group's -hour festival-closing set was aired by ABC television network, which was a sponsor of the festival, on 7 May and 10 June 1974. The remaining footage of ELP's entire performance has thus far not surfaced (unlike Deep Purple, whose entire 1-hour set has been issued in various audio and video releases). The extant ELP footage was eventually released on video in 2005 as a part of "Beyond the Beginning" DVD-Video. The audio recordings first appeared in 1998 on the album "Then & Now".


title: Brain Salad Surgery

text: After the tour was completed in August 1974, Emerson, Lake & Palmer took an extended hiatus from recording and performing. In 1976, the group reunited to work on their next album, "Works Volume 1" (1977).


title: Brain Salad Surgery

text: Some CD editions have the entire suite "Karn Evil 9" as a one track, giving the album a total of five tracks.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The Ford Zephyr is an executive car manufactured by Ford of Britain from 1950 until 1972. The Zephyr and its luxury variants, the Ford Zodiac and Ford Executive, were the largest passenger cars in the British Ford range from 1950 until their replacement by the Consul and Granada models in 1972.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: Initially, the four-cylinder version was named Ford Consul, but from 1962, both four- and six-cylinder versions were named Zephyr.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The Mark I Ford Consul and Zephyr models were first displayed at the Earls Court Motor Show in 1950. They were the first mass-produced British cars to use the MacPherson strut independent front suspension, which is widely used today. Production began with the Consul on 1 January 1951. The Mark I model ran until 1956. From April 1956, the Mark II Consul, Zephyr, and Zodiac went on sale and were known as the Three Graces. The Mark II range was popular, and finished its run in 1962, when from April that year the Mark III Zephyr 4, Zephyr 6, and Zodiac went on sale. The Consul name was dropped, with the car's place in the Ford UK line-up being filled by the first four-cylinder Ford Zephyr. While the Mark II Zephyr and Zodiacs had shared the same body (the Consul had shorter front guards and bulkhead), the new Zodiac and Zephyrs launched in 1962 shared few body panels. With the Mark III, Ford finally sorted out problems that had beset previous models (Mark I axles and Mark II gearboxes were particular weaknesses) and the Mark III proved to be popular and the most durable of the range. The model sold at a rate equal to or better than the Mark II, both in the UK and overseas, but was in production for a shorter time. During the last months of production, an upmarket Executive version was added to the Mark III range. The Mk III range was discontinued in January 1966, and the completely new Zephyr/Zodiac Mark IV range was released in April 1966. This car's design anticipated the later Consul/Granada range with V-type engines and independent rear suspension, but the development of the model was rushed, which was reflected in its durability. It was one of the first medium-priced cars to feature rear disc brakes.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The Zephyr was the last car to be independently designed by Ford of Britain; closer integration with Ford-Werke of Cologne had already started with both the Transit and Escort, and the replacement Consul/Granada would be a genuine pan-European effort.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: Although the Ford Zephyr never saw American production, a very limited number were imported into the U.S., and the name itself has appeared on other American Ford-related cars. The first use of the Zephyr name was in 1936 with the Lincoln Zephyr a smaller companion to the full-sized Lincoln sedan sold at the time, followed in the late 1970s with the Mercury Zephyr, an upscale version of the Ford Fairmont. The Lincoln Zephyr name was resurrected for a new model in 2006, but was changed to Lincoln MKZ the following year.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The first of the Zephyr range was a lengthened version of the four-cylinder Consul, with a six-cylinder engine producing . Like the Consul, the Zephyr came with a three-speed gearbox, controlled by a column-mounted lever (three-on-the-tree). The front suspension design employed what later came to be known as MacPherson struts while a more conventional configuration for the rear suspension used a live axle with half-elliptical springs. The car could reach just over and 23 mpg.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The Ford Zephyr Six was available with four-door saloon, estate, and two-door convertible bodies. The convertible version was made by Carbodies and had a power-operated hood; the estate car was by Abbotts of Farnham and was sold as the Farnham.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: In addition to the main British Ford factory in Dagenham, the Consul and Zephyr were assembled at Ford New Zealand's Seaview factory in Lower Hutt from knock-down kits. The large Fords competed with the also locally built Vauxhall Wyvern and Velox, and later the Australian Holden. When newly crowned Queen Elizabeth II visited New Zealand as part of a Commonwealth tour in the early 1950s, she was pictured watching Zephyrs being built at the local Ford plant.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: In 1953, a Ford Zephyr Six driven by Maurice Gatsonides won the Monte Carlo rally, pushing a Jaguar Mark VII into second place in the process. Two years later, a Ford Zephyr Six driven by Vic Preston (Snr) and D P Marwaha won the East African Safari Rally.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: A saloon tested by "The Motor" in 1951 had a top speed of and could accelerate from 0– in 20.2 seconds. A fuel consumption of was recorded. The test car cost £842 including taxes, but was fitted with optional leather trim, heater, and radio.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The Zephyr Zodiac (or Zodiac Mark I) was an upmarket version of the Zephyr launched at the London Motor Show in autumn 1953. It had two-tone paintwork, leather trim, a heater, windscreen washers, whitewall tyres, and spot lights. The engine had a higher compression ratio – 7.5:1 instead of 6.8:1 – increasing the maximum power to .


title: Ford Zephyr

text: A car tested by "The Motor" in 1955 had a top speed of and could accelerate from 0- in 20.2 seconds. A fuel consumption of was recorded. The test car cost £851 including taxes.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: No official records exist of Zephyr Zodiac convertibles being produced, but a few estate cars were built.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: In 1956, the Consul, Zephyr, and Zodiac were all restyled. The six-cylinder cars' engines were enlarged to , with power output correspondingly raised to . The wheelbase was increased by to and the width increased to . The weight distribution and turning circle were also improved. Top speed increased to , and the fuel consumption was also improved at .


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The Zodiac and Zephyr were also offered in two body styles, the "Highline" and "Lowline", depending on the year of manufacture — the difference being being cut from the height of the roof panel. The "Highline" variant featured a hemispherical instrument cluster, whereas the "Lowline" had a more rectangular panel.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The performance of the Zephyr and the Zodiac series II models likely was restricted by the rudimentary exhaust system, both the manifold assembly and the exhaust itself. The well-known Raymond Mays complete engine conversion boosted the performance figures to a top speed of 101 mph and 0–60 to 10.0s, with a standing quarter mile of 17.6s, as recorded by "The Autocar" in the issue dated 8 November 1957.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: As well as a three-speed manual gearbox, an overdrive was optional, and from 1956 (1959 in Australia), a Borg Warner DG automatic transmission was available. At first, drum brakes were fitted all round (with a larger lining area of ), but front discs became optional in 1960 and standard from mid-1961 (in Australia, only four-wheel drum brakes were available; some dealers fitted servo-assistance from 1961).


title: Ford Zephyr

text: A two-door convertible version was offered with power-operated hood. Because of the structural weaknesses inherent in the construction of convertibles, few are known to survive.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: A convertible with overdrive tested by "The Motor" in 1961 had a top speed of and could accelerate from 0- in 17.0 seconds. A fuel consumption of was recorded. The test car cost £1193 including taxes.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: In Australia, the Mark II Consul, Zephyr, and Zodiac were built at Ford Australia's factory in Geelong. Sedan, coupe utility [more commonly abbreviated to "Ute"], and both four-cylinder Consul and six-cylinder Zephyr station wagon versions were produced. No Zodiac version station wagons were offered. The Australian-developed Mark II Station Wagon differed from its British Estate Car counterpart in having a wind-up rear window, and a straight C pillar, rather than a curved one. A handful of Station Wagons were registered in 1958, but sales did not really commence until about halfway through 1959. Also, the Australian-designed and -developed ute version differed significantly in its cab design and rear panels to that of its British counterpart. Mark II manufacture continued until 1962, when production switched to the assembly of Mark IIIs from imported complete knock-down (CKD) kits. It had originally been planned by Ford Australia to facelift the Mark II as its main competitor to the rival Holden, but due to the exorbitant price being asked for by Ford UK for its now redundant production jigs for the Mark II, Ford Australia chose to instead locally manufacture the newly released North American Ford Falcon, which was significantly cheaper to manufacturer than the Zephyr, with the Mark III being relegated to special order only.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: New Zealand assembly of the Mark II, also from CKD kits, now included the Zodiac. The big Fords from Britain were now offered alongside the Australian-sourced Ford Falcon and also competed with the Vauxhall Victor and Velox, Holden, and Australia's Chrysler Valiant. Supplies were restricted due to strict import licensing rules in place at the time, and demand always exceeded availability; not uncommonly, buyers waited two to three years for their new big Ford.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The Mark II Zodiac was slightly altered to distinguish it from the lesser variants, having more elaborate tail-end styling and at the front, a different grille. The auxiliary lamps and wing mirrors were deleted from the Zodiac range, but it retained two-tone paint, whitewall tyres, chrome wheel-trim embellishers, and gold-plated badges.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: A car tested by the British magazine "The Motor" in 1956 had a top speed of and could accelerate from 0- in 17.1 seconds. A fuel consumption of was recorded. The test car cost £968 including taxes.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: In April 1962, Ford replaced the Consul/Zephyr/ Zodiac range with a dramatically restyled model, although it shared some of its mechanical components, as well as the basic chassis design, with the Mark II models. Rather than continue the Consul name, Ford UK decided to call its replacement Zephyr 4, the 4 indicating that it still used the four-cylinder engine from Consul 375. A four-speed manual gearbox, now with synchromesh on all ratios, was standard, with overdrive or automatic transmission available as options. Front disc brakes were standard.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: During the production run, the nose styling was changed and the grille lowered. The Zephyr lettering moved from the front edge of the bonnet to below the bonnet opening and the ‘4’ badge below the grille was eliminated.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The Zephyr Mark III shared some of its mechanical components, as well as the basic chassis design, with the Mark II, but had a stronger overall body construction. The exterior was designed by Canadian Roy Brown, who had also designed the Edsel and the Cortina, though the rear of the body was inspired by a design proposal by Frua. Unlike the Zephyr 4, the Zephyr 6 had a full-width grille including the headlight surrounds; overall body length and width were the same for both Zephyr III versions. With the same displacement as before, the Mark III model had higher compression ratio, resulting in some higher output, as well as a broader torque range.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The Zodiac was an upmarket version of the Zephyr 6, but differed considerably from that model by the limousine-type rear doors, sharper roofline (with narrower C-pillar) and tail, unique grille (four headlights instead of two), exclusive bumper bars, plusher seating, and up-market upholstery, dashboard, and interior fittings. A choice of individual or bench front seats was available trimmed in leather or cloth. The front doors and bonnet panels were shared with the Zephyr 6. The Executive version had extra luxury fittings again. The 2553 cc, single-carburettor, six-cylinder engine was improved internally to increase the power output to 109 bhp and a new four-speed all synchromesh transmission with column change was fitted. The brakes, servo assisted, use discs at the front and drum at the rear.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: A Mk III saloon tested by "The Motor" in 1962 had a top speed of and could accelerate from 0- in 13.4 seconds. A touring fuel consumption of was recorded. The test car cost £1070 including taxes on the UK market.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: Ford New Zealand initially built the Zephyr 4 and 6, as well as the Zodiac, locally from CKD kits, offering only the bench front seat option finished in vinyl. Automatic transmission, introduced late in the life of the Mk II, were again available, but were a rare factory option, as most buyers chose manual. As well as the Zephyr 6, Ford NZ built a six-cylinder Zephyr Special (which replaced the 4) with a lower equipment level and deletion of the central vertical grille bar, boot lid trim strip, and other exterior brightwork, which was sold to fleet operators such as the government. The big Fords were unusual in having four-speed manual gearboxes when rivals, including Ford's own Falcon, had only three-speed ones. Building the top luxury Zodiac model locally also gave Ford a supply advantage over key rivals such as GM's Vauxhall, whose upmarket Cresta was not assembled locally after 1960, and once available only as a fully imported model, was much harder to obtain than the locally assembled Velox.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: In 1961, Ford began a complete redesign on the Zephyr, under the title of "Project Panda". As the car used the new V-series engines, the then traditional long bonnet concept created a problem until design engineer Harley Copp required that the car was both larger and had more internal space, and came up with the idea of placing the spare wheel ahead of the radiator on an angle. The result was a vehicle of similar dimensions to the North American Ford Fairlane.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: In November 1966, the manufacturers announced a plan to introduce an "export special" version of the Zephyr Mk IV combining the 3.0-L engine of the Zodiac with other specifications largely following those of the existing Zephyr. This 3.0-L Zephyr was not offered by Ford on the domestic (UK) market.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: This 3.0-litre model was quickly adopted by Ford New Zealand, which had originally launched the Mk IV Zephyr assembled locally from CKD kits with the 2.5-litre V6 (no Zephyr 4 this time) and received complaints it was underpowered for a country where towing boats and caravans was common. Ford New Zealand also introduced optional floor gear shift and bucket seats as an alternative to the standard column shift and bench front seat, and a large number of Zephyrs were built in this form, with other modifications, for New Zealand's traffic police.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The Zodiac was also again assembled in New Zealand with both bench and bucket front seats and Zodiacs from about 1967 also had the walnut dashboard from the U.K. market Executive. An automatic transmission was optional with both the Zephyr and Zodiac. The local Mark IV line did not include the Zephyr Deluxe version available in the UK, was not as popular as the Mark III, and was outsold by the now much wider, locally built Australian Falcon range. Production ended in 1972, and the Consul and Granada replacements introduced in the UK were never officially imported into New Zealand.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: South African Zephyrs and Zodiacs all received the 3.0-litre "Export" engine beginning with the 1968 model year. This also included replacing the earlier Zephyr Super with the new Zephyr de luxe, which received the dummy grille as on European cars.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The Zodiac Mark IV and "Executive" had four headlights and an uprated V6 engine. Claimed output was 140 bhp 'net' at 4,750 rpm, with of torque at 3,000 rpm. The Zodiac featured an alternator instead of a dynamo on the Zephyr, an adjustable steering column, a spare wheel in the engine compartment, a heater and "Aeroflow" ventilation, electric window washers, two-speed wipers, a cigar lighter, rev counter (tachometer), clock, ammeter, and reversing lights as standard.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The Zephyr/Zodiac Mark IVs with their complex independent rear suspension design represented a considerable step up when compared to the Mark III big Fords that they replaced. Ford also determined to widen the price gap between the Zephyr and Zodiac versions. In January 1967, less than a year after the car's introduction, Ford announced that production of the Mark IVs was being cut back in response to poor sales. The announcement was accompanied by several pieces of more upbeat news about Cortina sales, and it was stressed that workers taken off Zephyr/Zodiac production would all be redeployed on the Cortina production lines.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: An estate version of the Zodiac Mk IV was announced at the same time as the Zephyr equivalent, and built alongside it at Farnham. No "Executive" estate was built.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: The "Executive" was an upmarket version, and had the highest specification offered by Ford to UK customers in the 1960s. Automatic transmission (the Zodiac's four-speed manual box with overdrive being also available as a 'no cost' option) along with power steering and a sunroof were standard equipment. Other standard features included fully reclining front seats, walnut fascia, full instrumentation, carpeting throughout, reversing lights, fog lamps, front inertial-reel safety belts, and a radio. The Executive was distinguishable from other models by exterior trim and name badges on the front and rear.


title: Ford Zephyr

text: An automatic transmission-equipped Ford Executive was tested by Britain's "Autocar" in 1967. It had a top speed of and could accelerate from 0- in 13.1 seconds. An overall fuel consumption of was recorded. By these performance criteria, the Ford betrayed its weight, but nevertheless usefully bettered the similarly sized 3.3-L-engined Vauxhall Viscount. The Ford's recommended retail price of £1,567 exceeded the £1,483 sticker price on the Viscount.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: The demography of Kenya is monitored by the Kenyan National Bureau of Statistics. Kenya is a multi-ethnic state in East Africa. Its total population was at 47 558,296 as of the 2019 census.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: A national census was conducted in 1999, although the results were never released. A new census was undertaken in 2009, but turned out to be controversial, as the questions about ethnic affiliation seemed inappropriate after the ethnic violence of the previous year. Preliminary results of the census were published in 2010.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: Kenya's population was reported as 47.6 million during the 2019 census compared to 38.6 million inhabitants 2009, 30.7 million in 1999, 21.4 million in 1989, and 15.3 million in 1979. This was an increase of a factor of 2.5 over 30 years, or an average growth rate of more than 3 percent per year. The population growth rate has been reported as reduced during the 2000s, and was estimated at 2.7 percent (as of 2010), resulting in an estimate of 46.5 million in 2016.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: Kenya has a very diverse population that includes most major ethnic, racial and linguistic groups found in Africa. Bantu and Nilotic populations together constitute around 92% of the nation's inhabitants. People from Asian or European heritage living in Kenya are estimated at around 200,000.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: Kenya's largest ethnic group is the Kikuyu. They make up less than a fifth of the population. Since Kenyan independence in 1963, Kenyan politics have been characterized by ethnic tensions and rivalry between the larger groups. This devolved into ethnic violence in the 2007–2008 Kenyan crisis.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: In Kenya's last colonial census of 1962, population groups residing in the territory included European, African and Asian individuals. According to the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, Kenya had a population of 47,564,296 by 2019. The largest native ethnic groups were the Kikuyu (8,148,668), Luhya (6,823,842), Kalenjin (6,358,113), Luo (5,066,966), Kamba (4,663,910), Somalis (2,780,502), Kisii (2,703,235), Mijikenda (2,488,691), Meru (1,975,869), Maasai (1,189,522), and Turkana (1,016,174). Foreign-rooted populations included Asians (90,527), Europeans (42,868) with Kenyan citizenship, 26,753 without, and Kenyan Arabs (59,021). The number of ethnic categories and sub-categories recorded in the census has changed significantly over time, expanding from 42 in 1969 to more than 120 in 2019.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: Bantus are the single largest population division in Kenya. The term "Bantu" denotes widely dispersed but related peoples that speak south-central Niger–Congo languages. Originally from Cameroon-Nigeria border regions, Bantus began a millennium-long series of migrations referred to as the Bantu expansion that first brought them south into East Africa about 2,000 years ago.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: Most Bantu are farmers. Some of the prominent Bantu groups in Kenya include the Kikuyu, the Kamba, the Luhya, the Kisii, the Meru, and the Mijikenda. The Swahili people are descended from Wangozi Bantu peoples that intermarried with Arab immigrants.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: The Kikuyu, who are one of the biggest tribes in Kenya, seem to have assimilated a significant number of Cushitic speakers. Evidence from their Y DNA shows that 18% of Kikuyu carry the E1b1b Y DNA.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: Nilotes are the second-largest group of peoples in Kenya. They speak Nilo-Saharan languages and went south into East Africa from Western Asia and North Africa by way of South Sudan. Most Nilotes in Kenya are historically pastoralists.The most prominent of these groups include the Luo, the Maasai, the Samburu, the Turkana, and the Kalenjin. As with the Bantu, some Nilotic systems of governance (such as Ibinda of the Nandi) bear similarities with those of their Cushitic neighbors (such as the Gada system of the Oromo).


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: Cushitic peoples form a small minority of Kenya's population. They speak languages belonging to the Afroasiatic family and originally came from Ethiopia and Somalia. However, some large ethnic Somali clans are native to the area that used be known as NFD in Kenya. These people are not from Somalia but share the same ethnicity as the majority in Somalia. Most are herdsmen and have almost entirely adopted Islam. Cushites are concentrated in the northernmost North Eastern Province, which borders Somalia.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: An entrepreneurial community, they established themselves in the business sector, particularly in Eastleigh, Nairobi.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: Asians living in Kenya are descended from South Asian migrants. Significant Asian migration to Kenya began between 1896 and 1901 when some 32,000 indentured labourers were recruited from British India to build the Kenya-Uganda Railway. The majority of Kenyan Asians hail from the Gujarat and Punjab regions. The community grew significantly during the colonial period, and in the 1962 census Asians made up a third of the population of Nairobi and consisted of 176,613 people across the country.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: Since Kenyan independence large numbers have emigrated due to race-related tensions with the Bantu and Nilotic majority. Those that remain are principally concentrated in the business sector, and Asians continue to form one of the more prosperous communities in the region. According to the 2019 Census, Kenyan Asians number 47,555 people, while Asians without Kenyan citizenship number 42,972 individuals. In 2017, they were officially recognised as the 44th tribe of Kenya.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: Europeans in Kenya are primarily the descendants of British migrants during the colonial period, there is also a significant expat population of Europeans living in Kenya. Economically, virtually all Europeans in Kenya belong to the middle- and upper-middle-class. Nowadays, only a small minority of them are landowners (livestock and game ranchers, horticulturists and farmers), with the majority working in the tertiary sector: in air transport, finance, import, and hospitality. Apart from isolated individuals such as anthropologist and conservationist Richard Leakey, F.R.S., who died in 2022, Kenyan white people have virtually completely retreated from Kenyan politics, and are no longer represented in public service and parastatals, from which the last remaining staff from colonial times retired in the 1970s. According to the 2019 Census, Kenyan Europeans number 42,868 people, while Europeans without Kenyan citizenship number 26,753 individuals. 0.3% of the population of Kenya is from Asia or Europe.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: Arabs form a small but historically important minority ethnic group in Kenya. They are principally concentrated along the coast in cities such as Mombasa. A Muslim community, they primarily came from Oman and Hadhramaut in Yemen, and are engaged in trade. Arabs are locally referred to as "Washihiri" or, less commonly, as simply "Shihiri" in the Bantu Swahili language, Kenya's lingua franca. According to the 2019 Census, Kenyan Arabs number 59,021 people.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: Kenya's various ethnic groups typically speak their mother tongues within their own communities. The two official languages, English and Swahili, serve as the main lingua franca between the various ethnic groups. English is widely spoken in commerce, schooling and government. Peri-urban and rural dwellers are less multilingual, with many in rural areas speaking only their native languages.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: According to "Ethnologue", there are a total of 69 languages spoken in Kenya. Most belong to two broad language families: Niger-Congo (Bantu branch) and Nilo-Saharan (Nilotic branch), which are spoken by the country's Bantu and Nilotic populations, respectively. The Cushitic and Arab ethnic minorities speak languages belonging to the separate Afro-Asiatic family, with the Indian and European residents speaking languages from the Indo-European family.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: According to , the total population was in compared to 6,077,000 in 1950, and around 1,700,000 in 1900. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 42.5%, 54.9% between the ages of 15 and 65, and 2.7% was 65 years or older. Worldometers estimates the total population at 48,466,928 inhabitants, a 29th global rank.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: Registration of vital events is in Kenya not complete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: Like the demographics of Africa in general, Kenya is plagued by high infant mortality, low life expectancy, malnourishment (32% of population) and HIV/AIDS.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: While these concerns remain grave, a trend towards improvement is reported in the period of 2006 to 2010: Infant mortality was at estimated at 59.26 deaths/1,000 live births as of 2006, decreasing to 54.7 deaths/1,000 live births as of 2010.


title: Demographics of Kenya

text: According to 2008–09 Kenyan government survey, total fertility was 4.6, contraception usage among married women was 46 percent.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: The "kids for cash" scandal centered on judicial kickbacks to two judges at the Luzerne County Court of Common Pleas in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, US. In 2008, judges Michael Conahan and Mark Ciavarella were convicted of accepting money in return for imposing harsh adjudications on juveniles to increase occupancy at the PA Child Care for-profit detention centers.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: Ciavarella disposed thousands of children to extended stays in youth centers for offenses as trivial as mocking an assistant principal on Myspace or trespassing in a vacant building. After a judge rejected an initial plea agreement in 2009, a federal grand jury returned a 48-count indictment. In 2010, Conahan pleaded guilty to one count of racketeering conspiracy and was sentenced to 17.5 years in federal prison. Ciavarella opted to go to trial the following year. He was convicted on 12 of 39 counts and sentenced to 28 years in federal prison.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: In the wake of the scandal, the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania overturned hundreds of adjudications of delinquency in Luzerne County. The Juvenile Law Center filed a class action lawsuit against the judges and numerous other parties, and the Pennsylvania state legislature created a commission to investigate juvenile justice problems in the county.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: Pennsylvania's Judicial Conduct Board received four complaints about Michael Conahan between 2004 and 2008, but later admitted it failed to investigate any of them, nor had it sought documentation regarding the cases involved. The FBI was tipped off about Conahan and nepotism in the county courts in 2006. An additional investigation into improper sentencing in Luzerne County began in early 2007 as a result of requests for assistance from several youths received by the Philadelphia-based Juvenile Law Center. Attorneys from the Center determined that several hundred cases were tried without the defendants receiving proper counsel. In April 2008, the Center petitioned the Pennsylvania Supreme Court seeking relief for alleged violation of the youths' civil rights. The application of relief was later denied, then reconsidered in January 2009 when corruption charges against both Conahan and Mark Ciavarella surfaced.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: The FBI and the IRS also investigated Conahan and Ciavarella, although the exact dates and scope of these federal investigations were not made public. Part of the investigation was revealed to have occurred during disciplinary hearings over the conduct of another former Luzerne County judge, Ann H. Lokuta. Lokuta was brought before the Judicial Conduct Board in November 2006 to answer charges of using court workers to do her personal bidding, openly displaying bias against some attorneys arguing before her, and publicly berating staff to cause mental distress. The board ruled against Lokuta in November 2008, and she was removed from the bench. During the course of the hearings, Lokuta charged that Conahan was behind a conspiracy to have her removed. She aided the federal investigation into the "kids for cash" scheme prior to the Conduct Board's ruling, and a stay order was issued in March 2009 by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court in light of the ongoing investigations, halting Lokuta's removal and the special election that was to be held to replace her. During the Lokuta hearing, Conahan testified that there were no social relationships amongst the county judges. However, Judge Michael T. Toole (who pleaded guilty to and was convicted in April 2011 of Fraud and Tax Evasion charges) as well as another judge, had each stayed at a Florida condo jointly owned by Conahan and Ciavarella.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: The Pennsylvania Supreme Court decided to uphold Lokuta's removal from the bench in January 2011, finding she had received a fair trial, regardless of Conahan's testimony. It also ordered the expungements of the records of 2,401 of those juveniles who were affected.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: A statement from the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Middle District of Pennsylvania outlined the charges against the two judges on January 26, 2009. The charges outlined in the information described actions between 2000 and 2007 by both judges to assist in the construction and population of private juvenile facilities operated by the two Pennsylvania Child Care companies, acting in an official capacity in favor of the private facilities over the facility operated by Luzerne County.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: The U.S. Attorney charged that in 2002 Conahan, who at the time was President Judge of the court, used his authority to remove funding for the county-operated facility. The judges were alleged to have received "millions of dollars" in payments for the completion of a binding agreement between the court and the private facilities, co-owned by attorney Robert Powell, to use their services and the subsequent closing of the county facility. The methods used to conceal the payments involved several parties and transactions which resulted in allegations of tax evasion against the two. Ciavarella and Conahan were also charged with "Ordering juveniles to be sent to these facilities in which the judges had a financial interest even when Juvenile Probation Officers did not recommend placement," according to the statement.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: Original, negotiated plea agreements called for both judges to serve up to seven years in prison, pay fines and restitution, and accept responsibility for the crimes. However, on July 30, 2009, Judge Edwin M. Kosik of Federal District Court in nearby Scranton rejected the plea agreement, citing "post-guilty plea conduct and expressions from the defendants" that he ruled did not satisfy the terms of the agreement. Kosik wrote that Conahan and Ciavarella continued to deny their crimes even in the face of overwhelming evidence, and therefore did not merit sentences that were well below federal sentencing guidelines. Attorneys for the two judges brought a motion requesting reconsideration of the judge's rejection of the plea agreement. The motion was denied on August 24, 2009, and Ciavarella and Conahan subsequently withdrew their guilty pleas, an action which eventually resulted in a jury trial for Ciavarella and additional charges against the former judges.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: Following the plea withdrawals, on September 9, 2009, a federal grand jury in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania returned a 48-count indictment against Ciavarella and Conahan including racketeering, fraud, money laundering, extortion, bribery, and federal tax violations. Both judges were arraigned on the charges on September 15, 2009. Ciavarella and Conahan entered pleas of not guilty on all counts and remained free on $1 million in bail, despite federal prosecutors' contentions that their bail should be raised. Prosecutors argued the judges' bail should have been higher, since they faced the possibility of substantially more prison time and there had been evidence of attempts made to shield assets.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: Robert Powell, an attorney at the time and co-owner of the two juvenile facilities at the heart of the scandal, pleaded guilty on July 1, 2009, to failing to report a felony and being an accessory to tax evasion conspiracy, in connection with $770,000 in kickbacks he paid to Ciavarella and Conahan in exchange for facilitating the development of his juvenile detention centers. The Pennsylvania Supreme Court temporarily suspended Powell's law license on August 31, citing his criminal conviction. Several years later, in early 2015, after tending his resignation on January 7, he was disbarred by the state supreme court in the state of Pennsylvania on 23 January, the disbarrment was made retroactive to the date of his suspension on August 31, 2009.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: Robert Mericle, the prominent real estate developer who built the two juvenile facilities, pleaded guilty on September 3, 2009, to failing to disclose a felony. Mericle had failed to tell a grand jury he had paid $2.1 million to Ciavarella and Conahan as a finder's fee. As part of his plea, Mericle agreed to pay $2.15 million to fund local children's health and welfare programs. Mericle faced up to three years in prison and a $250,000 maximum fine. Mericle was released from federal custody in 2015 after serving a one-year sentence.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: Sandra Brulo, the former deputy director of Forensic Services for the Luzerne County Juvenile Probation Office, agreed to plead guilty in March 2009 to federal obstruction of justice. Those charges stemmed from actions Brulo took after she became aware she had been named in the federal civil action. Brulo backdated her recommendation of a placement she made concerning a juvenile defendant in September 2007, and changed her original recommendation of placement to probation.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: On February 18, 2011, following a trial, a federal jury convicted Ciavarella on 12 of the 39 remaining counts he faced including racketeering, a crime in which prosecutors said the former judge used children "as pawns to enrich himself." In convicting Ciavarella of racketeering, the jury agreed with prosecutors that he and Conahan had taken an illegal payment of nearly $1 million from a youth center's builder, then hid the money.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: The panel of six men and six women also found Ciavarella guilty of "honest services mail fraud" and of being a tax cheat, for failing to list that money and more on his annual public financial-disclosure forms and on four years of tax returns. In addition, they found him guilty of conspiring to launder money. The jurors acquitted Ciavarella of extortion and bribery in connection with $1.9 million that prosecutors said the judges extracted from the builder and owner of two youth centers, including allegations that Ciavarella shared the proceeds of FedEx boxes that were stuffed with tens of thousands of dollars in cash.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: Following Ciavarella's conviction, he and his lawyer appeared on the steps of the courthouse to give an impromptu press conference. The press conference was interrupted by Sandy Fonzo, whose son Edward Kenzakoski committed suicide in June 2010 after Ciavarella adjudicated him to placement, despite Kenzakoski's first-time offender status.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: On August 11, 2011, Ciavarella was sentenced to 28 years in federal prison as a result of his conviction. He is currently being held at the Federal Correctional Institution, Ashland, a low-security federal prison in eastern Kentucky. He is scheduled for release on June 18, 2034, when he would be 84 years old. Ciavarella appealed his conviction to the Third Circuit and it was rejected on July 25, 2013.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: However, Ciavarella has continued to appeal, contending that the Supreme Court's decision in the case of ex-Governor of Virginia Robert McDonnell narrowed the scope of the honest services fraud statute. On January 9, 2018, federal judge Christopher C. Conner threw out Ciavarella's convictions for racketeering, conspiracy to commit racketeering, and conspiracy to commit money laundering. Conner upheld Ciavarella's contention that his attorneys failed to raise statute of limitations claims on those charges. He ordered a new trial on those counts, but allowed the honest services fraud convictions to stand.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: On September 23, 2011, Conahan was sentenced to years in federal prison after pleading guilty to one count of racketeering conspiracy. Due to coronavirus concerns, he was released from prison in June 2020, six years early.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: On November 4, 2011, Powell was sentenced to 18 months in federal prison after pleading guilty to failing to report a felony and being an accessory to tax conspiracy. He was incarcerated at the Federal Prison Camp, Pensacola, a low-security facility in Florida, and was released from a halfway house on April 16, 2013. On August 10, 2015, a judge approved a $4.75M settlement agreement for Powell, for having paid kickbacks related to the adjudication of at least 2,400 juveniles.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: Robert Mericle's sentencing in connection with his guilty plea for failing to report a felony was delayed pending his anticipated testimony in the bribery trial of former Congressman and Pennsylvania State Senator Raphael Musto. On November 23, 2010, a federal grand jury had issued a six-count indictment against Musto, charging him with accepting more than $28,000 from an unnamed company and individual in exchange for his help in obtaining grants and funding. Musto denied any wrongdoing.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: After Musto died on April 24, 2014, Mericle was sentenced the next day to one year in prison by Senior District Judge Edwin M. Kosik. Mericle was ordered to pay a $250,000 fine and to report to the Federal Bureau of Prisons on May 14, 2014. He was released on May 29, 2015.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: On October 1, 2019, Ciavarella was disbarred on consent from the practice of law by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: Acting under a rarely used power established in 1722 and reserved for extraordinary circumstances, known as "King's Bench jurisdiction", the Pennsylvania Supreme Court appointed Senior Judge Arthur Grim of the Berks County Court of Common Pleas as special master to review all juvenile cases handled by Ciavarella on February 11, 2009. He returned with his findings in an interim report dated March 11, 2009. He recommended that all adjudications handed down by Ciavarella from 2003 to 2008 be vacated, and that the affected juveniles' records be expunged. He concluded that due to Ciavarella's disregard for the juveniles' constitutional rights, as well as the kickbacks, no one who appeared before Ciavarella in that period had a truly impartial hearing. On March 26, 2009, the Supreme Court approved Grim's recommendations and ruled that Ciavarella had violated the constitutional rights of thousands of juveniles, and initially hundreds of juvenile adjudications were ordered overturned.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: A class action lawsuit was filed by the Juvenile Law Center on behalf of the juveniles who were adjudicated delinquent by Ciavarella despite not being represented by counsel or advised of their rights. Besides naming Ciavarella and Conahan, the suit seeks damages under the civil portion of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) against the judges' spouses and business associates, shell companies, youth center officials, and Luzerne County. Three other federal lawsuits filed on behalf of the victims have been consolidated with the Juvenile Law Center lawsuit into a master class action. An amended master complaint was filed on August 28, 2009.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: In June 2010, an injunction was filed on behalf of PA Child Care, Western PA Child Care, and Mid Atlantic Youth Services, the companies that provided treatment programs at the youth centers, to prevent the ordered destruction of thousands of juvenile records on the grounds the records are needed for the defense's case.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: On July 8, 2013, a three-judge panel of the Third Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in the case of Markel International Insurance Company v. Robert J. Powell, (his business partner) Gregory Zappala, et al., that the insurance company had no obligation to defend or indemnify the individuals or corporations involved, leaving the defendants liable for adverse judgments.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: The builder and the owner of the private detention centers settled for payments of about $25 million. On August 17, 2022, U.S. District Judge Christopher Conner issued a verdict requiring that Judges Ciavarella and Conahan pay $106 million in compensatory damages plus $100 million in punitive damages to nearly 300 class members, who were children sent illegally to secure facilities during the scandal, using a base rate of $1000 per day of wrongful detention.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: In the aftermath of the federal charges and defendant pleas, the Pennsylvania General Assembly moved to create a commission to investigate the entire set of circumstances surrounding the miscarriage of justice in Luzerne County. Sponsored by Representative Todd Eachus of Butler Township in Luzerne County, House Bill 1648 established the Interbranch Commission on Juvenile Justice in July 2009. The commission comprises 11 members, appointed from each branch of government in Pennsylvania, with four members chosen by the judiciary, four by the legislature and three by the governor.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: In signing the legislation on August 7, 2009, Governor Ed Rendell castigated Ciavarella and Conahan, saying they "violated the rights of as many as 6000 young people by denying them basic rights to counsel and handing down outrageously excessive sentences. The lives of these young people and their families were changed forever." Scheduled to meet a minimum of once per month, the commission was organized to investigate the actions of and damages caused by the two judges and review the state of the Luzerne County courts left in the wake of their tenures. The commission was given power of subpoena and was required to complete its work and report its recommendations and findings to the three branches of state government by May 31, 2010.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: The scandal was featured in "", the 2009 documentary by Michael Moore. A full-length documentary covering the scandal entitled "Kids for Cash" was released in February 2014, and has been favorably reviewed. Pulitzer Prize-winning investigative journalist William Ecenbarger wrote a well-reviewed book-length exposition of the scandal. In April 2014, CNBC's crime documentary series "American Greed" reported on the case.


title: Kids for cash scandal

text: The scandal has also led to several portrayals in fictional works. The "" episode "", the "" episode "Crossroads", an episode of "The Good Wife," and an episode of "For the People" featured corrupt judges sending children to private detention centers. An episode of "Cold Case" called "Jurisprudence" is loosely based on this event. In 2015, crime fiction novelist Ace Atkins, using the nom de plume of the late Robert B. Parker, wrote "Kickback", which borrows heavily from this case, transposing it into a Boston suburb instead. An episode of "Billions" called "Quality of Life" has a subplot inspired by the scandal in which a New York City judge sentences youths harshly for financial gain. The novel "Corrupted" by Lisa Scottoline includes the scandal, portraying characters in the book as victims of the scandal.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: Phenol formaldehyde resins (PF) or phenolic resins (also infrequently called phenoplasts) are synthetic polymers obtained by the reaction of phenol or substituted phenol with formaldehyde. Used as the basis for Bakelite, PFs were the first commercial synthetic resins (plastics). They have been widely used for the production of molded products including billiard balls, laboratory countertops, and as coatings and adhesives. They were at one time the primary material used for the production of circuit boards but have been largely replaced with epoxy resins and fiberglass cloth, as with fire-resistant FR-4 circuit board materials.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: There are two main production methods. One reacts phenol and formaldehyde directly to produce a thermosetting network polymer, while the other restricts the formaldehyde to produce a prepolymer known as novolac which can be moulded and then cured with the addition of more formaldehyde and heat. There are many variations in both production and input materials that are used to produce a wide variety of resins for special purposes.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: Phenol-formaldehyde resins, as a group, are formed by a step-growth polymerization reaction that can be either acid- or base-catalysed. Since formaldehyde exists predominantly in solution as a dynamic equilibrium of methylene glycol oligomers, the concentration of the "reactive" form of formaldehyde depends on temperature and pH.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: Phenol reacts with formaldehyde at the ortho and para sites (sites 2, 4 and 6) allowing up to 3 units of formaldehyde to attach to the ring. The initial reaction in all cases involves the formation of a hydroxymethyl phenol:


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: The hydroxymethyl group is capable of reacting with either another free ortho or para site, or with another hydroxymethyl group. The first reaction gives a methylene bridge, and the second forms an ether bridge:


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: The diphenol (HOCH)CH (sometimes called a "dimer") is called bisphenol F, which is an important monomer in the production of epoxy resins. Bisphenol-F can further link generating tri- and tetra-and higher phenol oligomers.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: Novolaks (or novolacs) are phenol-formaldehyde resins with a formaldehyde to phenol molar ratio of less than one. In place of phenol itself, they are often produced from cresols (methylphenols). The polymerization is brought to completion using acid-catalysis such as sulfuric acid, oxalic acid, hydrochloric acid and rarely, sulfonic acids. The phenolic units are mainly linked by methylene and/or ether groups. The molecular weights are in the low thousands, corresponding to about 10–20 phenol units. Obtained polymer is thermoplastic and require a curing agent or hardener to form a thermoset.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: Hexamethylenetetramine is a hardener added to crosslink novolac. At a temperature greater than 90 °C, it forms methylene and dimethylene amino bridges. Resoles can also be used as a curing agent (hardener) for novolac resins. In either case, the curing agent is a source of formaldehyde which provides bridges between novolac chains, eventually completely crosslinking the system.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: Novolacs have multiple uses as tire tackifier, high temperature resin, binder for carbon bonded refractories, carbon brakes, photoresists and as a curing agent for epoxy resins.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: Base-catalysed phenol-formaldehyde resins are made with a formaldehyde to phenol ratio of greater than one (usually around 1.5). These resins are called resoles. Phenol, formaldehyde, water and catalyst are mixed in the desired amount, depending on the resin to be formed, and are then heated. The first part of the reaction, at around 70 °C, forms a thick reddish-brown tacky material, which is rich in hydroxymethyl and benzylic ether groups.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: The rate of the base-catalysed reaction initially increases with pH, and reaches a maximum at about pH = 10. The reactive species is the phenoxide anion (CHO) formed by deprotonation of phenol. The negative charge is delocalised over the aromatic ring, activating sites 2, 4 and 6, which then react with the formaldehyde.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: Being thermosets, hydroxymethyl phenols will crosslink on heating to around 120 °C to form methylene and methyl ether bridges through the elimination of water molecules. At this point the resin is a 3-dimensional network, which is typical of polymerised phenolic resins. The high crosslinking gives this type of phenolic resin its hardness, good thermal stability, and chemical imperviousness. Resoles are referred to as "one step" resins as they cure without a cross linker unlike novolacs, a "two step" resin.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: Resoles are major polymeric resin materials widely used for gluing and bonding building materials. Exterior plywood, oriented strand boards (OSB), engineered high-pressure laminate are typical applications.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: When the molar ratio of formaldehyde:phenol reaches one, in theory every phenol is linked together via methylene bridges, generating one single molecule, and the system is entirely crosslinked. This is why novolacs (F:P <1) do not harden without the addition of a crosslinking agents, and why resoles with the formula F:P >1 will.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: Phenolic resins are found in myriad industrial products. Phenolic laminates are made by impregnating one or more layers of a base material such as paper, fiberglass, or cotton with phenolic resin and laminating the resin-saturated base material under heat and pressure. The resin fully polymerizes (cures) during this process forming the thermoset polymer matrix. The base material choice depends on the intended application of the finished product. Paper phenolics are used in manufacturing electrical components such as punch-through boards, in household laminates, and in paper composite panels. Glass phenolics are particularly well suited for use in the high speed bearing market. Phenolic micro-balloons are used for density control. The binding agent in normal (organic) brake pads, brake shoes, and clutch discs are phenolic resin. Synthetic resin bonded paper, made from phenolic resin and paper, is used to make countertops. Another use of phenolic resins is the making of duroplast, famously used in Trabant automobiles.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: Phenolic resins are also used for making exterior plywood commonly known as "weather and boil proof" (WBP) plywood because phenolic resins have no melting point but only a decomposing point in the temperature zone of and above.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: Phenolic resin is used as a binder in loudspeaker driver suspension components which are made of cloth.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: Higher end billiard balls are made from phenolic resins, as opposed to the polyesters used in less expensive sets.


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: Sometimes people select fibre reinforced phenolic resin parts because their coefficient of thermal expansion closely matches that of the aluminium used for other parts of a system, as in early computer systems


title: Phenol formaldehyde resin

text: The Dutch painting forger Han van Meegeren mixed phenol formaldehyde with his oil paints before baking the finished canvas, in order to fake the drying out of the paint over the centuries.


title: Harman Baweja

text: Harman Baweja (born 13 November 1980) is an Indian actor and producer. He has starred in films like "Love Story 2050" (2008), "What's Your Raashee?" (2009) and "It's My Life" (2020).


title: Harman Baweja

text: Baweja was born to a film director Harry Baweja and producer Pammi Baweja. He attended the Kishore Namit Kapoor Acting Institute in Bombay and then the University of California, Los Angeles. In 2009, Baweja changed his name to Harman S Baweja following numerology. The "S" in his name is a tribute to his grandfather.


title: Harman Baweja

text: Baweja's debut film in Bollywood was the sci-fi romance "Love Story 2050" produced by his mother Pammi Baweja and directed by his father Harry Baweja. The film was a box office failure, as it only managed to recover half the amount of its 40 crore budget.


title: Harman Baweja

text: In 2009, he appeared in the sports film "Victory" which was based on cricket. The film had notable appearances by both Indian and International cricketers. The film could only rake up 1.9 crore after its release and was a failure at the box office.


title: Harman Baweja

text: Baweja next appeared in the romantic comedy "What's Your Raashee?" which starred him and Priyanka Chopra, who performed 12 different roles in the film. The film receives mixed responses both from critics and audience .The film performed poor at the box office. After a 5 year long absence he came in "Dishkiyaoon" (2014). His delayed release, "It's My Life", released directly on television 10 years after production, with a premiere on Zee Cinema.


title: Monkey wrench

text: The monkey wrench is a type of adjustable wrench, a 19th century American refinement of 18th-century English coach wrenches. It was widely used in the 19th and early 20th century. It is of interest as an antique among tool collectors and is still occasionally used in maintenance and repair when it happens to be convenient.


title: Monkey wrench

text: The term "monkey wrench" is also sometimes used loosely, usually by non-tradesman, to refer to the pipe wrench (owing to their broadly similar shapes).


title: Monkey wrench

text: A wrench with smooth jaws is not used for turning threaded pipe. The largely US idiom "to throw a monkey wrench into..." means to sabotage something. The British English equivalent is "to throw a spanner in the works". The phrase "left handed monkey wrench" is sometimes used as ironic humor, as monkey wrenches are ambidextrously designed.


title: Monkey wrench

text: The "World English Dictionary" gives a nautical definition for "monkey", as a modifier "denoting a small light structure or piece of equipment contrived to suit an immediate purpose: a "monkey foresail" ; a "monkey bridge"."


title: Monkey wrench

text: Adjustable coach wrenches for the odd-sized nuts of wagon wheels were manufactured in England and exported to North America in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. They were set either by sliding a wedge, or later by twisting the handle, which turned a screw, narrowing or widening the jaws. In 1840, Worcester, Massachusetts knife manufacturer Loring Coes invented a screw-based coach wrench design in which the jaw width was set with a spinning ring fixed under the sliding lower jaw, above the handle. This was patented in 1841 and the tools were advertised and sold in the United States as "monkey wrenches", a term which was already in use for the English handle-set coach wrenches. For the next 87 years a very wide and popular range of monkey wrenches was manufactured by Coes family partnerships, licensees and companies, which filed further wrench patents throughout the 19th century. Some Coes wrenches could be bought with wooden knife handles, harking back to the company's early knife making business. In 1909 the Coes Wrench Company advertised a six-foot-long "key" wrench, shaped like a monkey wrench, for use on railroads. The Coes wrench designs were acquired by longtime toolmaker Bemis & Call of Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1928. After 1939 its successor companies manufactured monkey wrenches from Coes designs until the mid-1960s, yielding a production run of over 120 years.


title: Monkey wrench

text: Monkey wrenches are still manufactured and are used for some heavy tasks, but they have otherwise been mostly replaced by the shifting adjustable wrench/spanner, which is much lighter and has a smaller head, allowing it to fit more easily into tight spaces, and the tooth-jawed, torque-gripping pipe wrench.


title: Monkey wrench

text: These are also known as a Ford wrench owing to this type of wrench being included in the tool kit supplied with every Ford Model A. They are still used by aircraft technicians, mainly when large but low-torque fasteners are involved.


title: Monkey wrench

text: That handy tool, the "monkey-wrench", is not so named because it is a handy thing to monkey with, or for any kindred reason. "Monkey" is not its name at all, Charles Moncky, the inventor of it, sold his patent for $5000, and invested the money in a house in Williamsburg, Kings County, where he now lives.


title: Monkey wrench

text: Although this story was refuted by historical and patent research in the late 19th century, it appears to have been inspired by a real person. A Charles Monk (not Moncky) lived in the Williamsburg section of Brooklyn in the 1880s where he made and sold moulder's tools, not mechanics' tools like a monkey wrench. He could not have invented or named the monkey wrench because he was born after the term first appeared in print.


title: Monkey wrench

text: A persistent hoax on social media claims African-American boxer Jack Johnson invented the wrench while in prison, and the wrench was named "monkey wrench" as a racial slur. The first patent for a monkey wrench was awarded before Johnson was born. Johnson did, however, receive a patent for improvements to it, but after it already had the monkey wrench name.


title: Amunet

text: Amunet () or Imnt ("The Hidden One" in hieroglyphics); also spelled Amonet or Amaunet; ) is a primordial goddess in ancient Egyptian religion. Thebes was the center of her worship through the last dynasty, the Ptolemaic Kingdom, in 30 BC. She is attested in the earliest known of Egyptian religious texts and, as was the custom, was paired with a counterpart who is entitled with the same name, but in the masculine, Amun. They were thought to have existed prior to the beginning of creation along with three other couples representing primeval concepts.


title: Amunet

text: Her name, , is a feminine noun that means "The Hidden One". She is a member of the Ogdoad of Hermopolis, who represented aspects of the primeval existence before the creation: Amunet was paired with Amun—whose name also means "The Hidden One", with a masculine ending ("jmn")—within this divine group, from the earliest known documentation. Such pairing of deities is characteristic of the religious concepts of the ancient Egyptians. In early concepts known as the Ogdoad, the primeval deity group to which they belonged as "Night" (or as the determinative D41 meaning "to halt, stop, deny", suggesting the principle of inactivity or repose), was composed of four balanced couples of deities or deified primeval concepts.


title: Amunet

text: Speculation exists that Amunet may have been conceived by later theologians as a complement to Amun, rather than being an independent deity originally, however, the Pyramid Texts, the earliest known religious texts of Ancient Egypt, mention "the beneficent shadow of Amun and Amunet":


title: Amunet

text: By at least the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt (c. 1991–1803 BC), Amunet often was superseded by Mut as Amun's partner, as cults evolved or similar ones in other regions were merged following Mentuhotep II's reunification of Egypt—but Amunet remained locally important in Thebes, where Amun was worshipped. In that capitol of the unified country she was seen as a protector of the king, playing a preeminent role in rituals associated with the royal coronation ("khaj-nisut") and Sed festivals ("heb-sed") celebrating its well-celebrated anniversaries, and priests were dedicated to Amunet's service at Karnak, Amun's cult center.


title: Amunet

text: In the Festival Hall of Thutmose III (c. 1479–1425 BC), Amunet is shown with the fertility god Min while leading a row of deities to visit the king in the anniversary celebration. In spite of Amunet's stable position as a local goddess of Egypt's most important city, her cult began to have very little following outside the Theban region that developed into a dominant religious center for the unified country.


title: Amunet

text: Amunet was depicted as a woman wearing the Deshret "Red Crown of Lower Egypt" and carrying a staff of papyrus—as in her colossal statue placed during the reign of Tutankhamun (c. 1332–1323 BC) into the Record Hall of Thutmose III at Karnak. The reason for this iconography is uncertain. At that time, the cult of Amun was being restored after being displaced by worship of Aten during the reign of Akhenaten.


title: Amunet

text: Although she remained a distinct deity as late as the Ptolemaic Kingdom (323–30 BC), in some late texts from Karnak Amunet was syncretized with Neith and she was carved suckling pharaoh Philip III of Macedon (323–317 BC) who appears as a divine child immediately after his own enthronement, onto an exterior wall of the eighteenth dynasty Festival Hall of Thutmose III at Karnak.


title: Sony Xperia

text: Xperia () is the brand name of smartphones and tablets from Sony. The name Xperia is derived from the word "experience", and was first used in the Xperia X1 tagline of "I Xperia the best".


title: Sony Xperia

text: Sony Mobile was previously known globally as Sony Ericsson before being rebranded in 2012 as a result of the mobile phone manufacturer being taken over and solely owned by Sony.


title: Sony Xperia

text: The Xperia X1 was the first phone to be released in the Xperia range. Released in 2008, it featured a high resolution display (~311 ppi pixel density) and it was intended to fill the widening gap of smartphones as other competitors were producing high-end smartphone devices such as HTC and Apple.


title: Sony Xperia

text: The X2 was released in the following year, which included an 8.1 MP camera and included Wifi and GPS. By this time there was a clear shift towards the smartphone end of the spectrum. An exception was the Xperia Pureness, a translucent phone without camera that was sold by selected retailers in selected cities. The Xperia X5 Pureness is based on Sony Ericsson's proprietary operating system (OSE).


title: Sony Xperia

text: The X10 was released at the start of 2010. It was the first in the Xperia line to feature the Android operating system, where previous models ran on the Windows Mobile OS. The phone was praised on its design, but its downfall was its use of Android 1.6 at a time when competitors were on 2.1. There was a great delay in the update of the firmware, due to the heavily skinned OS, as well as Timescape and Mediascape which needed to be reprogrammed every time an update was made. The phone also lacked pinch to zoom, but this was added later as well as HD video recording.


title: Sony Xperia

text: The X10 Mini and the X10 Mini Pro were, as the names suggest, smaller versions of the X10. These were received relatively well and proved to be very popular, as there were no other smartphones on the market at that time which were as small as the two.


title: Sony Xperia

text: The Z series smartphones continued the Xperia legacy with an omni-balance design and water resistance. On several Sony Xperia smartphones such as the Xperia Z, the charging port is located at the top of the left edge, rather than popularly at the bottom center.


title: Sony Xperia

text: The Xperia Z is the earliest known device to feature high dynamic range filming, and does it at 1080p. Its image sensor is an Exmor IMX135.


title: Sony Xperia

text: After the Sony Xperia Z (early 2013), the Z1 (late 2013) was released with increased processing performance and a physical shutter button, as well as augmented reality camera effects such as a walking dinosaur.


title: Sony Xperia

text: In early 2014, the Sony Xperia Z2 was introduced with 2160p video recording, 1080p at 60 frames per second, and 720p at 120fps for slow motion, as well as precluded screencasting functionality.


title: Sony Xperia

text: In 2016, Sony introduced the new Xperia X series to replace the Z series and in 2018, Sony introduced the Sony Xperia XZ2 along with the Sony Xperia XZ2 Compact at Mobile World Congress 2018 featuring Sony's brand new "Ambient Flow" smartphone design while the premium smartphone, the Sony Xperia XZ2 Premium featuring a 4K HDR Display and a 19 MP + 12 MP MotionEye Dual camera built for 'extreme' low-light shooting was announced two months later.


title: Carrara marble

text: Carrara marble, Luna marble to the Romans, is a type of white or blue-grey marble popular for use in sculpture and building decor. It has been quarried since Roman times in the mountains just outside the city of Carrara in the province of Massa and Carrara in the Lunigiana, the northernmost tip of modern-day Tuscany, Italy.


title: Carrara marble

text: More marble has been extracted from the over 650 quarry sites near Carrara than from any other place. The pure white "statuario" grade was used for monumental sculpture, as "it has a high tensile strength, can take a high gloss polish and holds very fine detail". By the late 20th century this had now run out, and the considerable ongoing production is of stone with a greyish tint, or streaks of black or grey on white. This is still attractive as an architectural facing, or for tiles.


title: Carrara marble

text: In the Middle Ages, most of the quarries were owned by the Marquis Malaspina who in turn rented them to families of Carrara masters who managed both the extraction and transport of the precious material. Some of them, such as the Maffioli, who rented some quarries north of Carrara, in the Torano area, or, around 1490, Giovanni Pietro Buffa, who bought marble on credit from local quarrymen and then resold it on the Venetian market, were able to create a dense commercial network, exporting the marble even to distant locations. Just to cite an example, starting from 1474, first the Maffioli, then the Buffa, supplied the marble for the facade of the Certosa di Pavia, also taking care of the transport of the material which, by ship, after having circumnavigated Italy, reached the construction site of the monastery after having sailed up the Po and the Ticino by boat. Starting from the 16th century, Genoese stonecutters-merchants also entered this flourishing trade.


title: Carrara marble

text: In the 17th and 18th centuries, the marble quarries were monitored by the Cybo and Malaspina families who ruled over Massa and Carrara. The family created the "Office of Marble" in 1564 to regulate the marble mining industry. The city of Massa, in particular, saw much of its plan redesigned (new roads, plazas, intersections, pavings) in order to make it worthy of an Italian country's capital. Following the extinction of the Cybo-Malaspina family, the state was ruled by the House of Austria and management of the mines rested with them. The Basilica of Massa is built entirely of Carrara marble and the old Ducal Palace of Massa was used to showcase the stone.


title: Carrara marble

text: By the end of the 19th century, Carrara had become a cradle of anarchism in Italy, in particular among the quarry workers. According to a "New York Times" article of 1894, workers in the marble quarries were among the most neglected labourers in Italy. Many of them were ex-convicts or fugitives from justice. The work at the quarries was so tough and arduous that almost any aspirant worker with sufficient muscle and endurance was employed, regardless of their background.


title: Carrara marble

text: The quarry workers and stone carvers had radical beliefs that set them apart from others. Anarchism and general radicalism became part of the heritage of the stone carvers. Many violent revolutionists who had been expelled from Belgium and Switzerland went to Carrara in 1885 and founded the first anarchist group in Italy. In Carrara, the anarchist Galileo Palla remarked, “even the stones are anarchists.” The quarry workers were the main actors of the Lunigiana revolt in January 1894.


title: Carrara marble

text: The Apuan Alps above Carrara show evidence of at least 650 quarry sites, with about half of them currently abandoned or worked out. The Carrara quarries have produced more marble than any other place on earth.


title: Carrara marble

text: Working the quarries is and has always been dangerous. In September 1911, a collapsing cliff face at the Bettogli Quarry crushed 10 workers who were on lunch break under a precipice. A 2014 video made at a Carrara quarry shows workers with missing fingers, and workers performing hazardous, painfully noisy work who are not wearing protective gear of any kind.


title: Carrara marble

text: The prize yield from Carrara quarries through millennia has been "statuario", a pure white marble (coloring in other marbles arises from intermixture with other minerals present in the limestone as it is converted to marble by heat or pressure). However, by the end of the 20th century, the known deposits of Statuario near Carrara are played out. The quarries continue to remove and ship up to a million tons/year of less-esteemed marble, mostly for export. This is mostly streaked with black or grey.


title: Carrara marble

text: Bianco Carrara classified in C and CD variations as well as Bianco Venatino and Statuarietto are by far the most common types with more expensive exotic variations such as Calacatta Gold, Calacatta Borghini, Calacatta Macchia Vecchia, Arabescato Cervaiole and Arabescato Vagli quarried throughout the Carrara area. Bardiglio has more black, and has been used since Roman times for architectural facings and floors.


title: Carrara marble

text: It was also used in many sculptures of the Renaissance including Michelangelo's "David" (1501–1504) whilst the statue to Robert Burns, which commands a central position in Dumfries, was carved in Carrara by Italian craftsmen working to Amelia Robertson Hill's model. It was unveiled by future UK Prime Minister Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery on 6 April 1882. Other notable occurrences include:


title: Carrara marble

text: Carrara marble has been designated by the International Union of Geological Sciences as a Global Heritage Stone Resource.


title: Carrara marble

text: Calcite, obtained from an 80 kg sample of Carrara marble, is used as the IAEA-603 isotopic standard in mass spectrometry for the calibration of δO and δC.


title: Carrara marble

text: The black yeast "Micrococcus halobius" can colonize Carrara marble by forming a biofilm and producing gluconic, lactic, pyruvic and succinic acids from glucose, as seen in the Dionysos Theater of the Acropolis in Athens.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: The Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA), is an Act of the Parliament of India "to consolidate and amend the law relating to foreign exchange with the objective of facilitating external trade and payments and for promoting the orderly development and maintenance of foreign exchange market in India". It was passed on 29 December 1999 in parliament, replacing the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA). This act makes offences related to foreign exchange civil offenses. It extends to the whole of India, replacing FERA, which had become incompatible with the pro-liberalization policies of the Government of India. It enabled a new foreign exchange management regime consistent with the emerging framework of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It also paved the way for the introduction of the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002, which came into effect from 1 July 2005.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: Unlike other laws where "everything is permitted unless specifically prohibited", under the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) of 1973 (predecessor to FEMA) "everything was prohibited unless specifically permitted". Hence the tenor and tone of the Act was very drastic. It required imprisonment even for minor offences. Under FERA, "a person was presumed guilty unless he proved himself innocent", whereas under other laws "a person is presumed innocent unless he is proven guilty".


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: FEMA is a regulatory mechanism that enables the Reserve Bank of India to pass regulations and the Central Government to pass rules relating to foreign exchange in tune with the Foreign Trade policy of India.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) was legislation passed in India in 1973 that imposed strict regulations on certain kinds of payments, the dealings in foreign exchange (forex) and securities and the transactions which had an indirect impact on the foreign exchange and the import and export of currency. The bill was formulated with the aim of regulating payments and foreign exchange.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: FERA was introduced at a time when foreign exchange (Forex) reserves of the country were low, Forex being a scarce commodity. FERA therefore proceeded on the presumption that all foreign exchange earned by Indian residents rightfully belonged to the Government of India and had to be collected and surrendered to the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). FERA primarily prohibited all transactions not permitted by RBI.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: Coca-Cola was India's leading soft drink until 1977 when it left India after a new government ordered the company to dilute its stake in its Indian unit as required by the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA). In 1993, the company (along with PepsiCo) returned after the introduction of India's Liberalization policy.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: FERA did not succeed in restricting activities such as the expansion of Multinational Corporations. The concessions made to FERA in 1991-1993 showed that FERA was on the verge of becoming redundant. After the amendment of FERA in 1993, it was decided that the act would become the FEMA. This was done in order to relax the controls on foreign exchange in India. This led on to invention of beliefs among stakeholders that FEMA and FERA co-exist in present Indian scenario.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: FERA was repealed in 1998 by the government of Atal Bihari Vajpayee and replaced by the Foreign Exchange Management Act, which liberalised foreign exchange controls and restrictions on foreign investment.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: The buying and selling of foreign currency and other debt instruments by businesses, individuals and governments happens in the foreign exchange market. Apart from being very competitive, this market is also the largest and most liquid market in the world as well as in India. It constantly undergoes changes and innovations, which can either be beneficial to a country or expose them to greater risks. The management of foreign exchange market becomes necessary in order to mitigate and avoid the risks. Central banks would work towards an orderly functioning of the transactions which can also develop their foreign exchange market. Foreign Exchange Market Whether under FERA or FEMA’s control, the need for the management of foreign exchange is important. It is necessary to keep adequate amount of foreign exchange.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: FEMA served to make transactions for external trade and easier – transactions involving current account for external trade no longer required RBI’s permission. The deals in Foreign Exchange were to be ‘managed’ instead of ‘regulated’. The switch to FEMA shows the change on the part of the government in terms of for the capital.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: Under FEMA, the general principle is that all current account transactions are permitted unless expressly prohibited and all Capital account transactions are prohibited unless expressly permitted. (see Sections 5 and 6 of FEMA)


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: “Capital account transaction” means a transaction which alters the assets or liabilities, including contingent liabilities, outside India of persons resident in India or assets or liabilities in India of persons resident outside India, and includes transactions referred to in sub-section (3) of section 6;


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: It generally refers to Capital inflows like Equities, Grants and Debt. Inflows within the country are called as 'Foreign Direct Investment' (FDI). Capital debt is termed - External Commercial Borrowings (ECB).


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: Any corporate entity receiving FDI or making an outbound investment has to file an annual FEMA return called as Foreign Liabilities and Assets (FLA).


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: Current Account transaction are defined as transactions other than capital account transactions. Mainly include transactions pertaining to individual remittances, trade, student remittances etc.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: FCRA, 2010 has been enacted by the Parliament to consolidate the law to regulate the acceptance and utilization of foreign contribution or foreign hospitality by certain individuals or associations or companies and to prohibit acceptance and utilization of foreign contribution or foreign hospitality for any activities detrimental to national interest and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: As per Section 2(1)(h) of FCRA, 2010, "foreign contribution" means the donation, delivery or transfer made by any foreign source, ─


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: (i)Of any article, not being an article given to a person* as a gift for his personal use, if the market value, in India, of such article, on the date of such gift is not more than such sum as may be specified from time to time by the Central Government by rules made by it in this behalf. (This sum has been specified as Rs. 25,000/- currently);


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: (iii)Of any security as defined in clause (h) of section 2 of the securities Contracts(Regulation) Act, 1956 and includes any foreign security as defined in clause (o) of Section 2 of the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: Explanation 1 – A donation, delivery or transfer or any article, currency or foreign security referred to in this clause by any person who has received it form any foreign source, either directly or through one or more persons, shall also be deemed to be foreign contribution with the meaning of this clause.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: Explanation 2 ‒ The interest accrued on the foreign contribution deposited in any bank referred to in sub-section (1) of Section 17 or any other income derived from the foreign contribution or interest thereon shall also be deemed to be foreign contribution within the meaning of this clause.


title: Foreign Exchange Management Act

text: Explanation 3 ‒ Any amount received, by a person from any foreign source outside India, by way of fee (including fees charged by an educational institution in India from foreign student) or towards cost in lieu of goods or services rendered by such person in the ordinary course of his business, trade or commerce whether within India or outside India or any contribution received from an agent or a foreign source towards such fee or cost shall be excluded from the definition of foreign contribution within the meaning of this clause.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: The United States occupation of Veracruz (April 21 to November 23, 1914) began with the Battle of Veracruz and lasted for seven months. The incident came in the midst of poor diplomatic relations between Mexico and the United States, and was related to the ongoing Mexican Revolution.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: The occupation was a response to the Tampico Affair of April 9, 1914, where Mexican forces had detained nine American sailors. The occupation further worsened relations, and led to widespread anti-Americanism in Mexico.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: US-Mexico relations were strained by the Mexican-American war. The expansionist policies of U.S. president James K. Polk, combined with the Mexican government's desire to retain control of Texas and Upper California, led to the outbreak of military conflict between the US and Mexico in 1846. The decisive US victory led to Mexico ceding 55% of its territory to the United States and a sense of animosity developing between the two nations.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: US-Mexico relations improved during Abraham Lincoln's presidency. He provided military aid in the form of supplies for the Mexican government during their war against French occupation. Porfirio Diaz, head of state of Mexico from 1876 to 1911, took advantage of this improvement and encouraged US investment in order to shore up Mexico's stagnant economy. However, tensions re-emerged in 1911 after Diaz resigned, as Henry Lane Wilson, the US Ambassador to Mexico, worked to overthrow his successor, Francisco I. Madero, and replace him with General Victoriano Huerta, whom Ambassador Wilson viewed as better for American interests. The resulting coup d'etat took place in February 1913 and was known as La Decena Tragica.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: After becoming president in March 1913, Woodrow Wilson withdrew U.S. recognition from the government of Victoriano Huerta and began encouraging the Great Powers to follow suit. The situation escalated more when Wilson imposed an arms embargo on Mexico in August 1913. A couple of months later, In October 1913, rebellions in the states of Chihuahua and Morelos led by Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata broke out after Huerta declared victory in a blatantly fraudulent election. The U.S. subsequently supplied Villa with munitions in order to defeat Huerta.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: The Tampico Affair itself was set off when nine American sailors were arrested by the Mexican government for entering off-limit areas in Tampico, Tamaulipas. The unarmed sailors were arrested when they entered a fuel loading station. The sailors were released, but the U.S. naval commander Henry T. Mayo demanded an apology and a 21-gun salute. The apology was provided, but not the salute. In the end, the response from U.S. President Woodrow Wilson ordered the U.S. Navy to prepare for the occupation of the port of Veracruz. While awaiting authorization from the U.S. Congress to carry out such action, Wilson was alerted to a delivery of weapons for Victoriano Huerta, who had taken control of Mexico the previous year after a bloody "coup d'état" (and was eventually deposed on July 15, 1914), due to arrive in the port on April 21 aboard the German-registered cargo steamer SS "Ypiranga". As a result, Wilson issued an immediate order to seize the port's customs office and confiscate the weaponry. The weapons had actually been sourced by John Wesley De Kay, an American financier and businessman with large investments in Mexico, and a Russian arms dealer from Puebla, Leon Rasst, not the German government, as newspapers reported at the time.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: Part of the arms shipment to Mexico originated from the Remington Arms company in the United States. The arms and ammunition were to be shipped to Mexico via Odessa and Hamburg to skirt the American arms embargo. In Hamburg, De Kay added to the shipment. The landing of the arms was blocked at Veracruz, but they were discharged a few weeks later in Puerto Mexico, a port controlled by Huerta at the time.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: On the morning of April 21, 1914, warships of the United States Atlantic Fleet under the command of Rear Admiral Frank Friday Fletcher, began preparations for the seizure of the Veracruz waterfront. Fletcher's orders were to "Seize custom house. Do not permit war supplies to be delivered to Huerta government or any other party." At 11:12 hrs, consul William Canada watched from the roof of the American Consulate as the first boatload of Marines left the auxiliary vessel . Whaleboats carrying 502 Marines from the 2nd Advanced Base Regiment, 285 armed Navy sailors, known as "Bluejackets," from the battleship and a provisional battalion composed of the Marine detachments from "Florida" and her sister ship also began landing operations. As planned earlier, American consul William W. Canada notified General Gustavo Maass that Americans were occupying the port and warned him to "cooperate with the naval forces in maintaining order." Maass, however, was not permitted by Mexico City to surrender the port.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: Maass ordered the Eighteenth Regiment, under the command of General Luis B. Becerril, to distribute rifles to the populace and to the prisoners in "La Galera" military prison, and then all to proceed to the dock area. Maass also ordered the Nineteenth Regiment, under the command of General Francisco A. Figueroa, to take up positions on Pier Number Four. Maass then radioed a dispatch to General Aurelio Blanquet, Minister of War in Mexico City, of the American invasion. Blanquet ordered Maass to not resist, but to retreat to Tejería, six miles inland. The landing party, under the command of William R. Rush reached Pier 4 at 11:20. A large crowd of Mexican and American citizens gathered to watch the spectacle. The American invaders, under the command of Marine Lt. Col. Wendell C. Neville, proceeded to their objectives without resistance. By 11:45, the rail terminal and cable station were occupied.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: Commodore encouraged cadets of the Veracruz Naval Academy to take up the defense of the port for themselves.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: Three Navy rifle companies were instructed to capture the customs house, post, and telegraph offices, while the Marines went for the railroad terminal, roundhouse, and yard, the cable office and the power plant.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: Arms were distributed to the population, who were largely untrained in the use of Mausers and had trouble finding the correct ammunition. In short, the defense of the city by its populace was hindered by the lack of central organization and a lack of adequate supplies. The defense of the city also included the release of the prisoners held at the "La Galera" military prison, not those at San Juan de Ulúa (some of whom were political prisoners), who were later attended to by the U.S. Navy.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: Although most of the regular troops retreated with Maass to Tejería, the liberated prisoners under the command of Lt. Col. Manuel Contreras, and some civilians, opposed the Americans as they made their way to the custom house. At 11:57, the Mexicans fired upon the Americans as they reached the intersection of Independencia and Emparán. The navy signalman on top of the Terminal Hotel, Capt. Rush's headquarters, was the first American casualty, and by the end of the day, 4 Americans were dead and 20 wounded.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: At 1:30 PM, the "Ypiranga" was intercepted, and detained, before it could off load its cargo of weapons and ammunition.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: On the night of April 21, Fletcher decided that he had no choice but to expand the initial operation to include the entire city, not just the waterfront. At 8:00 AM the next day, he gave orders to take control of the entire city.


title: United States occupation of Veracruz

text: At 8:35 PM, Capt. C.T. Vogelsang's "San Francisco" entered the harbor next to the "Prairie" and off loaded a landing party. At 3 AM, Commander William A. Moffett's "Chester" offloaded 2 companies of marines and a company of seamen. These were followed by men from the "Minnesota" and "Hancock" of Admiral Charles J. Badger's Atlantic Fleet, bringing the total American men ashore to more than 3000.