title: Gopalkrishna Gandhi

text: His paternal grandfather was Mahatma Gandhi and maternal grandfather was C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji). He is the son of Devadas Gandhi and Lakshmi Gandhi. Gopalkrishna Gandhi is the younger brother of Rajmohan Gandhi, Ramchandra Gandhi, and Smt. Tara Bhattacharjee (Gandhi). Gopalkrishna Gandhi and his wife Tara have two daughters.


title: Forced marriage

text: Forced marriage is a marriage in which one or more of the parties is married without their consent or against their will. A marriage can also become a forced marriage even if both parties enter with full consent if one or both are later forced to stay in the marriage against their will.


title: Forced marriage

text: A forced marriage differs from an arranged marriage, in which both parties presumably consent to the assistance of their parents or a third party such as a matchmaker in finding and choosing a spouse. There is often a continuum of coercion used to compel a marriage, ranging from outright physical violence to subtle psychological pressure.


title: Forced marriage

text: Though now widely condemned by international opinion, forced marriages still take place in various cultures across the world, particularly in parts of South Asia and Africa. Some scholars object to use of the term "forced marriage" because it invokes the consensual legitimating language of marriage (such as husband/wife) for an experience that is precisely the opposite. A variety of alternative terms have been proposed, including "forced conjugal association" and "conjugal slavery".


title: Forced marriage

text: The United Nations views forced marriage as a form of human rights abuse, since it violates the principle of the freedom and autonomy of individuals. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that a person's right to choose a spouse and enter freely into marriage is central to their life and dignity, and their equality as a human being. The Roman Catholic Church deems forced marriage grounds for granting an annulment—for a marriage to be valid both parties must give their consent freely. The Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery also prohibits marriage without right to refusal by both parties and requires a minimum age for marriage to prevent this.


title: Forced marriage

text: In 2009, the Special Court for Sierra Leone's (SCSL) Appeals Chamber found the abduction and confinement of women for "forced marriage" in war to be a new crime against humanity (AFRC decision). The SCSL Trial Chamber in the Charles Taylor decision found that the term 'forced marriage' should be avoided and rather described the practice in war as 'conjugal slavery' (2012).


title: Forced marriage

text: In 2013, the first United Nations Human Rights Council resolution against child, early, and forced marriages was adopted; the resolution recognizes child, early, and forced marriage as involving violations of human rights which "prevents individuals from living their lives free from all forms of violence and that has adverse consequences on the enjoyment of human rights, such as the right to education, [and] the right to the highest attainable standard of health including sexual and reproductive health", and also states that "the elimination of child, early and forced marriage should be considered in the discussion of the post-2015 development agenda." The elimination of this harmful practice is one of the targets of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5.


title: Forced marriage

text: Arranged marriages were very common throughout the world until the 18th century. Typically, marriages were arranged by parents, grandparents or other relatives. The actual practices varied by culture, but usually involved the legal transfer of dependency of the woman from her father to the groom. The movement towards emancipation of women in the 19th and 20th centuries led to major changes to marriage laws, especially in regard to property and economic status. By the mid-20th century, many Western countries had enacted legislation establishing legal equality between spouses in family law. The period of 1975–1979 saw a major overhaul of family laws in countries such as Italy,


title: Forced marriage

text: Spain, Austria, West Germany, and Portugal. In 1978, the Council of Europe passed the "Resolution (78) 37 on equality of spouses in civil law". Among the last European countries to establish full gender equality in marriage were Switzerland, Greece, Spain, the Netherlands, and France and the paternal authority of a man over his family was ended in 1970, it was only in 1985 that a legal reform abolished the stipulation that the husband had the sole power to administer the children's property.


title: Forced marriage

text: An arranged marriage is not the same as a forced marriage: in the former, the spouse has the possibility to reject the offer; in the latter, they do not. The line between arranged and forced marriage is however often difficult to draw, due to the implied familial and social pressure to accept the marriage and obey one's parents in all respects. The rejection of an offer to marry was sometimes seen as a humiliation of the prospective groom and his family.


title: Forced marriage

text: In Europe, during the late 18th century and early 19th century, the literary and intellectual movement of romanticism presented new and progressive ideas about love marriage, which started to gain acceptance in society. In the 19th century, marriage practices varied across Europe, but in general, arranged marriages were more common among the upper class. Arranged marriages were the norm in Russia before early 20th century, most of which were endogamous. Child marriages were common historically, but began to be questioned in the 19th and 20th century. Child marriages are often considered to be forced marriages, because children (especially young ones) are not able to make a fully informed choice whether or not to marry, and are often influenced by their families.


title: Forced marriage

text: In Western countries, during the past decades, the nature of marriage—especially with regard to the importance of marital procreation and the ease of divorce—has changed dramatically, which has led to less social and familial pressure to get married, providing more freedom of choice in regard to choosing a spouse.


title: Forced marriage

text: Historically, forced marriage was also used to require a captive (slave or prisoner of war) to integrate with the host community, and accept his or her fate. One example is the English blacksmith John R. Jewitt, who spent three years as a captive of the Nootka people on the Pacific Northwest Coast in 1802–1805. He was ordered to marry, because the council of chiefs thought that a wife and family would reconcile him to staying with his captors for life. Jewitt was given a choice between forced marriage for himself and capital punishment for both him and his "father" (a fellow captive). "Reduced to this sad extremity, with death on the one side, and matrimony on the other, I thought proper to choose what appeared to me the least of the two evils" (p154).


title: Forced marriage

text: Forced marriage was also practiced by authoritarian governments as a way to meet population targets. The Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia systematically forced people into marriages, in order to increase the population and continue the revolution.These marriage ceremonies consisted of no fewer than three couples and could be as large as 160 couples. Generally, the village chief or a senior leader of the community would approach both parties and inform them that they were to be married and the time and place the marriage would occur. Often, the marriage ceremony would be the first time the future spouses would meet. Parents and other family members were not allowed to participate in selecting the spouse or to attend the marriage ceremony. The Khmer Rouge maintained that parental authority was unnecessary because it "w[as] to be everyone's 'mother and father.'"


title: Forced marriage

text: Raptio is a Latin term referring to the "large scale abduction of women", (kidnapping) either for marriage or enslavement (particularly sexual slavery). The practice is surmised to have been common since anthropological antiquity.


title: Forced marriage

text: In the 21st century, forced marriages have come to attention in European countries, within the context of immigration from cultures in which they are common. The Istanbul Convention prohibits forced marriages (see Article 37).


title: Forced marriage

text: The 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery defines "institutions and practices similar to slavery" to include:


title: Forced marriage

text: The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, also known as the Istanbul Convention, states:


title: Forced marriage

text: Parties shall take the necessary legislative or other measures to ensure that marriages concluded under force may be voidable, annulled or dissolved without undue financial or administrative burden placed on the victim.


title: Forced marriage

text: There are numerous factors which can lead to a culture which accepts and encourages forced marriages. Reasons for performing forced marriages include: strengthening extended family links; controlling unwanted behavior and sexuality; preventing 'unsuitable' relationships; protecting and abiding by cultural values; keeping the wealth in the extended family; dealing with the consequences of pregnancy out of wedlock; considering the contracting of a marriage as the duty of the parents; obtaining a guarantee against poverty; aiding immigration.


title: Forced marriage

text: The traditional customs of dowry and bride price contribute to the practice of forced marriage. A dowry is the property or money that a wife (or wife's family) brings to her husband upon marriage. A bride price is an amount of money or property or wealth paid by the groom (or his family) to the parents of the bride upon marriage.


title: Forced marriage

text: Marriage by abduction, also known as bride kidnapping, is a practice in which a man abducts the woman he wishes to marry. Marriage by abduction has been practiced throughout history around the world and continues to occur in some countries today, particularly in Central Asia, the Caucasus and parts of Africa. A girl or a woman is kidnapped by the groom-to-be, who is often helped by his friends. The victim is often raped by the groom-to-be, for her to lose her virginity, so that the man is able to negotiate a bride price with the village elders to legitimize the marriage. The future bride then has no choice in most circumstances, but to accept: if the bride goes back to her family, she (and her family) will often be ostracized by the community because the community thinks she has lost her virginity, and she is now 'impure'. A different form of marital kidnapping, groom kidnapping, occurs in some areas where payment of a dowry is generally expected.


title: Forced marriage

text: Money marriage refers to a marriage where a girl, usually, is married off to a man to settle debts owed by her parents.


title: Forced marriage

text: A forced marriage is also often the result of a dispute between families, where the dispute is 'resolved' by giving a female from one family to the other. "Vani" is a cultural custom found in parts of Pakistan wherein a young girl is forcibly married as part of the punishment for a crime committed by her male relatives. Vani is a form of forced child marriage, and the result of punishment decided by a council of tribal elders named "jirga".


title: Forced marriage

text: Widow inheritance, also known as bride inheritance, is a cultural and social practice whereby a widow is required to marry a kinsman of her late husband, often his brother. It is prevalent in certain parts of Africa. The practice of wife inheritance has also been blamed for the spread of HIV/AIDS.


title: Forced marriage

text: "In conflict areas, women and girls are sometimes forced to marry men on either side of the conflict. This practice has taken place recently in countries such as Syria, Sierra Leone, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Historically, this was common throughout the world, with women from the communities of the war enemy being considered "spoils of war", who could be kidnapped, raped and forced into marriage or sexual slavery". Because women were regarded as property, it seemed reasonable to see them as the chattel of the war enemy, which could now be appropriated and used by the winner.


title: Forced marriage

text: A shotgun wedding is a form of forced marriage occasioned by an unplanned pregnancy. Some religions and cultures consider it a moral imperative to marry in such a situation, based on reasoning that premarital sex or out-of-wedlock births are sinful, not sanctioned by law, or otherwise stigmatized. Giving birth outside marriage can, in some cultures, trigger extreme reactions from the family or community, including honor killings.


title: Forced marriage

text: The term "shotgun wedding" is an American colloquialism, though it is also used in other parts of the world. It is based on a hyperbolic scenario in which the pregnant (or sometimes only "deflowered") woman's father resorts to coercion (such as threatening with a shotgun) to ensure that the male partner who caused the pregnancy goes through with it, sometimes even following the man to the altar to prevent his escape. The use of violent coercion to marry was never legal in the United States, although many anecdotal stories and folk songs record instances of such intimidation in the 18th and 19th centuries. Purposes of the wedding include recourse from the man for the act of impregnation and to ensure that the child is raised by both parents as well as to ensure that the woman has material means of support. In some cases, a major objective was the restoring of social honor to the mother.


title: Forced marriage

text: Shotgun weddings have become less common as the stigma associated with out-of-wedlock births has gradually faded and the number of such births has increased; the increasing availability of birth control and abortion, as well as material support to unwed mothers, such as Elterngeld, child benefits, parental leave, and free kindergartens have reduced the perceived need for such measures.


title: Forced marriage

text: Early and forced marriages can contribute to girls being placed in a cycle of poverty and powerlessness. Most are likely to experience mistreatment such as violence, abuse and forced sexual relations. This means that women who marry younger in age are more likely to be dominated by their husbands. They also experience poor sexual and reproductive health. Young married girls are more likely to contract HIV and their health could be in jeopardy. Most people who are forced into a marriage lack education and are often illiterate. Young ones tend to drop out of school shortly before they get married.


title: Forced marriage

text: Ending a forced marriage may be extremely difficult in many parts of the world. For instance, in parts of Africa, one of the main obstacles for leaving the marriage is the bride price. Once the bride price has been paid, the girl is seen as belonging to the husband and his family. If she wants to leave, the husband may demand back the bride price that he had paid to the girl's family. The girl's family often cannot or does not want to pay it back. Some countries also have Male Guardianship requirements, prohibiting women from paying themselves out, but in other countries it has happened multiple times.


title: Forced marriage

text: British citizens escaping forced marriage abroad are forced to pay their repatriation costs or get into debt. This makes escaping a forced marriage harder.


title: Forced marriage

text: In the United States, Unchained At Last is the only nonprofit organization operating to help people in the U.S. escape forced or arranged marriages by providing free legal and social services.


title: Forced marriage

text: Forced marriages are often related to violence, both in regard to violence perpetrated inside the marriage (domestic violence), and in regard to violence inflicted in order to force an unwilling participant to accept the marriage, or to punish a refusal (in extreme cases women and girls who do not accept the marriage are subjected to honor killings).


title: Forced marriage

text: Depending by jurisdiction, a forced marriage may or may not be void or voidable. Victims may be able to seek redress through annulment or divorce. In England and Wales, the Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 stipulates that a forced marriage is voidable. In some jurisdictions, people who had coerced the victim into marriage may face criminal charges.


title: Forced marriage

text: In Islamic law, consent is needed for a valid marriage. Islamic Marriage is concluded (but not excluding the bride) between the guardian (wali) of the bride and bridegroom, not between bridegroom and bride but her permission is still necessary. The guardian (wali) of the bride can only be a free Muslim. The wali has the power to initiate a marriage contract on behalf of a child before puberty, but once the child attains puberty he or she can accept or reject the marriage. The marriage contract can be annulled on grounds of coercion.


title: Forced marriage

text: Forced marriage is prevalent in Madagascar. Girls are married off by their families, and often led to believe that if they refuse the marriage they will be "cursed". In some cases, the husband is much older than his bride, and when she becomes a widow, she is discriminated and excluded by society.


title: Forced marriage

text: According to Human Rights Watch, Malawi has "widespread child and forced marriage" and half of the girls marry before 18. The practice of bride price, known also as lobolo, is common in Malawi, and plays a major role in forced marriage. Wife inheritance is also practiced in Malawi. After marriage, wives have very limited rights and freedoms; and general preparation of young girls for marriage consists in describing their role as that of being subordinated to the husband.


title: Forced marriage

text: Forced marriage in Mauritania takes three principal forms: forced marriage to a cousin (known as "maslaha"); forced marriage to a rich man for the purpose of financial gain; and forced polygamous marriage to an influential man.


title: Forced marriage

text: In 2018, a law went into effect known as the Hakkaoui law because Bassima Hakkaoui drafted it; among other things, it includes a ban on forced marriage.


title: Forced marriage

text: Forced marriage is common in Niger. Niger has the highest prevalence of child marriage in the world; and also the highest total fertility rate. Girls who attempt to leave forced marriages are most often rejected by their families and are often forced to enter prostitution in order to survive. Due to the food crisis, girls are being sold into marriage.


title: Forced marriage

text: Balkissa Chaibou is known as one of the most famous activists against forced marriage in Niger. Chaibou was 12 when she was informed by her own mother that she was to be married to her cousin, and when she was 16, she took to the courts. With little success, Chaibou was forced to a women's shelter before she was finally able to go home where she learned of her parents changed views on forced marriage, that they were now against it.


title: Forced marriage

text: The "Sexual Intercourse Related Crimes Bill" proposed in August 2020 would allow both child marriage and forced marriage. The new bill “risks legitimizing child marriage, among other alarming practices,” U.N. human rights chief Michelle Bachelet said. Thousands of people in Somalia circulated a petition against the bill, including representatives of the Mogadishu-based Elman Peace and Human Rights Center. More than 45% of young women in Somalia marry or are “in union” before age 18.


title: Forced marriage

text: In South Africa, ukuthwala is the practice of abducting young girls and forcing them into marriage, often with the consent of their parents. The practice occurs mainly in rural parts of South Africa, in particular the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. The girls who are involved in this practice are frequently under-aged, including some as young as eight. The practice received negative publicity, with media reporting in 2009 that more than 20 Eastern Cape girls are forced to drop out of school every month because of ukuthwala.


title: Forced marriage

text: In Tanzania, the practices of forced marriage and child marriage impacts the human rights and childhood of girls. Families sell their girls to older men for financial benefits, causing pain among young girls. Oftentimes, girls are married off as soon as they hit puberty, which can be as young as seven years old. To the older men, these young brides act as symbols of masculinity and accomplishment. Child brides endure forced sex, causing health risks and growth impediments. Primary education is usually not completed for young girls in forced marriages. Married and pregnant students are often discriminated against, and expelled and excluded from school. The Law of Marriage Act currently does not address issues with guardianship and child marriage. The issue of child marriage establishes a minimum age of 18 for the boys of Tanzania. A minimum age needs to be enforced for girls to stop these practices and provide them with equal rights and a less harmful life.


title: Forced marriage

text: In 2016, during a feast ending the Muslim holy month of Ramadan, the Gambian President Yahya Jammeh announced that child and forced marriages were banned.


title: Forced marriage

text: "Compensation marriage", known variously as vani, swara and sang chatti, is the traditional practice of forced marriage of women and young girls to resolve tribal feuds in parts of Pakistan and Afghanistan. The practice is illegal in Pakistan, though it continues to be widely practiced in Pakistan's Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province. In Afghanistan, the practice is known as baad.


title: Forced marriage

text: Forced marriage is very common in Afghanistan, and sometimes women resort to suicide to escape these marriages. A report by Human Rights Watch found that about 95% of girls and 50% of adult women imprisoned in Afghanistan were in jail on charges of the "moral crimes" of "running away" from home or zina. Obtaining a divorce without the consent of the husband is nearly impossible in Afghanistan, and women attempting a "de facto" separation risk being imprisoned for "running away". While it is not socially acceptable for women and girls to leave home without permission, "running away" is not defined as a criminal offense in the Afghan Penal Code. However, in 2010 and 2011, the Afghan Supreme Court issued instructions to courts to charge women with "running away" as a crime. This makes it nearly impossible for women to escape forced marriages. The Human Rights Watch report stated that


title: Forced marriage

text: DIG Sindh Police Aftab Pathan had said on the occasion of a consultative workshop organized by FIA Sindh that in 2014, 1,261 cases of abduction of women for forced marriage were registered. Five accused were jailed while the case of 369 accused was pending. There were also 45 cases of abduction of children under the age of ten. There are reports of forced conversion of girls belonging to minorities in Pakistan and then forced marriages to a Muslim man.


title: Forced marriage

text: Forced marriages have been described between China and its Southeast Asian neighbors from which many women are moved to China, sometimes through promises of work, and forced to marry Chinese men


title: Forced marriage

text: Forced marriage remains common for Kurdish girls in Iran and is also one of the major reasons for self-immolation in Iran. In 1998, UNICEF reported high rates of forced marriage in Iranian Kurdistan, including at an early age, but also reported that the practice was declining. Kurdish cultural norms which facilitate the practice of forced and child marriage perpetuate the fear of violence amongst Kurdish girls in Iran.


title: Forced marriage

text: Girls in Nepal are often seen as an economic burden to the family, due to dowry. Parents often compel young girls to marry, because older and more educated men can demand a higher dowry. In 2009, the Nepalese government decided to offer a cash incentive (50,000 Nepali rupees – $641) to men for marrying widowed women. Because widows often lose social status in Nepalese society, this policy was meant to 'solve' their problems. However, many widows and human rights groups protested these regulations, denouncing them as humiliating and as encouraging coerced marriages.


title: Forced marriage

text: During the Sri Lankan Civil War, a 2004 report in the journal "Reproductive Health Matters" found that forced marriage in Sri Lanka was taking place in the context of the armed conflict, where parents forced teenage girls into marriage in order to ensure that they do not lose their chastity (considered an increased risk due to the conflict) before marriage, which would compromise their chances of finding a husband.


title: Forced marriage

text: In 2011, the family ministry of Germany found that 3000 people were in forced marriages, nearly all from migrant families and most (83.4%) from Muslim families, by querying help bureaus. These figures exceeded the estimates of help organisation Terre des Femmes, which up until then had estimated that about 1000 migrant women sought help annually. More than half of the women had experienced physical abuse, and 27% were threatened with weapons or received death threats. Of the victims, 30% were 17 years old or younger. 31.8% were from Germany, 26.4% from Asia, 22.2% from Turkey, and 5.6% from Africa. In 2016, the German ministry of the interior found that 1475 children were in forced marriages. Of those 1474, 1100 were girls, 664 were from Syria, 157 were Afghans, and 100 were Iraqis.


title: Forced marriage

text: Forced marriages can be made because of family pride, the wishes of the parents, or social obligation. For example, according to Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood, many forced marriages in Britain within the British Pakistani community are aimed at providing British citizenship to a member of the family currently in Pakistan to whom the instigator of the forced marriage feels a sense of duty. In response to the problem of forced marriages among immigrants in the UK, the Forced Marriage (Civil Protection) Act 2007 (applicable in England and Wales, and in Northern Ireland) was passed, which enables the victims of forced marriage to apply for court orders for their protection. Similar legislation was passed in Scotland: the Forced Marriage, etc. (Protection and Jurisdiction) (Scotland), Act 2011 gives courts the power to issue protection orders.


title: Forced marriage

text: In June 2012, the British Government, under Prime Minister David Cameron, declared that forced marriage would become a criminal offence in the United Kingdom. In November 2013, it was reported that a case was brought before the High Court in Birmingham by local authority officials, involving a then 14-year-old girl who was taken to Pakistan, forced to marry a man ten years her senior, and, two weeks later, forced to consummate the marriage with threats, resulting in pregnancy; the court case ended with Mr. Justice Holman saying he was powerless to make a "declaration of non-recognition" of the forced marriage, since he was prevented by law from granting a declaration that her marriage was "at its inception, void". Mr. Justice Holman said that the girl, now 17, would have to initiate proceedings herself to have the marriage nullified. British courts can also issue civil orders to prevent forced marriage, and since 2014, refusing to obey such an order is grounds for a prison sentence of up to five years.


title: Forced marriage

text: The Anti-Social Behaviour, Crime, and Policing Act 2014 makes forcing someone to marry (including abroad) a criminal offence. The law came into effect in June 2014 in England and Wales, and in October 2014 in Scotland. In Northern Ireland, the Human Trafficking and Exploitation (Criminal Justice and Support for Victims) Act (Northern Ireland) 2015 criminalises forced marriage (section 16 – Offence of forced marriage).


title: Forced marriage

text: In July 2014, the United Kingdom hosted its first global Girl Summit; the goal of the Summit was to increase efforts to end child marriage, early, and forced marriage, and female genital mutilation within a generation.


title: Forced marriage

text: The first conviction for forced marriage in the United Kingdom occurred in June 2015, with the convicted being a man from Cardiff, who was subsequently sentenced to 16 years in prison.


title: Forced marriage

text: Of the cases recorded by the government's Force Marriage Unit, run jointly between the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and the Home Office, the majority involved South Asia communities, with 37% linked to Pakistan, 11% linked to Bangladesh, and 7% linked to India. About 30% involved victims below the age of 18.


title: Forced marriage

text: In July 2014, forced marriages were criminalised to protect individuals who were forced to marry against their will (Swedish: "äktenskapstvång"). The maximum sentence is 4 years. No court has given the maximum sentence as of January 2019.


title: Forced marriage

text: Schools in Skåne in the southern part of Sweden report that they discover that about 25 youth are forced to marry annually due to them being part of a shame society. An investigation by government organisation "Ungdomsstyrelsen" reported that 70,000 youth perceived they were unfree in their choice of spouse.


title: Forced marriage

text: In July 2016, an Afghani man in Sweden was sentenced to 4 years in prison for forcing his daughter to marry someone in Afghanistan in the first Swedish conviction. He was also convicted for sexually molesting her Swedish boyfriend, assault, threats, robbery, blackmailing, and false imprisonment.


title: Forced marriage

text: In January 2019, the maternal uncle and aunt of a 16-year-old girl of an Iraqi family were sentenced to 21 months in jail and to pay 12500 euro in damages for forced marriage. In December 2016, her family discovered that the girl was dating a boy, and the family decided to marry her off to a cousin without her knowledge. Under the false pretense that her grandmother was mortally ill, the girl, her mother, aunt, and uncle travelled to Iraq where all but the girl had return tickets. In Iraq, the grandmother proved to be in good health, and the girl was to marry her cousin. Despite having no contacts in Iraq, and the mobile phone had been taken from her, she managed to return to Sweden eight months later.


title: Forced marriage

text: Although forced marriage in Europe is most often associated with the immigrant population, it is also present among some local populations, especially among the Roma communities in Eastern Europe.


title: Forced marriage

text: The British "Forced marriage consultation", published in 2011, found forcing someone to marry to be a distinct criminal offence in Austria, Belgium, Turkey, Denmark, Norway, and Germany. In 2014, it became a distinct criminal offence in England and Wales.


title: Forced marriage

text: The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence defines and criminalizes forced marriage, as well as other forms of violence against women. The Convention came into force on 1 August 2014.


title: Forced marriage

text: In November 2014, UCL held an event, Forced Marriage: The Real Disgrace, where the award-winning documentary "Honor Diaries" was shown, and a panel, including Jasvinder Sanghera CBE (Founder of Karma Nirvana), Seema Malhotra MP (Labour Shadow Minister for Women), and Dr Reefat Drabu (former Assistant General Secretary of the Muslim Council of Britain), discussed the concept of "izzat" (honour), recent changes in British law, barriers to tackling forced marriage, and reasons to be hopeful of positive change.


title: Forced marriage

text: Forced marriage may be practised among some immigrant communities in Canada. Until recently, forced marriage has not received very much attention in Canada. That lack of attention has protected the practice from legal intervention. In 2015, Parliament enacted two new criminal offences to address the issue. Forcing a person to marry against their will is now a criminal offence under the Criminal Code, as is assisting or aiding a child marriage, where one of the participants is under age 16. There has also been the long-standing offence of solemnizing an illegal marriage, which was also modified by the 2015 legislation.


title: Forced marriage

text: In addition to these criminal offences, the "Civil Marriage Act" stipulates: "Marriage requires the free and enlightened consent of two persons to be the spouse of each other," as well as setting 16 as the minimum age for marriage.


title: Forced marriage

text: According to Nancie L Katz, thousands of Pakistani girls have been flown out of the New York City area to Pakistan to undergo forced marriages; those who resist are threatened and coerced. The AHA Foundation commissioned a study by the John Jay College of Criminal Justice to research the incidence of forced marriage in New York City. The results of the study were equivocal. However, AHA Foundation for the past 11 years has operated a helpline that successfully referred numerous individuals seeking help in fleeing or avoiding a forced marriage to qualified service providers and law enforcement. According to the National Center for Victims of Crime Conference, there are "limited laws/policies directly addressing forced marriage", although more general non-specific laws may be used. The organization Unchained at Last, an organization in the United States, assists women escaping forced or arranged marriages with free legal services and other resources. It was founded by Fraidy Reiss.


title: Forced marriage

text: The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS) has been suspected of trafficking underage girls across state lines, as well as across the US–Canada and US–Mexico borders, for the purpose of sometimes involuntary plural marriage and sexual abuse. The FLDS is suspected by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police of having trafficked more than 30 under-age girls from Canada to the United States between the late 1990s and 2006 to be entered into polygamous marriages. RCMP spokesman Dan Moskaluk said of the FLDS's activities: "In essence, it's human trafficking in connection with illicit sexual activity." According to the "Vancouver Sun," it's unclear whether or not Canada's anti-human trafficking statute can be effectively applied against the FLDS's pre-2005 activities, because the statute may not be able to be applied retroactively. An earlier three-year-long investigation by local authorities in British Columbia into allegations of sexual abuse, human trafficking, and forced marriages by the FLDS resulted in no charges, but did result in legislative change.


title: Costa Cruises

text: Founded in Genoa in 1854 by Giacomo Costa (1836-1916) as Giacomo Costa fu Andrea, the company originally operated cargo ships, carrying olive oils and textiles. In 1924, the company was passed to the founder's sons (Federico, Eugenio and Enrico) and started commercial activities, buying the ship, "Ravenna". In 1947, the name of the company was changed to Linea C.


title: Costa Cruises

text: Commercial activities continued for one more year until 1948, with the introduction of passenger services, beginning with regular services between Italy and South America operated by the ship, "Anna C." She marked the start of scheduled operations between Italy and South America after being the first ocean liner to cross the South Atlantic Ocean following World War II.


title: Costa Cruises

text: In 1958, Costa commissioned their first purpose-built ship, "Federico C ," which provided a liner service between Genoa, Italy and Buenos Aires, Argentina via Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In 1959, the company gradually transitioned into offering more pleasure holidays, with trips being offered in the Mediterranean and the Caribbean regions. The second purpose built ship, "Eugenio C", debuted in 1966, designed by famous naval architect Nicolò Costanzi. Linea C went on to own 12 more ships by 1980, making the company the owner of the world's largest fleet of passenger ships. In 1986, Linea C changed its name to Costa Cruises and became a cruise-centered business.


title: Costa Cruises

text: The line had decided to modernize its fleet by the late 1980s, and ordered two new ships in 1987, which became "Costa Classica" and "Costa Romantica" entering service in 1991 and 1993 respectively. The line also converted and completely rebuilt two former container ships into "Costa Marina" and "Costa Allegra" around the same time as ordering the two new ships. Costa wanted to create a new upscale European brand for their new ships and launched the short-lived EuroLuxe brand. "Costa Victoria" debuted in 1996, and was the final ship designed under the Costa family brand before the line was taken over by Carnival Corporation & plc.


title: Costa Cruises

text: In March 1997, Carnival and Airtours PLC purchased Costa Cruises for $300 million, on a 50:50 basis. At the time, Costa Cruises was the leading European cruise line, with an estimated market share of 19%.


title: Costa Cruises

text: After Carnival's take over, a new-building program commenced for the line, utilizing Carnival Cruise Lines Spirit-class and Destiny-class design platforms for the new ships. They line would also utilize Carnival's designer Joe Farcus, who undertook the interior design, moving away from the contemporary Italian style of the previous ships to more themed public spaces similar to Carnival Cruise Line. The first ship delivered under Carnival Corp management, was "Costa Atlantica" in 2000.


title: Costa Cruises

text: In 2000, Carnival Corporation took full control of Costa Crociere after buying out Airtours' 50% interest for $525 million. In 2002, Carnival Corporation and P&O Princess Cruises merged to form Carnival Corporation & plc, bringing together both companies' assets under one corporation. As of 2018, Costa accounted for approximately 12% of Carnival Corporation & plc's revenue.


title: Costa Cruises

text: In 2004, Costa Crociere purchased control of AIDA Cruises of Germany. Carnival Corporation and the Spanish tour operator Orizonia Group created a joint venture in 2007, Ibero Cruises, which was absorbed into Costa Cruises in 2014.


title: Costa Cruises

text: The company attracted international attention when "Costa Concordia" ran aground and capsized off the coast of Italy on 13 January 2012. Thirty-two people died in the disaster. Six weeks later, the company made headlines again when a fire on "Costa Allegra" left it drifting without power for 13 hours in waters near Somalia frequented by pirates, before the ship was taken under tow.


title: Costa Cruises

text: Due do the Covid pandemic of 2020, Costa sold off ships in it's fleet including the "Costa Victoria" and "Costa neoRomantica" to help cut costs. It also lead to the continued long term layup of the "Costa Magica" and "Costa Serena".


title: Costa Cruises

text: In December 2019, Costa debuted "Costa Smeralda" and became the second cruise line to operate a cruise ship fully powered by liquefied natural gas (LNG), following AIDA's one year earlier. "Costa Smeralda" was joined by her sister LNG ship, "Costa Toscana", in 2021.


title: Costa Cruises

text: In 2022, parent company Carnival Corp. announced they would be transferring ships out of the fleet to help balance overall fleet capacities due to the pandemic and the selling off of numerous ships. It was announced the "Costa Luminosa" would be transferred to Carnival Cruise Line, the "Costa Venezia" to the new Costa by Carnival brand in 2023, and the Costa Firenze to the Costa by Carnival in 2024"."


title: Costa Cruises

text: "See also Carnival Cruise Line's accidents and incidents for incidents associated with the parent company's other cruise operations."


title: Costa Cruises

text: On 22 October 1961, "Bianca C." was off Grenada when an explosion occurred in the engine room. Two crew members died in the explosion and the ship subsequently caught on fire. Local fishermen helped rescue the passengers and crew, but as the local authorities did not have the equipment to extinguish the fire, the ship was left to burn until the British frigate arrived from Puerto Rico. The burning ship was in the main anchorage and would block the harbour if it sank there, so the "Londonderry" towed it to a different location where the "Bianca C." sank on 24 October 1961.


title: Costa Cruises

text: On 13 January 2012, "Costa Concordia" ran aground off Isola del Giglio in Tuscany. The ship capsized and partially sank, killing 32 people. In 2014, the ship was parbuckled and refloated with caissons, and in July 2014, she was towed to the Port of Genoa over a period of five days, where it was dismantled and eventually scrapped. The total cost of the disaster was estimated to be over $2 billion.


title: Costa Cruises

text: On 11 February 2015, the captain at the helm during the sinking, Francesco Schettino, was found guilty by an Italian court of multiple manslaughter, causing the shipwreck, and abandoning his passengers. He was sentenced to 16 years in prison. An Italian appeals court on 31 May 2016 upheld the 16-year prison sentence.


title: Costa Cruises

text: On 27 February 2012, "Costa Allegra" suffered an engine room fire and went adrift in the Indian Ocean. After several days adrift without power, the ship was towed to the Seychelles island of Desroches, but was unable to dock there. She was then towed to Mahé, Seychelles, where the passengers disembarked. No casualties were reported.


title: Costa Cruises

text: On 9 March 2012, it was announced that "Costa Allegra" would not return to service with Costa, and she was given to the shipping company, Themis Maritime Ltd. In late 2012, "Costa Allegra" was beached at Aliaga, Turkey, for scrapping.


title: Costa Cruises

text: Costa began new sailings on 6 September in Italy, initially with two ships, "Costa Deliziosa" and "Costa Diadema". At that time, the line required all passengers to be from Italy. By 27 September 2020, however, it was reported that, having implemented strict health protocols to protect its staff and guests, "Costa Cruises will be available for all European citizens who are residents in any of the countries listed in the most recent decree from the Prime Minister of Italy".


title: Costa Cruises

text: A report on 9 January 2021 stated that some cruise lines were hoping to resume some sailings in Europe in the near future but added that "it remains to be seen whether this will go ahead with much of the continent still in lockdown". Costa's Web site at that time was indicating no sailings in January but was hoping to start on 28 February with "Costa Firenze", on 2 April with "Costa Deliziosa", on 3 April with "Costa Magica", and so on. Only Italian ports would be used initially, and the gradual restart would accept only guests from Italy.


title: Krusty Krab

text: The Krusty Krab is a fictional fast food restaurant in the American animated television series "SpongeBob SquarePants". It is famous for its signature burger, the Krabby Patty, the formula to which is a closely guarded trade secret.


title: Krusty Krab

text: The restaurant was founded by Eugene H. Krabs (often referred to as Mr. Krabs), who is also the owner and manager. According to "The SpongeBob Musical", Mr. Krabs' daughter Pearl will inherit the Krusty Krab when she grows older. SpongeBob SquarePants (who works as the fry cook) and Squidward Tentacles (the cashier) are the only full-time employees. The restaurant is deemed "the finest eating establishment ever established for eating" in Bikini Bottom, and it is constantly challenged by its primary competitor, the Chum Bucket, which is operated by Plankton, a plankton and Karen, a waterproof supercomputer and Plankton's wife.


title: Krusty Krab

text: One of the main settings of the series, the Krusty Krab was introduced in the pilot episode, "Help Wanted", where SpongeBob applies for the fry cook job at the restaurant. The Krusty Krab has also been featured in other media, including a theatrical film series, a Broadway musical, video games, and toys. The restaurant has been referenced or parodied throughout popular culture. It has also inspired real-life establishments.


title: Krusty Krab

text: The Krusty Krab is a prominent fast food restaurant in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom. It is owned and operated by Eugene H. Krabs (Mr. Krabs), who invented its famous Krabby Patty sandwich. Krabs plans to transfer ownership of the restaurant to his daughter, Pearl, when she is older. Squidward Tentacles and SpongeBob SquarePants work at the Krusty Krab as the cashier and fry cook, respectively. The other main characters of the series have also held temporary, single-episode positions at the Krusty Krab.


title: Krusty Krab

text: Located across the street from the Krusty Krab is the Chum Bucket, another fast food restaurant owned and operated by Plankton and Karen. Plankton, Mr. Krabs' former best friend, later became his arch-competitor; Plankton's futile attempts at stealing the secret Krabby Patty recipe to replicate the burgers and put the Krusty Krab out of business is a major plot point throughout the series.


title: Krusty Krab

text: The Krusty Krab usually attracts customers from Bikini Bottom because of the Krabby Patty's renowned taste and the fact that Plankton's restaurant has a menu consisting of chum (bait consisting of fish parts), which is considered mostly inedible by the other characters. As a result, the Krusty Krab has become one of the most successful restaurants in the city. In the show, SpongeBob calls it "the finest eating establishment ever established for eating". Mr. Krabs frequently exploits his restaurant's popularity, such as engaging in price gouging and charging his own employees for use of the building's services.


title: Krusty Krab

text: In the season 3 episode "Krusty Krab Training Video", the Krusty Krab building is shown to have originally been a run-down retirement home called the Rusty Krab, which Mr. Krabs acquired and converted into a restaurant. In another episode, the restaurant was also the name of a pirate ship owned by Mr. Krabs before he started the business. The restaurant has seen a lot of temporary changes throughout the show, such as operating 24/7 and being transformed into a hotel, which have been the focus of many episodes. Other episodes have depicted the Krusty Krab being damaged or destroyed.


title: Krusty Krab

text: The Krusty Krab's menu, the Galley Grub, consists mostly of ordinary fast food items, such as french fries and sodas. Its signature sandwich, the Krabby Patty, is celebrated, to a comic degree, by the citizens of Bikini Bottom. In "", Mr. Krabs states: "The Krabby Patty is what ties us all together! Without it, there will be a complete breakdown of social order!" The sandwich comprises two buns, with the patty, lettuce, cheese, onions, tomatoes, ketchup, mustard, and pickles between them (in that order). The recipe of the patty is a closely guarded trade secret, which have led viewers to speculate about its contents. Several fan theories have been formed to guess the secret ingredient.


title: Krusty Krab

text: According to animator Vincent Waller, "there is absolutely no meat in the Krabby Patty. There's no animal product in there", something which was always planned by series creator Stephen Hillenburg. Mr. Lawrence, a show writer and Plankton's voice actor, explained that the show's writers are not allowed to depict fish as food; he stated that there is no meat served in Bikini Bottom except at the Chum Bucket. Tom Kenny, the voice actor for SpongeBob, joked: "Krabby Patties are hummus!" Some commentators suggest that there is actually no secret ingredient, pointing to Mr. Krabs' miserliness. A writer for Hollywood.com believes that it is "all a ruse that crafty Mr. Krabs came up with in order to stop Plankton from focusing on [t]he Chum Bucket. It's legitimately brilliant marketing!" On the possibility that the secret Krabby Patty formula will be revealed in future episodes, Waller said in 2017 that he "would not count on it". In 2019, Waller stated that Hillenburg, who died in 2018, is the only person to have seen it.


title: Krusty Krab

text: Along with SpongeBob's pineapple house, the Krusty Krab was originally intended to be where "the show would return to again and again, and in which most of the action would take place". It debuted in "Help Wanted", the series premiere, and has since appeared in more than 80% of episodes .


title: Krusty Krab

text: The Krusty Krab was inspired by series creator Stephen Hillenburg's time as a fry cook and lobster boiler at a fast-food seafood restaurant during several summers after finishing high school. SpongeBob's occupation was directly based on this experience, while Mr. Krabs was inspired by Hillenburg's manager at the restaurant. However, the restaurant owner was not greedy; Hillenburg added this detail to "give him more personality".


title: Krusty Krab

text: When Hillenburg first created Mr. Krabs, his surname was spelled Crabs, and the name of the restaurant was the Crusty Crab. Hillenburg changed the spelling shortly before production began on the show's pilot episode, deciding that K's were funnier and more memorable. He based the building's design on a lobster trap.


title: Krusty Krab

text: The restaurant was featured in the 2004 theatrical film "The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie" and its (where the secret Krabby Patty formula was a major plot device). It has been adapted to Broadway. The Krusty Krab and the Krabby Patty have been referenced or parodied throughout popular culture. In "Major League of Extraordinary Gentlemen", an episode of the sketch comedy "Robot Chicken", a segment features Mr. Krabs using crab legs as the secret ingredient for Krabby Patties. Online, the Krusty Krab–Chum Bucket rivalry has been turned into memes.


title: Krusty Krab

text: The Krusty Krab has been included in many "SpongeBob SquarePants" toys, publications, and other merchandise. The Lego Group has released two Lego construction sets modeled after the Krusty Krab building. The Krusty Krab has also appeared in "SpongeBob"-related video games, such as "", the title of which alludes to the restaurant. Viacom, which owns Nickelodeon, has earned millions of dollars on licensed products bearing the Krusty Krab name, mainly aquarium figurines and children's play sets.


title: Krusty Krab

text: The Krusty Krab has been recognized by numerous publications—including BuzzFeed, the New York "Daily News", "Screen Rant", and food website "The Daily Meal"—as a restaurant they wished were real. Similarly, as stated in Boston.com, "Sure, we can get crab cakes, but we wish we could try the Krusty Krab's signature sandwich, the Krabby Patties. If only we could get a suit like Sandy's and journey to Bikini Bottom". In another list published by "The Daily Meal", the Krusty Krab was voted number one of "all the fictional spots currently on TV that our readers wished they could dine at". In 2016, "Time" magazine listed the Krusty Krab as one of the 18 most influential fictional companies.


title: Krusty Krab

text: The Krusty Krab has inspired several real-life establishments unaffiliated with Nickelodeon or its parent company, Viacom. In Santa Elena, Costa Rica, a restaurant called the Krusty Krab opened in 2012 but closed a year later. In Ramallah, West Bank, a company called Salta Burgers constructed a real-life Krusty Krab, which received online attention. It opened on July24, 2014, serving seafood and its own version of the Krabby Patty; The restaurant was in operation , but was shut down by 2019. Some commentators, like in the "Houston Press" noted of these foreign imitations that "The long arm of U.S. trademark law doesn't reach across international waters. Every country has its own filing process that must be followed". In Moscow, a Krusty Krab-themed restaurant called The Krusty Krab Cafe opened in 2016 and also makes unofficial Krabby Patties. In Davao City, Philippines, a coffee shop opened in 2017 and sells Krabby Patty-inspired sandwiches; it was named KrustyKrub Cafe because the son of its husband-and-wife owners is a fan of the show.


title: Krusty Krab

text: In January 2016, Viacom sued IJR Capital Investments after learning that it had applied to trademark the Krusty Krab name at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) in December 2014. The latter was planning to open two restaurants adopting the moniker in Houston and Los Angeles. In the lawsuit, Viacom claimed that the proposed restaurants would be an infringement, even though Viacom had not filed a formal trademark for the Krusty Krab name. IJR owner, Javier Ramos Jr. claimed he thought of the name, referring to "the crust that sticks to the top of crabs when they are put in a seafood boil". He claimed not to have heard of the Krusty Krab in "SpongeBob SquarePants", and that he chose it after checking Google and finding no restaurants using that name. While the USPTO approved IJR's trademark application, a Texas federal judge ruled in January 2017 that IJR violated Viacom's rights to the "SpongeBob" property, citing "ownership of a trademark is established by use, not by registration". The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit decided in May 2018 that Viacom deserves trademark protection for the Krusty Krab, and that IJR cannot use it.


title: Krusty Krab

text: In celebration of the 20th anniversary of "SpongeBob", Nickelodeon recreated the Krusty Krab building at the 2019 San Diego Comic-Con. Inside, attendees could play an interactive game in which they must complete food orders before running out of time. It was part of Nickelodeon's booth at the event, which was dedicated to the show. It featured real-life replicas of Mrs. Puff's Boating School and the Chum Bucket, which stood tall and allowed attendees to buy collectibles and have autographs from the show's cast members. The "Los Angeles Times" reported that the Bikini Bottom setup "drew hundreds of nostalgic fans" on the first day of the convention. "Adweek" named it among its ten "Favorite TV-Themed Activations at Comic-Con 2019".


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: An aqueduct is a watercourse constructed to carry water from a source to a distribution point far away. In modern engineering, the term "aqueduct" is used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and other structures used for this purpose. The term "aqueduct" also often refers specifically to a bridge carrying an artificial watercourse. Aqueducts were used in ancient Greece, ancient Egypt, and ancient Rome. The simplest aqueducts are small ditches cut into the earth. Much larger channels may be used in modern aqueducts. Aqueducts sometimes run for some or all of their path through tunnels constructed underground. Modern aqueducts may also use pipelines. Historically, agricultural societies have constructed aqueducts to irrigate crops and supply large cities with drinking water.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: Although particularly associated with the Romans, aqueducts were devised much earlier in Greece, the Near East, Nile Valley, and Indian subcontinent, where peoples such as the Egyptians and Harappans built sophisticated irrigation systems. Roman-style aqueducts were used as early as the 7th century BC, when the Assyrians built an 80 km long limestone aqueduct, which included a 10 m high section to cross a 300 m wide valley, to carry water to their capital city, Nineveh.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: Although particularly associated with the Romans, aqueducts were likely first used by the Minoans around 2000 BCE. The Minoans had developed what was then an extremely advanced irrigation system, including several aqueducts.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: The Indian subcontinent is believed to have some of the earliest aqueducts. Evidence can be found at the sites of present-day Hampi, Karnataka. The massive aqueducts near river Tungabhadra supplying irrigation water were once long. The waterways supplied water to royal bath tubs.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: In Oman from the Iron Age, in Salut, Bat, and other sites, a system of underground aqueducts called falaj or qanāts were constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping horizontal tunnels.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: In Persia from early times a system of underground aqueducts called qanāts were constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping tunnels. This technique:


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: Throughout Petra, Jordan, the Nabataean engineers took advantage of every natural spring and every winter downpour to channel water where it was needed. They constructed aqueducts and piping systems that allowed water to flow across mountains, through gorges and into the temples, homes, and gardens of Petra's citizens. Walking through the Siq, one can easily spot the remains of channels that directed water to the city center, as well as durable retention dams that kept powerful flood waters at bay.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: On the island of Samos, the Tunnel of Eupalinos was built during the reign of Polycrates (538-522 BC). It is considered an underground aqueduct and brought fresh water to Pythagoreion for roughly a thousand years.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: Roman aqueducts were built in all parts of the Roman Empire, from Germany to Africa, and especially in the city of Rome, where they totalled over . The aqueducts supplied fresh water to public baths and for drinking water, in large cities across the empire, and set a standard of engineering that was not surpassed for more than a thousand years. Bridges, built in stone with multiple arches, were a distinctive feature of Roman aqueducts and hence the term "aqueduct" is often applied specifically to a bridge for carrying water.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: Near the Peruvian town of Nazca, an ancient pre-Columbian system of aqueducts called Puquios were built and are still in use today. They were made of intricately placed stones, a construction material widely used by the Nazca culture. The time period in which they were constructed is still debated, but some evidence supports circa A.D. 540–552, in response to drought periods in the region.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: The Guayabo National Monument of Costa Rica, a park covering the largest archaeological site in the country, contains a system of aqueducts. The complex network of uncovered and covered aqueducts still functions well. The aqueducts are constructed from rounded river stones, which are mostly made of volcanic rock. The civilization that constructed the aqueduct system remains a mystery to archaeologists; it is suspected that Guayabo's aqueducts sat at a point of ancient cultural confluence between Aztecs, Mayans, and Incas.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: When Europeans saw the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán, early in the 16th century, the city was watered by two aqueducts. One of these, Chapultepec Aqueduct, built circa 1420, was rebuilt by the Spanish almost three hundred years later. Originally tracing part of its path over now-gone Lake Texcoco, only a fragment remains in Mexico City today.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: Extensive usage of elaborate aqueducts have been found to have been used in ancient Sri Lanka. The best example is the Yoda Ela or Jaya Ganga, an long water canal carrying excess water between two artificial reservoirs with a gradient of 10 to 20 cm per kilometer during the fifth century AD. However, the ancient engineering methods in calculating the exact elevation between the two reservoirs and the exact gradient of the canal to such fine precision had been lost with the fall of the civilization in 13th Century.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: The United States' aqueducts are some of the world's largest. The Catskill Aqueduct carries water to New York City over a distance of 120 miles (190 km), but is dwarfed by aqueducts in the far west of the country, most notably the 242-mile (389-km) Colorado River Aqueduct, which supplies the Los Angeles area with water from the Colorado River nearly 250 miles to the east and the California Aqueduct, which runs from the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta to Lake Perris. The Central Arizona Project is the largest and most expensive aqueduct constructed in the United States. It stretches 336 miles from its source near Parker, Arizona to the metropolitan areas of Phoenix and Tucson.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: An aqueduct in New Zealand, "the Oamaru Borough Race", was constructed in the late 19th century to deliver water (and water-power) about 50 km from the Waitaki River at Kurow to the coastal town of Oamaru.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: In Spain, the Tagus-Segura Water Transfer system of aqueducts opened in 1979 and transports water from north to south.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: In China, the South–North Water Transfer Project aims to connect the Yangtze River basin to Beijing through three separate systems. The project will reuse part of the Grand Canal of China.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: The simplest aqueducts are small ditches cut into the earth. Much larger channels may be used in modern aqueducts, for instance the Central Arizona Project uses wide channels. A major factor in the design of all open channels is its gradient. A higher gradient allows a smaller channel to carry the same amount of water as a larger channel with a lower gradient, but increases the potential of the water to damage the aqueduct's structure. A typical Roman aqueduct had a gradient of about 1:4800.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: A constructed functional rill is a small canal or aqueduct of stone, brick, concrete, or other lining material, usually rectilinear in cross section, for water transportation from a source such as a river, spring, reservoir, qanat, or aqueduct for domestic consumption or agricultural irrigation of crop land uses.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: Rills were traditionally used in Middle Eastern and Mediterranean climate cultures of ancient and historical eras; and other climates and continents worldwide. They are distinguished from a 'water ditch' by being lined to reduce absorption losses and to increase durability. The "Falaj" irrigation system at the Al Ain Oasis, in present-day Abu Dhabi Emirate, uses rills as part of its qanat water system. Sometimes in the Spanish language they are called "Acequias".


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: Rills are also used for aesthetic purposes in landscape design. Rills are used as narrow channels of water inset into the pavement of a garden, as linear water features, and often tiled and part of a fountain design.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: The historical origins are from paradise garden religious images that first translated into ancient Persian Gardens. Rills were later exceptionally developed in the Moorish (Spanish) Gardens of Al-andalus, such as at the Alhambra in Granada; and also in other Islamic gardens, cultures, and countries. Early 20th century examples are in the María Luisa Park gardens in Seville, Spain; and at the Casa del Herrero gardens in Montecito, California.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: Aqueducts sometimes run for some or all of their path through tunnels constructed underground. A version of this common in North Africa and Central Asia that has vertical wells at regular intervals is called a qanat. One historic example found in Syria, the Qanat Firaun, extends over 100 kilometers.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: Modern aqueducts may also make extensive use of pipelines. Pipelines are useful for transporting water over long distances when it needs to move over hills, or where open channels are poor choices due to considerations of evaporation, freezing, pollution, or environmental impact. They can also be used to carry treated water.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: Historically, agricultural societies have constructed aqueducts to irrigate crops. Archimedes invented the water screw to raise water for use in irrigation of croplands.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: Another use for aqueducts is to supply large cities with drinking water. It also help drought-prone areas with water supply. Some of the Roman aqueducts still supply water to Rome today. In California, United States, three large aqueducts supply water over hundreds of miles to the Los Angeles area. Two are from the Owens River area, and a third is from the Colorado River.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: In modern civil engineering projects, detailed study and analysis of open-channel flow is commonly required to support flood control, irrigation systems, and large water supply systems when an aqueduct rather than a pipeline is the preferred solution.


title: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: In the past, aqueducts often had channels made of earth or other porous materials but significant amounts of water are lost through such unlined aqueducts. As water gets increasingly scarce, these canals are being lined with concrete, polymers, or impermeable soil. In some cases, a new aqueduct is built alongside the old one because it cannot be shut down during construction.


title: Son Ho-jun

text: Son Ho-jun made his acting debut in 2006 in the educational drama, "Jump 2". In 2007, Son made his entertainment debut as the leader of Tachyon, a three-member boyband, which first performed on the show "A-Live" on Channel V Korea. The first pop group launched by J&H Media, Tachyon released the debut single "Feel Your Breeze" (a Korean remake from the Japanese boyband V6), then disbanded shortly after.


title: Son Ho-jun

text: After appearing in the SBS drama "Coffee House", which ended in July 2010, Son entered military service. Upon his return in 2013, he returned to acting and rose to stardom for playing the character Haitai in campus drama "Reply 1994". He also gained popularity for appearing in reality shows, notably "Youth Over Flowers" and "Three Meals a Day: Fishing Village".


title: Son Ho-jun

text: In July 2016, Son signed with YG Entertainment. In 2017, he starred in the hit romance drama "Confession Couple". In 2019, he gained critical acclaim for his acting in "The Light in Your Eyes". In 2020, Son played the role of a successful novelist and scriptwriter in the Netflix drama, "Was It Love?".


title: Son Ho-jun

text: On December 6, 2022, Son participated in Naver Happy Bean's fundraiser with branded '119REO' firefighting suits to help improve the treatment of firefighters.


title: FN M1900

text: The FN Browning M1900 is a single action, semi-automatic pistol designed c. 1896 by John Browning for Fabrique Nationale de Herstal (FN) and produced in Belgium at the turn of the 20th century. It was the first production handgun to use a slide.


title: FN M1900

text: The design was presented to arms manufacturer FN Herstal in 1898, with production commencing the following year (then under the designation "Modele 1899"). In 1900, an improved design featuring primarily a shorter barrel and wider grips was introduced as the M1900. These designations were applied retroactively after FN began manufacture of other Browning pistol designs; initially the M1900 was marketed as simply the "Pistolet Browning" (Browning Pistol). Production ceased only 11 years later, with a total of about 700,000+ units having been produced.


title: FN M1900

text: United States President Theodore Roosevelt owned a mother of pearl-gripped Modele 1899, which he regularly kept on his person and in his bedside drawer. It now resides in the NRA Firearms Museum.


title: FN M1900

text: Eugen Schauman, a Finnish nationalist activist, assassinated the Governor-General Nikolay Bobrikov (the highest Russian authority in the Grand Duchy of Finland) with a Browning pistol on June 16, 1904, in Helsinki. The act was followed by spontaneous anti-Russian celebrations in the streets of Helsinki and after the 1917 independence Schauman was considered to be a national hero of Finland.


title: FN M1900

text: An Jung-geun, a Korean-independence activist, assassinated the Resident-General of Korea Itō Hirobumi with this type of gun on October 26, 1909 in Harbin railway station.


title: FN M1900

text: The pistol was popular in China from its introduction through World War II and was often copied and used as the basis for other designs. State-run arsenals produced serialized production runs for warlord militias, and local craftsmen produced one-off handmade versions.


title: FN M1900

text: The is a copy of the M1900. Specimens examined by western authorities were marked with the date of 1964. A silenced variant was produced that featured a shortened slide to allow the threaded barrel to protrude far enough to attach the silencer.


title: FN M1900

text: The weapon is chambered for the .32 ACP, also known as 7.65×17mm Browning SR, "SR" denotes semi-rimmed.


title: Sonja Henie

text: Sonja Henie (8 April 1912 – 12 October 1969) was a Norwegian figure skater and film star. She was a three-time Olympic champion (1928, 1932, 1936) in women's singles, a ten-time World champion (1927–1936) and a six-time European champion (1931–1936). Henie has won more Olympic and World titles than any other ladies' figure skater. She is one of only two skaters to defend a ladies' singles Olympic title, the other being Katarina Witt, and her six European titles has only been matched by Witt.


title: Sonja Henie

text: At the height of her acting career, she was one of the highest-paid stars in Hollywood and starred in a series of box-office hits, including "Thin Ice" (1937), "Happy Landing", "My Lucky Star" (1938), "Second Fiddle" (1939) and "Sun Valley Serenade" (1941).


title: Sonja Henie

text: Henie was born in 1912 in Kristiania (now Oslo) Norway; she was the only daughter of Wilhelm Henie (1872–1937), a prosperous Norwegian furrier, and his wife, Selma Lochmann-Nielsen (1888–1961). In addition to the income from the fur business, both of Henie's parents had inherited wealth. Wilhelm Henie had been a one-time World Cycling Champion and the Henie children were encouraged to take up a variety of sports at a young age. Henie initially showed talent at skiing, then followed her older brother, Leif, to take up figure skating. As a girl Henie also was a nationally ranked tennis player, and a skilled swimmer and equestrienne. Once Henie began serious training as a figure skater, her formal schooling ended. She was educated by tutors, and her father hired the best experts in the world, including the famous Russian ballerina, Tamara Karsavina, to transform his daughter into a sporting celebrity.


title: Sonja Henie

text: Henie won her first major figure skating competition, the senior Norwegian championships, at the age of 10. She then placed eighth in a field of eight at the 1924 Winter Olympics, at the age of eleven.


title: Sonja Henie

text: Henie won the first of an unprecedented ten consecutive World Figure Skating Championships in 1927 at the age of fourteen. The results of 1927 World Championships, where Henie won in 3–2 decision (or 7 vs. 8 ordinal points) over the defending Olympic and World Champion Herma Szabo of Austria, was controversial, as three of the five judges that gave Henie first-place ordinals were Norwegian (1 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 = 7 points) while Szabo received first-place ordinals from an Austrian and a German Judge (1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 8 points). Henie went on to win first of her three Olympic gold medals the following year, becoming one of the youngest figure skating Olympic champions. She defended her Olympic titles in 1932 and in 1936, and her world titles annually until 1936. She also won six consecutive European championships from 1931 to 1936.


title: Sonja Henie

text: Henie's unprecedented three Olympic gold medals have not been matched by any ladies' single skater since, nor have her achievements as ten-time consecutive World champion. While Irina Slutskaya of Russia has held the record for most European titles among ladies' skaters since 2006, Henie still retains the record of most consecutive titles, sharing it with Katarina Witt of Eastern Germany/Germany (1983–1988).


title: Sonja Henie

text: Towards the end of her career, she began to be strongly challenged by younger skaters including Cecilia Colledge, Megan Taylor, and Hedy Stenuf. However, she held off these competitors and went on to win her third Olympic title at the 1936 Winter Olympics, albeit in very controversial circumstances with Cecilia Colledge finishing a very close second. Indeed, after the school figures section at the 1936 Olympic competition, Colledge and Henie were virtually neck and neck with Colledge trailing by just a few points. As Sandra Stevenson recounted in "The Independent", "the closeness [of the competition] infuriated Henie, who, when the result for that section was posted on a wall in the competitors' lounge, swiped the piece of paper and tore it into little pieces.


title: Sonja Henie

text: The draw for the free skating [then] came under suspicion after Henie landed the plum position of skating last, while Colledge had to perform second of the 26 competitors. The early start was seen as a disadvantage, with the audience not yet whipped into a clapping frenzy and the judges known to become freer with their higher marks as the event proceeded. Years later, a fairer, staggered draw was adopted to counteract this situation".


title: Sonja Henie

text: During her competitive career, Henie traveled widely and worked with a variety of foreign coaches. At home in Oslo, she trained at Frogner Stadium, where her coaches included Hjørdis Olsen and Oscar Holte. During the latter part of her competitive career she was coached primarily by the American Howard Nicholson in London.


title: Sonja Henie

text: In addition to traveling to train and compete, she was much in demand as a performer at figure skating exhibitions in both Europe and North America. Henie became so popular with the public that police had to be called out for crowd control on her appearances in various disparate cities such as Prague and New York City.


title: Sonja Henie

text: It was an open secret that, in spite of the strict amateurism requirements of the time, Wilhelm Henie demanded "expense money" for his daughter's skating appearances. Both of Henie's parents had given up their own pursuits in Norway—leaving Leif to run the fur business—in order to accompany Sonja on her travels and act as her managers.


title: Sonja Henie

text: Henie is credited with being the first figure skater to adopt the short skirt costume in figure skating, wear white beautiful boots, and make use of dance choreography. Her innovative skating techniques and glamorous demeanor transformed the sport permanently and confirmed its acceptance as a legitimate sport in the Winter Olympics.


title: Sonja Henie

text: After the 1936 World Figure Skating Championships, Henie gave up her amateur status and took up a career as a professional performer in acting and live shows. While still a girl, Henie had decided that she wanted to move to California and become a movie star when her competitive days were over, without considering that her strong accent might hinder her acting ambitions.


title: Sonja Henie

text: In 1936, following a successful ice show in Los Angeles orchestrated by her father to launch her film career, Hollywood studio chief Darryl Zanuck signed her to a long-term contract at Twentieth Century Fox, which made her one of the highest-paid actresses of the time. After the success of her first film, "One in a Million" (1936), Henie's position was assured and she became increasingly demanding in her business dealings with Zanuck. Henie also insisted on having total control of the skating numbers in her films such as "Second Fiddle" (1939).


title: Sonja Henie

text: Henie tried to break the musical comedy mould with the anti-Nazi film "Everything Happens at Night" (1939) and "It's a Pleasure" (1945), a skating variation of the often-told "A Star Is Born" tale about alcoholic-star-in-decline-helps-newcomer-up. It was her only film shot in Technicolor, but it was not as huge at the box office as her other films and also proved her limitations as a dramatic actress in her only dramatic film.


title: Sonja Henie

text: When Zanuck realized this, he cast her in more musical comedies; "Sun Valley Serenade" (1941) with Glenn Miller, John Payne, The Nicholas Brothers, and hit songs such as "In the Mood", "Chattanooga Choo Choo", "It Happened in Sun Valley", and "I Know Why (And So Do You)"; followed by "Iceland" (1942) with Jack Oakie, Payne, and the hit song "There Will Never Be Another You"; and finally "Wintertime" (1943) with Cesar Romero, Carole Landis, Cornel Wilde, and Oakie. Sonja had by now developed a comedy flair and these films were all among the top box-office hits for 20th Century-Fox the respective years. Eight Sonja Henie movies crossed the $100 million domestic gross mark. "Happy Landing" (1938) was her biggest box office hit.


title: Sonja Henie

text: In her film "Everything Happens at Night" (1939), Ray Milland and Robert Cummings star as rival reporters hot on the trail of Hugo Norden (Maurice Moscovich). Norden, a Nobel Prize winner, was supposedly murdered by the Gestapo, but is rumoured to be in hiding and writing anonymous dispatches advocating world peace. When Geoffrey and Ken track Norden to a small village in the Swiss Alps, they soon find themselves competing over the affections of beautiful Louise (Henie), who has a deeper connection to the missing Nobel laureate than the reporters realize. When Geoffrey and Ken get so distracted by romance that they begin to neglect their assignments, it almost leads to disaster as the Gestapo sets out to silence Norden once and for all. Released on 22 December 1939, it was banned in Nazi Germany.


title: Sonja Henie

text: She was among 250 female stars who were nominated for "50 Greatest Screen Legend" status by the American Film Institute. She did not make the final list however.


title: Sonja Henie

text: In addition to her film career at Fox from 1936 to 1943, Henie formed a business arrangement with Arthur Wirtz, who produced her touring ice shows under the name of "Hollywood Ice Revue". Wirtz also acted as Henie's financial advisor. At the time, figure skating and ice shows were not yet an established form of entertainment in the United States. Henie's popularity as a film actress attracted many new fans and instituted skating shows as a popular new entertainment. Throughout the 1940s, Henie and Wirtz produced lavish musical ice skating extravaganzas at Rockefeller Center's Center Theatre attracting millions of ticket buyers.


title: Sonja Henie

text: At the height of her fame, Henie brought as much as $2 million per year from her shows and touring activities. She also had numerous lucrative endorsement contracts, and deals to market skates, clothing, jewelry, dolls, and other merchandise branded with her name. These activities made her one of the wealthiest self-made women in the world in her time.


title: Sonja Henie

text: Henie broke off her arrangement with Wirtz in 1950 and for the next three seasons produced her own tours under the name "Sonja Henie Ice Revue". It was an ill-advised decision to set herself up in competition with Wirtz, whose shows now featured the new Olympic champion Barbara Ann Scott. Since Wirtz controlled the best arenas and dates, Henie was left playing smaller venues and markets already saturated by other touring ice shows such as Ice Capades. The collapse of a section of bleachers during a show in Baltimore, Maryland in 1952 compounded the tour's legal and financial woes.


title: Sonja Henie

text: In 1953, Henie formed a new partnership with Morris Chalfen to appear in his European "Holiday On Ice" tour, which proved to be a great success. She produced her own show at New York's Roxy Theatre in January 1956. However, a subsequent South American tour in 1956 was a disaster. Henie was drinking heavily at that time and could no longer keep up with the demands of touring, and this marked her retirement from skating.


title: Sonja Henie

text: She did try to make a film series at her own expense; a series that would serve as a travelogue to several cities. Paris and London were mentioned, but only "Hello London" (1958) was made with her own backing, co-starring Michael Wilding and special guest star Stanley Holloway. While her ice show numbers were still worth watching, the film received few distributors and poor reviews, ending her film career.


title: Sonja Henie

text: Her autobiography "Mitt livs eventyr" was published in 1938. An English translation, "Wings on My Feet", was released in 1940 and republished in a revised edition in 1954. At the time of her death, Henie was planning a comeback for a television special that would have aired in January 1970. She was to have danced to "Lara's Theme" from "Doctor Zhivago".


title: Sonja Henie

text: Henie's connections with Adolf Hitler and other high-ranking Nazi officials made her the subject of controversy before, during, and after World War II. During her amateur skating career, she performed often in Germany and was a favorite of German audiences and of Hitler personally. As a wealthy celebrity, she moved in the same social circles as royalty and heads of state and made Hitler's acquaintance as a matter of course.


title: Sonja Henie

text: Through the years, her shows and later art exhibitions drew the attention of such people as Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon and Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden and she met with them. During the shooting of "Second Fiddle" (1939), she greeted the then Crown-Prince couple of Norway Olav and Märtha during their US tour.


title: Sonja Henie

text: Controversy appeared first when Henie greeted Hitler with a Nazi salute at the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen and after the Games she accepted an invitation to lunch with Hitler at his resort home in nearby Berchtesgaden, where Hitler presented Henie with an autographed photo with a lengthy inscription. She was strongly denounced in the Norwegian press for this.


title: Sonja Henie

text: In her revised 1954 biography, she states that no Norwegian judge was in the panel for the 1936 Olympics—as she was entitled to as a Norwegian. She therefore made the most of it and won her third Olympic medal. When she—as a gold medal winner—passed Hitler's tribune with silver medalist Cecilia Colledge and bronze medalist Vivi-Anne Hultén, neither she nor the others honored Hitler with the Nazi salute. The 1936 European Figure Skating Championships also took place in Berlin and neither Henie, Colledge, nor Megan Taylor paid obeisance to Hitler.


title: Sonja Henie

text: During the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany, German troops saw Hitler's autographed photo prominently displayed at the piano in the Henie family home in Landøya, Asker. As a result, none of Henie's properties in Norway were confiscated or damaged by the Germans.


title: Sonja Henie

text: Henie became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1940. Like many Hollywood stars, she supported the U.S. war effort through USO and similar activities. After the Japanese attack, she invited the boys from Little Norway to her ice shows, gave the mechanics a plane as well a substantial sum of money to their educational fund. But her initial reluctance before the US entered the war was never to be forgotten. For this, she was condemned by many Norwegians and Norwegian-Americans. However being a naturalized citizen of the United States effectively put a stop for any propaganda on her behalf until Pearl Harbour.


title: Sonja Henie

text: After the war, Henie was mindful that many of her countrymen considered her to be a quisling. However, she made a triumphant return to Norway with the Holiday on Ice tour in 1953 and 1955. The Norwegian Royal Family attended both events and indeed attended her funeral in 1969. The Royal Family were very mindful of whom they supported after the war and Norwegians looked to them as role models in that respect.


title: Sonja Henie

text: Henie was married three times, to Dan Topping (1940–1946), Winthrop Gardiner Jr. (1949–1956), and the Norwegian shipping magnate and art patron Niels Onstad (1956–1969) (her death). After her retirement in 1956, Henie and Onstad settled in Oslo and accumulated a large collection of modern art that formed the basis for the Henie Onstad Art Centre at Høvikodden in Bærum near Oslo.


title: Sonja Henie

text: She studied in Oslo together with Martin Stixrud and Erna Andersen who was her competitor and skate club member.


title: Sonja Henie

text: Henie was diagnosed with chronic lymphocytic leukemia in the mid-1960s. She died of the disease at age 57 in 1969 in a ambulance plane flight from Paris to Oslo. She is buried with Onstad in Oslo on the hilltop overlooking the Henie Onstad Art Centre.


title: Sonja Henie

text: Henie was portrayed in the 2018 Anne Sewitsky film "Sonja – The White Swan", shown at the 2019 Sundance Film Festival.


title: Sonja Henie

text: Her name and likeness were mentioned and portrayed by an ice skating Donald Duck in Walt Disney's 1939 "The Hockey Champ".


title: Sonja Henie

text: Her animated counterpart appeared in the Disney short, "The Autograph Hound" when Donald asked for her autograph.


title: Sonja Henie

text: She is mentioned by Ty Webb, Chevy Chase’s character in "Caddyshack", as a possible but unavailable substitute for Rodney Dangerfield’s character (Al Czervik) in the final “golf wager” round before Michael O’Keefe’s Danny Noonan is chosen.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: Journalistic ethics and standards comprise principles of ethics and good practice applicable to journalists. This subset of media ethics is known as journalism's professional "code of ethics" and the "canons of journalism". The basic codes and canons commonly appear in statements by professional journalism associations and individual print, broadcast, and online news organizations.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: There are around 400 codes covering journalistic work around the world. While various codes may differ in the detail of their content and come from different cultural traditions, most share common elements including the principles of truthfulness, accuracy and fact-based communications, independence, objectivity, impartiality, fairness, respect for others and public accountability, as these apply to the gathering, editing and dissemination of newsworthy information to the public.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: Like many broader ethical systems, the ethics of journalism include the principle of "limitation of harm." This may involve enhanced respect for vulnerable groups and the withholding of certain details from reports, such as the names of minor children, crime victims' names, or information not materially related to the news report where the release of such information might, for example, harm someone's reputation or put them at undue risk. There has also been discussion and debate within the journalism community regarding appropriate reporting of suicide and mental health, particularly with regard to verbiage.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: Some journalistic codes of ethics, notably some European codes, also include a concern with discriminatory references in news based on race, religion, sexual orientation, and physical or mental disabilities. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe approved (in 1993) Resolution 1003 on the Ethics of Journalism, which recommends that journalists respect the presumption of innocence, in particular in cases that are still "sub judice".


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: Despite modern journalism going back as far as 400 years ago, journalism became more of a necessity in some views in the 1900's. Advancements, as in all fields, are a natural process to occur during the push for continual development and a better world for future generations. Newspapers function with the ideal of presenting "unbiased' information for the masses. The continual evolution of journalism, media and society as a whole, means that journalism will continue to face challenges in the pursuit of that ideal, and the unbiased presentation of information must be a constant topic in editorial meetings and in frequent discussions between editors and reporters. The dissemination of information in today's journalism evolution means that newsrooms must be on point, not only for their own viability, but for the people who depend upon the information provided. Journalism, at its core, is a service occupation, meant to empower the populace with truth. The occupation carries with it an incredible onus, and one that no publisher, editor or journalist should ever take lightly.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: Every country presents its own unique aspects and sometimes challenges as far the codes correlated with Journalism codes today. "Truth", "accuracy", and "objectivity" are cornerstones of journalism ethics. Journalists should strive to detach themselves from regions, groups and even countries they reside from or in to an extent. Allowing for that separation to prevent influenced bias play a part in their journalistic writing. So many journalists today fall victim to this trap hole and become stuck where they are once they have fallen in.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: Certain countries prefer to only have certain information put out and in certain contexts. In Islamic countries there is growing suspicion that journalism is fixed to only be positive for Islam, prompting Islam itself as the one and only truth its people should believe in.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: While journalists in the United States and European countries have led the formulation and adoption of these standards, such codes can be found in news reporting organizations in most countries with freedom of the press. The written codes and practical standards vary somewhat from country to country and organization to organization, but there is substantial overlap between mainstream publications and societies. The International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) launched a global Ethical Journalism Initiative in 2008 aimed at strengthening awareness of these issues within professional bodies. In 2013 the Ethical Journalism Network was founded by former IFJ General Secretary Aidan White. This coalition of international and regional media associations and journalism support groups campaigns for ethics, good governance and self-regulation across all platforms of media.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: One of the leading voices in the U.S. on the subject of journalistic standards and ethics is the Society of Professional Journalists. The Preamble to its Code of Ethics states:


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: ...public enlightenment is the forerunner of justice and the foundation of democracy. The duty of the journalist is to further those ends by seeking truth and providing a fair and comprehensive account of events and issues. Conscientious journalists from all media and specialties strive to serve the public with thoroughness and honesty. Professional integrity is the cornerstone of a journalist's credibility.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: The Radio Television Digital News Association, an organization exclusively centered on electronic journalism, has a code of ethics centering on public trust, truthfulness, fairness, integrity, independence, and accountability.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: During the normal course of an assignment a reporter might go about gathering facts and details, conducting interviews, doing research and background checks, taking photos, and recording video and sound in search of justice. Harm limitation deals with the questions of whether everything learned should be reported and, if so, how. This principle of limitation means that some weight needs to be given to the negative consequences of full disclosure, creating a practical and ethical dilemma. The Society of Professional Journalists' code of ethics offers the following advice, which is representative of the practical ideas of most professional journalists. Quoting directly:


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: In addition to codes of ethics, many news organizations maintain an in-house ombudsman whose role is, in part, to keep news organizations honest and accountable to the public. The ombudsman is intended to mediate in conflicts stemming from internal or external pressures, to maintain accountability to the public for news reported, to foster self-criticism, and to encourage adherence to both codified and uncodified ethics and standards. This position may be the same or similar to the public editor, though public editors also act as a liaison with readers and do not generally become members of the Organisation of News Ombudsmen.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: An alternative is a news council, an industry-wide self-regulation body, such as the Press Complaints Commission, set up by UK newspapers and magazines. Such a body is capable of applying fairly consistent standards and of dealing with a higher volume of complaints but may not escape criticisms of being toothless.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: One of the most controversial issues in modern reporting is media bias, particularly on political issues, but also with regard to cultural and other issues. Another is the controversial issue of checkbook journalism, which is the practice of news reporters paying sources for their information. In the U.S. it is generally considered unethical, with most mainstream newspapers and news shows having a policy forbidding it. Meanwhile, tabloid newspapers and tabloid television shows, which rely more on sensationalism, regularly engage in the practice.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: There are also some wider concerns, as the media continues to change, that the brevity of news reports and use of soundbites has reduced fidelity to the truth, and may contribute to a lack of needed context for public understanding. From outside the profession, the rise of news management contributes to the real possibility that news media may be deliberately manipulated. Selective reporting (spiking, double standards) are very commonly alleged against newspapers.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: The Action Plan, proposed, the EU authorities, is meant to propose a guide for identifying misinformation. The project seeks to target misinformation and produce unbiased and professional informational postings.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: Advocacy journalists—a term of some debate even within the field of journalism—by definition tend to reject "objectivity", while at the same time maintaining many other common standards and ethics.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: Civic journalism adopts a modified approach to objectivity; instead of being uninvolved spectators, the press is active in facilitating and encouraging public debate and examining claims and issues critically. This does not necessarily imply advocacy of a specific political party or position.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: Creative nonfiction and literary journalism use the power of language and literary devices more akin to fiction to bring insight and depth into the often book-length treatment of the subjects about which they write. Such devices as dialogue, metaphor, digression and other such techniques offer the reader insights not usually found in standard news reportage. However, authors in this branch of journalism still maintain ethical criteria such as factual and historical accuracy as found in standard news reporting. They venture outside the boundaries of standard news reporting in offering richly detailed accounts. One widely regarded author in the genre is Joyce Carol Oates, as with her book on boxer Mike Tyson.


title: Journalism ethics and standards

text: Cosmopolitan Journalism- The cosmopolitanism imperative that our primary ethical allegiance is to a borderless, moral community of humankind is often misunderstood. Therefore, it is important to say what it implies and what it does not. The claim of humanity is not the cognition of a cold abstract principle. It is the 14 Global Journalism Ethics ability to perceive and value our common humanity in the situations of life. It is respect for mankind’s rational and moral capacities wherever and however, they are manifest. It is in our concrete dealings with others that we recognize humanity’s common aspirations, vulnerabilities, and capacities, as well as its potential for suffering. In a fragmented world, cosmopolitanism focuses on what is fundamental—a common aspiration to life, liberty, justice, and goodness.