title: Computer case

text: Computer cases usually include sheet metal enclosures for a power supply unit and drive bays, as well as a rear panel that can accommodate peripheral connectors protruding from the motherboard and expansion slots. Most cases also have a power button or switch, a reset button, and LEDs to indicate power, hard drive activity, and network activity in some models. Some cases include built-in I/O ports (such as USB and headphone ports) on the front of the case. Such a case will also (normally) include the wires needed to connect these ports, switches, and indicators to the motherboard.


title: Computer case

text: Accessing the interior components of a modern ATX tower case is done by removing the side panels. Looking front-to-back, accessing the motherboard, PSU, drive bays, and most case fan installation points are done by removing the left side panel.


title: Computer case

text: Removing the right-side panel is done less often to access the space behind the motherboard mounting plate. This space is devoted to cable management, as cables routed in front of the motherboard may disrupt the flow of air within the case causing increased temperatures. BTX, an uncontemporary standard, has the main side panel on the right side as opposed to the left. Some upside-down designed ATX cases are also accessed by removing the right-side panel door.


title: Computer case

text: Alternatively, the case may have a single large U-shaped cover that saddles the chassis. This was ubiquitous in AT tower cases.


title: Computer case

text: To prevent the buildup of performance-degrading dust within the case, many models feature dust filters in front of the air intake fans. While the exact method of accessing the front filters depends on the case model, it usually requires the removal of the entire front panel. Removal of the front panel itself may or may not require the removal of one or both of the side panels. If there is any doubt, consult the user's manual if possible.


title: Computer case

text: Traditionally, most computer cases required computer case screws to hold components and panels in place (i.e. motherboard, PSU, drives, and expansion cards). From the early 2000s onwards there is a trend towards tool-less cases, in which components are held together with snap-in plastic rails, thumbscrews, and other methods that do not require tools; this facilitates quick assembly and modification of computer hardware and is also cheaper to manufacture.


title: Computer case

text: Throughout the 1990s, most computer cases had simple rectangular shapes, and were often painted beige or white with little attention given to the visual design. Beige box designs are still found on a large number of budget computers assembled from generic components. This class of machines is still known as white box computers. More modern computer cases include a much wider range of variation in shape, color, form factor, and materials, such as brushed aluminium and/or tempered glass which are offered with more expensive cases.


title: Computer case

text: "Case modding" is the artistic styling of computer cases, often to draw attention to the use of advanced or unusual components. Since the early 2000s, some cases have included clear side panels or acrylic windows so that users can look inside while it is operating. Modded cases may also include colored internal lighting, custom paint, or liquid cooling systems. Some hobbyists build custom cases from raw materials like aluminum, steel, styrofoam, acrylic, or wood.


title: Computer case

text: Historically, cases used CCFL lighting and eventually single color LEDs as strips or in fans to illuminate their interior; modern cases use RGB LED lighting instead, often incorporated into case fans. To improve airflow while allowing RGB fans to be visible, many cases as of 2020 use metal meshes, without any external bays. Many include a PSU shroud and vertical gpu mounts. Some used to include holes to support external water cooling radiators. Cases with side windows may have side fans (on the window) as well, although it is uncommon for cases with glass windows to have side fans.


title: Computer case

text: Prominent after-market case manufacturers include Antec, BitFenix, Cooler Master, Corsair, Fractal Design, In Win Development, Lian Li, NZXT Corp., Phanteks, Rosewill, and Thermaltake, (DIY PC)


title: Computer case

text: Some computer cases include a biased switch (push-button) which connects to the motherboard. When the case is opened, the switch position changes, and the system records this change. The system's firmware or BIOS may be configured to report this event the next time it is powered on.


title: Computer case

text: This physical intrusion detection system may help computer owners detect tampering with their computers. However, most such systems are quite simple in construction; a knowledgeable intruder can open the case or modify its contents without triggering the switch.


title: Computer case

text: In the past, many tower cases intended to house file servers featured a locking door covering the external drive bays. This was a security feature intended to prevent the theft of the CD-ROM discs the drives would be holding. At the time, CD-ROM capacity was larger than the hard disks available, and many business-critical databases were distributed on this media. These databases were often very expensive or held proprietary data, and hence would be likely targets for casual theft.


title: Grisons

text: The Grisons () or Graubünden, more formally the Canton of the Grisons or the Canton of Graubünden, is one of the twenty-six cantons of Switzerland. It has eleven regions, and its capital is Chur. The German name of the canton, , translates as the "Grey Leagues", referring to the canton's origin in three local alliances, the Three Leagues. The other native names also refer to the Grey League: in Sutsilvan, in the other forms of Romansh, and in Italian. ""Rhaetia"" is the Latin name for the area. The Alpine ibex is the canton's heraldic symbol.


title: Grisons

text: The largest and easternmost canton of Switzerland, it is also one of the three large southern Alpine cantons, along with Valais and Ticino. It is the most diverse canton in terms of natural and cultural geography, as it encompasses both sides of the Alps and several natural and cultural regions. The diversity of the canton is often compared to that of Switzerland as a whole and warrants it the name of "Little Switzerland". The Grisons is bordered by four cantons: Ticino to the south; Uri to the west; and Glarus and St. Gallen to the north. The canton is also bordered by Liechtenstein to the north; Austria's federated states of Vorarlberg and Tyrol to the north and east; and Italy's autonomous province of South Tyrol and region of Lombardy to the south.


title: Grisons

text: The Grisons is the only trilingual canton of Switzerland. It is also the only one where Romansh, Switzerland's fourth national language, has official status. Romansh language and culture is an important part of local identity. In the canton had a population of . It is the least densely populated canton of Switzerland. The only sizable city in the canton is Chur, as the majority of the population lives in mountainous areas, including some of the most remote valleys of the country. One of the birthplaces of winter sports, the canton is a major tourist destination year-round, including a large number of Alpine resort towns, notably Davos and St. Moritz. The canton is also renowned for its extensive narrow-gauge railway network, operated by the Rhaetian Railway, and linking the capital with most valleys of the Grisons.


title: Grisons

text: Formerly occupied by the Rhaeti, most of the lands of the canton became part of the Roman province called Raetia, which was established in 15 BC, with "Curia", a settlement dating back to the Pfyn culture, as capital city. The area later became part of the lands of the diocese of Chur. The late middle ages saw the foundation of the League of God's House, the Grey League and the League of the Ten Jurisdictions. In 1471 an alliance gave birth to the Three Leagues, and before the end of the 15th century, the latter became an ally of the Old Swiss Confederacy. In 1803 the Three Leagues finally became one of the cantons of the Confederation.


title: Grisons

text: The Grisons is Switzerland's largest and at the same time easternmost canton. Its geography, essentially marked by the Alps, is complex and encompasses a wide range of climates and ecosystems. It is one of the three large southern Alpine cantons, along with Ticino and Valais, which comprehend regions on the south side of the Alps. But contrary to those (and all other cantons), it fully extends on both sides of the great Alpine barrier, from the northern plains at Maienfeld to the southern plains at Roveredo. However, a large portion of the canton is neither clearly north nor south of the Alps, it is the Engadin (the "garden of the Inn"), a large inner Alpine valley oriented towards eastern Europe. Therefore the canton comprehends four of the five drainage basins of the country. The north of the canton is drained by the Rhine (ending in the North Sea), the south by the Po and Adige through several affluents (Mediterranean Sea), and the Engadin by the Danube through the Inn (Black Sea).


title: Grisons

text: The Grisons lies fully within the Alps, with elevations above sea-level ranging from . It is both one of the highest and lowest cantons, and the second-highest when considering mean elevation. As a consequence, its topography is extremely rugged and many of the highest settlements in the country (and Europe) are found there, notably in the Upper Engadin. The mountains are numerous and largely over 1,000 summits can be found in the canton. The highest is Piz Bernina, closely followed by numerous peaks in the homonymous range. Other prominent mountains are Piz Russein, Piz Kesch, Calanda, Aroser Rothorn and Rheinwaldhorn, see list of mountains of Graubünden for a more exhaustive list. The canton includes numerous subranges of the Alps other than the Bernina. These are the Albula, the Bregaglia, the Glarus, the Gotthard, the Lepontine, the Livigno, the Plessur, the Oberhalbstein, the Ortler, the Rätikon, the Samnaun, the Sesvenna and the Silvretta ranges.


title: Grisons

text: The regions on the north side of the Alps are all drained by the Rhine and form an intricate network of valleys. The Rhine is both one of the longest rivers within the canton and the only one flowing directly into a sea. The sources of the Rhine are found in the west of the canton and form the Anterior Rhine and the Posterior Rhine. These two rivers converge at Reichenau to form the Rhine in the strict sense of the term. Just after the convergence, the valley opens and its floor constitutes the flattest plains of the canton, from Domat/Ems to Fläsch at the St. Gallen border. In the area around Chur, at the foot of the Calanda, the Rhine progressively changes its direction, from eastward to northward. The Anterior Rhine and Posterior Rhine include numerous tributaries as well before their own convergence. The former constitutes a long and straight valley, the Surselva, shut off from the lower plains by the Rhine Gorge. Its biggest tributaries are the rivers Glogn, Valser Rhine, Rabiusa, forming respectively the Val Lumnezia, the Vals Valley and the Safiental. The other one, the Posterior Rhine, notably collects the waters of the Avers Rhine and the Albula, which in turn collects the waters of the Gelgia and the Landwasser. Similarly to the Anterior Rhine, the upper portion of the Posterior Rhine is also shut off from the plains by the Viamala Gorge. After the convergence with the Albula, the Posterior Rhine forms a wide valley, the Domleschg, until it meets its anterior counterpart. After that, the Rhine collects the water of two important rivers: the Plessur at Chur, forming the valley of the Schanfigg, and the Landquart at the homonymous town, forming the Prätigau.


title: Grisons

text: The Engadin is entirely drained by the Inn and is the only valley in Switzerland in the Danube basin. The Inn is one of the longest rivers in the canton and forms an almost straight valley, from the Maloja Pass to Martina, with a change of direction near Zernez. Despite its length and numerous tributaries, only a few long rivers converge with the Inn. These are the Flaz (forming the Val Bernina), the Spöl (forming the Val da Spöl) and the Clemgia (forming the Val S-charl). In the lower part of the Engadin is also the side valley of Samnaun. The main passes connecting the Engadin with the northern Grisons are (from west to east): the Julier Pass, the Albula Pass and the Flüela Pass.


title: Grisons

text: The valleys on the south side of the Alps are not contiguous to each other and form four distinct regions. The Mesolcina, drained by the Moesa, the Val Bregaglia, drained by the Mera, the Val Poschiavo, drained by the Poschiavino, and the Val Müstair, drained by the Rom. The first three are in the Po basin and the last one is in the Adige basin. While the first two (Mesolcina and Bregaglia) are contiguous to the region north of the Alps, through the San Bernardino Pass, and the Septimer Pass respectively, the three last ones (Bregaglia, Poschiavo and Müstair) are contiguous to the Engadin, through the Maloja Pass, the Bernina Pass, and the Ofen Pass.


title: Grisons

text: Although no large bodies of water are found in the canton, numerous mountain lakes (above 800 m elevation) dot the landscape, some of them being used as reservoirs for hydroelectricity production. The largest natural lakes are Lake Sils, Lake Silvaplana, Lago di Poschiavo and Lake St. Moritz (all in Upper Engadin except that of Poschiavo). Artificial lakes are more numerous, the largest (over 100 ha) being Lago di Livigno, Lago di Lei, Lai da Sontga Maria, Zervreilasee, Lago Bianco, Lai da Marmorera and Lägh da l'Albigna. The total number of lakes has been estimated to 600. See list of mountain lakes of Switzerland for a more exhaustive list.


title: Grisons

text: Unlike other large cantons, the Grisons includes very few cities. The largest (and capital city) is Chur. It is followed by Davos, Landquart, Domat/Ems and St. Moritz, which are, however, far less populated. The canton is particularly renowned for its numerous Alpine resort towns, notably two of the aforementioned ones (Davos and St. Moritz), but also Klosters, Arosa, Lenzerheide, Disentis, Flims, Pontresina and Scuol.


title: Grisons

text: The diversity of the climate of the Grisons is high and comparable to that of Switzerland. In the southernmost and lowest regions, vineyards and olives are grown, while on the highest summits, snow is found year-round. The inner valleys, particularly the Engadin, are significantly drier than the north and south side of the Alps, being sheltered by the high mountains of the range. On the south side of the Alps, Grono is one of the top warmest places in the country with an average of 12.4 °C. The nationwide record temperature of was registered there. The southern valleys are also significantly wetter than the rest of the canton (1,476 mm of rain in Grono, 849 mm in Chur, and 705 mm in Scuol). The coldest places are naturally at high elevations, such as on Piz Corvatsch. The localities of the Upper Engadin are amongst the coldest inhabited regions in the country, notably Samedan with an average temperature of 2.0 °C. The cantonwide record-low temperature of was registered there. The low-elevation region of Chur, including the Bündner Herrschaft, experiences naturally less harsh temperatures with an average of 10.0 °C.


title: Grisons

text: The area of the Grisons is , 19.2% larger than the canton of Bern, the second largest canton. Only about a third of this is commonly regarded as productive land of which forests cover about a fifth of the total area.


title: Grisons

text: The canton is almost entirely mountainous and it is the most sparsely populated region of the country. In its southeastern part lies the only official Swiss National Park. In its northern part, the mountains were formed as part of the thrust fault that was in 2008 declared a geologic UNESCO World Heritage Site, under the name Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona. Another Biosphere Reserve is the Biosfera Val Müstair adjacent to the Swiss National Park, while Ela Nature Park is one of the regionally supported parks.


title: Grisons

text: The Grisons is sometimes included in the larger region of Eastern Switzerland, together with six other cantons. The Grisons shares border with numerous regions of Europe, reflecting its cultural diversity, and is the only canton adjacent to three different countries. On the national level it shares borders with four other cantons: Uri, Glarus, St. Gallen to the northwest (essentially across the Glarus Alps) and Ticino to the west (essentially across the Gotthard Massif and the Lepontine Alps but also at the level of the plain at Roveredo). On the international level, the canton shares borders with three countries: Liechtenstein to the north, the Austrian regions of Vorarlberg and Tyrol to the northeast and the Italian regions of Trentino-South Tyrol and Lombardy to the south.


title: Grisons

text: The deep Alpine valleys of the present-day Grisons were originally settled by the Raetians ("Rhaeti"). In Chur, archaeological evidence of settlement goes back as far as the Pfyn culture (3900-3500 BC), making the capital city of the Grisons one of the oldest settlements in Switzerland.


title: Grisons

text: Most of the lands of the canton were once part of a Roman province called "Raetia", which was established in 15 BC. The current capital of the Grisons, Chur, was known as Curia in Roman times. The area later was part of the lands of the diocese of Chur.


title: Grisons

text: In 1367 the League of God's House ("Cadi", "Gottes Haus", "Ca' di Dio") was founded to resist the rising power of the Bishop of Chur. This was followed by the establishment of the Grey League ("Grauer Bund"), sometimes called "Oberbund", in 1395 in the Upper Rhine valley. The name "Grey League" is derived from the homespun grey clothes worn by the people and was used exclusively after 16 March 1424. The name of this league later gave its name to the canton of the Grisons. A third league was established in 1436 by the people of ten bailiwicks in the former Toggenburg countship, as the dynasty of Toggenburg had become extinct. The league was called League of the Ten Jurisdictions ("Zehngerichtebund").


title: Grisons

text: The first step towards the canton of the Grisons was when the league of the Ten Jurisdictions allied with the League of God's House in 1450. In 1471 the two leagues allied with the Grey League. In 1497 and 1498 the Leagues allied with the Old Swiss Confederacy after the Habsburgs acquired the possessions of the extinct Toggenburg dynasty in 1496, siding with the Confederacy in the Swabian War three years later. The Habsburgs were defeated at Calven Gorge and Dornach, helping the Swiss Confederation and the allied leagues of the canton of the Grisons to be recognised. However the Three Leagues remained a loose association until the "Bundesbrief" of 23 September 1524.


title: Grisons

text: The last traces of the Bishop of Chur's jurisdiction were abolished in 1526. The Musso war of 1520 drove the Three Leagues closer to the Swiss Confederacy.


title: Grisons

text: Between 1618 and 1639 it became a battleground between competing factions during the Bündner Wirren. The Protestant party was supported by France and Venice, while the Catholic party was supported by the Habsburgs in Spain and Austria. Each side sought to gain control of the Grisons to gain control over the important alpine passes. In 1618, the young radical Jörg Jenatsch became a member of the court of 'clerical overseers' and a leader of the anti-Habsburg faction. He supervised the torture to death of the arch-priest Nicola Rusca of Sondrio. In response, Giacomo Robustelli of the pro-Catholic Planta family, raised an army of rebels in the Valtellina. On the evening of 18/19 July 1620, a force of Valtellina rebels supported by Austrian and Italian troops marched into Tirano and began killing Protestants. When they finished in Tirano, they marched to Teglio, Sondrio and further down the valley killing every Protestant that they found. Between 500 and 600 people were killed on that night and in the following four days. The attack drove nearly all the Protestants out of the valley, prevented further Protestant incursions and took the Valtellina out of the Three Leagues.


title: Grisons

text: In response, in February 1621, Jenatsch led a force of anti-Habsburg troops to attack Rietberg Castle, the home of a leader of the pro-Catholic faction, Pompeius Planta. They surprised Planta and according to legend he was killed by Jörg Jenatsch with an axe. The murder of Planta encouraged the Protestant faction and they assembled a poorly led and disorganized army to retake the Valtellina and other subject lands. However, the army fell apart before they could attack a single Catholic town. This Protestant invasion provided the Spanish and Austrians with an excuse to invade the Leagues. By the end of October, Spain and Austria had occupied all of the Grisons. The resulting peace treaty of January 1622, forced Grisons to cede the Müstair, the Lower Engadine and Prättigau valleys. The treaty also forbade the Protestant religion in these valleys. In response, in 1622, the Prättigau valley rebelled against the Austrians and drove them out of the valley. The Austrians invaded the valley twice more, attempting to reimpose the Catholic faith, in 1623–24 and 1629–31.


title: Grisons

text: In 1623 the Leagues entered into an alliance with France, Savoy and Venice. Jürg Jenatsch and Ulysses von Salis used French money to hire an 8,000-man mercenary army and drive out the Austrians. The peace treaty of Monzon (5 March 1626) between France and Spain, confirmed the political and religious independence of the Valtellina. In 1627 the French withdrew from the Valtellina valley, which was then occupied by Papal troops. Starting in 1631 the League, under the French Duke Henri de Rohan, started to expel the Spaniards. However, Richelieu still did not want to hand the valley over to its residents. When it became clear that the French intended to remain permanently in the Leagues, but would not force the Valtellina to convert to Protestantism, Jürg Jenatsch (now a mercenary leader) converted in 1635 to the Catholic faith. In 1637, he rebelled and allied with Austria and Spain. His rebellion along with the rebellion of 31 other League officers forced the French to withdraw without a fight. On 24 January 1639, Jürg Jenatsch was killed during Carnival by an unknown attacker who was dressed as a bear. The attacker may have been a son of Pompeius Planta or an assassin hired by the local aristocracy. According to legend he was killed by the same axe that he used on Pompeius Planta. On 3 September 1639 the Leagues agreed with Spain to bring the Valtellina back under League sovereignty, but with the promise to respect the free exercise of the Catholic faith. Treaties with Austria in 1649 and 1652, brought the Müstair and Lower Engadine valleys back under the authority of the Three Leagues.


title: Grisons

text: In 1798, the lands of the canton of the Grisons became part of the Helvetic Republic as the canton of Raetia except Valtellina, which was separated in 1797 for joining the Cisalpine Republic. It was later part of the Empire of Austria in 1814 before joining the Kingdom of Italy in 1859. With the Act of Mediation the "perpetual ally" of Switzerland became a canton in 1803. The constitution of the canton dates from 1892. In the following century, there have been about 30 changes made to the constitution.


title: Grisons

text: The Grand Council (; , ), the legislature of the canton, sits in Chur, the cantonal capital. Its 120 members, elected in 39 districts using a majority system, are in office for four years. The last district elections were in 2014. The cantonal government, exercising executive authority, is made up of five members, elected by the people for a term of four years and limited to three terms using a majority system.


title: Grisons

text: The constitution of the Grisons, last revised on 14 September 2003, states in its preamble that the canton's purpose is to "safeguard freedom, peace, and human dignity, ensure democracy and the Rechtsstaat, promote prosperity and social justice and preserving a sane environment for the future generations, with the intention of promoting trilingualism and cultural variety and conserving them as part of our historical heritage".


title: Grisons

text: The constitution allows for the enfranchisement of foreign residents at a municipal level, at discretion of the local governments. In 2009, the municipality of Bregaglia became the first in the canton to make use of this provision, granting voting rights to foreigners.


title: Grisons

text: The population of the canton (as of ) is . , the population included 28,008 foreigners, or about 14.84% of the total population. The main religions are Catholicism and Protestantism. Both are well represented in the canton, with Roman Catholics forming a slight plurality (47% Catholic to 41% Protestant).


title: Grisons

text: The Grisons is the only canton of Switzerland with three official languages: German (74.7%), Romansh (13.9%), and Italian (13.9%) with the remaining 13% speaking another language natively.


title: Grisons

text: The Romansh language is spoken only in the Grisons. It consists of five dialect groups, each with its own written language: Sursilvan, Vallader, Puter, Surmiran and Sutsilvan. There also exists a common written language called Rumantsch Grischun.


title: Grisons

text: Romansh has been recognized as one of four "national languages" by the Swiss Federal Constitution since 1938. It was declared an "official language" of the Confederation in 1996, meaning that Romansh speakers may use Romansh for correspondence with the federal government and expect to receive a response in Rumantsch Grischun.


title: Grisons

text: Romansh has official language status at the canton level. Municipalities in turn are free to specify their own official languages.


title: Grisons

text: Agriculture is still essential to keep remote valleys inhabited and cultivated, differing it from sheer wilderness. Agriculture is therefore supported by subsidies by the authorities both national and regional. Eight per cent of the population work in agriculture and forestry, where 50 per cent of the production is certified as organic. Agriculture includes forests and mountain pasturage in summer, particularly of cows, sheep and goats.


title: Grisons

text: Since wolf and bear have returned, the use of Maremma Sheepdogs is not unusual. Although mountain pastures are predominant, there is also wine production in the Rhine Valley, particularly in Fläsch, Maienfeld, Jenins and Malans. This areas is referred to as the Bündner Herschaft. In the southern valleys of Mesolcina and Val Poschiavo there is corn (maize) and chestnut farming, allowed by the milder climate. In the Mesolcina, olive trees are also grown.


title: Grisons

text: 24 per cent of the workforce are employed in industry whereas 68 per cent work in the service industry. The most industrialized region is naturally that of Chur. Ems-Chemie is based in Domat/Ems and is a major employer in the area.


title: Grisons

text: The tourism industry is a major player and reaches a remarkable 14 per cent of the GDP. Tourism is concentrated around the towns of Davos, Klosters, Lenzerheide, Arosa, Flims, St. Moritz and Pontresina, which have large ski areas. There are, however, a great number of other tourist resorts in the canton, divided by the official tourist board for winter sports for example into categories "Top - Large - Small and beautiful". St. Moritz is one of the oldest winter sport resorts, being popular in winter since 1864. The following year, Davos also saw its first tourists in winter. St. Moritz hosted the 1928 Winter Olympics and the 1948 Winter Olympics. Summer tourism is also an important source of revenue. Trekking, mountaineering, and mountain biking are some of the main activities. Business tourism is also a source of revenue, notably in Davos, where the World Economic Forum meetings are traditionally organised.


title: Grisons

text: As the canton extends on both sides of the great Alpine barrier, many important mountain passes are found there, particularly on the north-south axis. Transport has always been an important issue in the area; cart tracks from the Roman era were found on Julier Pass and Septimer Pass was rebuilt for cart use in 1387 and, although it later became unimportant, it is still in its 1800 form (for hikers only). Corniche paths were necessary for long stretches, and gorges such as the Viamala gave construction problems for any kind of transport. The first real roads of width were built across the Alps from around 1816, one of which is still in a very good historical condition as this connection across Splügen Pass lost its importance after the opening of rail tunnels crossing the alps. The last valley to be connected to the road system in the Grisons was Avers, whose remote hamlet of Juf was only reached in 1897. After the Swiss Post expanded their Postal Bus transport services, the region's inhabitants became more used to motorized traffic. In 1925, there were already 250 vehicles in service. Eventually, the inhabitants of the Grisons gave up their resistance against individual motor traffic in 1926, In 1967 opened San Bernardino road tunnel, built to host tourism traffic, is used also by heavy goods vehicles nowadays although not really suitable for them because of its ascent gradients. Most other passes have lost their importance for goods transport nowadays.


title: Grisons

text: Unlike Valais and Ticino, the Grisons does not benefit from major railway axes across the Alps such as the Lötschberg and Gotthard. As a consequence, the only standard gauge railway in the canton is that of the Rhine Valley, ending at Chur station. Conversely, the latter has become a major railway station and a transport hub of the canton since the construction of the Rhaetian Railway, which links most regions of the canton from the Rhine Valley.


title: Grisons

text: Huge efforts ensure public transport to (nearly) every settlement by an integrated timetable of different transport companies. Even Juf, inhabited by some 30 people only but holding a European record, is reached 5 times a day by public transport. The two main transport companies are PostBus, the national post bus company, and the Rhaetian Railway, essentially owned by the cantonal government. The latter uses the largest narrow-gauge railway network in Switzerland and serves most regions of the canton, with branches towards Central Switzerland and Italy. This network is notably travelled by two of the longest distance trains of Switzerland: the Glacier Express and the Bernina Express. The Swiss Federal Railways extend only a few kilometres into the canton, from Maienfeld, and serve essentially Landquart and Chur, where passengers transfer to the Rhaetian Railway and a large number of PostBus routes. The Albula Line became a UNESCO world heritage as did the Bernina Railway, the highest and only railway to cross the Alps without the use of a tunnel at the pass. In winter some of the road passes are closed whereas several high mountain passes such as the Julier, Bernina and Lukmanier are kept open all winter (subject to restrictions). Being the highest elevated state in Switzerland, the Grisons hosts huge alpine areas that are not accessible by any means of transport but have to be walked to. A large number of cable transport facilities provide easy access to some of the mountains of the Grisons, the highest being on Piz Corvatsch.


title: Grisons

text: The Grisons is culturally the most diverse region of Switzerland. Its common denominator, however, is a strong mountain culture marked by life in isolated rural communities, notably depicted in Johanna Spyri's Heidi. Traditional customs include Alpine transhumance in spring and autumn, and the Chalandamarz at the end of winter.


title: Grisons

text: The canton has a large concentration of medieval castles (and ruins). The most notable, in the Engadin, is that of Tarasp, guarding the Inn valley. Many ruins and castles are found in the Domleschg area. Close by lies the church of Zillis, where 1130/40 a famous romanesque illustrated ceiling was added which is now treated as national heritage. Three World Heritage Sites are located in the canton: the Benedictine Convent of Saint John, the Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona and the Rhaetian Railway in the Albula and Bernina Landscapes.


title: Grisons

text: The gastronomy of the Grisons is mostly known for a dried-beef delicacy called Bündnerfleisch, often simply referred to as Grisons Meat. Other meat specialities include dried sausages (especially Salsiz, made of various meats), speck and ham. Cheeses produced in the Grisons are also numerous. Among notable dishes are the Capuns, predominantly made in the western part of the Grisons. Capuns consist of hearty dumplings with pieces of meat wrapped in chard leaves, then gratinated in oven with cheese and cream. The Maluns are another well-known dish of the Grisons. They are made of boiled potatoes mixed with flour, then fried in butter. Maluns are typically served with a compote of apples and various other local products such as cheeses and meat specialities. The Pizzoccheri are another dish, essentially eaten in the valley of Poschiavo. They consist of buckwheat noodles, cooked with potatoes, vegetables and cheese. The emblematic dessert of the Grisons is the Bündner Nusstorte. It is essentially a shortcrust pastry filled with a mix of caramelized walnuts and honey. Another similar pastry, but containing chestnuts instead, the Torta di Castagne, is made in the southern valleys, especially in the Val Bregaglia.


title: Grisons

text: Wines are essentially produced in the Bündner Herrschaft. In the vineyards between Fläsch and Malans, 42 types of vines are found, Pinot Noir being the most popular. Wines are also naturally produced in the southern valleys but in smaller quantities. The valley of the Mesolcina is contiguous with the Ticino wine region and that of Poschiavo is contiguous with the Valtellina wine region. Numerous breweries can be found in the canton as well. The largest, located at Chur, is Calanda Bräu.


title: Grisons

text: Radiotelevisiun Svizra Rumantscha is the Romansh-speaking division of the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation and focuses on the Grisons. "Die Südostschweiz" (in German) and "La Quotidiana" (Romansh) are some of the most important written media of the region.


title: Grisons

text: The Grisons successfully reintroduced ibex in the early 20th century after it had all but died out from the Alps, except for an area in the Aosta Valley in Italy, Parco Nazionale Gran Paradiso. Similarly, it reintroduced the bearded vulture and lynx in the 21st century, which had been extinguished, though the lynx remains rare.


title: Speak (film)

text: Speak is a 2004 American independent coming-of-age teen drama film based on the award-winning 1999 novel of the same name by Laurie Halse Anderson. It stars Kristen Stewart as Melinda Sordino, a high school freshman who practically stops talking after a senior student rapes her. The film’s story is told through Melinda's perspective. It was broadcast on Showtime and Lifetime in 2005 after premiering at the Sundance Film Festival in 2004.


title: Speak (film)

text: Fourteen-year-old Melinda Sordino begins her first year in high school and struggles on the first day. She doesn't have any friends to hang out with, and appears awkward and uncomfortable when speaking to others. Throughout the day, she is made fun of by several students, repeatedly called a "squealer". A series of flashbacks reveal that she called the police to a house party during the previous summer. Her reason for calling 9-1-1 was to tell the police that she had been raped by a senior student at the party, Andy Evans, but her trauma prevented her from reporting the rape over the telephone or to the police when they arrived.


title: Speak (film)

text: When her parents see her report card, they prompt Melinda to see a teacher named Mr. Neck, who tells her to write an essay on any history topic. After refusing to read her paper aloud to her class, she is sent to the principal's office. Melinda is nice to a new student named Heather Billings, who claims to be Melinda's "friend", but Heather soon abandons Melinda when the chance for social advancement arises. The only other student with whom Melinda has a positive experience is her lab partner, Dave Petrakis, who has successfully managed to avoid affiliating himself with a clique.


title: Speak (film)

text: The restoration of Melinda's confidence progresses at a painfully slow rate, with some help from Dave and her art teacher, Mr. Freeman. Her former best friend, Rachel Bruin, starts dating Andy, and Melinda fears that Rachel will suffer the same fate as she did. Melinda meets Rachel at the library and tells her the truth about what happened at the party by writing it on paper. Rachel first refuses to believe, thinking that Melinda is lying out of jealousy and calls her "sick", but comes to realize the truth by confronting Andy who had spoken Melinda's name earlier (despite claiming to have never met any of Rachel's friends before). Rachel then avoids Andy out of anger for his lies and for fear of getting raped by him, telling other people of what happened at the party all the while.


title: Speak (film)

text: Exposed as a rapist and a liar, Andy retaliates against Melinda, cornering her; he tries to force her to tell everybody at school that the incident is false and attempts to rape her again. Melinda struggles and throws a bottle of turpentine at his face, blinding him, and overpowers him after holding a shard of glass from a broken mirror to his neck, threatening to kill him. They are found by Melinda's distanced friend Nicole who, along with other girls from her field hockey team, help Melinda trap a now-helpless Andy to prevent further attack. The altercation removes any doubt about what happened at the house party, and the girls who restrain him are outraged by it and tempted to beat him with their sticks out of spite. Mr. Neck sees Melinda walking away from the scene and asks what was going on, but Melinda doesn't respond.


title: Speak (film)

text: On the way back from the hospital after being treated for her injuries, Melinda rolls down the car window and breathes in deeply. She finally finds the strength to tell her mother, who already suspects something awful, the truth about what happened at the party.


title: Speak (film)

text: Producer and screenwriter Annie Young Frisbie read the novel and successfully made a bid to get the rights to a film version. Production took place in Columbus, Ohio because a production partner, Matthew Myers, was relocating there with his wife.


title: Speak (film)

text: Film production took 21 days in August 2003, on a budget of $1 million dollars. Flooding during an especially heavy summer rain caused filming to be temporarily postponed and during that time author Laurie Halse Anderson visited the set with her daughter. Anderson cameos in the film as the lunch lady who gives Melinda the mashed potatoes.


title: Speak (film)

text: The film premiered at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival and played the film festival circuit, including the Woodstock Film Festival. It later aired simultaneously on the cable networks Showtime and Lifetime on September 5, 2005.


title: Speak (film)

text: Marilyn Moss of "The Hollywood Reporter" gave an overwhelmingly positive write-up, describing the film as, "well-made and extremely touching." She praised Stewart's performance, saying she gave an "understated performance that will touch everyone who sees [the film]." Moss also praised the score and editing, saying it "merges [Stewart's] character's interior and exterior worlds beautifully." On his YouTube channel, critic Chris Stuckmann gave the film a retrospective positive review, praising Stewart and Zahn's performances, the cinematography, and direction. Stuckmann also said the film feels "at home" for him, because of the filming that took place in Ohio (Stuckmann's home state). Barbara Shulgasser-Parker of "Common Sense Media" gave the film a rating of four out of five stars, and called it, "a startlingly good film on what has become a familiar subject in both fiction and life." She praised Stewart's performance and the direction. Although Neil Genzlinger of "The New York Times" opined the film "comes nowhere near capturing the wise, subtle tone of the book it's based on", "[it] is still an effective treatment of a difficult subject, thanks almost entirely to the performance of Kristen Stewart as the young victim."


title: Speak (film)

text: Christopher Null of "ContactMusic.com" gave the film a rating of three out of five stars, saying it "is decent, even pretty good at times, but ultimately this material feels so familiar that we see every turn in the story telegraphed from miles away." Dennis Harvey of "Variety" called the production values "OK," but said, "Eventual coming-to-terms (plus the culprit’s public humiliation) would’ve been much more potent with less caricatured adult characters and more nuanced direction."


title: Speak (film)

text: In 2006, the film was nominated for a Writers Guild Award. Jessica Sharzer was also nominated for a Directors Guild Award in the category of Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Children’s Programs.


title: Impulse response

text: In signal processing and control theory, the impulse response, or impulse response function (IRF), of a dynamic system is its output when presented with a brief input signal, called an impulse (). More generally, an impulse response is the reaction of any dynamic system in response to some external change. In both cases, the impulse response describes the reaction of the system as a function of time (or possibly as a function of some other independent variable that parameterizes the dynamic behavior of the system).


title: Impulse response

text: In all these cases, the dynamic system and its impulse response may be actual physical objects, or may be mathematical systems of equations describing such objects.


title: Impulse response

text: Since the impulse function contains all frequencies (see the Fourier transform of the Dirac delta function, showing infinite frequency bandwidth that the Dirac delta function has), the impulse response defines the response of a linear time-invariant system for all frequencies.


title: Impulse response

text: Mathematically, how the impulse is described depends on whether the system is modeled in discrete or continuous time. The impulse can be modeled as a Dirac delta function for continuous-time systems, or as the Kronecker delta for discrete-time systems. The Dirac delta represents the limiting case of a pulse made very short in time while maintaining its area or integral (thus giving an infinitely high peak). While this is impossible in any real system, it is a useful idealisation. In Fourier analysis theory, such an impulse comprises equal portions of all possible excitation frequencies, which makes it a convenient test probe.


title: Impulse response

text: Any system in a large class known as "linear, time-invariant" (LTI) is completely characterized by its impulse response. That is, for any input, the output can be calculated in terms of the input and the impulse response. (See LTI system theory.) The impulse response of a linear transformation is the image of Dirac's delta function under the transformation, analogous to the fundamental solution of a partial differential operator.


title: Impulse response

text: It is usually easier to analyze systems using transfer functions as opposed to impulse responses. The transfer function is the Laplace transform of the impulse response. The Laplace transform of a system's output may be determined by the multiplication of the transfer function with the input's Laplace transform in the complex plane, also known as the frequency domain. An inverse Laplace transform of this result will yield the output in the time domain.


title: Impulse response

text: To determine an output directly in the time domain requires the convolution of the input with the impulse response. When the transfer function and the Laplace transform of the input are known, this convolution may be more complicated than the alternative of multiplying two functions in the frequency domain.


title: Impulse response

text: The impulse response, considered as a Green's function, can be thought of as an "influence function": how a point of input influences output.


title: Impulse response

text: In practical systems, it is not possible to produce a perfect impulse to serve as input for testing; therefore, a brief pulse is sometimes used as an approximation of an impulse. Provided that the pulse is short enough compared to the impulse response, the result will be close to the true, theoretical, impulse response. In many systems, however, driving with a very short strong pulse may drive the system into a nonlinear regime, so instead the system is driven with a pseudo-random sequence, and the impulse response is computed from the input and output signals.


title: Impulse response

text: An application that demonstrates this idea was the development of impulse response loudspeaker testing in the 1970s. Loudspeakers suffer from phase inaccuracy, a defect unlike other measured properties such as frequency response. Phase inaccuracy is caused by (slightly) delayed frequencies/octaves that are mainly the result of passive cross overs (especially higher order filters) but are also caused by resonance, energy storage in the cone, the internal volume, or the enclosure panels vibrating. Measuring the impulse response, which is a direct plot of this "time-smearing," provided a tool for use in reducing resonances by the use of improved materials for cones and enclosures, as well as changes to the speaker crossover. The need to limit input amplitude to maintain the linearity of the system led to the use of inputs such as pseudo-random maximum length sequences, and to the use of computer processing to derive the impulse response.


title: Impulse response

text: Impulse response analysis is a major facet of radar, ultrasound imaging, and many areas of digital signal processing. An interesting example would be broadband internet connections. DSL/Broadband services use adaptive equalisation techniques to help compensate for signal distortion and interference introduced by the copper phone lines used to deliver the service.


title: Impulse response

text: In control theory the impulse response is the response of a system to a Dirac delta input. This proves useful in the analysis of dynamic systems; the Laplace transform of the delta function is 1, so the impulse response is equivalent to the inverse Laplace transform of the system's transfer function.


title: Impulse response

text: In acoustic and audio applications, impulse responses enable the acoustic characteristics of a location, such as a concert hall, to be captured. Various packages are available containing impulse responses from specific locations, ranging from small rooms to large concert halls. These impulse responses can then be utilized in convolution reverb applications to enable the acoustic characteristics of a particular location to be applied to target audio.


title: Impulse response

text: In economics, and especially in contemporary macroeconomic modeling, impulse response functions are used to describe how the economy reacts over time to exogenous impulses, which economists usually call shocks, and are often modeled in the context of a vector autoregression. Impulses that are often treated as exogenous from a macroeconomic point of view include changes in government spending, tax rates, and other fiscal policy parameters; changes in the monetary base or other monetary policy parameters; changes in productivity or other technological parameters; and changes in preferences, such as the degree of impatience. Impulse response functions describe the reaction of endogenous macroeconomic variables such as output, consumption, investment, and employment at the time of the shock and over subsequent points in time. Recently, asymmetric impulse response functions have been suggested in the literature that separate the impact of a positive shock from a negative one.


I Spit on Your Grave III: Vengeance Is Mine is a 2015 American rape and revenge horror film, directed by R.D. Braunstein from a screenplay by Daniel Gilboy. It is the third installment in the series. Sarah Butler reprises her role as Jennifer Hills from the 2010 film "I Spit on Your Grave" (a remake of the 1978 original).


title: I Spit on Your Grave III: Vengeance Is Mine

text: The film follows the life of Jennifer Hills, continuing her story from "I Spit on Your Grave". After Jennifer survived her assault and exacted revenge on the men who raped her, she avoided conviction for her killing spree and settled in Los Angeles. She is no longer an aspiring writer and now devotes her time to working as an assault helpline operator and going to group counseling under the assumed name "Angela Jitrenka". She is also periodically shown attending personal therapy for her ordeal. Jennifer's scarring experience has left her highly distrustful and defensive towards most men, including her colleague Matthew, who has a seemingly genuine interest in her.


text: While in group counseling, Jennifer develops a bond with one of the girls in the group, Marla, who also does not trust men. The duo begin their own personal crusade by exacting poetic justice for victims of sexual assault. However, just as Jennifer begins to enjoy life, Marla dies under mysterious circumstances and no one is found guilty of her death. She becomes acquainted with Detective McDylan, an investigator into Marla's death who, however, fails to bring justice for Marla nor closure for Jennifer. Distraught and enraged at how the law could not help Marla nor the rape victims in her support group, she decides to get vengeance for them.


text: One by one, Jennifer stalks and lures the unpunished rapists to a private place to torture and kill them. Her first victim is Marla's estranged boyfriend and alleged murderer, soon followed by the stepfather of a teenage member of the group. After befriending Oscar, the only male member of the support group who lost his daughter to suicide after a sexual assault, Jennifer tracks down his daughter's rapist. The man manages to overpower her as she tries to attack him until he is shot dead by the police, whose attention Jennifer had been drawing through her actions. The police take Jennifer in for questioning, revealing their knowledge of her true identity in an attempt to obtain a confession. However, Oscar, who had grown sympathetic to Jennifer's cause, walks into the police station after slashing his own arms, and publicly admits to the murders before dying from his wounds.


text: No longer the prime suspect, Jennifer is released but stays under police watch as a person of interest. She has a nervous breakdown, becoming further disillusioned with society and no longer able to discern well-meaning men from sexual predators. Clad in a suggestive red dress in order to bait men, Jennifer leaves her home, evading the police watch. First, she unsuccessfully attacks Matthew and scares him away, then she tries to lure a local thug who had been harassing her. As Jennifer is about to kill him, she is shot and arrested by McDylan, who had been trailing her the entire time.


text: It is now revealed Jennifer's personal therapy sessions were part of her mandatory treatment following a two-year sentence for attempted murder, lacking evidence of the murders that she actually committed. After completing the final session before her release, Jennifer leaves the doctor's office and switches the "therapist" sign on the door to read "the rapist". She is then attacked by two inmates, whom she kills, before killing her therapist who had left the room to stop it, but this is revealed to be a daydream, indicating that Jennifer's fantasies of killing all rapists are not over. This shows that this was merely another vision, as she walks down the hallway completely clean.


text: The film opened in Russia and Ukraine on October 1, 2015. Russia debuted the movie at the number 11 with a total of $44,021 from 81 screens. Ukraine fared better with a fifth place opening and a weekend total of $18,603 from 48 screens. After a three-week run in Russia and Ukraine, the cumulative totals were $111,089 and $33,331 respectively.


title: GMC Terrain

text: The GMC Terrain is a crossover SUV by American manufacturer General Motors under its GMC marque. Sharing its platform with the Chevrolet Equinox, the first-generation Terrain was built on GM's Theta platform, while the second-generation model is currently built on the Delta platform. The Terrain is the smallest GMC vehicle slotted below the Acadia. It also indirectly replaced the Pontiac Torrent which was often sold in the same dealerships prior to GM dropping the Pontiac brand.


title: GMC Terrain

text: The 2010 Terrain debuted in April 2009 at the New York International Auto Show, introduced as a replacement for the Pontiac Torrent, which ended production after GM shut down the Pontiac brand in 2010. Although the preceding Pontiac Torrent had the same Theta platform, the Torrent was a rebadged version of the original Chevrolet Equinox from 2005 to 2009, while GM decided to differ the look of the Chevrolet Equinox with its 2010 Terrain and still use the Theta platform. Early 2010 models have the GM Mark of Excellence logo applied on the sides of the vehicle.


title: GMC Terrain

text: For the 2013 model year, the GMC Terrain introduced the Denali trim which consists of more chrome trim and slightly improved interior quality, the 3.6L SIDI V6 that is shared with the 2012 Cadillac SRX in place of the optional 3.0L SIDI V6, and firmer front struts. The Denali also offers cross-traffic detection, blind-spot warning and a power passenger seat as options.


title: GMC Terrain

text: For 2016, the GMC Terrain received a facelift as part of its first mid-cycle refresh along with the Equinox. The refresh consisted of new front and rear fascias, new grille, a power dome hood, LED daytime running lights, new wheels, a new gear selector, a second storage shelf under the dashboard, as well as deletion of the door lock buttons from the dashboard.


title: GMC Terrain

text: In 2016, GMC introduced the Terrain Nightfall edition, which replaces chrome with gloss-black finish on the grille surround, the front and rear fascia accents, the license-plate surround, mirror caps, and roof rack, as well as charcoal grille inserts and darkened headlights pulled from the Terrain Denali. The Terrain Nightfall comes with revised rims with machined faces and black spokes. The Terrain Nightfall trim is available on the SLE-2 and SLT trim levels and is available only in Onyx Black, Summit White, Graphite Gray, and Crimson Red.


title: GMC Terrain

text: The first generation Terrain is powered by a choice of two engines, a 2.4-liter 4-cylinder and a V6 engine that was upgraded from 3.0 liters of displacement to 3.6 liters in 2013:


title: GMC Terrain

text: The terrain, for 2014 came in SLE, SLE-1, SLE-2, SLT, SLT-1, SLT-2 and Denali. The base SLE started at $27,199. while the range topping Denali came in at $37,998.


title: GMC Terrain

text: In 2013, Nat G CNG Solutions in Houston, TX and AGA Systems in Salt Lake City, UT began offering a Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) version of the Terrain and the Chevy Equinox using the 2.4L Direct Injection engine. The natural gas version is a "bi-fuel" CNG vehicle, meaning it runs on either gasoline or natural gas, giving it extended range. The Terrain/Equinox were the first direct injection natural gas vehicles ever approved by the US EPA.


title: GMC Terrain

text: The CNG version was available for newly purchased Terrains through select dealers or as a retrofit on 2013 and 2014 models. Nat G CNG Solutions offered the vehicle in two options: a two-seater cargo version and a five-seat passenger version. The cargo version has an combined gasoline / natural gas (9.2 gge of CNG) while the passenger version has a combined highway range (6.8 gge of CNG).


title: GMC Terrain

text: The companies claimed that the natural gas version had tested at the EPA lab at highway on natural gas and had achieved a Bin 3 emissions equivalent to the Toyota Prius.


title: GMC Terrain

text: Silver Eagle Distributors, L.P., the nation's largest distributor of Anheuser-Busch products, was the launch customer for the natural gas version with an initial order of up to 100 of the natural gas versions.


title: GMC Terrain

text: In March 2022, General Motors recalled over 740 thousands of GMC Terrains from 2010 to 2017 for too bright headlights. In October 2022, General Motors issued a fix for the recall by thoroughly cleaning the headlights and adding a tape on the headlight.


title: GMC Terrain

text: On January 8, 2017, the second generation GMC Terrain was unveiled at the 2017 North American International Auto Show as a 2018 model. The second generation went on sale in Summer 2017 and will be available in three engine choices, and standard features such as a 7-inch touchscreen and LED daytime running headlights and taillights. There is also a more luxurious variant called the GMC Terrain Denali.


title: GMC Terrain

text: In February 2020, General Motors unveiled a refreshed version of the GMC Terrain; it was initially planned to go on sale in mid-2020 as 2021 model year vehicle but General Motors cancelled the GMC Terrain facelift in March 2020, due to production issues and declining demand to launch redesigned and facelifted vehicle models in 2020 as 2021 MY vehicles, as a result of the 2020 economic recession. General Motors confirmed that the GMC Terrain refresh will instead go on sale in Summer 2021 as 2022 model year vehicle along with refreshed versions of the Chevy Equinox, Chevy Traverse, and Buick Enclave.


title: Cristina Kahlo

text: Cristina Kahlo y Calderón (1908–1964) was the sister of artist Frida Kahlo. Frida painted a portrait of Cristina, titled "Portrait of Cristina, My Sister", and Diego Rivera, Frida's husband, also portrayed Cristina Kahlo in his work. Cristina, with whom Rivera had an affair, was painted by Rivera in the nude.


title: Cristina Kahlo

text: Cristina Kahlo y Calderón was born June 7, 1908, and was the youngest daughter of the Kahlo family. Her parents were Guillermo Kahlo and Matilde Calderón. Guillermo Kahlo, who worked as a photographer, had a previous marriage in which he had two children before his wife died. Cristina and Frida had two other sisters, named Matilde and Adriana, and two half sisters named María Luisa and Margarita. Cristina was eleven months younger than Frida, and the pair were very close. The Kahlo y Calderón family lived in a house built by Guillermo in Coyoacán, Mexico.


title: Cristina Kahlo

text: Cristina came from a meager background but her father, Guillermo, a photographer during the Mexican Revolution when there was hardly a market for photographs, provided for her education.


title: Cristina Kahlo

text: Cristina later married and had two children, Isolda and Antonio. Cristina's husband left her after the birth of Antonio. When Frida and Diego Rivera returned to Mexico as successful painters, Cristina acted as subject for both artists. She was one of Diego's favorite subjects, and he often painted her in the nude. Soon after her husband left, Cristina and Diego began an affair.


title: Cristina Kahlo

text: Cristina and Frida were very close, and Frida used Cristina as an indirect and direct subject for some of her paintings. Frida painted "Portrait of Cristina Kahlo" near the start of Frida's career. Art historians note that its style was similar to Diego's. After this painting, Frida was able to find her own stylistic preferences.


title: Cristina Kahlo

text: In Frida's painting "Mi Nodriza y yo" ("My wet-nurse and I") Cristina, although not in the painting, is its subject. The painting depicts Frida being breastfed by a wet-nurse as opposed to her own mother, because when Frida's mother became pregnant with Cristina she could no longer breastfeed Frida. Cristina is also an indirect subject of Frida's 1937 painting "Memory, the Heart", a self-portrait displaying Frida with a metal rod going through an empty space in her chest. Art historians have suggested that this symbolizes "displacement of penetration." In other words symbolizing Cristina's affair with Diego. The pole replacing her heart, which lies wounded and bleeding on the ground, also shows the immense pain which was the result of the affair.


title: Cristina Kahlo

text: Rivera portrays Cristina in his art work, and she was one of his favorite models. Cristina was depicted on the South Wall of Rivera's 1929-1935 mural "The History of Mexico: The World of Today and Tomorrow". She lies at the bottom of the mural alongside her children and Frida. This could be an indication of her importance to Diego. Pairing Frida and Cristina and her children showed the contradictions between the two. Frida appears statuesque while Cristina appears "lively." Another contradiction was the aspect of Cristina being his lover and Frida his wife; and in addition Cristina had children and Frida did not.


title: Cristina Kahlo

text: Cristina also appears in Rivera's "Figure of Knowledge," in the Ministry of Health. Depicted in the nude, she holds a yonic shaped flower as a symbol of her femininity. Diego depicted her in the nude in another mural in the same building, although neither of the nude depictions were meant to be erotic but represented a vision of health and purity.


title: Cristina Kahlo

text: Cristina and her children lived with Diego and Frida as a family. Towards the end of Frida's life, Cristina looked after her and made her as comfortable as possible. After Frida's death, Cristina lived her life separate from Diego. Diego turned Cristina and Frida's childhood house La Casa Azul in Coyoacán into a museum of Frida's work, though this didn't please Cristina.


title: Yugyeom

text: Kim Yu-gyeom (; born November 17, 1997), known mononymously as Yugyeom (), is a South Korean singer, songwriter and dancer who debuted as a member of Got7 in 2014 and one half of its duo subunit Jus2.


title: Yugyeom

text: Despite being born in Seoul, Kim has spent a little of his childhood in Saudi Arabia due to his dad's job. He lived in Yeosu from age 6 to 11, then moved to Namyangju, Gyeonggi Province, where he grew up alongside his older brother.


title: Yugyeom

text: While in Yeosu, he attended trumpet, bass and guitar lessons; however, he was especially interested in dance, and started performing for his classmates during lunch breaks in his second year of primary school. He started dreaming of becoming a singer and a dancer watching performances of Big Bang and J.Y. Park when he was little, and, after his family moved to Yeosu, Kim joined the school talent show, where he performed a choreography. From there, he actively took part in these events, and, for two years, learnt choreographies on his own by copying them from TV.


title: Yugyeom

text: While attending the first year of middle school, he took part in the Hidden Performing Arts Tournament, where he danced to Beast's "Shock". His older brother filmed the performance and posted it to Cyworld, where the footage caught the attention of Kim's cousin, a dance teacher, who invited him to join the private dance school where she worked. After learning freestyle dance, he joined the Body & Soul crew at age 13, entering underground dance competitions: with them, in 2010, he won second place at the national competition Adrenaline House Dance Battle. A teacher at the dance school he was attending was a dance instructor for JYP Entertainment, and this led him to an audition for the label. He became a trainee in 2011, during his eighth year of school.


title: Yugyeom

text: Trained under JYP Entertainment, he appeared on the 2013 Mnet reality-survival program "WIN: Who Is Next", where he competed against YG Entertainment trainees, who later debuted as Winner and iKon members.


title: Yugyeom

text: On January 16, 2014, Kim debuted with K-pop boy group Got7 releasing the EP "Got It?". In 2015, JYP Entertainment in partnership with Youku Tudou, released a mini web drama series titled "Dream Knight" in which the drama featured the Got7 members as themselves. Over the years, he also took part in creating choreographies for "If You Do" from their EP "Mad", and for "Poison" from their EP "Dye".


title: Yugyeom

text: In 2016, he participated in Mnet's "Hit the Stage", a dance survival show which idols from different K-pop groups team up with professional dance teams to compete with others, appearing in episodes 9 and 10. He ranked second in episode 9 and won first place during the final. The same year, Kim began taking part in writing and composing Got7's songs, debuting as a songwriter with "See The Light" (빛이나) for their "" album. Kim also co-hosted "The Show" on April 5 and "The Show SBS Super Concert" in Busan on October 18.


title: Yugyeom

text: In April 2018, together with fellow member Jay B, he participated in the art collaboration project "Collaboran" for carbonated mineral water brand Perrier with American multimedia artist Ben Jones. The art collaboration was unveiled at a launching event on April 22, at Nakwon Musical Instrument Arcade. With Got7's third full-length studio album "", Kim released his solo song "Fine". The accompanying music video was disclosed on September 12. In February 2019, he joined the SBS reality show "Law of The Jungle in Northern Mariana Islands" for four episodes. On March 5, he debuted as one half of the K-pop duo Jus2 alongside Jay B, as the second sub-unit of Got7, with the mini album "Focus".


title: Yugyeom

text: In May 2020, he appeared on MBC's singing competition show "King of Mask Singer" as "Mr. Raspberry Wine", on episode 257.


title: Yugyeom

text: In January 2021, Kim, along with the other group members, parted ways with JYP Entertainment though remaining as Got7. Rumors soon followed that Kim would join AOMG. It was then confirmed on February 19 that Kim had officially signed an exclusive contract with AOMG. His dance visual video of "Franchise" by Travis Scott featuring Young Thug and M.I.A. came with the announcement.


title: Yugyeom

text: On June 3, it was announced that Kim would make a mid-June comeback, his first release as an AOMG artist which also features fellow label mate, Gray. June 11 and 17 were announced as the release dates. Kim released a 7-track extended play titled "", for which he collaborated with hip-hop artists DeVita, Loco, Gray, Jay Park and Punchnello. Gray produced five of the songs, while Cha Cha Malone two. The pre-release single, "I Want U Around" featuring DeVita, was accompanied by a music video. A music video for "All Your Fault" (네 잘못이야) was also released on June 17 featuring Gray.


title: Yugyeom

text: On June 22, 2021, Kim made his debut on the Billboard World Digital Song Sales Chart at number two with "I Want U Around". Two days later, his first solo EP debuted on the Gaon Album Chart at number 11 and "All Your Fault" featuring Gray debuted on the Gaon Download Chart at number 15.


title: Yugyeom

text: In August, he performed at We All Are One, a cheering concert for the Tokyo Olympics, and at AOMG first online concert Above Ordinary 2021.


title: Yugyeom

text: From May 5 to May 13, he embarked in a solo tour through Europe, performing in Berlin, Munich, Oberhausen, Paris and London, and selling out tickets for Munich and Oberhausen. He held a solo concert in Manila on August 19, debuting the unreleased track "Always Ready", and will perform two sold out shows at Impact Exhibition Hall 5 in Bangkok on August 27 and 28.


title: Yugyeom

text: In June 2020, Kim donated an undisclosed amount to the Black Lives Matter Fund in light of the protests for George Floyd's murder.


title: Yugyeom

text: All song credits are adapted from the Korea Music Copyright Association's database, unless otherwise noted.


title: Selita Ebanks

text: Selita Ebanks (born 17 February 1983) is a Caymanian model and actress. Ebanks has worked for high fashion brands Neiman Marcus and Ralph Lauren, and appeared in magazines such as the "Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue", "Vogue", and "Glamour", but she is best known for her work with Victoria's Secret, as one of the brand's "Angels" from 2005 to 2010.


title: Selita Ebanks

text: Born to a Jamaican father and a Caymanian mother in George Town, Grand Cayman, Ebanks was raised in a large family that included seven brothers. Her family, her mother in particular, encouraged her development through extracurricular programs. She moved to the United States and settled in Staten Island, where she graduated from Curtis High School. She was accepted to attend undergraduate studies at Columbia University and New York University, but instead chose to pursue modeling. In 2000, at the age of 17, while walking through the turnstiles at Six Flags Great Adventure, Ebanks was scouted by an agent from Elite Model Management.


title: Selita Ebanks

text: Ebanks made her debut in February 2001 at the fall show for Tuleh, and has walked the runway for designers including Betsey Johnson, Catherine Malandrino, Pamella Roland and Tommy Hilfiger. She has appeared in campaigns for Abercrombie & Fitch, Tommy Hilfiger and DKNY, and signed a contract with Victoria's Secret in 2005.


title: Selita Ebanks

text: Ebanks first modeled for Victoria's Secret for their Ipex Bra line, before being signed as an Angel. She and Izabel Goulart made their major débuts in the 2005 Victoria's Secret Fashion Show, working as an Angel until 2008. In 2005, Tyra Banks said she was proud of Ebanks to be representing black women at Victoria's Secret.


title: Selita Ebanks

text: In 2007, Ebanks was selected to wear the "Very Sexy" Holiday Fantasy Bra Set with a price tag of $4,500,000 that contains diamonds, emeralds, rubies and yellow sapphires—which she wore in the Victoria's Secret "Christmas Dreams and Fantasies 2007" catalogue. She also wore the fantasy bra set during the Victoria's Secret fashion show on 4 December 2007.


title: Selita Ebanks

text: Ebanks made a special guest appearance on "How I Met Your Mother" (episode: "The Yips") on 26 November 2007 with her fellow Victoria's Secret supermodels (Miranda Kerr, Heidi Klum, Adriana Lima, Marisa Miller, and Alessandra Ambrosio).


title: Selita Ebanks

text: According to "Forbes", Ebanks was the twelfth highest paid model of 2008, earning an estimated $2.7 million.


title: Selita Ebanks

text: Ebanks has graced the covers of "Maxim", British "GQ" and Russian "FHM" and appeared in editorials for "Marie Claire", "Glamour", "V", German and Italian "Elle", "Vanidades" and "Sports Illustrated"'s 2007 Swimsuit Issue.


title: Selita Ebanks

text: Ebanks appeared on the third season of "Celebrity Apprentice", but was fired in week 5 on 11 April 2010, placing 9th. Previously, she recorded music and appeared on the UPN-series "South Beach".


title: Selita Ebanks

text: She is featured in The-Dream's music video for the single "Make Up Bag", as well as Kanye West's 2010 short film "Runaway", playing a fallen phoenix with whom West's character falls in love. She is now a reoccurring character in BET's Husband's of Hollywood where she plays the love interest of comedian Kevin Hart.


title: Selita Ebanks

text: Ebanks also has her own line of swimwear, accessories and shoes called Sass which stands for Selita's Accessories Shoes and Swimwear. The line was seen on the BET Rip The Runway 2012 which she hosted alongside Pooch Hall.


title: Selita Ebanks

text: Selita Ebanks was to star in the ABC Family (now Freeform) TV series called "Nicki" based on the life of music sensation Nicki Minaj alongside Ariana Neal, Wesley Jonathan and McCarrie McCausland. Whoopi Goldberg and J.B. Smoove as guest star. But according to The Hollywood Reporter, Freeform has cancelled their series. Ebanks was to play Grace, Nicki's mother. Production began in January 2016. In October 2016, Minaj stated the filming was postponed.


title: Selita Ebanks

text: Ebanks has run her own talent school "Stardom Youth Foundation" since 2004 in her hometown Cayman Islands, providing career guidance for teenagers.


title: Selita Ebanks

text: She also formed a charity organization, "Women’s Coalition for Empowerment and Opportunity", after a trip to Sierra Leone in 2008. The organization helps to support women’s educational and professional programs in the civil war-torn African nation.


title: Selita Ebanks

text: She joined the Cash&Rocket tour in 2013 and 2014 raising more than $1 million for women and children all over the world.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Annie Chapman (born Eliza Ann Smith; 25 September 1840 – 8 September 1888) was the second canonical victim of the notorious unidentified serial killer Jack the Ripper, who killed and mutilated a minimum of five women in the Whitechapel and Spitalfields districts of London from late August to early November 1888.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Although previous murders linked to Jack the Ripper (then known as the "Whitechapel murderer") had received considerable press and public attention, the murder of Annie Chapman generated a state of panic in the East End of London, with police under increasing pressure to apprehend the culprit.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Annie Chapman was born Eliza Ann Smith in Paddington on 25 September 1840. She was the first of five children born to George Smith, and Ruth Chapman. George Smith was a soldier, having enlisted in the 2nd Regiment of Life Guards in December 1834. Reportedly, the location of Chapman's earliest years revolved around her father's military service served between London and Windsor.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Chapman's parents were not married at the time of her birth, although they married on 22 February 1842, in Paddington. Following the birth of their second child in 1844, the family relocated to Knightsbridge, where George Smith became a valet. The family eventually relocated to Berkshire in 1856.


title: Annie Chapman

text: According to her brother, Fountain, Annie had "first took a drink when she was quite young", quickly developing a weakness for alcohol, and although both he and two of his other sisters had persuaded her to sign a pledge to refrain from consuming alcohol, she "was tempted and fell" despite the "over and over" efforts of her siblings to dissuade her.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Census records from 1861 indicate all members of the Smith family—except Annie—had relocated to the parish of Clewer. Chapman is believed to have remained in London, possibly due to her employment commitments as a domestic servant. Her father, George Smith (also known as William Smith), was the valet to Captain Thomas Naylor Leland of the Denbighshire Yeomanry Cavalry. On 13 June 1863, Smith accompanied his employer to a horse racing event. He lodged with his employer that evening at the Elephant and Castle, Wrexham. That night, George Smith committed suicide by cutting his throat.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Contemporary accounts describe Annie Chapman as an intelligent and sociable woman with a weakness for alcohol—particularly rum. An acquaintance described Chapman at the inquest into her murder as being "very civil and industrious when sober", before noting: "I have often seen her the worse for drink." She was 5 feet in height and had blue eyes and wavy, dark brown hair, leading acquaintances to give her the nickname "Dark Annie".


title: Annie Chapman

text: On 1 May 1869, Annie married John James Chapman, who was related to her mother. The ceremony was conducted at All Saints Church in the Knightsbridge district of London, and was witnessed by one of her sisters, Emily Laticia, and a colleague of her husband named George White. The Chapmans' residence on their marriage certificate is listed as 29 Montpelier Place, Brompton, although the couple are believed to have briefly resided with White and his wife in Bayswater.


title: Annie Chapman

text: In the years following their marriage, the Chapmans lived at various West London addresses. In the early 1870s, John Chapman obtained employment in the service of a nobleman in Bond Street.


title: Annie Chapman

text: The couple had three children: Emily Ruth (b. 25 June 1870); Annie Georgina (b. 5 June 1873); and John Alfred (b. 21 November 1880). Emily Ruth was born at Chapman's mother's home in Montpelier Place, Knightsbridge; Annie Georgina was born at South Bruton Mews, Mayfair; and John Alfred was born in the Berkshire village of Bray. John was born crippled. The Chapmans sought medical help for their son John at a London hospital before later placing him in the care of an institution for the physically disabled close to Windsor.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Although Chapman had struggled with alcoholism as an adult, she had reportedly weaned herself off drink by 1880. Her son's disability is believed to have contributed to her gradual reversion to alcohol dependency.


title: Annie Chapman

text: In 1881, the Chapman family relocated from West London to Windsor, where John Chapman took a job as a coachman to a farm bailiff named Josiah Weeks, and the Chapman family living in the attic rooms of St. Leonard Hill Farm Cottage. The following year, Emily Ruth Chapman died of meningitis on her brother's second birthday at the age of 12.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Following the death of their daughter, both Chapman and her husband took to heavy drinking. Over the following years, she is known to have been arrested on several occasions for public intoxication in both Clewer and Windsor, though no records exist of her ever being brought before a magistrates court for these arrests.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Chapman and her husband separated by mutual consent in 1884. John Chapman retained custody of their surviving daughter, while Annie relocated to London. Her husband was obliged to pay her a weekly allowance of 10s via Post Office Order. The precise reason for the couple's separation is unknown, although a later police report lists the reason for their separation as Annie Chapman's "drunken and immoral ways".


title: Annie Chapman

text: Two years later, in 1886, John Chapman resigned from his job due to his declining health and relocated to New Windsor. He died of liver cirrhosis and edema, on 25 December, leading to the cessation of these weekly payments. Chapman learned of her husband's death via her brother-in-law. Her surviving daughter, Annie Georgina (then aged 13) is believed to have either subsequently been placed in a French institution or to have joined a performing troupe which travelled with a circus in France. Census records from 1891 reveal both of Chapman's surviving children lived with their grandmother in Knightsbridge.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Following her separation from her husband, Annie Chapman relocated to Whitechapel, primarily living upon the weekly allowance of 10 shillings from her husband. Over the following years, she resided in common lodging-houses in both Whitechapel and Spitalfields. By 1886, she is known to have resided with a man who made wire sieves for a living, consequently becoming known to some acquaintances as "Annie Sievey" or "Siffey". At the end of 1886, her weekly allowance abruptly stopped. Upon enquiring why these weekly payments had suddenly ceased, Chapman discovered her husband had died of alcohol-related causes.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Shortly after John Chapman's death, this sieve-maker left Chapman—possibly due to the cessation of her allowance—and relocated to Notting Hill. One of Chapman's friends said she became depressed after this separation and seemed to lose her will to live.


title: Annie Chapman

text: By May or June 1888, Chapman resided in Crossingham's Lodging House at 35 Dorset Street, paying 8d a night for a double bed. According to the lodging-house deputy, Timothy Donovan, a 47-year-old bricklayer's labourer named Edward "the Pensioner" Stanley would typically stay with Chapman at the lodging-house between Saturday and Monday, occasionally paying for her bed. She earned some income from crochet work, making antimacassars and selling flowers, supplemented by casual prostitution.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Eight days prior to Chapman's death, she had fought with a fellow Crossingham's Lodging House resident named Eliza Cooper. The two were reportedly rivals for the affections of a local hawker named Harry, although Cooper later claimed the reason the two had fought had been because Chapman had borrowed a bar of soap from her, and after being asked to return it, Chapman had simply thrown a halfpenny upon a kitchen table, stating: "Go get a halfpenny's worth of soap." Later, in a fight between the two at the Britannia Public House, Cooper struck Chapman in the face and chest, resulting in her sustaining a black eye and bruised breast.


title: Annie Chapman

text: On 7 September, Amelia Palmer encountered Annie Chapman in Dorset Street. Palmer later informed police Chapman had appeared visibly pale on this occasion, having been discharged from the casual ward of the Whitechapel Infirmary that day. Chapman complained to Palmer of having felt "too ill to do anything".


title: Annie Chapman

text: After Chapman's death, the coroner who conducted her autopsy noted her lungs and brain membranes were in an advanced state of disease which would have killed her within months.


title: Annie Chapman

text: According to both the lodging-house deputy, Timothy Donovan, and the watchman, John Evans, shortly after midnight on 8 September, Chapman had been lacking the required money for her nightly lodging. She drank a pint of beer in the kitchen with fellow lodger Frederick Stevens at approximately 12:10 a.m. before informing another lodger that she had earlier visited her sister in Vauxhall, and that her family had given her 5d. Stevens then observed Chapman take a box of pills from her pocket. This box then broke, whereupon Chapman wrapped the pills in a section of envelope she had taken from a mantlepiece before leaving the property. At approximately 1:35 a.m., Chapman returned to the lodging-house with a baked potato which she ate before again leaving the premises with a likely intention of earning the money to pay for a bed via prostituting herself, stating: "I won't be long, Brummie. See that Tim keeps the bed for me." Evans last saw Chapman walking in the direction of Spitalfields Market.


title: Annie Chapman

text: A Mrs Elizabeth Long testified at the subsequent inquest into Chapman's murder that she had observed Chapman talking with a man at 5:30 a.m. The two had stood just beyond the back yard of 29 Hanbury Street, Spitalfields. Long described this man as being over 40 years old, slightly taller than Chapman, with dark hair, and of a foreign, "shabby-genteel" appearance. He was wearing a brown low-crowned felt hat and possibly a dark coat. According to Long, the man had asked Chapman the question, "Will you?" to which Chapman replied, "Yes."


title: Annie Chapman

text: Long was certain as to Chapman's identity and the time of this sighting, as she had heard the chiming of a nearby clock strike the half-hour just before she had entered Hanbury Street. If she had indeed seen Chapman, she was likely the last person to see her alive, and in the company of her murderer.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Shortly before 5:00 a.m. on 8 September, the son of a resident of 29 Hanbury Street, John Richardson, entered the back yard of the property to check the padlocked cellar in the yard was still intact and to trim a loose piece of leather from his boot. Richardson verified the cellar was still padlocked, then sat on the rear steps of the property to trim the loose leather from his boot, noting nothing untoward.


title: Annie Chapman

text: At approximately 5:15 a.m., a tenant of 27 Hanbury Street named Albert Cadosch entered the yard of the property to use the lavatory. Cadosch later informed police he had heard a woman say, "No, no!" before hearing the sound of something or someone falling against the fence dividing the back yards of numbers 27 and 29 Hanbury Street. He did not investigate these sounds.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Annie Chapman's mutilated body was discovered shortly before 6:00 a.m. by an elderly resident of 29 Hanbury Street named John Davis. Davis noticed that the front door was now open, while the back door was shut. Her body was lying on the ground near the doorway to the back yard, with her head six inches (15 cm) from the steps to the property. Davis alerted three men named James Green, James Kent, and Henry Holland to his discovery, before all three ran down Commercial Street to find a policeman as Davis reported his discovery at the nearest police station.


title: Annie Chapman

text: At the corner of Hanbury Street, Green, Kent, and Holland found Divisional Inspector Joseph Luniss Chandler and told him, "Another woman has been murdered!" Chandler followed the men to Chapman's body before requesting the assistance of police surgeon Dr George Bagster Phillips and more officers. Several policemen arrived within minutes. They were instructed to clear the passageway to the yard to ensure Dr Phillips had access. Phillips arrived at Hanbury Street at approximately 6:30 a.m.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Dr Phillips was quickly able to establish a definite link between Chapman's murder and the murder of Mary Ann Nichols, which had occurred on 31 August. Nichols had also suffered two deep slash wounds to the throat, inflicted from the left to the right of her neck, before her murderer had mutilated her abdomen, and a blade of similar size and design had been used in both murders. Phillips also observed six areas of blood spattering upon the wall of the house between the steps and wooden palings dividing 27 and 29 Hanbury Street. Some of these spatterings were 18 inches (45 cm) above the ground.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Two pills, which Chapman had been prescribed for a lung condition, a section of a torn envelope, a small piece of frayed coarse muslin, and a comb were recovered close to her body. A leather apron, partially submerged in a dish of water located close to a tap, was also discovered close to her body.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Contemporary press reports also claim that two farthings were also found in the yard of Hanbury Street close to Chapman's body, although no reference is made to these coins in any surviving contemporary police records. The local inspector of the Metropolitan Police Service, Edmund Reid of H Division Whitechapel, was reported as mentioning these coins at an inquest in 1889, and the acting Commissioner of the City Police, Major Henry Smith, also referenced these coins in his memoirs. Smith's memoirs, written more than twenty years after the Whitechapel murders, are generally considered to be both unreliable and embellished for dramatic effect.


title: Annie Chapman

text: The official inquest into Chapman's death was opened at the Working Lad's Institute, Whitechapel, on 10 September. This inquest was presided over by the Middlesex coroner, Wynne Edwin Baxter. The first day of the inquest heard testimony from four witnesses, including John Davies, who testified to his discovery of Chapman's body. Davies testified he had lived at Hanbury Street for two weeks and had never seen the door to the yard of the property locked. He added that any individual who knew where the latch to the front door of the property was could open it to facilitate access to the backyard. Also to testify were Timothy Donovan and John Evans, both of whom testified they had positively identified the body of the deceased as Annie Chapman. Donovan also testified he had last seen Chapman alive at approximately 1:50 a.m. on 8 September, and the last words she had spoken to him were: "I have not sufficient money for my bed. Don't let it. I shan't be long before I am in."


title: Annie Chapman

text: Fellow Crossingham's Lodging House resident Amelia Palmer also testified on the first day of the inquest that she had known Chapman for several years, and had been in the habit of writing letters for her. Palmer testified that although Chapman had a fondness for alcohol, she considered her a respectable woman who never used profane language. She also testified Chapman had "not as a regular means of livelihood" been in the habit of selling sexual favours for money, adding she most often earned her income by performing crochet work or purchasing matches and flowers to sell for a small profit and had only begun resorting to prostitution following the death of her husband in December 1886. Every Friday, Chapman would travel to Stratford to "sell anything she had". The lodging-house deputy, Timothy Donovan, testified Chapman had always been on good terms with other lodgers, with the quarrel and resulting fisticuffs between herself and Eliza Cooper on 31 August being the only incident of trouble at the premises involving her. Donovan also testified that although Chapman would typically drink to excess on Saturday nights, she was most often sober for the remainder of the week.


title: Annie Chapman

text: The third day of the inquest saw testimony from police called to the crime scene and the subsequent post-mortem. This medical testimony indicated that Chapman may have been murdered as late as 5:30 a.m. in the yard of Hanbury Street. Previous testimony from several tenants of 29 Hanbury Street had revealed none had seen or heard anything suspicious at the time of Chapman's murder, with John Richardson testifying on the second day of the inquest that the passageway through the house to the back-yard was not locked, as it was frequented by residents at all hours of the day, and that the front door had been wide open at the time Chapman's body was discovered. Richardson also testified he had often seen strangers, both men and women, loitering in the passageway of the house.


title: Annie Chapman

text: On 13 September, Dr George Bagster Phillips described the body as he observed it at 6:30 a.m. in the back yard of the house at 29 Hanbury Street:


title: Annie Chapman

text: Chapman's throat had been cut from left to right so deeply the bones of her vertebral column bore striations, and she had been disembowelled, with a section of the flesh from her stomach being placed upon her left shoulder and another section of skin and flesh—plus her small intestines—being removed and placed above her right shoulder. The morgue examination revealed that part of her uterus and bladder was missing. Chapman's protruding tongue and swollen face led Dr Phillips to believe that she may have been asphyxiated with the handkerchief around her neck before her throat was cut, and that her murderer had held her chin as he performed this act. As there was no blood trail leading to the yard, he was certain that she was killed where she was found.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Phillips concluded that Chapman suffered from a long-standing lung disease, that she was sober at the time of her death, and that she had not consumed alcoholic beverages for at least some hours before death. He was of the opinion that the murderer must have possessed anatomical knowledge to have sliced out her reproductive organs in a single movement with a blade about 6–8 inches (15–20 cm) long. However, the idea that the murderer possessed surgical skill was dismissed by other experts. As her body was not examined extensively at the scene, it has also been suggested that the organ was removed by mortuary staff, who took advantage of bodies that had already been opened to extract organs that they could then sell as surgical specimens. In his summing up, Coroner Baxter raised the possibility that Chapman was murdered deliberately to obtain the uterus, on the basis that an American had made enquiries at a London medical school for the purchase of such organs. "The Lancet" rejected Baxter's suggestion, scathingly pointing out "certain improbabilities and absurdities", and saying it was "a grave error of judgement". The "British Medical Journal" was similarly dismissive, and reported that the physician who requested the samples was a highly reputable doctor, unnamed, who had left the country 18 months before the murder. Baxter dropped the theory and never referred to it again. The "Chicago Tribune" claimed the American doctor was from Philadelphia, and author Philip Sugden later speculated that the man in question was the notorious Francis Tumblety.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Discussing Chapman's time of death, Dr Phillips estimated that she had died either at or before 4:30 a.m., contradicting the inquest eyewitnesses Richardson, Long and Cadosch, all of whom indicated Chapman's murder had occurred after this time. However, Victorian methods of estimating the time of death of an individual, such as measuring body temperature, were crude by modern methodology. Phillips himself highlighted at the inquest that Chapman's body temperature could have cooled more quickly than normally expected.


title: Annie Chapman

text: The inquest into Chapman's murder lasted five days, with the final day of hearings being adjourned until 26 September. No further witnesses testified on this date, although coroner Baxter informed the jury: "I have no doubt that if the perpetrator of this foul murder is eventually discovered, our efforts will not have been useless."


title: Annie Chapman

text: Following a short deliberation, the jury, having been instructed to consider precisely how, when, and by what means Chapman came about her death, returned a verdict of wilful murder against a person or persons unknown.


title: Annie Chapman

text: On 15 September, Chief Inspector Donald Swanson of Scotland Yard was placed in overall command of the investigation into Chapman's murder. Swanson later reported that an "immediate and searching enquiry was made at all common lodging-houses to ascertain if anyone had entered [their premises] on the morning with blood on his hands or clothes, or under any suspicious circumstances".


title: Annie Chapman

text: A leather apron belonging to John Richardson lay under a tap in the yard of 29 Hanbury Street. This apron had been placed there by his mother, who had washed it on 6 September. Richardson was investigated thoroughly by the police, but was eliminated from the enquiry. Nonetheless, press reports of the discovery of this apron fuelled local rumours which had first been published in "The Star" on 4 September following the murder of Mary Ann Nichols that a Jew from the district known as "Leather Apron" was responsible for the Whitechapel murders.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Journalists, frustrated by the general unwillingness of the Criminal Investigation Department to reveal many details of their investigation to the public, and eager to capitalise on the increasing public unrest regarding the Whitechapel murders, frequently resorted to writing reports of questionable veracity. Imaginative descriptions of "Leather Apron", using crude Jewish stereotypes, appeared in the press. The "Manchester Guardian" reported that: "Whatever information may be in the possession of the police they deem it necessary to keep secret ... It is believed their attention is particularly directed to ... a notorious character known as 'Leather Apron'." Rival journalists dismissed these accounts as "a mythical outgrowth of the reporter's fancy".


title: Annie Chapman

text: John Pizer, a 38-year-old Polish Jew who made footwear from leather, was known by the name "Leather Apron". Via knifepoint, Pizer frequently intimidated local prostitutes. He appeared before the Thames Magistrates' Court on 4 August 1888, charged with indecent assault. Pizer is also believed to have stabbed a man in the hand in 1887.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Despite there being no direct evidence against Pizer, he was arrested by a Sergeant William Thicke on 10 September. Although Pizer claimed to the contrary, Thicke knew of Pizer's local reputation, and his "Leather Apron" nick-name.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Pizer was released from custody on 11 September after police were able to verify his alibis on the nights of the murders of both Chapman and Nichols. He was called as a witness on the second day of the inquest into Chapman's murder to publicly clear his name, and demolish the public suspicions that he was the killer. Pizer also successfully obtained monetary compensation from at least one newspaper that had published several articles naming him as the prime suspect in the Whitechapel murders.


title: Annie Chapman

text: Two brass rings—one flat; one oval—Chapman is known to have worn were not recovered at the crime scene, either because she had pawned them or because they had been stolen, possibly by her murderer. Theorising her murderer had removed these items of jewellery in order to pawn them, police unsuccessfully searched all the pawnbrokers in Spitalfields and Whitechapel.


title: Annie Chapman

text: The section of a torn envelope recovered close to Chapman's body, bearing the crest of the Royal Sussex Regiment and postmarked 'London, 28 August 1888', was briefly believed could be traced to Edward Stanley, thus placing him at the scene of Chapman's murder. Stanley was soon eliminated as a suspect as his alibis for the nights of the murders of both Nichols and Chapman were quickly confirmed. Between 6 August and 1 September, he was known to have been on active duty with the Hampshire Militia in Gosport, and on the night of Chapman's murder, eyewitnesses confirmed Stanley had been at his lodgings.


title: Annie Chapman

text: In addition to John Pizer and Edward Stanley, police investigated and/or detained several other individuals in their investigation into Chapman's murder, all of whom were released from custody. On 9 September, a 53-year-old ship's cook named William Henry Piggott was detained after arriving at a Gravesend pub with a recent hand injury and shouting misogynistic remarks. A blood-stained shirt he had left in a local fish shop was quickly traced to Piggott, who claimed that he had been bitten by a woman and that the blood on the shirt was his own. He was investigated, but soon released from custody.