title: Amerikabomber

text: Were New York City to be bombed, the required combat radius was , as the bomber would have needed to make a return trip without refueling. The only German aircraft already built and flown that had a range close to this was the Messerschmitt Me 261 "Adolfine", with a maximum range of .


title: Amerikabomber

text: Had sufficient time and resources been devoted to the project at a point in time early enough, an "Amerikabomber" may have become operational before the war's end. However, as historian James P. Duffy pointed out, Nazi Germany had no central authority for the development and construction of advanced weaponry, including new aircraft concepts and designs, as well as critical problems in developing high-powered aviation engines – that is, with output of over each, which could operate reliably in combat conditions – that would have been required. Hitler was often swayed to waste time, money and resources on new "miracle weapons" and other projects that were unlikely to be successful. The "Amerikabomber" project was not one of the projects so favored. In addition, Allied bombing became so intense during the middle of the war that it disrupted critical German supply chains, particularly fuel; in addition, ever-greater proportions of resources were reserved for home defense purposes. German scientists were forced more and more to compete for ever scarcer resources. Together, all of the above political and strategic constraints made construction of such an aircraft increasingly less likely.


title: Amerikabomber

text: It was unlikely that any damage caused to targets in North America, by the relatively small conventional bomb loads that could be delivered by such an ultra-long-range bomber, would be significant enough to justify the loss of such a bomber. Nazi Germany's nuclear programme was years behind the Allies, and did not include weapons in the form of aerial bombs, so it was unlikely that the "Amerikabomber" could have made a major difference to the outcome of the war.


title: Amerikabomber

text: Ultimately, all of the aircraft designs under consideration were deemed too expensive and/or ambitious and were abandoned. Post-war, however, they continued to be of interest to aerospace engineers:


title: Candis Cayne

text: Candis Cayne (born August 29, 1971) is an American actress and performance artist. Cayne performed in New York City nightclubs in drag since the 1990s, and came out as transgender in 1996; Cayne came to national attention in 2007 for portraying transgender mistress Carmelita on ABC's prime time drama "Dirty Sexy Money". The role makes Cayne the first transgender actress to play a recurring transgender character in primetime. She is perhaps best known for her recurring role as the Fairy Queen on the fantasy series "The Magicians".


title: Candis Cayne

text: Cayne has a fraternal twin brother named Dylan. Their parents taught at a Waldorf School, and the family lived on campus. She graduated from Henry Perrine Baldwin High School in Hawaii in 1989 and then spent a year in Los Angeles, where she trained as a dancer.


title: Candis Cayne

text: Cayne then moved to New York in the early 1990s, making a name for herself as a choreographer and drag performer. About three years after her arrival in NYC, Cayne realized that the term transgender described how she felt about herself. Already performing as "Candis Cayne" at New York gay bar Boy Bar and as a featured performer at Tour in New York's Chelsea, the entertainer also participated in Wigstock, the annual drag festival in Manhattan's East Village. In 1995 Cayne appeared in the related documentary film "", the comedy-drama film "Stonewall", and the Universal Studios comedy feature film "To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar", for which she also did choreography.


title: Candis Cayne

text: In 1996, she had a supporting role in the comedy-drama film "Always Something Better" (a.k.a. "Never Look Back"). In 1997 Cayne was in a documentary called Drag Time on HBO along with many other famous New York nightlife performers. Candis also co-starred in the music video for RuPaul's "A Little Bit of Love" with female impersonator Jazzmun. Cayne also starred as the title character in the 1998 independent film "Mob Queen", and won the 2001 Miss Continental pageant. In 2007 Cayne was cast as Annaka Manners in the 2007 RuPaul film "Starrbooty".


title: Candis Cayne

text: From 2007 to 2008 Cayne played Carmelita Rainer, a trans woman having an affair with married New York Attorney General Patrick Darling (played by William Baldwin), on the ABC prime time drama "Dirty Sexy Money". She had a recurring role as the transgender character Alexis Stone in season six of "Nip/Tuck". Cayne has appeared as a judge and Dean of Dance on "RuPaul's Drag U". As a dance teacher, she taught contestants original choreography to "No Scrubs" by TLC and Kelis's song "Milkshake". In 2011, she guest-starred on the TV show "Necessary Roughness" as Geraldine.


title: Candis Cayne

text: In 2015, Cayne started making appearances in seasons 1 and 2 of Caitlyn Jenner's reality show "I Am Cait".


title: Candis Cayne

text: From 2017 to 2018, Cayne played the role of The Fairy Queen in the Syfy series The Magicians. Cayne appeared in the 2020 documentary "". She also hosted the third edition of Werq the World's livestreamed series.


title: Candis Cayne

text: Cayne began transitioning circa 1996. Cayne has stated, "I'm not trying to be a spokeswoman for the transgender community; I just want to be looked at as a living, breathing, happy human being." She calls the LGBT community "the last great minority" and supports LGBT+ rights charity GLAAD.


title: Candis Cayne

text: In August 2015, Candis Cayne teamed up with the global LGBT social network MOOVZ as the new global creative director.


title: Candis Cayne

text: For over eight years, ending in 2010, Cayne was in a relationship with DJ Marco McDermott, to whom she referred as her husband. During that time, she helped raise McDermott's daughter, Satori, from a previous relationship.


title: Candis Cayne

text: In 2016, during season 2 of the reality show "I Am Cait", Cayne explored the possibility of adopting as a single mom.


title: A major

text: A major (or the key of A) is a major scale based on A, with the pitches A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. Its key signature has three sharps. Its relative minor is F-sharp minor and its parallel minor is A minor. The key of A major is the only key where the Neapolitan sixth chord on  ("i.e." the flattened supertonic) requires both a flat and a natural accidental.


title: A major

text: In the treble, alto, and bass clefs, the G in the key signature is placed higher than C. However, in the tenor clef, it would require a ledger line and so G is placed lower than C.


title: A major

text: Although not as rare in the symphonic literature as sharper keys (those containing more than three sharps), symphonies in A major are less common than in keys with fewer sharps such as D major or G major. Beethoven's Symphony No. 7, Bruckner's Symphony No. 6 and Mendelssohn's Symphony No. 4 comprise a nearly complete list of symphonies in this key in the Romantic era. Mozart's Clarinet Concerto and Clarinet Quintet are both in A major, along with his 23rd Piano Concerto, and generally Mozart was more likely to use clarinets in A major than in any other key besides E-flat major. Moreover, the climax part of Tchaikovsky's Violin Concerto is also in A major.


title: A major

text: The key of A occurs frequently in chamber music and other music for strings, which favor sharp keys. Franz Schubert's "Trout Quintet" and Antonín Dvořák's Piano Quintet No. 2 are both in A major. Johannes Brahms, César Franck, and Gabriel Fauré wrote violin sonatas in A major. In connection to Beethoven's "Kreutzer Sonata", Peter Cropper said that A major "is the fullest sounding key for the violin."


title: A major

text: According to Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart, A major is a key suitable for "declarations of innocent love, ... hope of seeing one's beloved again when parting; youthful cheerfulness and trust in God."


title: A major

text: For orchestral works in A major, the timpani are typically set to A and E a fifth apart, rather than a fourth apart as for most other keys. Hector Berlioz complained about the custom of his day in which timpani tuned to A and E a fifth apart were notated C and G a fourth apart, a custom which survived as late as the music of Franz Berwald.


title: Matty Longstaff

text: Matthew Ben Longstaff (born 21 March 2000) is an English professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for EFL League Two side Colchester United, on loan from Premier League club Newcastle United.


title: Matty Longstaff

text: Longstaff made his first-team debut for Newcastle United on 28 August 2019, starting against Leicester City in the EFL Cup. He scored in the 72nd minute of his Premier League debut, in a 1–0 win against Manchester United on 6 October. The stunning strike outside the box was later voted as Premier League Goal of the Month. He then went on to score in the reverse fixture at Old Trafford, the opening goal in a 4–1 defeat.


title: Matty Longstaff

text: Following the expiration of his contract at the end of the 2019–20 season, Longstaff signed a new two-year contract with Newcastle United on 22 August 2020.


title: Matty Longstaff

text: On 26 December 2021, Longstaff was recalled early by his parent club Newcastle United, having only featured five times for Aberdeen.


title: Matty Longstaff

text: On 31 January 2022, Longstaff joined EFL League Two side Mansfield Town on loan for the remainder of the season.


title: Matty Longstaff

text: On 8 November 2019, Longstaff received his first international call up to the England U20 side. He made his debut as a substitute during a 4–0 win over Portugal on 14 November 2019.


title: Matty Longstaff

text: Longstaff was born in Rotherham, South Yorkshire and raised in North Shields, Tyne and Wear. Longstaff went to school at John Spence Community High School. Longstaff was a boyhood Newcastle United supporter and his older brother Sean is also a footballer for Newcastle United. Their father David is a former Great Britain ice hockey player, who featured over 100 times for the national side, and is still active as player-coach for the Whitley Warriors. David is the cousin of former England international Alan Thompson. They are not related to former Newcastle academy player Luis Longstaff.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is a type of antibody (or immunoglobulin (Ig) "isotype") that has been found only in mammals. IgE is synthesised by plasma cells. Monomers of IgE consist of two heavy chains (ε chain) and two light chains, with the ε chain containing four Ig-like constant domains (Cε1–Cε4). IgE is thought to be an important part of the immune response against infection by certain parasitic worms, including "Schistosoma mansoni", "Trichinella spiralis", and "Fasciola hepatica". IgE is also utilized during immune defense against certain protozoan parasites such as "Plasmodium falciparum". IgE may have evolved as a defense to protect against venoms.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: IgE also has an essential role in type I hypersensitivity, which manifests in various allergic diseases, such as allergic asthma, most types of sinusitis, allergic rhinitis, food allergies, and specific types of chronic urticaria and atopic dermatitis. IgE also plays a pivotal role in responses to allergens, such as: anaphylactic reactions to drugs, bee stings, and antigen preparations used in desensitization immunotherapy.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: Although IgE is typically the least abundant isotype—blood serum IgE levels in a normal ("non-atopic") individual are only 0.05% of the Ig concentration, compared to 75% for the IgGs at 10 mg/ml, which are the isotypes responsible for most of the classical adaptive immune response—it is capable of triggering anaphylaxis, one of the most rapid and severe immunological reactions.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: IgE was simultaneously discovered in 1966 and 1967 by two independent groups: Kimishige Ishizaka and his wife Teruko Ishizaka at the Children's Asthma Research Institute and Hospital in Denver, Colorado, and by Gunnar Johansson and in Uppsala, Sweden. Their joint paper was published in April 1969.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: IgE primes the IgE-mediated allergic response by binding to Fc receptors found on the surface of mast cells and basophils. Fc receptors are also found on eosinophils, monocytes, macrophages and platelets in humans. There are two types of Fcε receptors:


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: IgE can upregulate the expression of both types of Fcε receptors. FcεRI is expressed on mast cells, basophils, and the antigen-presenting dendritic cells in both mice and humans. Binding of antigens to IgE already bound by the FcεRI on mast cells causes cross-linking of the bound IgE and the aggregation of the underlying FcεRI, leading to degranulation (the release of mediators) and the secretion of several types of type 2 cytokines like interleukin (IL)-3 and stem cell factor (SCF), which both help the mast cells survive and accumulate in tissue, and IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, and IL-33, which in turn activate group 2-innate lymphoid cells (ILC2 or natural helper cells). Basophils share a common haemopoietic progenitor with mast cells; upon the cross-linking of their surface bound IgE by antigens, also release type 2 cytokines, including IL-4 and IL-13, and other inflammatory mediators. The low-affinity receptor (FcεRII) is always expressed on B cells; but IL-4 can induce its expression on the surfaces of macrophages, eosinophils, platelets, and some T cells.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: The IgE isotype has co-evolved with basophils and mast cells in the defence against parasites like helminths (like Schistosoma) but may be also effective in bacterial infections.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: Epidemiological research shows that IgE level is increased when infected by "Schistosoma mansoni", "Necator americanus", and nematodes in humans. It is most likely beneficial in removal of hookworms from the lung.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: In 1981 Margie Profet suggested that allergic reactions have evolved as a last line of defense to protect against venoms. Although controversial at the time, new work supports some of Profet’s thoughts on the adaptive role of allergies as a defense against noxious toxins.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: In 2013 it emerged that IgE-antibodies play an essential role in acquired resistance to honey bee and Russell's viper venoms. The authors concluded that "a small dose of bee venom conferred immunity to a much larger, fatal dose" and "this kind of venom-specific, IgE-associated, adaptive immune response developed, at least in evolutionary terms, to protect the host against potentially toxic amounts of venom, such as would happen if the animal encountered a whole nest of bees, or in the event of a snakebite". The major allergen of bee venom (phospholipase A2) induces a T2 immune responses, associated with production of IgE antibodies, which may "increase the resistance of mice to challenge with potentially lethal doses".


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: Although it is not yet well understood, IgE may play an important role in the immune system's recognition of cancer, in which the stimulation of a strong cytotoxic response against cells displaying only small amounts of early cancer markers would be beneficial. If this were the case, anti-IgE treatments such as omalizumab (for allergies) might have some undesirable side effects. However, a recent study, which was performed based on pooled analysis using comprehensive data from 67 phase I to IV clinical trials of omalizumab in various indications, concluded that a causal relationship between omalizumab therapy and malignancy is unlikely.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: Atopic individuals can have up to ten times the normal level of IgE in their blood (as do sufferers of hyper-IgE syndrome). However, this may not be a requirement for symptoms to occur as has been seen in asthmatics with normal IgE levels in their blood—recent research has shown that IgE production can occur locally in the nasal mucosa.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: IgE that can specifically recognise an allergen (typically this is a protein, such as dust mite Der p 1, cat Fel d 1, grass or ragweed pollen, etc.) has a unique long-lived interaction with its high-affinity receptor FcεRI so that basophils and mast cells, capable of mediating inflammatory reactions, become "primed", ready to release chemicals like histamine, leukotrienes, and certain interleukins. These chemicals cause many of the symptoms we associate with allergy, such as airway constriction in asthma, local inflammation in eczema, increased mucus secretion in allergic rhinitis, and increased vascular permeability, it is presumed, to allow other immune cells to gain access to tissues, but which can lead to a potentially fatal drop in blood pressure as in anaphylaxis.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: IgE is known to be elevated in various autoimmune disorders such as SLE, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and psoriasis, and is theorized to be of pathogenetic importance in SLE and RA by eliciting a hypersensitivity reaction.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: Regulation of IgE levels through control of B cell differentiation to antibody-secreting plasma cells is thought to involve the "low-affinity" receptor FcεRII, or CD23. CD23 may also allow facilitated antigen presentation, an IgE-dependent mechanism whereby B cells expressing CD23 are able to present allergen to (and stimulate) specific T helper cells, causing the perpetuation of a T2 response, one of the hallmarks of which is the production of more antibodies.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: Diagnosis of allergy is most often done by reviewing a person's medical history and finding a positive result for the presence of allergen specific IgE when conducting a skin or blood test. Specific IgE testing is the proven test for allergy detection; evidence does not show that indiscriminate IgE testing or testing for immunoglobulin G (IgG) can support allergy diagnosis.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: Currently, allergic diseases and asthma are usually treated with one or more of the following drugs: (1) antihistamines and antileukotrienes, which antagonize the inflammatory mediators histamine and leukotrienes, (2) local or systemic (oral or injectable) corticosteroids, which suppress a broad spectrum of inflammatory mechanisms, (3) short or long-acting bronchodilators, which relax smooth muscle of constricted airway in asthma, or (4) mast cell stabilizers, which inhibit the degranulation of mast cells that is normally triggered by IgE-binding at FcεRI. Long-term uses of systemic corticosteroids are known to cause many serious side effects and are advisable to avoid, if alternative therapies are available.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: IgE, the IgE synthesis pathway, and the IgE-mediated allergic/inflammatory pathway are all important targets in intervening with the pathological processes of allergy, asthma, and other IgE-mediated diseases. The B lymphocyte differentiation and maturation pathway that eventually generate IgE-secreting plasma cells go through the intermediate steps of IgE-expressing B lymphoblasts and involves the interaction with IgE-expressing memory B cells. Tanox, a biotech company based in Houston, Texas, proposed in 1987 that by targeting membrane-bound IgE (mIgE) on B lymphoblast and memory B cells, those cells can be lysed or down-regulated, thus achieving the inhibition of the production of antigen-specific IgE and hence a shift of immune balance toward non-IgE mechanisms. Two approaches targeting the IgE pathway were evolved and both are in active development. In the first approach, the anti-IgE antibody drug omalizumab (trade name Xolair) recognises IgE not bound to its receptors and is used to neutralise or mop-up existing IgE and prevent it from binding to the receptors on mast cells and basophils. Xolair has been approved in many countries for treating severe, persistent allergic asthma. It has also been approved in March 2014 in the European Union and the U. S. for treating chronic spontaneous urticaria, which cannot be adequately treated with H1-antihistamines. In the second approach, antibodies specific for a domain of 52 amino acid residues, referred to as CεmX or M1’ (M1 prime), present only on human mIgE on B cells and not on free, soluble IgE, have been prepared and are under clinical development for the treatment of allergy and asthma. An anti-M1’ humanized antibody, quilizumab, is in phase IIb clinical trial.


title: Immunoglobulin E

text: In 2002, researchers at the Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics determined the structure of IgE. Understanding of this structure (which is atypical of other isotypes in that it is highly bent and asymmetric) and of the interaction of IgE with receptor FcεRI will enable development of a new generation of allergy drugs that seek to interfere with the IgE-receptor interaction. It may be possible to design treatments cheaper than monoclonal antibodies (for instance, small molecule drugs) that use a similar approach to inhibit binding of IgE to its receptor.


title: Reduced affect display

text: Reduced affect display, sometimes referred to as emotional blunting or emotional numbing, is a condition of reduced emotional reactivity in an individual. It manifests as a failure to express feelings (affect display) either verbally or nonverbally, especially when talking about issues that would normally be expected to engage the emotions. Expressive gestures are rare and there is little animation in facial expression or vocal inflection. Reduced affect can be symptomatic of autism, schizophrenia, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, depersonalization disorder, schizoid personality disorder or brain damage. It may also be a side effect of certain medications (e.g., antipsychotics and antidepressants).


title: Reduced affect display

text: Reduced affect should be distinguished from apathy and anhedonia, which explicitly refer to a lack of emotion, whereas reduced affect is a lack of emotional expression (affect display) regardless of whether emotion (underlying affect) is actually reduced or not.


title: Reduced affect display

text: A restricted or constricted affect is a reduction in an individual's expressive range and the intensity of emotional responses.


title: Reduced affect display

text: Blunted affect is a lack of affect more severe than restricted or constricted affect, but less severe than flat or flattened affect. "The difference between flat and blunted affect is in degree. A person with flat affect has no or nearly no emotional expression. They may not react at all to circumstances that usually evoke strong emotions in others. A person with blunted affect, on the other hand, has a significantly reduced intensity in emotional expression".


title: Reduced affect display

text: Shallow affect has equivalent meaning to blunted affect. Factor 1 of the Psychopathy Checklist identifies shallow affect as a common attribute of psychopathy.


title: Reduced affect display

text: Individuals with schizophrenia with blunted affect show different regional brain activity in fMRI scans when presented with emotional stimuli compared to individuals with schizophrenia without blunted affect. Individuals with schizophrenia without blunted affect show activation in the following brain areas when shown emotionally negative pictures: midbrain, pons, anterior cingulate cortex, insula, ventrolateral orbitofrontal cortex, anterior temporal pole, amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex and extrastriate visual cortex. Individuals with schizophrenia with blunted affect show activation in the following brain regions when shown emotionally negative pictures: midbrain, pons, anterior temporal pole and extrastriate visual cortex.


title: Reduced affect display

text: Individuals with schizophrenia with flat affect show decreased activation in the limbic system when viewing emotional stimuli. In individuals with schizophrenia with blunted affect neural processes begin in the occipitotemporal region of the brain and go through the ventral visual pathway and the limbic structures until they reach the inferior frontal areas. Damage to the amygdala of adult rhesus macaques early in life can permanently alter affective processing. Lesioning the amygdala causes blunted affect responses to both positive and negative stimuli. This effect is irreversible in the rhesus macaques; neonatal damage produces the same effect as damage that occurs later in life. The macaques' brain cannot compensate for early amygdala damage even though significant neuronal growth may occur. There is some evidence that blunted affect symptoms in schizophrenia patients are not a result of just amygdala responsiveness, but a result of the amygdala not being integrated with other areas of the brain associated with emotional processing, particularly in amygdala-prefrontal cortex coupling. Damage in the limbic region prevents the amygdala from correctly interpreting emotional stimuli in individuals with schizophrenia by compromising the link between the amygdala and other brain regions associated with emotion.


title: Reduced affect display

text: Parts of the brainstem are responsible for passive emotional coping strategies that are characterized by disengagement or withdrawal from the external environment (quiescence, immobility, hyporeactivity), similar to what is seen in blunted affect. Individuals with schizophrenia with blunted affect show activation of the brainstem during fMRI scans, particularly the right medulla and the left pons, when shown "sad" film excerpts. The bilateral midbrain is also activated in individuals with schizophrenia diagnosed with blunted affect. Activation of the midbrain is thought to be related to autonomic responses associated with perceptual processing of emotional stimuli. This region usually becomes activated in diverse emotional states. When the connectivity between the midbrain and the medial prefrontal cortex is compromised in individuals with schizophrenia with blunted affect an absence of emotional reaction to external stimuli results.


title: Reduced affect display

text: Individuals with schizophrenia, as well as patients being successfully reconditioned with quetiapine for blunted affect, show activation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Failure to activate the PFC is possibly involved in impaired emotional processing in individuals with schizophrenia with blunted affect. The mesial PFC is activated in aver individuals in response to external emotional stimuli. This structure possibly receives information from the limbic structures to regulate emotional experiences and behavior. Individuals being reconditioned with quetiapine, who show reduced symptoms, show activation in other areas of the PFC as well, including the right medial prefrontal gyrus and the left orbitofrontal gyrus.


title: Reduced affect display

text: A positive correlation has been found between activation of the anterior cingulate cortex and the reported magnitude of sad feelings evoked by viewing sad film excerpts. The rostral subdivision of this region is possibly involved in detecting emotional signals. This region is different in individuals with schizophrenia with blunted affect.


title: Reduced affect display

text: Flat and blunted affect is a defining characteristic in the presentation of schizophrenia. To reiterate, these individuals have a decrease in observed vocal and facial expression as well as the use of gestures. One study of flat affect in schizophrenia found that "flat affect was more common in men and was associated with worse current quality of life" as well as having "an adverse effect on course of illness".


title: Reduced affect display

text: The study also reported a "dissociation between reported experience of emotion and its display" – supporting the suggestion made elsewhere that "blunted affect, including flattened facial expressiveness and lack of vocal inflection ... often disguises an individual's true feelings." Thus, feelings may merely be unexpressed, rather than lacking. On the other hand, "a lack of emotions which is due not to mere repression but to a real loss of contact with the objective world gives the observer a specific impression of 'queerness' ... the remainders of emotions or the substitutes for emotions usually refer to rage and aggressiveness". In the most extreme cases, there is a complete "dissociation from affective states". To further support this idea, a study examining emotion dysregulation found that individuals with schizophrenia could not exaggerate their emotional expression as healthy controls could. Participants were asked to express whatever emotions they had during a clip of a film, and the participants with schizophrenia showed deficits in behavioral expression of their emotions.


title: Reduced affect display

text: There is still some debate regarding the source of flat affect in schizophrenia. However, some literature indicates abnormalities in the dorsal executive and ventral affective systems; it is argued that dorsal hypoactivation and ventral hyperactivation may be the source of flat affect. Further, the authors found deficits in the mirror neuron system may also contribute to flat affect in that the deficits may cause disruptions in the control of facial expression.


title: Reduced affect display

text: Another study found that when speaking, individuals with schizophrenia with flat affect demonstrate less inflection than normal controls and appear to be less fluent. Normal subjects appear to express themselves using more complex syntax, whereas flat affect subjects speak with fewer words, and fewer words per sentence. Flat affect individuals' use of context-appropriate words in both sad and happy narratives are similar to that of controls. It is very likely that flat affect is a result of deficits in motor expression as opposed to emotional processing. The moods of display are compromised, but subjective, autonomic, and contextual aspects of emotion are left intact.


title: Reduced affect display

text: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was previously known to cause negative feelings, such as depressed mood, re-experiencing and hyperarousal. However, recently, psychologists have started to focus their attention on the blunted affects and also the decrease in feeling and expressing positive emotions in PTSD patients. Blunted affect, or emotional numbness, is considered one of the consequences of PTSD because it causes a diminished interest in activities that produce pleasure (anhedonia) and produces feelings of detachment from others, restricted emotional expression and a reduced tendency to express emotions behaviorally. Blunted affect is often seen in veterans as a consequence of the psychological stressful experiences that caused PTSD. Blunted affect is a response to PTSD, it is considered one of the central symptoms in post-traumatic stress disorders and it is often seen in veterans who served in combat zones. In PTSD, blunted affect can be considered a psychological response to PTSD as a way to combat overwhelming anxiety that the patients feel. In blunted affect, there are abnormalities in circuits that also include the prefrontal cortex.


title: Reduced affect display

text: In making assessments of mood and affect the clinician is cautioned that "it is important to keep in mind that demonstrative expression can be influenced by cultural differences, medication, or situational factors"; while the layperson is warned to beware of applying the criterion lightly to "friends, otherwise [he or she] is likely to make false judgments, in view of the prevalence of schizoid and cyclothymic personalities in our 'normal' population, and our [US] tendency to psychological hypochondriasis".


title: Reduced affect display

text: R. D. Laing in particular stressed that "such 'clinical' categories as schizoid, autistic, 'impoverished' affect ... all presuppose that there are reliable, valid impersonal criteria for making attributions about the other person's relation to [his or her] actions. There are no such reliable or valid criteria".


title: Reduced affect display

text: Blunted affect is very similar to anhedonia, which is the decrease or cessation of all feelings of pleasure (which thus affects enjoyment, happiness, fun, interest, and satisfaction). In the case of anhedonia, emotions relating to pleasure will not be expressed as much or at all because they are literally not experienced or are decreased. Both blunted affect and anhedonia are considered negative symptoms of schizophrenia, meaning that they are indicative of a lack of something. There are some other negative symptoms of schizophrenia which include avolition, alogia and catatonic behaviour.


title: Reduced affect display

text: Closely related is alexithymia – a condition describing people who "lack words for their feelings. They seem to lack feelings altogether, although this may actually be because of their inability to "express" emotion rather than from an absence of emotion altogether". Alexithymic patients however can provide clues via assessment presentation which may be indicative of emotional arousal.


title: Reduced affect display

text: "If the amygdala is severed from the rest of the brain, the result is a striking inability to gauge the emotional significance of events; this condition is sometimes called 'affective blindness'". In some cases, blunted affect can fade, but there is no conclusive evidence of why this can occur.


title: Axwell

text: Axel Christofer Hedfors (; born 18 December 1977), better known by his stage name Axwell, is a Swedish DJ, record producer, remixer and owner of Axtone Records. He is a member of Swedish House Mafia along with Sebastian Ingrosso and Steve Angello. He is a two-time DJ Awards winner, and in 2013 he was placed 19th on the "DJ Magazine" Top 100 DJ Poll.


title: Axwell

text: Axwell's interest in music appeared at an early age, having taught himself to play the drums by age nine. Four years later, the 13-year-old exchanged his drums for a computer so he could create each element of his music independently. In his teenage years he attended Fäladsgården Elementary School, and is still talked about there to this day. Axwell released limited copies of a techno/hard trance EP on vinyl under the name "OXL" in 1995. During his teenage years, he was also active in the tracking music scene under the moniker "Quazar", releasing acid techno tracks made with FastTracker 2 and NoiseTracker.


title: Axwell

text: Axwell began his career remixing songs by other artists, his first official remix being released in 2000. Some of his most notable early remixes include: Usher's "Burn" (BMG), Room 5's "Make Luv" (Positiva), Clipse & Faith Evans "Ma, I Don’t Love Her" (RCA), Stonebridge's "Put 'em High" (Hed Kandi), N*E*R*D's single "Maybe" (Virgin), and more recently Hard-Fi's "Hard to Beat", Deep Dish's "Dreams", Pharrell's "Angel", Nelly Furtado's "Promiscuous" and Madonna's "Jump".


title: Axwell

text: Axwell has also been responsible for Jetlag's "So Right", which came out in September 2002 on Soulfuric, featuring the vocals of Noel McKoy and co-produced with Brian Tappert. In late 2002 Axwell went back to his roots and produced a track under his own name – "Lead Guitar" which was released by fellow Swede Stonebridge on his Stoney Boy imprint.


title: Axwell

text: Also leading the way has been Mambana, his collaboration with Isabel Fructuoso (of Afro Medusa fame). Signed to Soulfuric Recordings, they have released three tracks since 2002. "No Reason" was their debut single, which hit the top spot in all the Hype/Buzz charts that Summer and was featured in the sets of all the top DJs including Little Louie Vega, Danny Rampling and Ben Watt. The follow ups were "Felicidad" and "Libre". "Libre" was released in 2003 and was arguably bigger than its predecessor. "Libre" was licensed to more than 12 different territories and featured on compilations that sold in excess of half a million copies.


title: Axwell

text: 2003 saw Axwell recording for London-based label suSU (the UK home of Masters at Work) under the guise of Starbeach. The track was called "Get Naked" & featured the vocal talents of D'Empress (from Mutiny). This was followed up by his version of Evelyn Thomas' classic "High Energy". In the autumn of 2003 Axwell's "Wait a Minute", featuring the vocals of Nevada, was released on Soulfuric's sub-label Device. This song was a club smash that gained support from the likes of Pete Tong, Junior Jack, Kid Creme.


title: Axwell

text: By late 2004, Axwell released "Feel the Vibe", which was re-released through Ministry of Sound in 2005 with new lead vocals from Tara McDonald who also wrote the song as "Feel the Vibe ('Til The Morning Comes)". McDonald's voice and writing helped secure the track as a radio winner and this track became one of the biggest cross over dance records of 2005. It was a breakthrough record for both Axwell & Tara McDonald. It peaked at #1 in UK Dance Singles Chart and #16 in the UK Singles Chart. In addition to a re-release of "Feel the Vibe" on Ministry of Sound, he has produced several club remixes, as well as his own productions, including "Get Over Here" by Rasmus Faber, "2 Million Ways" by C-Mos, "Turn On the Music" by Roger Sanchez, as well as his collaboration with Sebastian Ingrosso on Ernesto vs Bastian's "Dark Side of the Moon". Alongside his original productions, he collaborated with the Swedish producer Ingrosso on "Together". Axwell's most successful release of 2005 was "Watch the Sunrise", with Steve Edwards on vocals (famous for Cassius' "The Sound of Violence"). The track reached #3 in UK Dance Singles Chart and BBC Radio 1 Dance Chart. In between Axwell's productions he also found time to create Axtone, his own record label.


title: Axwell

text: In the spring of 2006, Axwell and Steve Angello, under the Supermode alias, remixed Bronski Beat's "Smalltown Boy", producing "Tell Me Why" which was released under the Data label. Later, he teamed up with Eric Prydz and produced the tracks 123 and 321 releasing them under the alias AxEr. October saw Axwell make his DJ Mag entry at number 93. That same year, Axwell branched into a New York house sound with his mix of "Counting Down the Days", a song by Sunfreakz. Axwell ignored the vocals (sung by Andrea Britton) for his mix, which was a blend of cutting progressive-house sounds and ethereal keyboards. The Israeli DJ Offer Nissim featured the mix prominently during his set at the March 2007 closing party for Manhattan's Roxy.


title: Axwell

text: In August 2007, Axwell teamed up with performer Max'C to create the track "I Found U", which made it to #6 in the UK Singles Chart. The 2007 DJ Mag polls saw Axwell climb 60 places to number 33.


title: Axwell

text: On 12 August 2007, Axwell, Steve Angello and Sebastian Ingrosso played the Main Room at Cream Amnesia under the alias The Swedish House Mafia as part of Radio 1's Essential Mix Ibiza. The group which officially formed in late 2008 had been performing shows like this for some time along with fellow Swedish DJ Eric Prydz however Prydz decided not to join the group, describing himself as a 'control freak' in the studio who can't abide collaboration, even with close friends. In 2007, the trio released their first single together, "Get Dumb", however this was credited under their individual names.


title: Axwell

text: In 2008, Axwell co-wrote and co-produced the song "Rain on Me" with Cyndi Lauper for her 2008 album "Bring Ya to the Brink". During June of that year he released a song which was originally produced as a remix for David Guetta's "Everytime We Touch". Somehow, Guetta rejected the remix so Axwell took the instrumental of the song, teamed up with Bob Sinclar who brought in vocalist Ron Carroll and together they created "What a Wonderful World". In August, Axwell collaborated with an Australian DJ and producer, Dirty South, and released "Open Your Heart". At the same time, he also remixed "Hometown Glory" by Adele. The remix was released in two versions, "Original mix" with more vocals and more club oriented "Remode". October saw Axwell again climb the DJ Mag top 100 DJ poll with positions number 20.


title: Axwell

text: In 2009, Axwell released "Leave the World Behind" with Swedish House Mafia. The song featured vocal from Deborah Cox and was again credited under the group's individual names. In 2009, Axwell chart number 14 on the DJ Mag poll. 2010 saw Swedish House Mafia release their first singles credited as such. The two singles, "One (Your Name)" (featuring Pharrell Williams) and "Miami 2 Ibiza" (featuring Tinie Tempah), were commercial successes becoming a top 20 hit in many European countries. These songs were featured on Swedish House Mafia's debut album "Until One" (released 25 October 2010) which acted as a studio and compilation album as it contained much of their own work (as a group and individually) as well as the work of other producers as well. On 13 June 2010, Axwell released his own studio/compilation album entitled "Axtone Vol.1". In 2010, Axwell achieved his highest position on the DJ Mag top 100 DJ poll, charting at number 10.


title: Axwell

text: In February 2011, Axwell and Dirty South's remix of the song "Sweet Disposition" originally by The Temper Trap, received a nomination for the 53rd Grammy Awards in the category for Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical. Meanwhile, in May, he released "Save the World" with the rest of the Swedish House Mafia. The song featured vocals from Swedish singer John Martin and has gained certifications across Europe including 5× Platinum in Sweden. The DJ Mag polls saw Axwell chart at number 12 this year. Towards the end of the year and the beginning of 2012, Axwell continue to work with Swedish House Mafia releasing two more singles "Antidote" and "Greyhound". He also worked with Flo Rida on the American's fourth studio album "Wild Ones", co-producing two of its most successful singles "Wild Ones" and "Let It Roll".


title: Axwell

text: On 24 April 2012, Axwell released his remix of "In My Mind" by Ivan Gough and Feenixpawl featuring Georgi Kay on Beatport. It was nominated for the 55th Grammy Awards in the category of Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical. In June, the release of Usher's "Looking 4 Myself" saw the second album which Axwell co-produced with the songs "Numb" and "Euphoria" with the latter receiving a remix from the entire Swedish House Mafia. In September, Swedish House Mafia released their most commercially successful song which again featured vocals from John Martin. "Don't You Worry Child" became a top 10 in many countries gaining muti-platinum awards in many also. This along with previous solo and group work from all Swedish House Mafia members featured on the trio's second and final album "Until Now" which was released on 22 October 2012.


title: Axwell

text: In November 2012, Swedish House Mafia kicked off their "One Last Tour" after its announcement in June of that year. The supergroup stated that the final leg of this tour would be their last and the group would split up after its conclusion at


title: Axwell

text: Ultra Music Festival Miami 2013. Following the group's farewell, Axwell and fellow Swedish House Mafia member Sebastian Ingrosso announced their new night club at Ushuaïa, Ibiza, called "Departures". 2013 saw Axwell's new single "Center of the Universe" released for digital download with the song reaching number one on Beatport. His subsequent single, with Sick Individuals feat Taylr Renee, "I Am" was released on 16 September and also reached number one on Beatport. Remixes for "I Am" were released on 26 January 2014 through Axwell's own Axtone label. Remixing artists included Deorro, Dimitri Vegas & Like Mike, Jacob Plant and . 2013 saw Axwell climb positions in the DJ Mag top 100 DJ poll for the first time since 2010. He climbed 4 places from his 2012 position achieve place 19. 2013 also saw Axwell collaborate with Sebastian Ingrosso on "Roar" for the Monsters University Soundtrack.


title: Axwell

text: Axwell joined forces with Sebastian Ingrosso, debuting their new collective at the 2014 Governors Ball Music Festival in New York City – their new group named Axwell Λ Ingrosso, this followed the release of their debut EP "X4". One of the songs from this EP, "We Come, We Rave, We Love", was the final version of a song started by Swedish House Mafia and was played frequently during their One Last Tour. A single, "Something New" was released from the EP in November of that year.


title: Axwell

text: In the early months of 2015 Axwell released his second and third single under the Axwell Λ Ingrosso collaboration entitled "On My Way" and "Can't Hold Us Down" respectively. In June, the duo released their fourth single named "Sun Is Shining". This song became number 1 in Sweden and was Axwell's (and Ingrosso's) first number 1 since "Don't You Worry Child". In July the duo headlined Tomorrowland closing Night Two.


title: Axwell

text: In November 2015, "This Time" was released under Axwell Λ Ingrosso and "Dream Bigger" on New Year's Eve, Axwell also released his first solo single since the formation of the group entitled "Waiting for so Long". 2016 saw Axwell continue to release music as solo artist as well as adding vocals from Pharrell Williams to "Dream Bigger". His solo releases included the singles "Barricade" and "Belong". The latter received a VIP remix later in the year, and the first was later to feature on the duo's debut album, "More Than You Know". 2016 also saw Axwell remix Ingrosso's track "Dark River". In May 2016 the duo released their seventh single "Thinking About You" with their eighth following in February 2017 entitled "I Love You" which featured vocals from Kid Ink.


title: Axwell

text: In early May 2017, Axwell released the first single from his second EP with Sebastian Ingrosso under their collective entitled "Renegade" with the EP and its title song, "More Than You Know", being released in the latter parts of that month. The song was a commercial success, becoming a chart hit gaining certifications in many countries. In July, Axwell perform at Tomorrowland under Axwell Λ Ingrosso which were one of the headliners for the event. October 2017 saw Axwell release his long-awaited remix of Pauls Paris's 2013 song "Make Up Your Mind", and on 8 December 2017, the duo's debut album, "More Than You Know", was released. The album contained all of their previously released music and their new single "Dreamer".


title: Axwell

text: On the final weekend of March 2018, Axwell performed at Ultra Miami 2018 as Axwell Λ Ingrosso. The same festival also saw Axwell perform as Swedish House Mafia as the group reunited after a five-year hiatus on the festival's 20th anniversary. On 29 June, Axwell Λ Ingrosso released their first single since their debut studio album, "More Than You Know", featuring British singer RØMANS called "Dancing Alone". A month later the duo performed at Tomorrowland 2018, in which they paid tribute to the late DJ Avicii as part of their set. In August 2018, Axwell Λ Ingrosso announced that they would be going on hiatus in order to focus on the Swedish House Mafia reunion and 2019 tour. On 22 June 2019, Axwell announced that his record label, Axtone Records, would launch Axtone Academy, a music academy which would pair aspiring producers with some of the label's veterans to help young musicians into the music industry. Axwell cancelled his solo performance at the Electric Love festival catering to ‘unforeseen circumstances' as communicated by Axwell's Management team.


title: History of salt

text: Salt, also referred to as table salt or by its chemical formula NaCl (sodium chloride), is an ionic compound made of sodium and chloride ions. All life depends on its chemical properties to survive. It has been used by humans for thousands of years, from food preservation to seasoning. Salt's ability to preserve food was a founding contributor to the development of civilization. It helped eliminate dependence on seasonal availability of food, and made it possible to transport food over large distances. However, salt was often difficult to obtain, so it was a highly valued trade item, and was considered a form of currency by certain people. Many salt roads, such as the via Salaria in Italy, had been established by the Bronze Age.


title: History of salt

text: All through history, availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization. In Britain, the suffix "-wich" in a place name sometimes means it was once a source of salt, as in Northwich and Droitwich, although other - wich towns are so named from the Saxon 'wic', meaning fortified dwelling or emporium. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, natron. Today, salt is almost universally accessible, relatively cheap, and often iodized.


title: History of salt

text: Salt comes from two main sources: sea water and the sodium chloride mineral halite (also known as rock salt). Rock salt occurs in vast beds of sedimentary evaporite minerals that result from the drying up of enclosed lakes, playas, and seas. Salt beds may be up to thick and underlie broad areas. In the United States and Canada extensive underground beds extend from the Appalachian basin of western New York through parts of Ontario and under much of the Michigan basin. Other deposits are in Texas, Ohio, Kansas, New Mexico, Nova Scotia, and Saskatchewan. In the United Kingdom underground beds are found in Cheshire and around Droitwich. Salzburg, Austria, was named "the city of salt" for its mines. High-quality rock salt was cut in medieval Transylvania, Maramureş and Southern Poland (Wieliczka). Tuzla in Bosnia and Herzegovina was named in Hungarian Só (salt) from the twelfth century on and later "place of salt" by Turks.


title: History of salt

text: Salt is extracted from underground beds either by mining or by solution mining using water to dissolve the salt. In solution mining the salt reaches the surface as brine, from which the water is evaporated leaving salt crystals.


title: History of salt

text: Early neolithic salt production, dating to approximately 6,000 BCE, has been identified at an excavation, in Poiana Slatinei-Lunca, Romania.


title: History of salt

text: Solnitsata, the earliest known town in Europe, was built around a salt production facility. Located in present-day Bulgaria, the town is thought by archaeologists to have accumulated wealth by supplying salt throughout the Balkans.


title: History of salt

text: Salt was of high value to the Jews, Greeks, Tamils, Chinese, Hittites and other peoples of antiquity.


title: History of salt

text: In the early years of the Roman Republic, with the growth of the city of Rome, roads were built to make transportation of salt to the capital city easier. An example was the Via Salaria (originally a Sabine trail), leading from Rome to the Adriatic Sea. The Adriatic, having a higher salinity due to its shallow depth, had more productive solar ponds compared with those of the Tyrrhenian Sea, much closer to Rome. The word "salary" comes from the Latin word for salt. The persistent modern claim that the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt is baseless; a "salārium" may have been an allowance paid to Roman soldiers for the purchase of salt, but even that is not well established.


title: History of salt

text: During the late Roman Empire and throughout the Middle Ages salt was a precious commodity carried along the salt roads into the heartland of the Germanic tribes. Caravans consisting of as many as forty thousand camels traversed four hundred miles of the Sahara bearing salt to inland markets in the Sahel, sometimes trading salt for slaves: Timbuktu was a noted salt and slave market.


title: History of salt

text: Salt in Chinese history was both a driver of technological development and a stable source of revenue for the imperial government.


title: History of salt

text: Salt has played a prominent role in determining the power and location of the world's great cities. Liverpool rose from just a small English port to become the prime exporting port for the salt dug in the great Cheshire salt mines and thus became the entrepôt for much of the world's salt in the 19th century.


title: History of salt

text: Salt created and destroyed empires. The salt mines of Poland led to a vast kingdom in the 16th century, only to be demolished when Germans brought in sea salt (which most of the world considered superior to rock salt).


title: History of salt

text: Cities, states and duchies along the salt roads exacted heavy duties and taxes for the salt passing through their territories. This practice even caused the formation of cities, such as the city of Munich in 1158, when the then Duke of Bavaria, Henry the Lion, decided that the bishops of Freising no longer needed their salt revenue.


title: History of salt

text: The "gabelle"—a hated French salt tax—was enacted in 1286 and maintained until 1790. Because of the gabelles, common salt was of such a high value that it caused mass population shifts and exodus, attracted invaders and caused wars.


title: History of salt

text: In American history, salt has been a major factor in outcomes of wars. In the Revolutionary War, Loyalists intercepted Patriot salt shipments in an attempt to interfere with their ability to preserve food. During the War of 1812, salt brine was used to pay American soldiers in the field, as the federal government was too poor to pay them with money. Before Lewis and Clark set out for the Louisiana Territory, President Jefferson in his address to Congress mentioned a mountain of salt, 180 miles long and 45 wide, supposed to lie near the Missouri River, which would have been of inconceivable value, as a reason for their expedition.


title: History of salt

text: During the Indian independence movement, Mahatma Gandhi organized the Salt Satyagraha protest to demonstrate against the British salt tax.


title: History of salt

text: Evidence of early neolithic salt pans, dating to 3766–3647 BCE, have been unearthed in Yorkshire. Evidence of bronze age production, c. 1,400 BCE, has been identified in Somerset. Iron age production in Hampshire. Roman Rock Salt production in Cheshire. Salt was produced from both mines and sea in Medieval England. The open-pan salt making method was used along the Lincolnshire coast and in the saltmarshes of Bitterne Manor on the banks of the River Itchen in Hampshire where salt production was a notable industry.


title: History of salt

text: "Wich" and "wych" are names associated (but not exclusively) with brine springs or wells in England. Originally derived from the Latin "vicus", meaning "place", by the 11th century use of the 'wich' suffix in placenames was associated with places with a specialised function including that of salt production. Several English places carry the suffix and are historically related to salt, including the four Cheshire 'wiches' of Middlewich, Nantwich, Northwich and Leftwich (a small village south of Northwich), and Droitwich in Worcestershire. Middlewich, Nantwich, Northwich and Droitwich are known as the "Domesday Wiches" due to their mention in the Domesday Book of 1086, "an indication of the significance of the salt-working towns in the economy of the region, and indeed of the country". Salt was very important to Europe because it was hard to trade with Africa and they needed to produce it themselves.


title: History of salt

text: Monopolies over salt production and trade were essential aspects of government revenue in imperial China and retained its significance until 20th century.


title: History of salt

text: During modern times, it became more profitable to sell salted food than pure salt. Thus sources of food to salt went hand in hand with salt making. The British controlled saltworks in the Bahamas as well as North American cod fisheries. The search for oil in the late 19th and early 20th centuries used the technology and methods pioneered by salt miners, even to the degree that they looked for oil where salt domes were located.


title: History of salt

text: On an industrial scale, salt is produced in one of two principal ways: the evaporation of salt water (brine) or by mining. Evaporation can either be solar evaporation or using some heating device.


title: History of salt

text: In the correct climate (one for which the ratio of evaporation to rainfall is suitably high) it is possible to use solar evaporation of sea water to produce salt. Brine is evaporated in a linked set of ponds until the solution is sufficiently concentrated by the final pond so that the salt crystallizes on the pond's floor.


title: History of salt

text: One of the traditional methods of salt production in more temperate climates is using open pans. In open-pan production, salt brine is heated in large, shallow open pans. The earliest examples of this date back to prehistoric times and the pans were made of either a type of ceramic called briquetage, or lead. Later examples were made from iron. This change coincided with a change from wood to coal for the purpose of heating the brine. Brine would be pumped into the pans and concentrated by the heat of the fire burning underneath. As crystals of salt formed, these would be raked out and more brine added.


title: History of salt

text: The open pan salt works has effectively been replaced with a closed pan system where the brine solution is evaporated under a partial vacuum.


title: History of salt

text: In the second half of the 19th century, industrial mining and new drilling techniques made the discovery of more and deeper deposits possible, increasing mine salt's share of the market. Although mining salt was generally more expensive than extracting it from brine via solar evaporation of seawater, the introduction of this new source reduced the price of salt due to a reduction of monopolization. Extraction of salt from brine is still heavily used; for example, vacuum salt produced by British Salt in Middlewich has 57% of the UK market for salt used in cooking.


title: History of salt

text: In traditional salt production in the Visayas Islands of the Philippines, salt is made from coconut husks, driftwood, or other plant matter soaked in seawater for at least several months. These are burned into ash then seawater is run through the ashes on a filter. The resulting brine is then evaporated in containers. Coconut milk is sometimes added to the brine before evaporation. The practice is endangered due to competition with cheap industrially-produced commercial salt. Only two traditions survive to the present day: asín tibuok and túltul (or dúkdok).


title: History of salt

text: The earliest systematic exposition of the different kinds of salts, its uses, and the methods of its extraction was published in China around 2700 BCE. Hippocrates encouraged his fellow healers to use salt water to heal various ailments by immersing their patients in sea water. The ancient Greeks continued this, and in 1753, English author and physician Richard Russell published "The Uses of Sea Water" in which he declared that salt was a "common defence against the corruption of…bodies" and "contribut[es] greatly to all cures".


title: History of salt

text: In Ethiopia blocks of salt, called "amoleh", were carved from the salt pans of the Afar Depression, especially around Lake Afrera, then carried by camel west to Atsbi and Ficho in the highland, whence traders distributed them throughout the rest of Ethiopia, as far south as the Kingdom of Kaffa. These salt blocks served as a form of currency.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: The Battle of the Falkland Islands was a First World War naval action between the British Royal Navy and Imperial German Navy on 8 December 1914 in the South Atlantic. The British, after their defeat at the Battle of Coronel on 1 November, sent a large force to track down and destroy the German cruiser squadron. The battle is commemorated every year on 8 December in the Falkland Islands as a public holiday.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: Admiral Graf Maximilian von Spee commanding the German squadron of two armoured cruisers, and , the light cruisers , and , and the colliers SS "Baden", SS "Santa Isabel", and SS "Seydlitz" attempted to raid the British supply base at Stanley in the Falkland Islands. The British squadron consisting of the battlecruisers and , the armoured cruisers , and , the armed merchant cruiser HMS "Macedonia" and the light cruisers and had arrived in the port the day before.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: Visibility was at its maximum, the sea was placid with a gentle breeze, and the day was bright and sunny. The vanguard cruisers of the German squadron were detected early. By nine o'clock that morning, the British battlecruisers and cruisers were in hot pursuit of the German vessels. All except "Dresden" and "Seydlitz" were hunted down and sunk.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: The British battlecruisers each mounted eight guns, whereas Spee's best ships ("Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau") were equipped with eight pieces. Additionally, the battlecruisers could make against Spee's ; thus, the British battlecruisers not only significantly outgunned their opponents, but could outrun them too. The obsolete pre-dreadnought battleship had been grounded at Stanley to act as a makeshift defence battery for the area.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: At the outbreak of hostilities, the German East Asia Squadron commanded by Spee was outclassed and outgunned by the Royal Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy. Spee and the High Command did not believe Germany's Asian possessions could be defended and doubted the squadron could even survive in that theatre. Spee wanted to get his ships home and began by heading southeast across the Pacific, although he was pessimistic about their chances.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: Spee's fleet won the Battle of Coronel off the coast of Coronel, Chile, on 1 November 1914, where his ships sank the cruisers (Admiral Cradock's flagship) and . After the battle, on 3 November, "Scharnhorst", "Gneisenau" and "Nürnberg" entered Valparaíso harbour and were welcomed as heroes by the German population. Von Spee declined to join in the celebrations; when presented with a bouquet of flowers, he refused them, commenting that "these will do nicely for my grave". As required under international law for belligerent ships in neutral countries, the ships left within 24 hours, moving to Mas Afuera, off the Chilean coast. There they received news of the loss of the cruiser , which had previously detached from the squadron and had been raiding in the Indian Ocean. They also learned of the fall of the German colony at Tsingtao in China, which had been their home port. On 15 November, the squadron moved to Bahia San Quintin on the Chilean coast, where a ceremony was held to award 300 Iron Crosses, second class, to crew members, and an Iron Cross first class to Admiral Spee.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: Spee's officers counseled a return to Germany. The squadron had used half its ammunition at Coronel; the supply could not be replenished, and it was difficult even to obtain coal. Intelligence reports suggested that the British ships , "Cornwall" and "Carnarvon" were stationed in the River Plate, and that there had been no British warships at Stanley when recently visited by a steamer. Spee had been concerned about reports of a British battleship, "Canopus", but its location was unknown. On 26 November, the squadron set sail for Cape Horn, which they reached on 1 December, then anchored at Picton Island, where they stayed for three days distributing coal from a captured British collier, the "Drummuir", and hunting. On 6 December, the British vessel was scuttled and its crew transferred to the auxiliary "Seydlitz". The same day Spee proposed to raid the Falkland Islands before setting course for Germany. The raid was unnecessary because the squadron now had as much coal as it could carry. Most of Spee's captains opposed the raid, but he nevertheless decided to proceed.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: On 30 October, retired Admiral of the Fleet Sir John Fisher was reappointed First Sea Lord to replace Admiral Prince Louis of Battenberg, who had been forced to resign because of public outcry against a perceived German prince running the British navy, though Louis had been British and in the Royal Navy since the age of 14. On 3 November, Fisher was advised that Spee had been sighted off Valparaíso and acted to reinforce Cradock by ordering "Defence", already sent to patrol the eastern coast of South America, to reinforce his squadron. On 4 November, news of the defeat at Coronel arrived. The blow to British naval prestige was palpable, and the British public was rather shocked. As a result, the battlecruisers "Invincible" and "Inflexible" were ordered to leave the Grand Fleet and sail to Plymouth for overhaul and preparation for service abroad. Chief of Staff at the Admiralty was Vice-Admiral Doveton Sturdee. Fisher had a long-standing disagreement with Sturdee, who had been one of those calling for his earlier dismissal as First Sea Lord in 1911, so he took the opportunity to appoint Sturdee Commander-in-Chief, South Atlantic and Pacific, to command the new squadron from "Invincible".


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: On 11 November, "Invincible" and "Inflexible" left Devonport, although repairs to "Invincible" were incomplete and she sailed with workmen still aboard. Despite the urgency of the situation and their maximum speed of around , the ships were forced to cruise at to conserve coal in order to complete the long journey south across the Atlantic. The two ships were also heavily loaded with supplies. Although secrecy of the mission was considered important so as to surprise Spee, Lieutenant Hirst from "Glasgow" heard locals discussing the forthcoming arrival of the ships while ashore at Cape Verde on 17 November; however the news did not reach Spee. Sturdee arrived at the Abrolhos Rocks on 26 November, where Rear Admiral Stoddart awaited him with the remainder of the squadron.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: Sturdee announced his intention to depart for the Falkland Islands on 29 November. From there, the fast light cruisers "Glasgow" and "Bristol" would patrol seeking Spee, summoning reinforcements if they found him. Captain Luce of "Glasgow", who had been at the battle of Coronel, objected that there was no need to wait so long and persuaded Sturdee to depart a day early. The squadron was delayed during the journey for 12 hours when a cable towing targets for practice-firing became wrapped around one of "Invincible"s propellers, but the ships arrived on the morning of 7 December. The two light cruisers moored in the inner part of Stanley Harbour, while the larger ships remained in the deeper outer harbour of Port William. Divers set about removing the offending cable from "Invincible"; "Cornwall"'s boiler fires were extinguished to make repairs, and "Bristol" had one of her engines dismantled. The famous ship —reduced to a coal bunker—supplied coal to "Invincible" and "Inflexible". The armed merchant cruiser "Macedonia" was ordered to patrol the harbour, while "Kent" maintained steam in her boilers, ready to replace "Macedonia" the next day, 8 December; Spee's fleet arrived in the morning of the same day.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: An unlikely source of intelligence on the movement of the German ships was from Mrs Muriel Felton, wife of the manager of a sheep station at Fitzroy, and her maids Christina Goss and Marian Macleod. They were alone when Felton received a telephone call from Port Stanley advising that German ships were approaching the islands. The maids took turns riding to the top of a nearby hill to record the movements of the ships, which Felton relayed to Port Stanley by telephone. Her reports allowed "Bristol" and "Macedonia" to take up the best positions to intercept. The Admiralty later presented the women with silver plates and Felton received an OBE for her actions.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: Spee's cruisers—"Gneisenau" and "Nürnberg"—approached Stanley first. At the time, most of British fleet was coaling, but under short notice to steam. Some believe that had Spee pressed the attack, Sturdee's ships would have been easy targets, although this is a subject of conjecture as two ships were under steam acting as guardships and the battleship was also present. The Germans were surprised by gunfire from an unexpected source - the Canopus, which had been grounded as a guardship and was behind a hill. This was enough to check the Germans' advance. The sight of the distinctive tripod masts of the British battlecruisers confirmed that they were facing a better-equipped enemy. HMS "Kent" was already making her way out of the harbor and had been ordered to pursue Spee's ships.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: Made aware of the German ships, Sturdee had ordered the crews to breakfast, knowing that "Canopus" had bought them time while steam was raised.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: To Spee, with his crew battle-weary and his ships outgunned, the outcome seemed inevitable. Realizing his danger too late, and having lost any chance to attack the British ships while they were at anchor, Spee and his squadron dashed for the open sea. The British left port around 10:00. Spee was ahead by , with the German ships in line abreast heading southeast, but there was plenty of daylight left for the faster battlecruisers to catch up.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: It was 13:00 when the British battlecruisers opened fire, but it took them half an hour to get the range of SMS "Leipzig". Realising that he could not outrun the British ships, Spee decided to engage them with his armoured cruisers alone, to give the light cruisers a chance to escape. He turned to fight just after 13:20. The German armoured cruisers had the advantage of a freshening north-west breeze, which caused the funnel smoke of the British ships to obscure their target practically throughout the action. "Gneisenau's" second-in-command Hans Pochhammer indicated that there was a long respite for the Germans during the early stages of the battle, as the British attempted unsuccessfully to force Admiral Spee away from his advantageous position.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: Despite initial success by "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" in striking "Invincible", the British capital ships suffered little damage. Spee then turned to escape, but the battlecruisers came within extreme firing range 40 minutes later.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: HMS "Invincible" and HMS "Inflexible" engaged "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau", while Sturdee detached his cruisers to chase SMS "Leipzig" and SMS "Nürnberg".


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: HMS "Invincible" and HMS "Inflexible" turned to fire broadsides at the armoured cruisers and Spee responded by trying to close the range. His flagship SMS "Scharnhorst" took extensive damage with funnels flattened, fires and a list. The list became worse at 16:04, and she sank by 16:17, taking von Spee and the entire crew with her. SMS "Gneisenau" continued to fire and evade until 17:15, by which time her ammunition had been exhausted, and she sank at 18:02. During her death throes, Admiral Sturdee continued to engage SMS "Gneisenau" with his two battlecruisers and the cruiser HMS "Carnarvon", rather than detaching one of the battlecruisers to hunt down the escaping "Dresden". 190 of SMS "Gneisenau"'s crew were rescued from the water. Both of the British battlecruisers had received about 40 hits between them from the German ships, with one crewman killed and four injured.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: Meanwhile, SMS "Nürnberg" and SMS "Leipzig" had run from the British cruisers. SMS "Nürnberg" was running at full speed but in need of maintenance, while the crew of the pursuing HMS "Kent" were pushing her boilers and engines to the limit. SMS "Nürnberg" finally turned for battle at 17:30. HMS "Kent" had the advantage in shell weight and armour. SMS "Nürnberg" suffered two boiler explosions around 18:30, giving the advantage in speed and manoeuvrability to HMS "Kent". The German ship then rolled over and sank at 19:27 after a long chase. The cruisers HMS "Glasgow" and HMS "Cornwall" had chased down SMS "Leipzig"; HMS "Glasgow" closed to finish SMS "Leipzig," which had run out of ammunition but was still flying her battle ensign. SMS "Leipzig" fired two flares, so HMS "Glasgow" ceased fire. At 21:23, more than southeast of the Falklands, she also rolled over and sank, leaving only 18 survivors.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: During the course of the main battles, Sturdee had despatched Captain Fanshawe on HMS "Bristol", together with HMS "Macedonia", to destroy the colliers. "Baden" and "Santa Isabel" were chased, stopped, and (after removing the crews) sunk by HMS "Bristol" and HMS "Macedonia" at 19:00. "Seydlitz" had taken a separate course and escaped.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: Casualties and damage were extremely disproportionate; the British suffered only very lightly. Admiral Spee and his two sons were among the German dead. Rescued German survivors, 215 total, became prisoners on the British ships. Most were from the "Gneisenau", nine were from "Nürnberg" and 18 were from "Leipzig". "Scharnhorst" was lost with all hands. One of "Gneisenau"s officers who lived had been the sole survivor on three different guns on the battered cruiser. He was pulled from the water saying he was a first cousin of the British commander (Stoddart).


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: Of the known German force of eight ships, two escaped: the auxiliary "Seydlitz" and the light cruiser "Dresden", which roamed at large for a further three months before her captain was cornered by a British squadron ("Kent", "Glasgow" and "Orama") off the Juan Fernández Islands on 14 March 1915. After fighting a short battle, "Dresden's" captain evacuated his ship and scuttled her by detonating the main ammunition magazine.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: As a consequence of the battle, the German East Asia Squadron, Germany's only permanent overseas naval formation, effectively ceased to exist. Commerce raiding on the high seas by regular warships of the Kaiserliche Marine was brought to an end. However, Germany put several armed merchant vessels into service as commerce raiders until the end of the war (for example, see Felix von Luckner).


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: After the battle, German naval experts were baffled at why Admiral Spee attacked the base and how the two squadrons could have met so coincidentally in so many thousand miles of open waters. Kaiser William II's handwritten note on the official report of the battle reads: "It remains a mystery what made Spee attack the Falkland Islands. See 'Mahan's Naval Strategy'."


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: It was generally believed Spee was misled by the German admiralty into attacking the Falklands, a Royal Naval fuelling base, after receiving intelligence from the German wireless station at Valparaiso which reported the port free of Royal Navy warships. Despite the objection of three of his ships' captains, Spee proceeded to attack.


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: However, in 1925 a German naval officer, Franz von Rintelen, interviewed Admiral William Reginald Hall, Director of the Admiralty's Naval Intelligence Division (NID), and was informed that Spee's squadron had been lured towards the British battlecruisers by means of a fake signal sent in a German naval code broken by British cryptographers. (Similarly, on 14 March 1915, was intercepted by British ships while taking on coal at sea in a location identified by NID codebreakers.)


title: Battle of the Falkland Islands

text: The wreck of "Scharnhorst" was discovered on 4 December 2019, approximately southeast of Stanley at a depth of .


title: Abomination of desolation

text: "Abomination of desolation" is a phrase from the Book of Daniel describing the pagan sacrifices with which the 2nd century BCE Greek king Antiochus IV replaced the twice-daily offering in the Jewish temple, or alternatively the altar on which such offerings were made. In the 1st century CE it was taken up by the authors of the gospels in the context of the Roman destruction of Jerusalem and the temple in the year 70, with Mark giving Jesus a speech concerning the Second Coming, adding a reference to Daniel and giving a description of the Roman armies ("But when you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies..."); in all three it is likely that the authors had in mind a future eschatological (i.e., end-time) event, and perhaps the activities of some antichrist.


title: Abomination of desolation

text: Chapters 1–6 of the Book of Daniel originated as a collection of folk tales among the Jewish community in the late 4th to early 3rd centuries BCE. At that time, a lamb was sacrificed twice daily, morning and evening, on the altar of the Jewish temple in Jerusalem. In 167 BCE, Antiochus IV, the king of the Greek Seleucid dynasty which then ruled Palestine, put an end to the practice. In reaction to this, the visionary chapters of Daniel, chapters 7–12, were added to reassure Jews that they would survive in the face of this threat. In Daniel 8, one angel asks another how long "the transgression that makes desolate" will last; Daniel 9 tells of "the prince who is to come" who "shall make sacrifice and offering cease, and in their place shall be an abomination that desolates"; Daniel 11 tells the history of the arrogant foreign king who sets up the "abomination that makes desolate"; and in Daniel 12 the prophet is told how many days will pass "from the time that the regular burnt offering is taken away and the abomination that desolates is set up".


title: Abomination of desolation

text: One of the more popular older views was to see in the "abomination" a contemptuous deformation (or dysphemism) of the Phoenician deity Baal Shamin, the "Lord of Heaven"; Philo of Byblos identified Baal Shamin with the Greek sky god Zeus, and as the temple in Jerusalem was rededicated in honor of Zeus (according to 2 Maccabees 6:2), older commentators tended to follow Porphyry in seeing the "abomination" in terms of a statue of the Greek sky god. More recently, it has been suggested that the reference is to certain sacred stones (possibly meteorites) that were fixed to the temple's altar of sacrifice for the purposes of pagan worship, since the use of such stones is well-attested in Canaanite and Syrian cults. Both proposals have been criticized on the basis that they are too speculative, or dependent on flawed analysis, or not well-suited to the relevant context in the Book of Daniel; and more recent scholarship tends to see the "abomination" as a reference to either the pagan offerings that replaced the forbidden twice-daily Jewish offering (cf. Daniel 11:31, 12:11; 2 Maccabees 6:5), or the pagan altar on which such offerings were made.


title: Abomination of desolation

text: In 63 BCE, the Romans captured Jerusalem and Judea became an outpost of the Roman Empire, but in 66 CE the Jews rose in revolt against the Romans as their ancestors had once done against Antiochus. The resulting First Jewish–Roman War ended in 70 CE when the legions of the Roman general Titus surrounded and eventually captured Jerusalem; the city and the temple were razed to the ground, and the only habitation on the site until the first third of the next century was a Roman military camp. It was against this background that the gospels were written, Mark around 70 AD and Matthew and Luke around 80–85. It is almost certain that none of the authors were eyewitnesses to the life of Jesus, and Mark was the source used by the authors of Matthew and Luke for their "abomination of desolation" passages.


title: Abomination of desolation

text: Chapter 13 of Mark's gospel is a speech of Jesus concerning the return of the Son of Man and the advent of the Kingdom of God, which will be signaled by the appearance of the "abomination of desolation". It begins with Jesus in the temple informing his disciples that "not one stone here will be left on another, all will be thrown down"; the disciples ask when this will happen, and in Jesus tells them: "[W]hen you see the abomination of desolation standing where he ought not to be (let the reader understand), then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains" (Mark 13:14). Mark's terminology is drawn from Daniel, but he places the fulfilment of the prophecy in his own day, underlining this in Mark 13:30 by stating that "this generation will not pass away before all these things take place." While Daniel's "abomination" was probably a pagan altar or sacrifice, Mark uses a masculine participle for "standing", indicating a concrete historical person: several candidates have been suggested, but the most likely is Titus.


title: Abomination of desolation

text: The majority of scholars believe that Mark was the source used by the authors of Matthew and Luke for their "abomination of desolation" passages. follows Mark 13:14 closely: "So when you see the abomination of desolation spoken of by the prophet Daniel, standing in the holy place (let the reader understand), then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains"; but unlike Mark, Matthew uses a neutral participle instead of a masculine one, and explicitly identifies Daniel as his prophetic source. drops the "abomination" entirely: "But when you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then know that its desolation has come near. Then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains, and let those who are inside the city depart, and let not those who are out in the country enter it." In all three it is likely that the authors had in mind a future eschatological (i.e., end-time) event, and perhaps the activities of some antichrist.


title: Heavyweight (MMA)

text: Although many ambiguities exist within the lowerweight classes regarding division naming and weight limits, the Heavyweight division is, for the most part, uniform. The Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) and most other North American MMA organizations such as Bellator MMA, WSOF, and King of the Cage (KOTC) abide by this interpretation to their 206–265 lb athletes as heavyweights. ONE Championship's heavyweight division is at 226–265 lb. Pancrase's overweight division was before being revised to its current .


title: Heavyweight (MMA)

text: The heavyweight upper weight limit, as defined by the Nevada State Athletic Commission and the Association of Boxing Commissions is .


title: High culture

text: High culture is a subculture that emphasizes and encompasses the cultural objects of aesthetic value, which a society collectively esteem as exemplary art, and the intellectual works of philosophy, history, art, and literature that a society consider representative of their culture.


title: High culture

text: In popular usage, the term "high culture" identifies the culture of an upper class (an aristocracy) or of a status class (the intelligentsia); and also identifies a society’s common repository of broad-range knowledge and tradition (e.g. folk culture) that transcends the social-class system of the society. Sociologically, the term "high culture" is contrasted with the term "low culture", the forms of popular culture characteristic of the less-educated social classes, such as the barbarians, the Philistines, and "hoi polloi" (the masses).


title: High culture

text: In European history, high culture was understood as a cultural concept common to the humanities, until the mid-19th century, when Matthew Arnold introduced the term "high culture" in the book "Culture and Anarchy" (1869). The Preface defines culture as "the disinterested endeavour after man’s perfection" pursued, obtained, and achieved by effort to "know the best that has been said and thought in the world". Such a literary definition of high culture also includes philosophy. Moreover, the philosophy of aesthetics proposed in high culture is a force for moral and political good. Critically, the term "high culture" is contrasted with the terms "popular culture" and "mass culture".


title: High culture

text: In "Notes Towards the Definition of Culture" (1948), T. S. Eliot said that high culture and popular culture are necessary and complementary parts of the culture of a society. In "The Uses of Literacy" (1957), Richard Hoggart presents the sociologic experience of the working-class man and woman in acquiring the cultural literacy, at university, which facilitates social upward mobility. In the U.S., Harold Bloom and F. R. Leavis pursued the definition of high culture, by way of the Western canon of literature.


title: High culture

text: Media theorist Steven Johnson writes that, unlike popular culture, "the classics—and soon to be classics—are" in their own right descriptions and explanations of the cultural systems that produced them." He says that "a crucial way in which mass culture differs from high art" is that individual works of mass culture are less interesting than the broader cultural trends which produced them.


title: High culture

text: The high culture of the West originated in the classical-world traditions of intellectual and aesthetic life in Ancient Greece (from c. 8th century BC – AD 147) and Ancient Rome (753 BC – AD 476). In the classical Greco-Roman tradition, the ideal mode of language was published and preserved in works of elevated style (correct grammar, syntax, and diction). Certain forms of language used by authors in valorized epochs were held up in antiquity and the Renaissance as eternal valid models and normative standards of excellence; e.g. the Attic dialect of ancient Greek spoken and written by the playwrights and philosophers of Periclean Athens (fifth century BC); and the form of classical Latin used in the "Golden Age" of Roman culture (c. 70 B.C. – AD 18) represented by such figures as Cicero and Virgil. This form of education was known to the Greeks as παιδεία, which was translated by the Romans into Latin as "humanitas" since it reflected a form of education aiming at the refinement of human nature, rather than the acquisition of technical or vocational skills. Indeed, the Greco-Roman world tended to see such manual, commercial, and technical labor as subordinate to purely intellectual activities.


title: High culture

text: From the idea of the "free" man with sufficient leisure to pursue such intellectual and aesthetic refinement, arose the classical distinction between the "liberal" arts which are intellectual and done for their own sake, as against the "servile" or "mechanical" arts which were associated with manual labor and done to earn a living. This implied an association between high culture and the upper classes whose inherited wealth provided such time for intellectual cultivation. The leisured gentleman not weighed down by the necessity of earning a living, was free to devote himself to activities proper to such a "free man" – those deemed to involve true excellence and nobility as opposed to mere utility.


title: High culture

text: During the Renaissance, the classical intellectual values of the fully rediscovered Græco–Roman culture were the cultural capital of the upper classes (and the aspiring), and aimed at the complete development of human intellectual, aesthetic, and moral faculties. This ideal associated with humanism (a later term derived from the humanities or "studia humanitatis"), was communicated in Renaissance Italy through institutions such as the Renaissance court schools. Renaissance humanism soon spread through Europe becoming much of the basis of upper class education for centuries. For the socially ambitious man and woman who means to rise in society, "The Book of the Courtier" (1528), by Baldasare Castiglione, instructs the reader to acquire and possess knowledge of the Græco–Roman Classics, being education integral to the social-persona of the aristocrat. A key contribution of the Renaissance was the elevation of painting and sculpture to a status equal to the liberal arts (hence the visual arts lost for elites any lingering negative association with manual artisanship.) The early Renaissance treatises of Leon Battista Alberti were instrumental in this regard.


title: High culture

text: The evolution of the concept of high culture initially was defined in educational terms largely as critical study and knowledge of the Græco–Roman arts and humanities which furnished much of the foundation for European cultures and societies. However, aristocratic patronage through most of the modern era was also pivotal to the support and creation of new works of high culture across the range of arts, music, and literature. The subsequent prodigious development of the modern European languages and cultures meant that the modern definition of the term "high culture" embraces not only Greek and Latin texts, but a much broader canon of select literary, philosophical, historical, and scientific books in both ancient and modern languages. Of comparable importance are those works of art and music considered to be of the highest excellence and broadest influence (e.g. the Parthenon, the painting and sculpture of Michelangelo, the music of Johann Sebastian Bach, etc). Together these texts and art works constitute the exemplary artifacts representing the high culture of the Western world.


title: High culture

text: In the Western and some East Asian traditions, art that demonstrates the imagination of the artist is accorded the status of high art. In the West this tradition began in Ancient Greece, was reinforced in the Renaissance, and by Romanticism, which eliminated the hierarchy of genres within the fine arts, which was established in the Renaissance. In China there was a distinction between the literati painting by the scholar-officials and the work produced by common artists, working in largely different styles, or the decorative arts such as Chinese porcelain, which were produced by unknown craftsmen working in large factories. In both China and the West the distinction was especially clear in landscape painting, where for centuries imaginary views, produced from the imagination of the artist, were considered superior works.


title: High culture

text: In socially-stratified Europe and the Americas, a first-hand immersion to the high culture of the West, the Grand Tour of Europe, was a rite of passage that complemented and completed the book education of a gentleman, from the nobility, the aristocracy, and the bourgeoisie, with a worldly perspective of society and civilisation. The post-university tour of the cultural centres of Europe was a social-class benefit of the cultural capital transmitted through the high-status institutions (schools, academies, universities) meant to produce the ideal gentleman of that society.


title: High culture

text: The European concept of high culture included cultivation of refined etiquette and manners; the education of taste in the fine arts such as sculpture and painting; an appreciation of classical music and opera in its diverse history and myriad forms; knowledge of the humane letters ("literae humaniores") represented by the best Greek and Latin authors, and more broadly of the liberal arts traditions (e.g. philosophy, history, drama, rhetoric, and poetry) of Western civilisation, as well as a general acquaintance with important concepts in theology, science, and political thought.


title: High culture

text: Much of high culture consists of the appreciation of what is sometimes called "high art". This term is rather broader than Arnold's definition and besides literature includes music, visual arts (especially painting), and traditional forms of the performing arts (including some cinema). The decorative arts would not generally be considered high art.


title: High culture

text: The cultural products most often regarded as forming part of high culture are most likely to have been produced during periods of high civilization, for which a large, sophisticated, and wealthy urban-based society provides a coherent and conscious aesthetic framework, and a large-scale milieu of training, and, for the visual arts, sourcing materials and financing work. Such an environment enables artists, as near as possible, to realize their creative potential with as few as possible practical and technical constraints, though many more could be found on the cultural and economic side. Although the Western concept of high culture naturally concentrates on the Greco-Roman tradition, and its resumption from the Renaissance onwards, such conditions existed in other places at other times.


title: High culture

text: Art music (or serious music, classical music, cultivated music, canonical music or erudite music) is an umbrella term used to refer to musical traditions implying advanced structural and theoretical considerations and a written musical tradition. The notion of art music is a frequent and well-defined musicological distinction – musicologist Philip Tagg, for example, refers to art music as one of an "axiomatic triangle consisting of 'folk', 'art' and 'popular' musics". He explains that each of these three is distinguishable from the others according to certain criteria, with high cultural music often performed to an audience whilst folk music would traditionally be more participatory, high culture music is small scale and performed at the local level rather than as a mass produced pop music,


title: High culture

text: it is stored in written form rather than non-written, it's often made for a diverse group of people as opposed to a heterogeneous socioculturally audience, non-industrious high art music spreads in many locales rather than pop music which is possible in industrious economies only, it's made not to compete in the free market place of music. In this regard, "art music" frequently occurs as a contrasting term to "popular music" and to "traditional" or "folk music".


title: High culture

text: Art film is the result of filmmaking which is typically a serious, independent film aimed at a niche market rather than a mass market audience. Film critics and film studies scholars typically define an "art film" using a "...canon of films and those formal qualities that mark them as different from mainstream Hollywood films", which includes, among other elements: a social realism style; an emphasis on the authorial expressivity of the director or writer; and a focus on the thoughts and dreams of characters, rather than presenting a clear, goal-driven story. According to the film scholar David Bordwell, "art cinema itself is a film genre, with its own distinct conventions."


title: High culture

text: The term has always been susceptible to attack for elitism, and, in response, many proponents of the concept devoted great efforts to promoting high culture among a wider public than the highly educated bourgeoisie whose natural territory it was supposed to be. There was a drive, beginning in the 19th century, to open museums and concert halls to give the general public access to high culture. Figures such as John Ruskin and Lord Reith of the BBC in Britain, Leon Trotsky and others in Communist Russia, and many others in America and throughout the western world have worked to widen the appeal of elements of high culture such as classical music, art by old masters and the literary classics.


title: High culture

text: With the widening of access to university education, the effort spread there, and all aspects of high culture became the objects of academic study, which with the exception of the classics had not often been the case until the late 19th century. University liberal arts courses still play an important role in the promotion of the concept of high culture, though often now avoiding the term itself.


title: High culture

text: Especially in Europe, governments have been prepared to subsidize high culture through the funding of museums, opera and ballet companies, orchestras, cinema, public broadcasting stations such as BBC Radio 3, ARTE, and in other ways. Organizations such as the Arts Council of Great Britain, and in most European countries, whole ministries administer these programs. This includes the subsidy of new works by composers, writers and artists. There are also many private philanthropic sources of funding, which are especially important in the US, where the federally funded Corporation for Public Broadcasting also funds broadcasting. These may be seen as part of the broader concept of official culture, although often a mass audience is not the intended market.


title: High culture

text: The relations between high culture and mass culture are concerns of cultural studies, media studies, critical theory, sociology, Postmodernism and Marxist philosophy. In the essay "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" (1936), Walter Benjamin explored the relations of value of the arts (high and mass) when subjected to industrial reproduction. The critical theoreticians Theodor W. Adorno and Antonio Gramsci interpreted the high-art and mass-art cultural relations as an instrument of social control, with which the ruling class maintain their cultural hegemony upon society.


title: High culture

text: For the Orientalist Ernest Renan and for the rationalist philosopher Ernest Gellner, high culture was conceptually integral to the politics and ideology of nationalism, as a requisite part of a healthy national identity. Gellner expanded the conceptual scope of the phrase in "Nations and Nationalism" (1983) stating that high art is "a literate, codified culture, which permits context-free communication" among cultures.


title: High culture

text: In "Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste" (1979), the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu proposed that æsthetic taste (cultural judgement) is in large part derived from social class. Social class establishes the definitions of high art, e.g. in social etiquette, gastronomy, oenology, military service. In such activities of aesthetic judgement, the ruling-class person uses social codes unknown to middle-class and lower-class persons in the pursuit and practice of activities of taste.