title: Hipparchus

text: Before Hipparchus, astronomers knew that the lengths of the seasons are not equal. Hipparchus made observations of equinox and solstice, and according to Ptolemy ("Almagest" III.4) determined that spring (from spring equinox to summer solstice) lasted 94 days, and summer (from summer solstice to autumn equinox) days. This is inconsistent with a premise of the Sun moving around the Earth in a circle at uniform speed. Hipparchus's solution was to place the Earth not at the center of the Sun's motion, but at some distance from the center. This model described the apparent motion of the Sun fairly well. It is known today that the planets, including the Earth, move in approximate ellipses around the Sun, but this was not discovered until Johannes Kepler published his first two laws of planetary motion in 1609. The value for the eccentricity attributed to Hipparchus by Ptolemy is that the offset is of the radius of the orbit (which is a little too large), and the direction of the apogee would be at longitude 65.5° from the vernal equinox. Hipparchus may also have used other sets of observations, which would lead to different values. One of his two eclipse trios' solar longitudes are consistent with his having initially adopted inaccurate lengths for spring and summer of and days. His other triplet of solar positions is consistent with and days, an improvement on the results ( and days) attributed to Hipparchus by Ptolemy, which a few scholars still question the authorship of. Ptolemy made no change three centuries later, and expressed lengths for the autumn and winter seasons which were already implicit (as shown, e.g., by A. Aaboe).


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus also undertook to find the distances and sizes of the Sun and the Moon. His results appear in two works: "Perí megethōn kaí apostēmátōn" ("On Sizes and Distances") by Pappus and in Pappus's commentary on the "Almagest" V.11; Theon of Smyrna (2nd century) mentions the work with the addition "of the Sun and Moon".


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus measured the apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon with his "diopter". Like others before and after him, he found that the Moon's size varies as it moves on its (eccentric) orbit, but he found no perceptible variation in the apparent diameter of the Sun. He found that at the "mean" distance of the Moon, the Sun and Moon had the same apparent diameter; at that distance, the Moon's diameter fits 650 times into the circle, i.e., the mean apparent diameters are = 0°33′14″.


title: Hipparchus

text: Like others before and after him, he also noticed that the Moon has a noticeable parallax, i.e., that it appears displaced from its calculated position (compared to the Sun or stars), and the difference is greater when closer to the horizon. He knew that this is because in the then-current models the Moon circles the center of the Earth, but the observer is at the surface—the Moon, Earth and observer form a triangle with a sharp angle that changes all the time. From the size of this parallax, the distance of the Moon as measured in Earth radii can be determined. For the Sun however, there was no observable parallax (we now know that it is about 8.8", several times smaller than the resolution of the unaided eye).


title: Hipparchus

text: In the first book, Hipparchus assumes that the parallax of the Sun is 0, as if it is at infinite distance. He then analyzed a solar eclipse, which Toomer (against the opinion of over a century of astronomers) presumes to be the eclipse of 14 March 190 BC. It was total in the region of the Hellespont (and in his birthplace, Nicaea); at the time Toomer proposes the Romans were preparing for war with Antiochus III in the area, and the eclipse is mentioned by Livy in his "Ab Urbe Condita Libri" VIII.2. It was also observed in Alexandria, where the Sun was reported to be obscured 4/5ths by the Moon. Alexandria and Nicaea are on the same meridian. Alexandria is at about 31° North, and the region of the Hellespont about 40° North. (It has been contended that authors like Strabo and Ptolemy had fairly decent values for these geographical positions, so Hipparchus must have known them too. However, Strabo's Hipparchus dependent latitudes for this region are at least 1° too high, and Ptolemy appears to copy them, placing Byzantium 2° high in latitude.) Hipparchus could draw a triangle formed by the two places and the Moon, and from simple geometry was able to establish a distance of the Moon, expressed in Earth radii. Because the eclipse occurred in the morning, the Moon was not in the meridian, and it has been proposed that as a consequence the distance found by Hipparchus was a lower limit. In any case, according to Pappus, Hipparchus found that the least distance is 71 (from this eclipse), and the greatest 81 Earth radii.


title: Hipparchus

text: In the second book, Hipparchus starts from the opposite extreme assumption: he assigns a (minimum) distance to the Sun of 490 Earth radii. This would correspond to a parallax of 7′, which is apparently the greatest parallax that Hipparchus thought would not be noticed (for comparison: the typical resolution of the human eye is about 2′; Tycho Brahe made naked eye observation with an accuracy down to 1′). In this case, the shadow of the Earth is a cone rather than a cylinder as under the first assumption. Hipparchus observed (at lunar eclipses) that at the mean distance of the Moon, the diameter of the shadow cone is lunar diameters. That apparent diameter is, as he had observed, degrees. With these values and simple geometry, Hipparchus could determine the mean distance; because it was computed for a minimum distance of the Sun, it is the maximum mean distance possible for the Moon. With his value for the eccentricity of the orbit, he could compute the least and greatest distances of the Moon too. According to Pappus, he found a least distance of 62, a mean of , and consequently a greatest distance of Earth radii. With this method, as the parallax of the Sun decreases (i.e., its distance increases), the minimum limit for the mean distance is 59 Earth radii—exactly the mean distance that Ptolemy later derived.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus thus had the problematic result that his minimum distance (from book 1) was greater than his maximum mean distance (from book 2). He was intellectually honest about this discrepancy, and probably realized that especially the first method is very sensitive to the accuracy of the observations and parameters. (In fact, modern calculations show that the size of the 189 BC solar eclipse at Alexandria must have been closer to ths and not the reported ths, a fraction more closely matched by the degree of totality at Alexandria of eclipses occurring in 310 and 129 BC which were also nearly total in the Hellespont and are thought by many to be more likely possibilities for the eclipse Hipparchus used for his computations.)


title: Hipparchus

text: Ptolemy later measured the lunar parallax directly ("Almagest" V.13), and used the second method of Hipparchus with lunar eclipses to compute the distance of the Sun ("Almagest" V.15). He criticizes Hipparchus for making contradictory assumptions, and obtaining conflicting results ("Almagest" V.11): but apparently he failed to understand Hipparchus's strategy to establish limits consistent with the observations, rather than a single value for the distance. His results were the best so far: the actual mean distance of the Moon is 60.3 Earth radii, within his limits from Hipparchus's second book.


title: Hipparchus

text: Theon of Smyrna wrote that according to Hipparchus, the Sun is 1,880 times the size of the Earth, and the Earth twenty-seven times the size of the Moon; apparently this refers to volumes, not diameters. From the geometry of book 2 it follows that the Sun is at 2,550 Earth radii, and the mean distance of the Moon is radii. Similarly, Cleomedes quotes Hipparchus for the sizes of the Sun and Earth as 1050:1; this leads to a mean lunar distance of 61 radii. Apparently Hipparchus later refined his computations, and derived accurate single values that he could use for predictions of solar eclipses.


title: Hipparchus

text: Pliny ("Naturalis Historia" II.X) tells us that Hipparchus demonstrated that lunar eclipses can occur five months apart, and solar eclipses seven months (instead of the usual six months); and the Sun can be hidden twice in thirty days, but as seen by different nations. Ptolemy discussed this a century later at length in "Almagest" VI.6. The geometry, and the limits of the positions of Sun and Moon when a solar or lunar eclipse is possible, are explained in "Almagest" VI.5. Hipparchus apparently made similar calculations. The result that two solar eclipses can occur one month apart is important, because this can not be based on observations: one is visible on the northern and the other on the southern hemisphere—as Pliny indicates—and the latter was inaccessible to the Greek.


title: Hipparchus

text: Prediction of a solar eclipse, i.e., exactly when and where it will be visible, requires a solid lunar theory and proper treatment of the lunar parallax. Hipparchus must have been the first to be able to do this. A rigorous treatment requires spherical trigonometry, thus those who remain certain that Hipparchus lacked it must speculate that he may have made do with planar approximations. He may have discussed these things in "Perí tēs katá plátos mēniaías tēs selēnēs kinēseōs" ("On the monthly motion of the Moon in latitude"), a work mentioned in the "Suda".


title: Hipparchus

text: Pliny also remarks that "he also discovered for what exact reason, although the shadow causing the eclipse must from sunrise onward be below the earth, it happened once in the past that the Moon was eclipsed in the west while both luminaries were visible above the earth" (translation H. Rackham (1938), Loeb Classical Library 330 p. 207). Toomer (1980) argued that this must refer to the large total lunar eclipse of 26 November 139 BC, when over a clean sea horizon as seen from Rhodes, the Moon was eclipsed in the northwest just after the Sun rose in the southeast. This would be the second eclipse of the 345-year interval that Hipparchus used to verify the traditional Babylonian periods: this puts a late date to the development of Hipparchus's lunar theory. We do not know what "exact reason" Hipparchus found for seeing the Moon eclipsed while apparently it was not in exact opposition to the Sun. Parallax lowers the altitude of the luminaries; refraction raises them, and from a high point of view the horizon is lowered.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus and his predecessors used various instruments for astronomical calculations and observations, such as the gnomon, the astrolabe, and the armillary sphere.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus is credited with the invention or improvement of several astronomical instruments, which were used for a long time for naked-eye observations. According to Synesius of Ptolemais (4th century) he made the first "astrolabion": this may have been an armillary sphere (which Ptolemy however says he constructed, in "Almagest" V.1); or the predecessor of the planar instrument called astrolabe (also mentioned by Theon of Alexandria). With an astrolabe Hipparchus was the first to be able to measure the geographical latitude and time by observing fixed stars. Previously this was done at daytime by measuring the shadow cast by a gnomon, by recording the length of the longest day of the year or with the portable instrument known as a "scaphe".


title: Hipparchus

text: Ptolemy mentions ("Almagest" V.14) that he used a similar instrument as Hipparchus, called "dioptra", to measure the apparent diameter of the Sun and Moon. Pappus of Alexandria described it (in his commentary on the "Almagest" of that chapter), as did Proclus ("Hypotyposis" IV). It was a four-foot rod with a scale, a sighting hole at one end, and a wedge that could be moved along the rod to exactly obscure the disk of Sun or Moon.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus also observed solar equinoxes, which may be done with an equatorial ring: its shadow falls on itself when the Sun is on the equator (i.e., in one of the equinoctial points on the ecliptic), but the shadow falls above or below the opposite side of the ring when the Sun is south or north of the equator. Ptolemy quotes (in "Almagest" III.1 (H195)) a description by Hipparchus of an equatorial ring in Alexandria; a little further he describes two such instruments present in Alexandria in his own time.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus applied his knowledge of spherical angles to the problem of denoting locations on the Earth's surface. Before him a grid system had been used by Dicaearchus of Messana, but Hipparchus was the first to apply mathematical rigor to the determination of the latitude and longitude of places on the Earth. Hipparchus wrote a critique in three books on the work of the geographer Eratosthenes of Cyrene (3rd century BC), called "Pròs tèn Eratosthénous geographían" ("Against the Geography of Eratosthenes"). It is known to us from Strabo of Amaseia, who in his turn criticised Hipparchus in his own "Geographia". Hipparchus apparently made many detailed corrections to the locations and distances mentioned by Eratosthenes. It seems he did not introduce many improvements in methods, but he did propose a means to determine the geographical longitudes of different cities at lunar eclipses (Strabo "Geographia" 1 January 2012). A lunar eclipse is visible simultaneously on half of the Earth, and the difference in longitude between places can be computed from the difference in local time when the eclipse is observed. His approach would give accurate results if it were correctly carried out but the limitations of timekeeping accuracy in his era made this method impractical.


title: Hipparchus

text: Late in his career (possibly about 135 BC) Hipparchus compiled his star catalog. Scholars have been searching for it for centuries. In 2022, it was announced that a part of it was discovered in a medieval parchment manuscript, Codex Climaci Rescriptus, from Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt as hidden text (palimpsest).


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus also constructed a celestial globe depicting the constellations, based on his observations. His interest in the fixed stars may have been inspired by the observation of a supernova (according to Pliny), or by his discovery of precession, according to Ptolemy, who says that Hipparchus could not reconcile his data with earlier observations made by Timocharis and Aristillus. For more information see Discovery of precession. In Raphael's painting "The School of Athens", Hipparchus is depicted holding his celestial globe, as the representative figure for astronomy.


title: Hipparchus

text: Previously, Eudoxus of Cnidus in the fourth century BC had described the stars and constellations in two books called "Phaenomena" and "Entropon". Aratus wrote a poem called "Phaenomena" or "Arateia" based on Eudoxus's work. Hipparchus wrote a commentary on the "Arateia"—his only preserved work—which contains many stellar positions and times for rising, culmination, and setting of the constellations, and these are likely to have been based on his own measurements.


title: Hipparchus

text: According to Roman sources, Hipparchus made his measurements with a scientific instrument and he obtained the positions of roughly 850 stars. Pliny the Elder writes in book II, 24–26 of his Natural History:


title: Hipparchus

text: It is unknown what instrument he used. The armillary sphere was probably invented only later—maybe by Ptolemy only 265 years after Hipparchus. The historian of science S. Hoffmann found proof that Hipparchus observed the "longitudes" and "latitudes" in different coordinate systems and, thus, with different instrumentation. Right ascensions, for instance, could have been observed with a clock, while angular separations could have been measured with another device.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus is conjectured to have ranked the apparent magnitudes of stars on a numerical scale from 1, the brightest, to 6, the faintest. This hypothesis is based on the vague statement by Pliny the Elder but cannot be proven by the data in Hipparchus's commentary on Aratus's poem. In this only work by his hand that has survived until today, he does not use the magnitude scale but estimates brightnesses unsystematically. However, this does not prove or disprove anything because the commentary might be an early work while the magnitude scale could have been introduced later. It is unknown who invented this method.


title: Hipparchus

text: Nevertheless, this system certainly precedes Ptolemy, who used it extensively about AD 150. This system was made more precise and extended by N. R. Pogson in 1856, who placed the magnitudes on a logarithmic scale, making magnitude 1 stars 100 times brighter than magnitude 6 stars, thus each magnitude is or 2.512 times brighter than the next faintest magnitude.


title: Hipparchus

text: It is disputed which coordinate system(s) he used. Ptolemy's catalog in the "Almagest", which is derived from Hipparchus's catalog, is given in ecliptic coordinates. Although Hipparchus strictly distinguishes between "signs" (30° section of the zodiac) and "constellations" in the zodiac, it is highly questionable whether or not he had an instrument to directly observe / measure units on the ecliptic. He probably marked them as a unit on his celestial globe but the instrumentation for his observations is unknown.


title: Hipparchus

text: Delambre in his (1817) concluded that Hipparchus knew and used the equatorial coordinate system, a conclusion challenged by Otto Neugebauer in his "A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy" (1975). Hipparchus seems to have used a mix of ecliptic coordinates and equatorial coordinates: in his commentary on Eudoxus he provides stars' polar distance (equivalent to the declination in the equatorial system), right ascension (equatorial), longitude (ecliptic), polar longitude (hybrid), but not celestial latitude. This opinion was confirmed by the careful investigation of Hoffmann who independently studied the material, potential sources, techniques and results of Hipparchus and reconstructed his celestial globe and its making.


title: Hipparchus

text: As with most of his work, Hipparchus's star catalog was adopted and perhaps expanded by Ptolemy. Delambre, in 1817, cast doubt on Ptolemy's work. It was disputed whether the star catalog in the "Almagest" is due to Hipparchus, but 1976–2002 statistical and spatial analyses (by R. R. Newton, Dennis Rawlins, Gerd Grasshoff, Keith Pickering and Dennis Duke) have shown conclusively that the "Almagest" star catalog is almost entirely Hipparchan. Ptolemy has even (since Brahe, 1598) been accused by astronomers of fraud for stating ("Syntaxis", book 7, chapter 4) that he observed all 1025 stars: for almost every star he used Hipparchus's data and precessed it to his own epoch centuries later by adding 2°40' to the longitude, using an erroneously small precession constant of 1° per century. This claim is highly exaggerated because it applies modern standards of citation to an ancient author. True is only that "the ancient star catalogue" that was initiated by Hipparchus in the second century BC, was reworked and improved multiple times in the 265 years to the Almagest (which is good scientific practise until today). Although the Almagest star catalogue is based upon Hipparchus's one, it is not only a blind copy but enriched, enhanced, and thus (at least partially) re-observed.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus's celestial globe was an instrument similar to modern electronic computers. He used it to determine risings, settings and culminations (cf. also Almagest, book VIII, chapter 3). Therefore, his globe was mounted in a horizontal plane and had a meridian ring with a scale. In combination with a grid that divided the celestial equator into 24 hour lines (longitudes equalling our right ascension hours) the instrument allowed him to determine the hours. The ecliptic was marked and divided in 12 sections of equal length (the "signs", which he called or in order to distinguish them from constellations (). The globe was virtually reconstructed by a historian of science.


title: Hipparchus

text: In any case the work started by Hipparchus has had a lasting heritage, and was much later updated by al-Sufi (964) and Copernicus (1543). Ulugh Beg reobserved all the Hipparchus stars he could see from Samarkand in 1437 to about the same accuracy as Hipparchus's. The catalog was superseded only in the late 16th century by Brahe and Wilhelm IV of Kassel via superior ruled instruments and spherical trigonometry, which improved accuracy by an order of magnitude even before the invention of the telescope. Hipparchus is considered the greatest observational astronomer from classical antiquity until Brahe.


title: Hipparchus

text: Conclusion: Hipparchus's star catalogue is one of the sources of the Almagest star catalogue but not the only source.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus is generally recognized as discoverer of the precession of the equinoxes in 127 BC. His two books on precession, "On the Displacement of the Solstitial and Equinoctial Points" and "On the Length of the Year", are both mentioned in the "Almagest" of Claudius Ptolemy. According to Ptolemy, Hipparchus measured the longitude of Spica and Regulus and other bright stars. Comparing his measurements with data from his predecessors, Timocharis and Aristillus, he concluded that Spica had moved 2° relative to the autumnal equinox. He also compared the lengths of the tropical year (the time it takes the Sun to return to an equinox) and the sidereal year (the time it takes the Sun to return to a fixed star), and found a slight discrepancy. Hipparchus concluded that the equinoxes were moving ("precessing") through the zodiac, and that the rate of precession was not less than 1° in a century.


title: Hipparchus

text: Most of our knowledge of it comes from Strabo, according to whom Hipparchus thoroughly and often unfairly criticized Eratosthenes, mainly for internal contradictions and inaccuracy in determining positions of geographical localities. Hipparchus insists that a geographic map must be based only on astronomical measurements of latitudes and longitudes and triangulation for finding unknown distances.


title: Hipparchus

text: He was the first to use the grade grid, to determine geographic latitude from star observations, and not only from the Sun's altitude, a method known long before him, and to suggest that geographic longitude could be determined by means of simultaneous observations of lunar eclipses in distant places. In the practical part of his work, the so-called "table of climata", Hipparchus listed latitudes for several tens of localities. In particular, he improved Eratosthenes' values for the latitudes of Athens, Sicily, and southern extremity of India.


title: Hipparchus

text: In calculating latitudes of climata (latitudes correlated with the length of the longest solstitial day), Hipparchus used an unexpectedly accurate value for the obliquity of the ecliptic, 23°40' (the actual value in the second half of the second century BC was approximately 23°43'), whereas all other ancient authors knew only a roughly rounded value 24°, and even Ptolemy used a less accurate value, 23°51'.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus opposed the view generally accepted in the Hellenistic period that the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and the Caspian Sea are parts of a single ocean. At the same time he extends the limits of the oikoumene, i.e. the inhabited part of the land, up to the equator and the Arctic Circle.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus's ideas found their reflection in the "Geography" of Ptolemy. In essence, Ptolemy's work is an extended attempt to realize Hipparchus's vision of what geography ought to be.


title: Hipparchus

text: Hipparchus was in the international news in 2005, when it was again proposed (as in 1898) that the data on the celestial globe of Hipparchus or in his star catalog may have been preserved in the only surviving large ancient celestial globe which depicts the constellations with moderate accuracy, the globe carried by the Farnese Atlas. There are a variety of mis-steps in the more ambitious 2005 paper, thus no specialists in the area accept its widely publicized speculation. Actually, it has been even shown that the Farnese globe shows constellations in the Aratean tradition and deviates from the constellations in mathematical astronomy that is used by Hipparchus.


title: Hipparchus

text: Lucio Russo has said that Plutarch, in his work "On the Face in the Moon", was reporting some physical theories that we consider to be Newtonian and that these may have come originally from Hipparchus; he goes on to say that Newton may have been influenced by them. According to one book review, both of these claims have been rejected by other scholars.


title: Hipparchus

text: A line in Plutarch's "Table Talk" states that Hipparchus counted 103,049 compound propositions that can be formed from ten simple propositions. 103,049 is the tenth Schröder–Hipparchus number, which counts the number of ways of adding one or more pairs of parentheses around consecutive subsequences of two or more items in any sequence of ten symbols. This has led to speculation that Hipparchus knew about enumerative combinatorics, a field of mathematics that developed independently in modern mathematics.


title: Hipparchus

text: He may be depicted opposite Ptolemy in Raphael's 1509–1511 painting "The School of Athens", although this figure is usually identified as Zoroaster.


title: Hipparchus

text: The formal name for the ESA's Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission is High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite, making a backronym, HiPParCoS, that echoes and commemorates the name of Hipparchus.


title: Hipparchus

text: Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre, historian of astronomy, mathematical astronomer and director of the Paris Observatory, in his history of astronomy in the 18th century (1821), considered Hipparchus along with Johannes Kepler and James Bradley the greatest astronomers of all time.


title: Hipparchus

text: The "Astronomers Monument" at the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, California, United States features a relief of Hipparchus as one of six of the greatest astronomers of all time and the only one from Antiquity.


title: Hipparchus

text: Johannes Kepler had great respect for Tycho Brahe's methods and the accuracy of his observations, and considered him to be the new Hipparchus, who would provide the foundation for a restoration of the science of astronomy.


title: Tailgate party

text: A tailgate party is a social event held on and around the open tailgate of a vehicle. Tailgating, which primarily takes place in the United States and Canada, often involves consuming alcoholic beverages while barbecuing and grilling food. Tailgate parties occur in the parking lots at stadiums and arenas, before and occasionally after games, festivals, and concerts. People attending such a party are said to be 'tailgating'. Many people participate even if their vehicles do not have tailgates. Tailgate parties also involve people bringing their own alcoholic beverages, barbecues, food, etcetera. which is sampled and shared among fans attending the tailgate. Tailgates are intended to be non-commercial events, so selling items to the fans is frowned upon and can even be considered illegal soliciting. Tailgating is often seen as a critical part of the sports experience in the United States. Because many American sports venues are surrounded by large parking lots, tailgating often takes place right outside stadium and arena entrances.


title: Tailgate party

text: Tailgate parties have spread to the pre-game festivities at sporting events besides American football, such as basketball, hockey, baseball and soccer. They also occur at non-sporting events such as weddings, cultural festivals and concerts. As American football outside North America has copied many of its associated traditions from the National Football League (NFL) and college football, tailgating parties are also held at some American football games in Europe.


title: Tailgate party

text: Tailgating typically involves the consumption of alcoholic beverages or soft drinks and the grilling of various meat products. Popular tailgate party foods include picnic and grilling staples such as bratwurst, hamburgers, hot dogs, baked beans, steak, to-go pizza, and cold salads like coleslaw or potato salad. Snacks include potato and tortilla chips with guacamole among others which are fairly common. Some food products were created because of tailgate parties. A brand of pimento cheese, called Palmetto Cheese, got its start at Atlanta Braves tailgate parties. In some Southern U.S. states and subtropical areas, fried seafood is made and shared at certain tailgate parties.


title: Tailgate party

text: Lawn games such as KanJam, cornhole, ladder golf, Polish horseshoes, Louisville Chugger, Jarts, washer pitching and Sholf are very popular during tailgates and tailgate parties. Lawn games are associated with tailgating primarily because of the simplicity in the game materials. Lawn games carry the connotation of drinking games because of their presence during tailgates. Other games that are often played include beer pong and flipcup. It is also common for fans to bring sports balls such as footballs, soccer balls, and the like to casually play with. Many tailgaters have external stereos or use their car's sound system to play music, and it is not unusual to see some tailgate parties hook up a television set and antenna/satellite to an electric generator so partygoers can watch other sporting events.


title: Tailgate party

text: In schools and communities throughout the United States, there are athletic departments, coaches and parents of student athletes who rely on post-game tailgating parties to build community and support for their program and team. Smaller, underfunded programs are assisted by the voluntary participation of parents and friends to feed the team and coaching staff post-competition, which establishes a strong core of support year after year.


title: Tailgate party

text: In 2007, the NFL angered many football fans by banning tailgating before the Super Bowl. The NFL cited security risks, though many suspected it had more to do with corporate sponsored events than any real threat. In 2008, an online petition began circulating to encourage the NFL to lift the no tailgating at the Super Bowl policy. Members of the sports media also questioned the validity of NFL's claim that security concerns was the real reason for the ban.


title: Tailgate party

text: In April 2019, Ontario Premier Doug Ford's staff announced the legalization of personal alcohol consumption outside sporting venues across the province, in effect creating a framework for tailgating-style events.


title: Tailgate party

text: In the "Simpsons" episode "Any Given Sundance", Homer takes his family to a tailgate party. He makes them get up early in order to be at the stadium hours before the football game, and states that "the game is nothing", the tailgate party being the only reason for them being there.


title: Tailgate party

text: Season 3 of the Travel Channel original series "Man v. Food" had a tailgating special consisting of various segments from previous episodes that featured food that would make an ultimate tailgate party.


title: Tailgate party

text: A number of television commercials, especially those aired during football games, feature tailgating culture, including those for Bud Light beer and cellphones.


title: Tailgate party

text: In season 3 of "Always Sunny in Philadelphia", Frank convinces Charlie to join him and tailgate while the rest of the gang try out for the Philadelphia Eagles.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: The National Assembly (, ) is the unicameral legislature of Serbia. The assembly is composed of 250 deputies who are proportionally elected to four-year terms by secret ballot. The assembly elects a president (speaker) who presides over the sessions.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: The National Assembly exercises supreme legislative power. It adopts and amends the Constitution, elects Government, appoints the Governor of the National Bank of Serbia and other state officials. All decisions are made by majority vote of deputies at the session at which a majority of deputies are present, except for amending the Constitution, when a two-thirds majority is needed.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: From the beginning of the 19th century, National Assembly sessions were called by Serbian monarchs. Sessions were also held during the First and Second Serbian Uprising. The members were not elected, but rather appointed by the monarch, and sessions were usually held in open space, in which a couple of thousand members could participate. One of the major groups at this point of time, were the conservative Defenders of the Constitution, who were initially allied with the Karađorđević dynasty. After the overthrow of Obrenović dynasty in 1842, they held a majority in the parliament.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: Ilija Garašanin, who was one of the members of the conservative group, called for the adoption of a law that would officially form the National Assembly. This was done in December 1858, when the Saint Andrew's Day Assembly was established. Its first name was also adopted at the assembly, which was the "Serbian National Assembly". After the adoption, sessions were initially held every three years, although this was later changed over the time, and later sessions were either held once a year, or once every three or four years. The first law regarding MPs was adopted in 1870.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: Parliamentary elections are regulated by the Constitution. The elections are held after the four-year term of the previous assembly has expired, but can also be held before that if the Assembly dismisses the Government or the Government resigns and no majority can be reached to elect a new Government. Elections are called by the President of Serbia 90 days before the end of the term of office of the National Assembly, so that elections are finished within the following 60 days. Elections are closed party-list proportional. The whole country is one electoral district. 250 seats are then distributed between the lists using d'Hondt method. There is a minimum voting threshold of 3% so that only the party lists which get more than 3% of the votes are awarded the seats. There is no threshold for the ethnic minority lists.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: After the elections, the first session of the new Assembly is convened by the Speaker from the previous convocation, so that the session is held not later than 30 days from the day of declaring the final election results.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: The assembly is composed of 250 deputies. At least 30% of the deputies are women. Deputies may not hold dual functions which represent a conflict of interest. Deputies enjoy parliamentary immunity.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: By means of majority votes of all deputies, the National Assembly elects the President of the Assembly (speaker) and one or more Vice-Presidents (deputy speakers), usually one vice-president from each parliamentary group. The President of the National Assembly represents the National Assembly, convokes its sessions, presides over them and performs other official activities. The vice-presidents assist the President in performing the duties within their purview.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: In case the President is temporarily absent, one of the Vice-Presidents designated by him/her stands in for him/her. If the President does not designate any of the Vice-Presidents to stand in for him/her, the oldest Vice-President shall stand in for him/her.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: The Secretary of the National Assembly is appointed by the National Assembly. Secretary of the National Assembly assists the President and Vice-Presidents in preparing and chairing sittings. Their term of office is terminated upon the constitution of a newly elected National Assembly, while they shall continue discharging their duties until the appointment of a new Secretary. Secretary is not elected from the deputies, and is not a member of the Assembly.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: Parliamentary groups in the National Assembly must be formed no later than seven days following the election of the President.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: Any grouping of five or more deputies can be officially recognized as a parliamentary group, with each deputy permitted to be members of only a single group at any one time. Although groups are mostly based on electoral lists from the previous election to the Assembly, groups are often a diverse collection of different parties as well as independents. This is due to Serbia's complex multi-party system, with many parties having a presence in the legislature; parties with similar ideology, but low representation, are therefore inclined to cooperate and form joint parliamentary groups together in order to secure more privileges they would otherwise not be entitled to, such as additional speaking time and committee assignments. An example of such a group includes the LDP-LSV-SDA group.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: The parliamentary groups are each led by a president, who are usually assisted by a number of vice presidents; it is common practice for heterogeneous groups (i.e. ones which comprise two or more parties) to have a vice president from the junior party in the group. The presidents of the groups regularly meet with the President of the Assembly to discuss and arrange the agenda for future meetings.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: Serbia's Law on the Election of Representatives (2000) initially indicated that, if an elected representative's mandate ended before the dissolution of the assembly, the right to fill the vacant position would "belong to the political party on whose electoral list the representative whose mandate [had] ceased was elected," and a new parliamentary mandate would be awarded to a candidate from the relevant party's electoral list who did not win a mandate in the general election. The law did not specify that the mandate would fall sequentially to the next candidate on the list who did not win a mandate. In addition, elected representatives whose party memberships were terminated or whose names were struck from the register of their party (or the political organization on whose list they were elected) were automatically deemed to have their assembly mandates terminated; this latter provision was rescinded by a constitutional court decision in 2003.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: This system was sometimes criticized. Vesna Pešić, for many years a prominent opposition figure in Serbia, noted in 2007 that it permitted party leaders to determine which candidates would enter parliament following elections, irrespective of where the candidates were placed on the lists. Pešić also stated that, after the 2003 constitutional court decision, members who entered the assembly were often required by their parties to sign blank resignation letters, by which means they could be expelled from parliament if they dissented from a party position. She argued that this led to corrupt practices, sometimes involving the misuse of assembly mandates to either keep governments in office or seek their overthrow. Daniel Bochsler, in a 2010 essay on Serbia's political system, also noted that the system gave party leaders significant control over individual mandates, although he added that the system of requiring blank resignation letters was "more understandable if we take into account that party switches are very common in post-communist legislatures, and not only in Serbia."


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: The law was reformed in 2011, to clarify that vacant mandates would be "awarded to the first candidate from the same electoral list who was not awarded a mandate" and that, in the event of a resignation of a member elected on a coalition list, the vacant mandate would fall to the first candidate on the list from the same party who was not awarded a mandate. It also established a provision for the return to parliament of members who resigned during the same convocation to take a position in government, and it stipulated that members would be required to submit resignation letters in person.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: The first session of the new Assembly is convened by the Assembly Speaker from the previous convocation. The first sitting of the National Assembly is chaired by the oldest deputy. They are assisted in their work by the youngest deputy from each of the four party lists that polled the largest number of seats, and by the Secretary of the Assembly


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: from the previous convocation. At the first sitting of the National Assembly, the President of the Assembly, Vice-Presidents, and the members of the working bodies of the National Assembly are elected and the Secretary of the National Assembly is appointed.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: The National Assembly is convoked for two regular sessions per year, starting on the first workdays of March and October. The Assembly is convoked for extraordinary session at the request of at least one-third of the deputies or the request of the Government, with previously determined agenda. The National Assembly can be convoked without an announcement upon the declaration of the state of war or emergency. The proposed agenda for a National Assembly sitting is prepared by the president. A quorum for the work of


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: the National Assembly exists if a minimum of one-third of deputies are present at the National Assembly sitting. The quorum for the work of the National Assembly on Voting Days exists if at least 126 deputies are present at the sitting.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: The right to propose laws, other regulations and general acts belongs to every deputy, the government, assemblies of autonomous provinces or at least 30,000 voters. The Ombudsman and National Bank of Serbia also have the right to propose laws falling within their competence. Upon the request of the majority of all deputies or at least 100,000 voters, the National Assembly may call a referendum on issues falling within its competence.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: The National Assembly adopts decisions by majority vote of deputies at the session at which the majority of deputies are present. The deputies vote “For” a motion, “Against” a motion, or abstain from voting.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: If the Assembly is in crisis, The President of the Republic may dissolve the National Assembly, upon an elaborated proposal of the government. The government may not propose dissolution of the Assembly if a proposal has been submitted to dismiss the Government. The National Assembly is also dissolved if it fails to elect the Government within 90 days from the day of its constitution. The National Assembly may not be dissolved during the state of war and emergency. The National Assembly, which has been dissolved, only performs current or urgent tasks. In case of declaration of the state of war or emergency, its full competence is re-established and lasts until the end of the state of war, that is, emergency.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: The Rules of Procedure of the National Assembly of Serbia regulate the organisation and work of the National Assembly and the manner in which the deputies’ rights and duties are exercised.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: Committees or boards ("odbor", ) are standing working bodies of the National Assembly established to consider and review issues falling within the purview of the National Assembly, to propose official documents, as well as to carry out reviews of policies pursued, and laws, by-laws and other regulations implemented by the Government, to be done by each Committee for the field that falls within its purview; and also to perform other duties foreseen by the Rules of Procedure. There are 30 standing Committees, and each Committee may, from its midst, appoint one or more sub-committees to consider certain issues from its purview.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: Before being considered by the National Assembly, a bill is considered by competent Committees and the Government, if it is not the submitter of the bill. In their opinion, the Committees and the Government may propose that the National Assembly accept or reject the bill.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: Parliamentary Groups nominate members for each Committee proportionally to the number of deputies they have at the National Assembly. The proposed candidate list for Committee members is voted on as a unit, by open voting.


title: National Assembly (Serbia)

text: The national assembly convenes in the House of the National Assembly building, located on Nikola Pašić Square in downtown Belgrade.


title: Lost Horizon

text: Lost Horizon is a 1933 novel by English writer James Hilton. The book was turned into a film, also called "Lost Horizon", in 1937 by director Frank Capra. It is best remembered as the origin of Shangri-La, a fictional utopian lamasery located high in the mountains of Tibet.


title: Lost Horizon

text: Hugh Conway, a veteran member of the British diplomatic service, finds inner peace, love and a sense of purpose in Shangri-La, whose inhabitants enjoy unheard-of longevity.


title: Lost Horizon

text: The prologue and epilogue are narrated by a neurologist. This neurologist and a novelist friend, Rutherford, are given dinner at Tempelhof, Berlin, by their old school-friend Wyland, a secretary at the British embassy. A chance remark by a passing airman brings up the topic of Hugh Conway, a British consul in Afghanistan, who disappeared under odd circumstances. Later in the evening, Rutherford reveals to the neurologist that, after the disappearance, he discovered Conway in a French mission hospital in Chung-Kiang (probably Chongqing), China, suffering from amnesia. Conway recovered his memory, told Rutherford his story (which Rutherford recorded in a manuscript), and then slipped away again.


title: Lost Horizon

text: In May 1931, during the British Raj in India, the 80 white residents of Baskul are being evacuated to Peshawar due to revolution. In the aeroplane of the Maharajah of Chandrapore are: Conway, the British consul, aged 37; Mallinson, his young vice-consul; an American, Barnard; and a British missionary, Miss Brinklow. The plane is hijacked and flown instead over the mountains to Tibet. After a crash landing, the pilot dies, but not before telling the four (in Chinese, which only Conway speaks) to seek shelter at the nearby lamasery of Shangri-La. The location is unclear, but Conway believes the plane has "progressed far beyond the western range of the Himalayas" towards the less known heights of the Kuen-Lun mountain range.


title: Lost Horizon

text: The four are taken there by a party directed by Chang, a postulant at the lamasery who speaks English. The lamasery has modern conveniences, like central heating, bathtubs from Akron, Ohio, a large library, a grand piano, a harpsichord, and food from the fertile valley below. Towering above is Karakal, literally translated as "Blue Moon," a mountain more than 28,000 feet high. Mallinson is keen to hire porters and leave, but Chang politely puts him off. The others eventually decide they are content to stay: Miss Brinklow because she wants to teach the people a sense of sin; Barnard because he is really Chalmers Bryant (wanted by the police for stock fraud) and because he is keen to develop the gold mines in the valley; and Conway because the contemplative scholarly life suits him.


title: Lost Horizon

text: A seemingly young Manchu woman, Lo-Tsen, is another postulant at the lamasery. She does not speak English, but plays the harpsichord. Mallinson falls in love with her, as does Conway, though more languidly. Conway is given an audience with the High Lama, an unheard-of honor. He learns that the lamasery was constructed in its present form by a Catholic monk named Perrault from Luxembourg, in the early eighteenth century. The lamasery has since then been joined by others who have found their way into the valley. Once they have done so, their aging slows; if they then leave the valley, they age quickly and die. Conway guesses correctly that the High Lama is Perrault, now 250 years old.


title: Lost Horizon

text: In a later audience, the High Lama reveals that he is finally dying, and that he wants Conway to lead the lamasery. The High Lama then dies. Conway contemplates the events.


title: Lost Horizon

text: Hours after the High Lama dies, Conway is outside still pondering the events while in the moonlight. Mallinson then grabs him by the arm and tells Conway he has arranged to leave the valley with porters and Lo-Tsen. Barnard and Brinklow have decided to stay. The porters and Lo-Tsen are waiting for him five kilometers outside the valley, but he cannot traverse the dangerous route alone, so he convinces Conway to go along and assist him. Conway is caught, divided between the two worlds. Ultimately, because of his love for the boy, he decides to join Mallinson. This ends Rutherford's manuscript.


title: Lost Horizon

text: The last time Rutherford saw Conway, it appeared he was preparing to make his way back to Shangri-La. Rutherford completes his account by telling the neurologist that he attempted to track Conway and verify some of his claims of Shangri-La. He found the Chung-Kiang doctor who had treated Conway. The doctor said Conway had been brought in by a Chinese woman, who was ill and died soon after. She was old, the doctor had told Rutherford, "Most old of anyone I have ever seen," implying that it was Lo-Tsen, aged drastically by her departure from Shangri-La. The narrator wonders whether Conway can find his way back to his lost paradise.


title: Lost Horizon

text: The book, published in 1933, caught the notice of the public only after Hilton's "Goodbye, Mr. Chips" was published in 1934. "Lost Horizon" became a huge popular success and in 1939 was published in paperback form, as Pocket Book #1. Because of its number-one position in what became a very long list of pocket editions, "Lost Horizon" is often mistakenly called the first American paperback book, when in fact paperbacks had been around since the mid-1800s. What made Pocket Book #1 of revolutionary importance was that it was the first "mass-market" paperback; mass market paperbacks allowed people of modest means not only to own books they otherwise could not afford, but also to slip the paperback into their pocket for casual reading on the go, hence the name "Pocket Book".


title: Lost Horizon

text: By the 1960s, Pocket Books alone, over the course of more than 40 printings, had sold several million copies of "Lost Horizon", helping to make it one of the most popular novels of the 20th Century.


title: Lost Horizon

text: United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt named the Presidential hideaway in Maryland after Shangri-La. (It has since been renamed Camp David.) In 1942, to ensure the safety of returning U.S. forces, Roosevelt answered a reporter's question about the origin of the Doolittle Raid by saying it had been launched from "Shangri-La". The true details of the raid were revealed to the public a year later. This inspired the naming of the Essex Class Aircraft Carrier USS "Shangri-La (CV-38)", commissioned in 1944.


title: Lost Horizon

text: "Lost Horizon’s" concept of Shangri-La has gone on to influence other quasi-Asian mystical locations in fiction including Marvel Comics’ K’un L’un and DC Comics’ Nanda Parbat.


title: Lost Horizon

text: "Lost Horizon" is currently available in paperback format and is now published by Summersdale Publishers Ltd , in the UK and by Harper Perennial, in the United States.


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: "Crazy" is a song written by Willie Nelson and popularized by country singer Patsy Cline in 1961. Nelson wrote the song while living in Houston, working for Pappy Daily's label D Records. He was also a radio DJ and performed in clubs. Nelson then moved to Nashville, Tennessee, working as a writer for Pamper Music. Through Hank Cochran, the song reached Patsy Cline. After her original recording and release, Cline's version reached number two on "Billboard's" Hot Country Singles, also crossing to the pop chart as a top 10 single.


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: Cline's version is considered a country music standard and, in 1996, became the all-time most played song in jukeboxes in the United States. "Crazy" was covered by many artists; different versions reached the charts in a variety of genres. The song was featured in television shows, while many publications have included it in their all-time best songs lists. The Library of Congress inducted Cline's version into the National Recording Registry in 2003.


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: In 1958, while performing around Fort Worth, Texas and working as a DJ hosting "The Western Express", Willie Nelson attracted the attention of Pappy Daily. Daily, a record producer from Houston, offered Nelson a recording contract with D Records as well as a job as a writer for Glad Music. Nelson moved to Houston, where he also searched for musical gigs in ballrooms and clubs. At the Esquire Ballroom, band leader Larry Butler told Nelson that he could not offer a musician job. In response, Nelson suggested he sell original songs that he played for Butler on a reel-to-reel tape recorder. Butler liked the songs, but refused to buy, instead offering Nelson a job working six nights a week with his band. Nelson and his family settled in Pasadena, Texas, where he became a DJ on radio station KRCT. Later, he also taught guitar.


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: Nelson used his commute from Pasadena to the Esquire Ballroom as writing time, because the ride usually took an hour that he used to develop new lyrics. Over one week, he wrote "Crazy", "Night Life", and "Funny How Time Slips Away". At the time, Nelson's mood was negatively affected by his lack of stable employment while supporting his wife and three children, since his three jobs did not provide enough income. On his long night commutes to clubs, he compared his situation with those of his contemporaries and felt that "the world was asleep". According to his autobiography "It's A Long Story: My Life", Nelson wondered if he were "Crazy" and completed the song as if he were a man whose relationship recently ended. Musician Sleepy LaBeef, who accompanied Nelson on upright bass on the song's demo recording, asserted that the songwriter had arrived in Houston with "Crazy" already written. Additionally, biographer Joe Nick Patoski noted that Nelson played "Crazy" for Butler along with the songs he planned to sell just as he arrived in the city. Nelson wrote "Crazy" in less than an hour, and originally titled it "Stupid". The intonation of the opening was inspired by Floyd Tillman's "I Gotta Have My Baby Back".


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: Nelson sold an original song, "Family Bible", which was then recorded by Claude Gray, whose version enjoyed success. But Nelson's employment situation remained unstable. He accumulated debt, while he often attended parties and drank to excess. In July 1960, Nelson was arrested for speeding and driving without a license. After several tardy incidents, he was fired by KRCT, then let go from a Pasadena club where he performed. Nelson then decided to move his wife and children to Waco, Texas, and, after the success of "Family Bible", moved to Nashville, Tennessee .


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: At first Nelson lived with Billy Walker, who found him an encyclopedia sales job. Walker also took him to different music publishers in town, and introduced Nelson as the writer of "Family Bible" to the artists and songwriters that frequented Tootsie's Orchid Lounge. Through steel guitarist Buddy Emmons, Nelson became acquainted with many "Grand Ole Opry" performers. The publishing house Pamper Music hired him after Faron Young's recording of "Hello Walls" and Billy Walker's of "Funny How Time Slips Away" succeeded.


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: In his book, "Willie: An Autobiography", Nelson recalled that it was hard to find artists interested in recording "Crazy" due to its use of several chords, instead of the standard three used for country music compositions at the time. Walker intended to record the song, and made a demo at Starday Records. Ultimately, the label decided to reject Walker's proposition since they felt that "Crazy" would not have commercial success.


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: Nelson's fellow Pamper Music song plugger and writer Hank Cochran played "Crazy" for Patsy Cline's producer Owen Bradley, who felt that the composition would be good for Cline. Cochran then told Walker about Bradley's interest in the song for Cline and asked him not to record it. In exchange, Cochran gave Walker "Charlie's Shoes".


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: Cline's husband Charlie Dick had previously taken her a demo of Nelson's "Night Life". Cline disliked the song, and she asked her husband not bring her any more of Nelson's songs, saying that she did not want to record compositions that embraced vulnerability or loss of love. The persistent Cochran drove Nelson to Cline's house with the demo of "Crazy". While Nelson waited in the car, Cochran played the song for Cline. Cline told Cochran to bring Nelson into the house, where he taught her to sing the song. Cline had difficulty following Nelson's phrasing because he sang behind the beat. An alternative account published by Nelson in his 2015 book "It's A Long Story: My Life" revealed that, while drinking with Dick at Tootsie's Orchid Lounge, Nelson played his demo of "Crazy" on the bar's jukebox. Dick thought the song was good, that his wife should record it, and offered to take Nelson to his home to play the demo for Cline. Because it was after midnight, Nelson decided to wait in the car as Dick played the song for Cline, and she later invited him in.


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: Bradley planned to record "Crazy" with the minor and major sevenths jazz chords favored by Nelson. For most of the song, the composition uses a B-flat key but ends in B major. Bradley decided to add the Jordanaires on background vocals, pianist Floyd Cramer, and bass guitarist Bob Moore. Floyd opened with a four-bar introduction, followed by brushing from drummer Buddy Harman. Moore was complemented by Harold Bradley's electric guitar, creating a tic-tac effect. The first four-hour recording session took place on August 21, 1961, at Quonset Hut Studio. Cline had recently been in a car accident that bruised her ribs and Owen Bradley had to end her participation because, in her pain, she could not reach the notes needed to match Nelson's phrasing. Bradley worked the arrangements with the musicians and recorded the music track for the song.


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: Bradley asked Cline to use her own rather than Nelson's singing style. After her ribs recovered three weeks later, Cline returned to record her vocal track; she accomplished it on the first take. During the session on September 15, 1961, Cline's vocal featured ascending and descending intervals and the use of broken chords. Cline learned to sing in the style needed for "Crazy" early in her life; she listened to and imitated big band and jazz performers that she heard on the radio. Following Nelson, Cline sang slightly behind the beat, but modified to fit her own unique style.


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: "Crazy" was released in October 1961 by Decca Records under catalog number 31317 with "Who Can I Count On" on the flip side. In November, "Crazy" was included on Cline's album "Showcase". After 11 weeks, the single peaked at number two on "Billboard's" Hot Country Singles and it crossed over to the pop charts reaching number 9 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, also attaining number two on "Billboard's" Easy Listening chart. With the success of "Crazy" and her previous single "I Fall to Pieces", Cline was named "Billboard's" Favorite Female Country Artist of 1961. In November 1961, Cline sang "Crazy" during a performance with the Grand Ole Opry cast at Carnegie Hall.


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: "Crazy" became Cline's most successful pop single, her signature song, and one of the country songs that generated the most royalties. Nelson dubbed Cline's his favorite version of his composition. He opined that her interpretation was done with "delicacy, soul, and perfect diction". Media outlets, including National Public Radio, "New Musical Express", and "American Songwriter" defined "Crazy" as a country music standard.


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: The recording was featured in the 1985 Cline biopic "Sweet Dreams". In 1989, the Amusement and Music Operators Association ranked "Crazy" number two on the all-time Top 40 Jukebox Singles on the United States list. By 1996, the updated list cited the song as the most played in jukeboxes. "Crazy" appeared on the UK Singles Chart in 1987 at number 79, and moved to number 14 in 1990. The next year, it peaked at number 14 on the Irish Singles Chart. In 2003, Cline's recording was inducted into the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress. The next year, it was ranked number 85 on "Rolling Stone"s list of 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In the 2021 version of the list, the magazine placed it at number 195. In 2018, it was included by "New Musical Express" on their "25 best country songs of all time" list, in 2019; "The Tennessean" listed it as one of the 100 best country songs of all time.


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: Nelson recorded his own version of "Crazy" for his 1962 debut album, "...And Then I Wrote". Nelson's original demo of "Crazy" was released on 2003's "". In 1977, Linda Ronstadt released a version as a single from her album "Hasten Down the Wind". Ronstadt's release reached number six on "Billboard's" Hot Country Songs chart. A version by Beverly D'Angelo was featured on the 1980 film "Coal Miner's Daughter".


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: In 1993, Canadian country music singer Colleen Peterson charted with her version of "Crazy" at number 29 on the "RPM" country music chart. Julio Iglesias' single release of the song appeared at number 43 on the UK Singles Chart in 1994. In 1998, a cover of "Crazy" by Kidneythieves was featured on the soundtrack of "Bride of Chucky". American singer LeAnn Rimes included "Crazy" on her 1999 album "LeAnn Rimes". It reached number 36 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Crazy (Willie Nelson song)

text: "Crazy" was twice featured in the TV series "Nashville": sung by Juliette Barnes in the 2014 episode "That's Me Without You", and by Barnes and Steven Tyler in a duet on the 2015 episode "Can't Let Go". Nelson recorded duets of the song with Mary Sarah (2014) and then with Carla Bruni (2017). In 2022, Heather Small performed a version of "Crazy" in series 3 of the British version of "The Masked Singer".


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: The Goodbye Girl is a 1977 American romantic comedy-drama film directed by Herbert Ross, written by Neil Simon and starring Richard Dreyfuss, Marsha Mason, Quinn Cummings and Paul Benedict. The film, produced by Ray Stark, centers on an odd trio of characters: a struggling actor who has sublet a Manhattan apartment from a friend, the current occupant (his friend's ex-girlfriend, who has just been abandoned), and her precocious young daughter.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: Richard Dreyfuss won the 1977 Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance as Elliot Garfield. At the time, he became the youngest man to win an Oscar for Best Actor. Both Mason and Cummings were nominated for Oscars.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: Dancer and divorcee Paula McFadden (Marsha Mason) and her ten-year-old daughter Lucy (Quinn Cummings) live in a Manhattan apartment with her married boyfriend, Tony DeForrest. Coming home from shopping, Paula finds Tony gone as he'd suddenly deserted her to travel to Italy for a film role. Prior to his departure (and unbeknownst to Paula), Tony sublet the apartment to Elliot Garfield (Richard Dreyfuss), a neurotic but sweet aspiring actor from Chicago, who shows up in the middle of the night expecting to move in. Paula, who is demanding, cynical, and neurotic, makes it clear from the start that she doesn't like Elliot, but reluctantly lets him move in. They argue about boundaries, with Elliot agreeing to allow Paula and Lucy to stay.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: Paula is struggling to get back into shape so she can resume her career as a dancer. Meanwhile, Elliot has landed the title role in an off-off-Broadway production of "Richard III", but the director, Mark (Paul Benedict), wants him to play the character as an exaggerated homosexual stereotype—in Mark's words, "the queen who wanted to be king." Reluctantly, Elliot agrees to the non-traditional portrayal, despite knowing that it may mean the end of his acting career. Theater critics from numerous New York City television stations and newspapers attend opening night and savage the show, paying special attention to trashing Elliot's performance. The play quickly closes, much to his relief.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: Despite their frequent clashes and Paula's lack of gratitude for Elliot's help, the two fall in love and sleep together. Lucy, despite liking Elliot, grows cautious and sees the affair as a repeat of what happened with Tony. Elliot convinces Paula that he won't be a repeat of their experience with Tony; later he picks up Lucy from school and takes her on a carriage ride, during which the youngster admits she likes Elliot. In response, Elliot explains how much he cares for Lucy and Paula and that he wouldn't do anything to hurt them.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: Elliot lands a job at an improvisational theatre, and is soon seen by a well-known film director. He is offered an opportunity for a film role that he cannot turn down, but the job is in Seattle and Elliot will be gone for four weeks. Paula is scared that Elliot is leaving her, never to return, like all the other men in her life. Later, Elliot calls Paula from the phone booth across the street to say his flight was delayed, and at the last minute, he invites Paula to go with him while he is filming, suggesting Lucy stay with Paula's friend Donna until they return. Paula declines but is encouraged by Elliot's invitation. Before hanging up, Elliot asks Paula to restring his prized guitar (which he deliberately left at the apartment), and she realizes this proves he really does love her and will indeed return.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: The film began as a screenplay called "Bogart Slept Here" (essentially the story of what happened to Dustin Hoffman after he became a star) that was to star Robert De Niro and Mason for Warner Bros. It would have been the film De Niro made immediately after "Taxi Driver". Mike Nichols was hired to direct.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: The basic idea of the story was that Marsha, an ex-dancer, was married to a very promising but struggling off-Broadway actor who gets discovered in a small play and is whisked out to Hollywood, where he reluctantly moves with his family. He feels very out of place there...and they have trouble adjusting, especially after his first film makes him an international star...and it creates chaos in their marriage. The story was coming out a little darker than I had imagined, but I envisioned the character of the wife as a very good role for Marsha.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: Filming began on "Bogart Slept Here" but it became apparent that De Niro wasn't right for the role. Simon recalled: "...it was clear that any of the humor I had written was going to get lost. It's not that De Niro is not funny, but his humor comes mostly from his nuances, a bemused expression on his face or the way he would look at a character, smile and then look up at the ceiling." Nichols insisted on recasting De Niro. Soon after, Nichols left the project.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: Dreyfuss was brought in to audition with Mason. At the end of the reading, Simon decided the chemistry was there, but the script needed work. He rewrote the screenplay in six weeks.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: [The screenplay] had to be funnier, more romantic, the way Marsha and I first imagined the picture would be. What I wanted to do was a prequel. In other words, instead of an off-Broadway actor, married with a child, why don't I start from the beginning? I'd start when they first meet. Not liking each other at first and then falling in love.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: The film's exteriors were filmed in New York City and the interiors were shot on sets in Los Angeles. Warner Bros. was less than enthused about Simon's script and considered selling the project to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, but the studio ultimately decided to partner with MGM on the film instead. With the 1996 acquisition of Turner Entertainment Company, which owned the pre-May 1986 MGM film library by Time Warner, Warner Bros. now owns the rights and distribution of the film.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: The title song, "Goodbye Girl", was written and performed by David Gates in 1978, and was a top 20 hit on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart that same year, peaking at #15.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: Roger Ebert gave the film a mostly favorable review, awarding three stars out of four. He was unimpressed with Mason's performance and the character as written, calling it "hardly ever sympathetic." However, he praised Dreyfuss and cited his "Richard III" scenes as "the funniest in a movie since Mel Brooks staged "Springtime for Hitler"." Ebert criticized the beginning as "awkward at times and never quite involving," but "enjoyed its conclusion so much that we almost forgot our earlier reservations." Gene Siskel awarded an identical three-star grade and said, "Make no mistake about it, the very best thing about 'The Goodbye Girl' is the character of Elliot Garfield as played by Dreyfuss, a character that comes very close to Dreyfuss' own self-and-profession centered lifestyle. But like Dreyfuss himself, Elliott Garfield, who initially comes off as [a] pushy, prickly type, ultimately wins you over." Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" found the film to be "exhausting without being much fun" and "relentlessly wisecracked." Charles Champlin of "The Los Angeles Times" lauded it as "the best and most blissfully satisfying romantic comedy of the year and then some." Arthur D. Murphy of "Variety" called the film "another feather in Herbert Ross' directorial cap," with Dreyfuss giving "his best screen performance to date." Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" wrote that the film "evolves into the most satisfying comedy Simon has written directly for the movies. One tolerates the plot mechanics for the sake of the genuinely amusing aspects of his script, the bright remarks and the distinctive or appealing character traits that provide good performers with live ammunition." Pauline Kael of "The New Yorker" was negative, commenting, "It's not Neil Simon's one-liners that get you down in "The Goodbye Girl", it's his two-liners. The snappiness of the exchanges is so forced it's almost macabre." David Ansen of "Newsweek" wrote, "It's pure formula, and Simon plays it straight, all cards on the table, with the conservative professionalism of a gambler used to winning. As directed by the ubiquitous Herbert Ross, "The Goodbye Girl" is a modest, bittersweet comedy that will delight Simon fans and leave his critics staunchly unconverted."


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: Richard Dreyfuss was 30 when he won the Academy Award for Best Actor, making him the youngest actor to ever to win the category. This record stood for 25 years until 2002 when Adrien Brody—just one month shy of his 30th birthday—won for "The Pianist".


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: There were three failed attempts to turn "The Goodbye Girl" into a half-hour, television sitcom, according to Lee Goldberg's book "Unsold Television Pilots." The first pilot, aired on NBC in May 1982 and titled "Goodbye Doesn't Mean Forever", starred Karen Valentine and Michael Lembeck, and was directed by James Burrows from a script by Allan Katz. The second, unaired pilot was produced a year later starring JoBeth Williams and was directed by Charlotte Brown from a script by Brown and Pat Nardo. The third pilot, which never aired, again starred Valentine and was directed by Jay Sandrich.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: "The Goodbye Girl" was developed into a 1993 Broadway musical of the same name starring Martin Short and Bernadette Peters.


title: The Goodbye Girl

text: The VHS format has been released several times over the years. MGM/UA Home Video released the 1993 and 1996 versions, while Warner Home Video released the 2000 version in addition to releasing the DVD version. A manufacture-on-demand Blu-ray format was released through Warner Archive Collection on November 8, 2016.


title: Monte Markham

text: Monte Markham (born June 21, 1935) is an American actor. He has appeared in films, television series and on Broadway.


title: Monte Markham

text: Markham was born in Manatee County, Florida, the son of Millie Content (née Willbur) and Jesse Edward Markham Sr., who was a merchant. He attended Palm Beach State College before graduating from the University of Georgia with a master's degree in theater. Markham also served 10 years as an officer in the United States Coast Guard during the Korean and Vietnam Wars.


title: Monte Markham

text: Markham played the dual roles of Luke and Ken Carpenter in the 1967–1968 ABC sitcom "The Second Hundred Years", and portrayed Harry Kellem in the original "Hawaii Five-O". In 1969–1970, he starred in the television series "Mr. Deeds Goes to Town", based on the 1936 movie of the same name.


title: Monte Markham

text: Markham had the title role in "The New Perry Mason" (1973–1974). He also had the role of the racing-car-driver-turned-cyborg "Barney Miller" in the second-season episode of "The Six Million Dollar Man" entitled "The Seven Million Dollar Man", which first aired 1 November 1974. On 9 November 1975, in the third-season episode "The Bionic Criminal", Markham reprised the role – although with the character's name changed to "Barney Hiller". The same year Markham also played the dual roles of Vince Barrett and Rick Hatfield in the "Barnaby Jones" episode "Doomed Alibi" and portrayed the criminally insane character Pike in the episode "Power Play" in the revival of "The Invisible Man".


title: Monte Markham

text: Markham appeared as Blanche Devereaux's brother Clayton Hollingsworth on the NBC sitcom "The Golden Girls", in two episodes. From 1989–1992, he played the role of Captain Don Thorpe, senior lifeguard on "Baywatch". He narrated several documentary series that appeared on the History Channel in the mid to late 1990s, including "The Great Ships", "Air Combat", and "Combat at Sea".


title: Monte Markham

text: One of his earliest stage experiences was at the Oregon Shakespeare Festival in the summer of 1961, where he played Horatio in "Hamle"t. Markham made his Broadway debut in 1973 in "Irene", for which he won the Theatre World Award. He also appeared on Broadway in "Same Time, Next Year" (1975).


title: Monte Markham

text: Markham's film work includes "Hour of the Gun", "Guns of the Magnificent Seven", "Midway", "Airport '77", and "We Are Still Here". He has served as a consultant, director, producer, and narrator for A&E's "Classroom", "The Great Ships" and "Air Combat" series.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Pascal's calculator (also known as the arithmetic machine or Pascaline) is a mechanical calculator invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642. Pascal was led to develop a calculator by the laborious arithmetical calculations required by his father's work as the supervisor of taxes in Rouen. He designed the machine to add and subtract two numbers directly and to perform multiplication and division through repeated addition or subtraction.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Pascal's calculator was especially successful in the design of its carry mechanism, which adds 1 to 9 on one dial, and carries 1 to the next dial when the first dial changes from 9 to 0. His innovation made each digit independent of the state of the others, enabling multiple carries to rapidly cascade from one digit to another regardless of the machine's capacity. Pascal was also the first to shrink and adapt for his purpose a lantern gear, used in turret clocks and water wheels. This innovation allowed the device to resist the strength of any operator input with very little added friction.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Pascal designed the machine in 1642. After 50 prototypes, he presented the device to the public in 1645, dedicating it to Pierre Séguier, then chancellor of France. Pascal built around twenty more machines during the next decade, many of which improved on his original design. In 1649, King Louis XIV of France gave Pascal a royal privilege (similar to a patent), which provided the exclusive right to design and manufacture calculating machines in France. Nine Pascal calculators presently exist; most are on display in European museums.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Many later calculators were either directly inspired by or shaped by the same historical influences which led to, Pascal's invention. Gottfried Leibniz invented his Leibniz wheels after 1671, after trying to add an automatic multiplication feature to the Pascaline. In 1820, Thomas de Colmar designed his arithmometer, the first mechanical calculator strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. It is not clear whether he ever saw Leibniz's device, but he either re-invented it or utilized Leibniz's invention of the step drum.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Blaise Pascal began to work on his calculator in 1642, when he was 18 years old. He had been assisting his father, who worked as a tax commissioner, and sought to produce a device which could reduce some of his workload. Pascal received a Royal Privilege in 1649 that granted him exclusive rights to make and sell calculating machines in France. This was a major influence on the next mechanical calculator design made by Tom Monaghan.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: By 1654 he had sold about twenty machines, only nine of those twenty machines are known to exist today, but the cost and complexity of the Pascaline was a barrier to further sales and production ceased in that year. By that time Pascal had moved on to the study of religion and philosophy, which gave us both the "Lettres provinciales" and the "Pensées".


title: Pascal's calculator

text: The tercentenary celebration of Pascal's invention of the mechanical calculator occurred during WWII when France was occupied by Germany and therefore the main celebration was held in London, England. Speeches given during the event highlighted Pascal's practical achievements when he was already known in the field of pure mathematics, and his creative imagination, along with how ahead of their time both the machine and its inventor were.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: The calculator had spoked metal wheel dials, with the digit 0 through 9 displayed around the circumference of each wheel. To input a digit, the user placed a stylus in the corresponding space between the spokes and turned the dial until a metal stop at the bottom was reached, similar to the way the rotary dial of a telephone is used. This displayed the number in the windows at the top of the calculator. Then, one simply redialed the second number to be added, causing the sum of both numbers to appear in the accumulator.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Each dial is associated with a one-digit display window located directly above it, which displays the value of the accumulator for this position. The complement of this digit, in the base of the wheel (6, 10, 12, 20), is displayed just above this digit. A horizontal bar hides either all the complement numbers when it is slid to the top, or all the direct numbers when it is slid toward the center of the machine. It thereby displays either the content of the accumulator or the complement of its value.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Since the gears of the calculator rotated in only one direction, negative numbers could not be directly summed. To subtract one number from another, the method of nine's complement was used. The only two differences between an addition and a subtraction are the position of the display bar (direct versus complement) and the way the first number is entered (direct versus complement).


title: Pascal's calculator

text: For a 10-digit wheel (N), the fixed outside wheel is numbered from 0 to 9 (N-1). The numbers are inscribed in a decreasing manner clockwise going from the bottom left to the bottom right of the stop lever. To add a 5, one must insert a stylus between the spokes that surround the number 5 and rotate the wheel clockwise all the way to the stop lever. The number displayed on the corresponding display register will be increased by 5 and, if a carry transfer takes place, the display register to the left of it will be increased by 1. To add 50, use the tens input wheel (second dial from the right on a decimal machine), to add 500, use the hundreds input wheel, etc...


title: Pascal's calculator

text: On all the wheels of all the known machines, except for the "machine tardive", two adjacent spokes are marked; these marks differ from machine to machine. On the wheel pictured on the right, they are drilled dots, on the surveying machine they are carved; some are just scratches or marks made with a bit of varnish, some were even marked with little pieces of paper.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: These marks are used to set the corresponding cylinder to its maximum number, ready to be re-zeroed. To do so, the operator inserts the stylus in between these two spokes and turns the wheel all the way to the stopping lever. This works because each wheel is directly linked to its corresponding display cylinder (it automatically turns by one during a carry operation). To mark the spokes during manufacturing, one can move the cylinder so that its highest number is displayed and then mark the spoke under the stopping lever and the one to the right of it.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Four of the known machines have inner wheels of complements, which were used to enter the first operand in a subtraction. They are mounted at the center of each spoked metal wheel and turn with it. The wheel displayed in the picture above has an inner wheel of complements, but the numbers written on it are barely visible. On a decimal machine, the digits 0 through 9 are carved clockwise, with each digit positioned between two spokes so that the operator can directly inscribe its value in the window of complements by positioning his stylus in between them and turning the wheel clockwise all the way to the stop lever. The marks on two adjacent spokes flank the digit 0 inscribed on this wheel.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: On four of the known machines, above each wheel, a small quotient wheel is mounted on the display bar. These quotient wheels, which are set by the operator, have numbers from 1 to 10 inscribed clockwise on their peripheries (even above a non-decimal wheel). Quotient wheels seem to have been used during a division to memorize the number of times the divisor was subtracted at each given index.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Pascal went through 50 prototypes before settling on his final design; we know that he started with some sort of calculating clock mechanism which apparently "works by springs and which has a very simple design", was used "many times" and remained in "operating order". Nevertheless, "while always improving on it" he found reason to try to make the whole system more reliable and robust. Eventually he adopted a component of very large clocks, shrinking and adapting for his purpose the robust gears that can be found in a turret clock mechanism called a lantern gear, itself derived from a water wheel mechanism. This could easily handle the strength of an operator input.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Pascal adapted a pawl and ratchet mechanism to his own turret wheel design; the pawl prevents the wheel from turning counterclockwise during an operator input, but it is also used to precisely position the display wheel and the carry mechanism for the next digit when it is pushed up and lands into its next position. Because of this mechanism, each number displayed is perfectly centered in the display window and each digit is precisely positioned for the next operation. This mechanism would be moved six times if the operator dialed a six on its associated input wheel.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: The sautoir is the centerpiece of the pascaline's carry mechanism. In his "", Pascal noted that a machine with 10,000 wheels would work as well as a machine with two wheels because each wheel is independent of the other. When it is time to propagate a carry, the sautoir, under the sole influence of gravity, is thrown toward the next wheel without any contact between the wheels. During its free fall the sautoir behaves like an acrobat jumping from one trapeze to the next without the trapezes touching each other ("sautoir" comes from the French verb "sauter", which means to jump). All the wheels (including gears and sautoir) have therefore the same size and weight independently of the capacity of the machine.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Pascal used gravity to arm the sautoirs. One must turn the wheel five steps from 4 to 9 in order to fully arm a sautoir, but the carry transfer will move the next wheel only one step. Thus, much extra energy is accumulated during the arming of a sautoir.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: All the sautoirs are armed by either an operator input or a carry forward. To re-zero a 10,000-wheel machine, if one existed, the operator would have to set every wheel to its maximum and then add a 1 to the "unit" wheel. The carry would turn every input wheel one by one in a very rapid Domino effect fashion and all the display registers would be reset.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: The Pascaline is a direct adding machine (it has no crank), so the value of a number is added to the accumulator as it is being dialed in. By moving a display bar, the operator can see either the number stored in the calculator or the complement of its value. Subtractions are performed like additions using some properties of 9's complement arithmetic.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: The 9's complement of any one-digit decimal number "d" is 9-"d". So the 9's complement of 4 is 5 and the 9's complement of 9 is 0. Similarly, the 11's complement of 3 is 8.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: In other words, the 9's complement of the difference of two numbers is equal to the sum of the 9's complement of the minuend added to the subtrahend. The same principle is valid and can be used with numbers composed of digits of various bases (base 6, 12, 20), like in the surveying or the accounting machines.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: The machine has to be re-zeroed before each new operation. To reset his machine, the operator has to set all the wheels to their maximum, using the marks on two adjacent spokes, and then add 1 to the rightmost wheel.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: The method of re-zeroing that Pascal chose, which propagates a carry right through the machine, is the most demanding task for a mechanical calculator and proves, before each operation, that the machine is fully functional. This is a testament to the quality of the Pascaline because none of the 18th century criticisms of the machine mentioned a problem with the carry mechanism and yet this feature was fully tested on all the machines, by their resets, all the time.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Additions are performed with the display bar moved closest to the edge of the machine, showing the direct value of the accumulator.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Subtractions are performed with the display bar moved closest to the center of the machine showing the complement value of the accumulator.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: The accumulator contains during the first step and after adding B. In displaying that data in the complement window, the operator sees which is A and then which is . It feels like an addition since the only two differences in between an addition and a subtraction are the position of the display bar (direct versus complement) and the way the first number is entered (direct versus complement).


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Pascalines came in both decimal and non-decimal varieties, both of which can be viewed in museums today. They were designed for use by scientists, accountants and surveyors. The simplest Pascaline had five dials; later variants had up to ten dials.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: The contemporary French currency system used "livres", "sols" and "deniers" with 20 "sols" to a "livre" and 12 "deniers" to a "sol". Length was measured in "toises", "pieds", "pouces" and "lignes" with 6 "pieds" to a "toise", 12 "pouces" to a "pied" and 12 "lignes" to a "pouce". Therefore, the pascaline needed wheels in base 6, 10, 12 and 20. Non-decimal wheels were always located before the decimal part.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: In an accounting machine (..10,10,20,12), the decimal part counted the number of "livres" (20 "sols"), "sols" (12 "deniers") and "deniers". In a surveyor's machine (..10,10,6,12,12), the decimal part counted the number of "toises" (6 "pieds"), "pieds" (12 "pouces"), "pouces" (12 "lignes") and "lignes".


title: Pascal's calculator

text: The metric system was adopted in France on December 10, 1799, by which time Pascal's basic design had inspired other craftsmen, although with a similar lack of commercial success.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Most of the machines that have survived the centuries are of the accounting type. Seven of them are in European museums, one belongs to the IBM corporation and one is in private hands.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Pascal planned to distribute the Pascaline broadly in order to reduce the workload for people who needed to perform laborious arithmetic. Drawing inspiration from his father, a tax commissioner, Pascal hoped to provide a shortcut to hours of number crunching performed by workers in professions such as mathematics, physics, astronomy, etc. But, because of the intricacies of the device, the relationship Pascal had with craftsmen, and the intellectual property laws he influenced, the production of the Pascaline was far more limited than he had envisioned. Only 20 Pascalines were produced over the 10 years following its creation.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: In 1649, King Louis XIV of France gave Pascal a royal privilege (a precursor to the patent), which provided the exclusive right to design and manufacture calculating machines in France, allowing the Pascaline to be the first calculator sold by a distributor. Pascal feared that craftsmen would not be able to accurately reproduce his Pascaline, which would result in false copies that would ruin his reputation along with the reputation of his machine. In 1645, in order to control the production of his invention, Pascal wrote to Monseigneur Le Chancelier (the chancellor of France, Pierre Séguier) in his letter entitled "La Machine d’arithmétique. Lettre dédicatoire à Monseigneur le Chancelier". Pascal requested that no Pascaline be made without his permission. His ingenuity garnered the respect of King Louis XIV of France who granted his request, but it came at a price; craftsmen were not able to legally experiment with Pascal's design, nor were they able to distribute his machine without his permission/guidance.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Pascal lived in France during France's Ancien Régime. During his time, craftsmen in Europe increasingly organised into guilds, such as the English clockmakers who formed the Clockmakers guild in 1631, half-way through Pascal's efforts to create the calculator. This affected Pascal’s ability to recruit talent as guilds often reduced the exchange of ideas and trade; sometimes, craftsmen would withhold their labour altogether to rebel against the nobles. Thus Pascal was in a market that had a scarcity of skills and willing workers. Importantly, artisans were not free as intellectuals to create the machine: Gottfried Leibniz, who built upon Pascal's calculator later in the 17th century, had the progress for his machine halted due to his artisan selling the machine's parts for financial solvency.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Pascal’s own conduct led to difficulty in recruiting artisans for his project. This was rooted by his belief that matters of the mind trumped those of the body. Pascal was not alone, as many natural philosophers of his time had a hylomorphic understanding of the inventing process: ideas precede materialisation, as form precedes matter. This naturally led to an emphasis on theoretical purity and an underappreciation for practical work. As Pascal described artisans: “[they] work through groping trial and error, that is, without certain measures and proportions regulated by art, produc[ing] nothing corresponding to what they had sought, or, what’s more, they make a little monster appear, that lacks its principal limbs, the others being deformed, lacking any proportion.”


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Pascal operated his project with this hierarchy in mind: he invented and thought, while the artisans simply executed. He hid the theory from artisans, instead promoting that they should simply remember what to do, not necessarily why they should do it, i.e., until "practice has made the rules of theory so common that [the rules] have finally been reduced into art”. This stemmed from his lack of faith in not only the artisanal work process, but in the artisans themselves: “artisans cannot regulate themselves to produce unified machines autonomously."


title: Pascal's calculator

text: In contrast, Samuel Morland, one of Pascal's contemporaries also working on creating a calculating machine, likely succeeded because of his ability to manage good relations with his craftsmen. Morland proudly attributed part of his invention to the artisans by name– an odd thing for a nobleman to do for a commoner at the time. Morland was able to recruit the best talent in Europe. His first craftsmen was the famous Peter Blondeau, who had already received protection and recognition from French statesman Richelieu for his contributions in producing coinage for England. Morland's other craftsmen were similarly accomplished: the third, Dutchman John Fromanteel, came a famous Dutch family who pioneered the pendulum clock.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: In the end, Pascal succeeded in cementing his name as the sole creator of the Pascaline. The royal patent states that it was his invention exclusively.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: In 1957, Franz Hammer, a biographer of Johannes Kepler, announced the discovery of two letters that Wilhelm Schickard had written to his friend Johannes Kepler in 1623 and 1624 which contain the drawings of a previously unknown working calculating clock, predating Pascal's work by twenty years. The 1624 letter stated that the first machine to be built by a professional had been destroyed in a fire during its construction and that he was abandoning his project. After careful examination it was found, in contradiction to Franz Hammer's understanding, that Schickard's drawings had been published at least once per century starting from 1718.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Bruno von Freytag Loringhoff, a mathematics professor at the University of Tübingen built the first replica of Schickard's machine but not without adding wheels and springs to finish the design. This detail is not described in Schickard's two surviving letters and drawings. A problem in the operation of the Schickard machine, based on the surviving notes, was found after the replicas were built. Schickard's machine used clock wheels which were made stronger and were therefore heavier, to prevent them from being damaged by the force of an operator input. Each digit used a display wheel, an input wheel and an intermediate wheel. During a carry transfer all these wheels meshed with the wheels of the digit receiving the carry. The cumulative friction and inertia of all these wheels could "...potentially damage the machine if a carry needed to be propagated through the digits, for example like adding 1 to a number like 9,999". The great innovation in Pascal's calculator was that it was designed so that each input wheel is totally independent from all the others and carries are propagated in sequence. Pascal chose, for his machine, a method of re-zeroing that propagates a carry right through the machine. It is the most demanding operation to execute for a mechanical calculator and proved, before each operation, that the carry mechanism of the Pascaline was fully functional. This could be taken as a testament to the quality of the Pascaline because none of the 18th century criticisms of the machine mentioned a problem with the carry mechanism and yet this feature was fully tested on all the machines, by their resets, all the time.


title: Pascal's calculator

text: Gottfried Leibniz started to work on his own calculator after Pascal's death. He first tried to build a machine that could multiply automatically while sitting on top of the Pascaline, assuming (wrongly) that all the dials on Pascal's calculator could be operated at the same time. Even though this could not be done, it was the first time that a pinwheel was described and used in the drawing of a calculator.