title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: On 19 August, the NRF reportedly attacked a Taliban checkpoint in the Darah District of Panjshir, resulting in 10 Taliban fighters killed according to the NRF.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: On 21 August, Abdul Qayyum Zakir was appointed as the military commander of Panjshir province. Long War Journal notes that Zakir appointment to lead the fight against National Resistance Front (NRF) in Panjshir and the district of Andarab is a clear indication that the NRF is challenging the Taliban's primacy in central and northern Afghanistan. At the same time, several local sources had reported that the Taliban had converted 32 schools across Panjshir into military bases, likely as a result of the increased clashes in Panjshir. On the same day, the NRF claimed that 7 Taliban members were killed and 5 others wounded as a result of a Taliban convoy hitting a roadside mine in the Rukha district of Panjshir.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: On 6 September 2022, the Taliban mobilized 500 fighters from Herat to be deployed in Panjshir. Young people in Jowzjan were paid by the Taliban to fight against the NRF.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: On 10 September, there were gunfights between NRF and Taliban forces in Hesarak, Parian, Abshar, Dara and Hessa I districts. Taliban forces in Paryan have told villagers to leave.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: On 14 September, the Taliban claimed to have killed 40 rebels during an anti-insurgency operation in the province.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: In mid-September, a video was released by Taliban militants showing the execution of at least 27 men, allegedly captured rebels somewhere in Panjshir. Afghan Witness (AW) - an open-source project based in the United Kingdom opened an investigation into the mass execution.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: On 21 September, a Taliban attack on an anti-Taliban base in Yakawlang district of Bamyan and Balkhab was repulsed by fighters under Mohammad Tahir Zahir with reports of four Taliban fighters wounded.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: As of 23 August 2021, there was no public support for the resistance from the international community. At the start of the conflict, the US and other potential allies were focused on the concurrent Kabul airlift, which required the Taliban's cooperation. Massoud's op-ed in "The Washington Post" requesting Western support may be evidence of a lack of enthusiasm (for the resistance) in the US government.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: On 21 August, former Indian Chief of the Army Staff Shankar Roychowdhury said that the Government of India must reach out to Panjshir-based resistance forces alongside Taliban factions that may be friendly to India.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: On 25 August 2021, Bilal Y. Saab, an ex-Pentagon senior advisor, and Mick Mulroy, former Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for the Middle East, Marine veteran and ex-CIA Special Activities Center operator, argued in a Time editorial that Washington, D.C. should provide support in Afghanistan by allowing the CIA to station its officers with counterterrorism responsibilities to secretly assist anti-Taliban resistance groups. U.S. senator Lindsey Graham and representative Michael Waltz advocate for giving NRF support so that they can hold their ground against the Taliban after they captured Kabul.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: On 27 August, Tajiks from Kulob, Tajikistan have volunteered to prepare to fight against the Taliban, despite warnings from Tajik officials that it can be deemed illegal. In an interview on 2 September, Erika Simpson, president of the Canadian Peace Research Association, said that it was potentially risky for a country to publicly support the resistance from inside Afghanistan and suggested that it was better to support anti-Taliban resistance groups based overseas.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: On 6 September, Iran's Foreign Ministry spokesman Saeed Khatibzadeh strongly condemned the Taliban assault on the Panjshir Valley. On 10 September, a road named Panjshir Alley in Tehran was officially named and approved by the Tehran City Council.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: In mid-September 2021, in a move aimed at increasing inclusivity in the Taliban government, 20 EP members filed a motion to invite NRF leader Ahmad Massoud to address the European Council and the EP, just as his father did 20 years earlier.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: Following the death of Fahim Dashti, a journalist with the Afghanistan National Journalists Union and spokesperson for the National Resistance Front, officials from the NRF accused Pakistan of aiding the Taliban and stated that Dashti had died in a drone strike carried out by the Pakistan Air Force. The former parliamentary representative of Samangan Province, Zia Arianjad reiterated the claim to the Iranian "Aamaj News", stating that PAF was assisting the Taliban in Panjshir with drone strikes using smart bombs. According to defense analyst Babak Taghvaee, Pakistan was using CH-4 drones to assist the Taliban in Panjshir. Faiz Hameed, the head of the Inter-Services Intelligence, the military intelligence agency of Pakistan, had visited Kabul prior to Dashti's death, to assist the Taliban in reorganising the Afghan military according to a senior Pakistani official.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: Tajuden Soroush, a correspondent with Iran International, stated that Kamaluddin Nezami, the governor of Panjshir, had told him that drones were used to target the resistance on several occasions. Fox News reported that a CENTCOM source had identified Pakistani special forces accompanied with drone strikes were assisting the Taliban. Republican Congressman Adam Kinzinger stated that if the report were confirmed then the United States should sanction Pakistan for creating and protecting the Taliban. According to the Austrian public broadcaster "Österreichischer Rundfunk", the reports are unconfirmed. The Taliban denied the claim that Dashti had died in a drone strike, and the Pakistani Foreign Office has rejected the reports that allege Pakistani involvement in Panjshir.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: Shortly after the fall of Kabul, journalists Carlotta Gall and Adam Nossiter wrote in "The New York Times" that the international community would be in a bind if they showed some form of support for the resistance because of the airlift operations that were then ongoing. Abdul Matin Beyk suggested that other anti-Taliban forces were waiting to see if the Panjshir-based fighters would either resist to the end or keep considering negotiations with Taliban representatives. He suggested that their successes could inspire others to do the same.


title: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

text: Analysts Bill Roggio and Andrew Tobin speculated that the eventual success of the Taliban offensive against the Panjshir Valley in early September 2021 might have been related to the previous attempts of the NRF to expand into neighbouring districts. Accordingly, the NRF would have been overextended and had not prepared its defences well enough.


Roadrunner: A Film About Anthony Bourdain is a 2021 American documentary film directed and produced by Morgan Neville. The film had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival on June 11, 2021, and was released in the United States on July 16, 2021, by Focus Features. The film grossed $5.5 million at the box office and received critical acclaim, but also garnered controversy over its use of artificial intelligence technology to reproduce Bourdain's voice for some audio clips.


title: Roadrunner: A Film About Anthony Bourdain

text: The film follows the life and career of chef, author, and travel documentarian Anthony Bourdain, who died by suicide on June 8, 2018, at the age of 61 while on location in France for his CNN show "Parts Unknown". The documentary features interviews with David Chang and Éric Ripert, as well as members of the production crew from "Parts Unknown." The title alludes to "Roadrunner", a song by The Modern Lovers, that appears in the film.


text: The documentary is a blend of archival footage and new interviews with Bourdain's friends, family, and coworkers. It covers Bourdain's rise from chef, to best selling author of the memoir "Kitchen Confidential", to a world famous television presenter of food and travel shows.


text: As Bourdain traveled the globe, he developed a greater awareness of the hardships many people face in war zones, disaster areas, developing countries, and least developed countries. Director and producer Tom Vitale remembers the most difficult trip was to the Democratic Republic of the Congo during the first season of "".


text: Bourdain is remembered by those who knew him as charismatic and hardworking, yet also prone to moodiness and obsessive behavior. His frequent travel for work led to the end of both his marriages, first to Nancy Putkoski and then Ottavia Busia. His career also kept him from being a regular presence in the life of his daughter, Ariane Busia-Bourdain. David Chang, a friend and fellow chef, recalls how Bourdain hid his dark side behind a happy façade. Chang believes Bourdain never fully addressed personal issues that led to a past heroin addiction. Friend, artist, and fellow addict, David Choe, theorizes that Bourdain replaced heroin with a work addiction.


text: After Bourdain's marriage to Busia ended, his mental health declined. He questioned what his life's direction should be, and joked more frequently about death. He began dating actress Asia Argento, and threw himself entirely into the relationship. His insistence that Argento be a guest director on "Parts Unknown" alienated long-time crew members. Busia recalls that Bourdain distanced himself from her and Ariane. Chang was especially hurt when Bourdain claimed Chang would never be a good father. When Argento revealed that she had been raped by Harvey Weinstein, Bourdain supported the MeToo movement nearly to the point of militancy. "Parts Unknown" director, Morgan Fallon, thinks Argento may have pulled away from the relationship due to Bourdain's intense personality.


text: While filming in Alsace, France, Bourdain was distraught over a tabloid story about Argento being seen with another man. Bourdain died by suicide after hanging himself in his hotel room. The public turned Les Halles, a restaurant where Bourdain formerly worked, into a shrine of notes and flowers. Bourdain's friends, family, and coworkers reflect on their personal reactions to his suicide and their lingering grief. Choe defaces a mural of Bourdain because he believes Bourdain would have loved the act of rebellion.


text: In October 2019, it was announced Morgan Neville would direct and produce a documentary film about Anthony Bourdain, with Focus Features set to distribute, while CNN Films and HBO Max would produce.


text: The film had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival on June 11, 2021. It was released on July 16, 2021, by Focus Features, after which it will air on CNN and HBO Max on an unspecified date. It is currently available to view on Apple TV and Amazon Prime's online video streaming services. CNN aired the documentary on April 10, 2022.


text: The film debuted to $1.9 million from 927 theaters, finishing eighth at the box office and marking the best opening for both an indie film and documentary of 2021. In its second weekend the film was leading in the specialty box office with $873,000.


text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 91% based on 147 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8/10. The website's critics' consensus reads, "An emotionally raw and respectful portrait of Anthony Bourdain, "Roadrunner" marks another unflinchingly honest documentary from director Morgan Neville." On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 78 out of 100 based on 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews." Audiences surveyed by PostTrak gave the film a 94% positive score, with 61% saying they would definitely recommend it.


text: Writing for "Variety", Owen Gleiberman described the film as "an intimate and fascinating portrait of the beloved celebrity chef and television globe-trotter" and "a spiritual investigation into why [Bourdain's] life ended". He concluded: "Bourdain’s death was a tragedy, but "Roadrunner" suggests it was a tragedy with a touch of destiny." Richard Roeper, writing for the "Chicago Sun-Times", gave the film a score of 3.5 stars out of 4 and said that the film is an "insightful and exhilarating and profound and sometimes deeply sad documentary".


text: Daniel Fienberg, writing for "The Hollywood Reporter", described the film as being "an intensely painful documentary, one closer to the center of a raw, thoroughly unhealed, and yet very public, wound than I think I’ve ever seen before", concluding: "I’m much more comfortable with "Roadrunner" as a portrait of an evolving, complicated, tragic TV personality … than I am with it as an attempt to make sense of a man who, for whatever reason, no longer wanted to continue living."


text: Writing for "RogerEbert.com", Brian Tallerico gave the film a score of 3.5 stars out of 4, saying that the film is "a fascinating, moving documentary that transcends mere profile piece to reclaim a legacy, and it’s as inspirational as its subject" and that it "never feels like it’s invading the privacy of a very public figure, revealing how much can be learned about the man and why he mattered largely through what he chose to show us, not through some sort of series of personal revelations", but added that "Neville ... does seem to step back during the darker final year of Bourdain's life." Tallerico concluded: "The best thing I can say about “Roadrunner” is that it has the same impact of Bourdain’s best work. ... It may be a story about a tragic death but it is as life-affirming as anything I’ve seen this year."


text: Writing for "Collider", Matt Goldberg was more critical of the film, giving it a grade of C- and saying: "as the movie nears its conclusion, Neville makes the horrendous mistake of trying to "answer" Bourdain’s suicide when there’s no answer to be found, nor would finding an answer make any difference", adding that the film "no longer feels like an attempt to understand a complex individual, but rather an attempt from production company CNN Films to salvage a successful CNN show from a narrative it couldn’t handle." He concluded: "There are some moments of insight, and it’s nice to have his loved ones sing the praises of a man who was widely admired, but in its worst moments, "Roadrunner" feels like a network’s spin for its valuable travel shows rather than an honest attempt to grapple with a difficult legacy."


text: Upon the film's wide release, director Morgan Neville stated in an interview with "New Yorker" writer Helen Rosner that he had hired a software company to create an artificial intelligence (AI) model of Bourdain's voice so that the film could emulate him reciting words that he had written, but for which no recordings of him speaking exist, such as an email he had written to friend David Choe. Neville said there were two other such uses of the technology in the film, but refused to specify what they were, stating, "If you watch the film [...] you probably don’t know what the other lines are that were spoken by the A.I., and you’re not going to know. We can have a documentary-ethics panel about it later."


text: The disclosure of the film's use of AI technology, which had not been mentioned prior to the interview or acknowledged within the film itself, caused controversy, with critics saying that it constituted unethical behavior. Neville defended his decision, saying, "There were a few sentences that Tony wrote that he never spoke aloud. With the blessing of his estate and literary agent we used AI technology. It was a modern storytelling technique that I used in a few places where I thought it was important to make Tony’s words come alive." Ottavia Busia, Bourdain's ex-wife and executor of his estate, denied that she had been consulted about the use of AI to reproduce Bourdain's voice, tweeting: "I certainly was NOT the one who said Tony would have been cool with that."


text: Filmmaker and journalist Adam Benzine described Neville's remark about "hav[ing] a documentary-ethics panel about it later" as being "as much problematic as the use of the technology", and added: "But the fact that he discussed it as an ethical debate seems to suggest that he himself knew that he was in dicey territory. And I think that’s why so many people in the doc industry have had a hostile reaction to this." Filmmaker Alan Barker, who has lectured on documentary ethics, described the issue of the film's use of AI as being indicative of greater ethical concerns in the documentary field, saying: "There is an unwritten social contract that documentaries are actualities not contrivances. The Bourdain case is especially bad because so much of the information in a voice recording is non-verbal. That Morgan apparently concealed the fakery until confronted by a reporter makes it far worse."


text: David Leslie, ethics lead of the Alan Turing Institute, said that the issue showed the importance of disclosing the use of AI in a film to the audience to avoid the possibility of people feeling deceived, but added that the use of AI in documentaries should not be ruled out, saying: "In a world where the living could consent to using AI to reproduce their voices posthumously, and where people were made aware that such a technology was being used, up front and in advance, one could envision that this kind of application might serve useful documentary purposes".


text: On July 17, Rosner revealed that Neville wrote to her that the idea to use AI "was part of [his] initial pitch of having Tony narrate the film posthumously á la "Sunset Boulevard" — one of Tony’s favorite films and one he had even reenacted himself on "Cook’s Tour"", adding: "I didn’t mean to imply that Ottavia thought Tony would’ve liked it. All I know is that nobody ever expressed any reservations to me." Rosner also revealed that Busia had told her via email that she did recall Neville bringing up the idea of using AI, but didn't realize that it had been used. Busia wrote to Rosner: "I do believe Morgan thought he had everyone’s blessing to go ahead. I took the decision to remove myself from the process early on because it was just too painful for me."


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: Distribution (or place) is one of the four elements of the marketing mix. Distribution is the process of making a product or service available for the consumer or business user who needs it. This can be done directly by the producer or service provider or using indirect channels with distributors or intermediaries. The other three elements of the marketing mix are product, pricing, and promotion.


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: Decisions about distribution need to be taken in line with a company's overall strategic vision and mission. Developing a coherent distribution plan is a central component of strategic planning. At the strategic level, there are three broad approaches to distribution, namely mass, selective and exclusive distribution. The number and type of intermediaries selected largely depend on the strategic approach. The overall distribution channel should add value to the consumer.


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: Distribution is fundamentally concerned with ensuring that products reach target customers in the most direct and cost-efficient manner. In the case of services, distribution is principally concerned with access. Although distribution, as a concept, is relatively simple, in practice distribution management may involve a diverse range of activities and disciplines including detailed logistics, transportation, warehousing, storage, inventory management as well as channel management including selection of channel members and rewarding distributors.


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: Prior to designing a distribution system, the planner needs to determine what the distribution channel is to achieve in broad terms. The overall approach to distributing products or services depends on a number of factors including the type of product, especially perishability; the market served; the geographic scope of operations and the firm's overall mission and vision. The process of setting out a broad statement of the aims and objectives of a distribution channel is a strategic level decision.


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: In consumer markets, another key strategic level decision is whether to use a push or pull strategy. In a "push strategy", the marketer uses intensive advertising and incentives aimed at distributors, especially retailers and wholesalers, with the expectation that they will stock the product or brand, and that consumers will purchase it when they see it in stores. In contrast, in a "pull strategy", the marketer promotes the product directly to consumers hoping that they will pressure retailers to stock the product or brand, thereby pulling it through the distribution channel. The choice of a push or pull strategy has important implications for advertising and promotion. In a push strategy, the promotional mix would consist of trade advertising and sales calls while the advertising media would normally be weighted towards trade magazines, exhibitions, and trade shows while a pull strategy would make more extensive use of consumer advertising and sales promotions while the media mix would be weighted towards mass-market media such as newspapers, magazines, television, and radio.


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: Distribution of products takes place by means of a marketing channel, also known as a distribution channel. A marketing channel is the people, organizations, and activities necessary to transfer the ownership of goods from the point of production to the point of consumption. It is the way products get to the end-user, the consumer. This is mostly accomplished through merchant retailers or wholesalers or, in the international context, by importers. In certain specialist markets, agents or brokers may become involved in the marketing channel.


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: A firm can design any number of channels they require to reach customers efficiently and effectively. Channels can be distinguished by the number of intermediaries between producer and consumer. If there are no intermediaries then this is known as a "zero-level" distribution system or direct marketing. A "level one" (sometimes called "one-tier") channel has a single intermediary. A "level two" (alternatively a "two-tier") channel has two intermediaries, and so on. This flow is typically represented as being manufacturer to retailer to consumer, but may involve other types of intermediaries. In practice, distribution systems for perishable goods tend to be shorter - direct or single intermediary, because of the need to reduce the time a product spends in transit or in storage. In other cases, distribution systems can become quite complex involving many levels and different types of intermediaries.


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: In practice, many organizations use a mix of different channels; a direct sales force may call on larger customers. This may be complemented with other agents to cover smaller customers and prospects. When a single organization uses a variety of different channels to reach its markets, this is known as a "multi-channel" distribution network. In addition, online retailing or e-commerce is leading to disintermediation, the removal of intermediaries from a supply chain. Retailing via smartphone or m-commerce is also a growth area.


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: The firm's marketing department needs to design the most suitable channels for the firm's products, then select appropriate channel members or intermediaries. An organization may need to train staff of intermediaries and motivate the intermediary to sell the firm's products. The firm should monitor the channel's performance over time and modify the channel to enhance performance.


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: To motivate intermediaries the firm can use positive actions, such as offering higher margins to the intermediary, special deals, premiums and allowances for advertising or display. On the other hand, negative actions may be necessary, such as threatening to cut back on margin, or hold back delivery of product. Care must be exercised when considering negative actions as these may fall foul of regulations and can contribute to a public backlash and a public relations disaster.


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: Channel conflict can arise when one intermediary's actions prevent another intermediary from achieving their objectives. Vertical channel conflict occurs between the levels within a channel, and horizontal channel conflict occurs between intermediaries at the same level within a channel. Channel conflict is a perennial problem. There are risks that a powerful channel member may coordinate the interests of the channel for personal gain.


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: Channel-switching (not to be confused with zapping or channel surfing on TV) is the action of consumers switching from one type of channel intermediary to a different type of intermediary for their purchases. Examples include switching from brick-and-mortar stores to online catalogues and e-commerce providers; switching from grocery stores to convenience stores or switching from top tier department stores to mass market discount outlets. A number of factors have led to an increase in channel switching behaviour; the growth of e-commerce, the globalization of markets, the advent of Category killers (such as Officeworks and Kids 'R Us) as well as changes in the legal or statutory environment. For instance, in Australia and New Zealand, following a relaxation of laws prohibiting supermarkets from selling therapeutic goods, consumers are gradually switching away from pharmacies and towards supermarkets for the purchase of minor analgesics, cough and cold preparations and complementary medicines such as vitamins and herbal remedies.


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: For the consumer, channel switching offers a more diverse shopping experience. However, marketers need to be alert to channel switching because of its potential to erode market share. Evidence of channel switching can suggest that disruptive forces are at play, and that consumer behaviour is undergoing fundamental changes. A consumer may be prompted to switch channels when the product or service can be found at cheaper prices, when superior models become available, when a wider range is offered, or simply because it is more convenient to shop through a different channel (e.g. online or one-stop shopping). As a hedge against market share losses due to switching behaviour, some retailers engage in multi-channel retailing.


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: The emergence of a service-dominant logic perspective has focused scholarly attention on how distribution networks serve to create customer value and to consider how value is co-created by all the players within the distribution chain, including the value created by customers themselves. This emphasis on value-creation is contributing to a change in terminology surrounding distribution processes; "distribution networks" are often termed "value-chains" while "distribution centers" are often termed "customer fulfillment centers." For example, the retail giant Amazon, which utilizes both direct online distribution alongside bricks and mortar stores, now calls its distribution centers "customer fulfillment centers". Although the term, "customer fulfillment center" has been criticized on the grounds that it is a neologism, its use is becoming increasingly mainstream as it slowly makes its way into introductory marketing textbooks.


title: Distribution (marketing)

text: Disintermediation occurs when manufacturers or service providers eliminate intermediaries from the distribution network and deal directly with purchasers. Disintermediation is found in industries where radically new types of channel intermediaries displace traditional distributors. The widespread public acceptance of online shopping has been a major trigger for disintermediation in some industries. Certain types of traditional intermediaries are dropping by the wayside.


title: Larry LaLonde

text: Reid Laurence "Larry" LaLonde (born September 12, 1968), also known as Ler LaLonde, is an American musician best known as the guitarist for Primus, a position that he has served since 1989, where he is known for his experimental accompaniment to the bass playing of bandmate Les Claypool. Previously, he played guitar for the groups Possessed, Blind Illusion, No Forcefield, and the Frank Zappa tribute band "Caca". He also has collaborated more recently with artists such as Serj Tankian and Tom Waits.


title: Larry LaLonde

text: LaLonde was born in Oakland, California. Originally inspired by guitarists such as Frank Zappa, Snakefinger, East Bay Ray, Jerry Garcia, Jimi Hendrix, and his teacher Joe Satriani, LaLonde eventually became interested in early thrash metal bands such as Metallica and Slayer. LaLonde formed his first band in high school, a speed metal band called Blizzard. LaLonde left the band later on to join the first generation death metal band Possessed. Possessed's landmark first album, ""Seven Churches"", was released in 1985 when LaLonde was just 17 years old.


title: Larry LaLonde

text: After Seven Churches, Possessed released the "Beyond the Gates" album and the "The Eyes of Horror" EP before breaking up in 1987. LaLonde then joined experimental thrash metal band Blind Illusion, appearing on the 1988 album "The Sane Asylum", through which he became friends with bassist Les Claypool. At around the same time LaLonde was also a member of Corrupted Morals, with whom he recorded the album "Cheese-It", released the following year. At the start of 1989, LaLonde left Blind Illusion and Corrupted Morals when Claypool invited him to reform the funk metal outfit Primus, which had been on hiatus since original guitarist Todd Huth left the previous year.


title: Larry LaLonde

text: With LaLonde on board, together with drummer Tim Alexander, Primus released their first album, the live "Suck on This", in 1989, followed by the studio album "Frizzle Fry" in 1990. In 1991, came their major label debut "Sailing the Seas of Cheese". The band's next studio album, "Pork Soda", arrived in 1993 and landed in the Billboard Top 10. "Tales from the Punchbowl" followed in 1995, featuring one of Primus's most well-known songs, the single "Wynona's Big Brown Beaver," which was nominated for the 1996 Grammy for "Best Hard Rock Performance." Alexander left Primus in 1996 to be replaced by Bryan Mantia, and the group released two more albums, "Brown Album" in 1997 and "Antipop" in 1999, before going on hiatus in 2000.


title: Larry LaLonde

text: In 2002, Primus returned from their hiatus with Claypool and LaLonde reuniting with Alexander, releasing the DVD/EP "Animals Should Not Try to Act Like People" in 2003 and the "Hallucino-Genetics" live DVD in 2004. On October 17, 2006, Primus released both their first greatest hits CD "They Can't All Be Zingers" and their third DVD "Blame It on the Fish: An Abstract Look at the 2003 Primus Tour de Fromage."


title: Larry LaLonde

text: In 2010, early Primus drummer Jay Lane rejoined the group, and they released the free "June 2010 Rehearsal" digital EP. A new album, titled "Green Naugahyde", was released on September 13, 2011.


title: Larry LaLonde

text: Interviewed by Zorak, LaLonde guest-starred in the live-action/animated talk show "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" on Cartoon Network.


title: Larry LaLonde

text: During the Primus hiatus, LaLonde formed the experimental alternative band No Forcefield with Bryan Mantia, releasing two albums between 2000 and 2002.


title: Larry LaLonde

text: In 2007 and 2008, LaLonde toured with Serj Tankian and the F.C.C. in support of the album "Elect the Dead". Two live tracks featuring LaLonde were later released on the digital EP "Lie Lie Live". Throughout 2011, he recorded several tracks for the 2012 game Twisted Metal.


title: Larry LaLonde

text: Known for his technical proficiency as a guitar player, LaLonde uses many advanced guitar techniques such as pinch harmonics, sweep picking, pick tapping, volume swells and tapping, as well as other extended techniques in his music. His influences include funk, world music, heavy metal and film music. Melodically his playing makes heavy use of tritone intervals, the whole tone scale and the diminished scale, helping establish Primus’ hard, dissonant, dark sound.


title: Larry LaLonde

text: In addition to being Primus' guitar player, LaLonde is also an avid skateboarder. He was the skater who knocked the nachos out of Bob Cock's hand in the music video for "Jerry Was a Race Car Driver".


title: Zhangjiajie National Forest Park

text: Zhangjiajie National Forest Park () is a national forest park located in Zhangjiajie, Hunan Province, China. It is one of several national parks within the Wulingyuan Scenic Area.


title: Zhangjiajie National Forest Park

text: In 1982, the park was recognized as China's first national forest park with an area of . Zhangjiajie National Forest Park is part of a much larger Wulingyuan Scenic Area. In 1992, Wulingyuan was officially recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It was then approved by the Ministry of Land and Resources as Zhangjiajie Sandstone Peak Forest National Geopark () in 2001. In 2004, Zhangjiajie geopark was listed as a UNESCO global geopark.


title: Zhangjiajie National Forest Park

text: The most notable geographic features of the park are the pillar-like formations that are seen throughout the park. Although resembling karst terrain, this area is not underlain by limestones and is not the product of chemical dissolution, which is characteristic of limestone karst. They are the result of many years of physical, rather than chemical, erosion. Much of the weathering that forms these pillars is the result of expanding ice in the winter and the plants that grow on them. The weather is moist year-round, and as a result, the foliage is very dense. The weathered material is carried away primarily by streams. These formations are a distinct hallmark of the Chinese landscape, and can be found in many ancient Chinese paintings.


title: Zhangjiajie National Forest Park

text: One of the park's quartz-sandstone pillars, the Southern Sky Column, was officially renamed "Avatar Hallelujah Mountain" () in honor of the movie "Avatar" in January 2010. The film's director and production designers said that they drew inspiration for the floating rocks from mountains from around the world, including those in Hunan province.


title: Zhangjiajie National Forest Park

text: The Bailong Elevator, literally "hundred dragons sky lift", was opened to the public in 2002. At , it is the world's tallest outdoor lift. It can transport visitors to the top from its foot in less than two minutes. The structure is composed of three separate glass elevators, each of which can carry up to 50 people at a time.


title: Zhangjiajie National Forest Park

text: In August 2016, Zhangjiajie Grand Canyon opened the Zhangjiajie Grand Canyon Glass Bridge, the longest () and highest () pedestrian glass bridge in the world. Thirteen days after opening, the bridge was closed due to the sheer number of visitors. On 30 September 2016, the bridge reopened after adjustments to its logistics and safety measures for handling a large number of tourists.


title: Zhangjiajie National Forest Park

text: There are three gondola lift systems within the park. The Tianzi Mountain Cable Car, Yangjiajie cable car and Huangshizhai cable car.


title: Jamie T

text: Jamie Alexander Treays (born 8 January 1986), better known by his stage name Jamie T, is an English singer, songwriter, rapper, guitarist and record producer from Wimbledon, South London.


title: Jamie T

text: Jamie T released his debut album, "Panic Prevention", in 2007, with his second studio album, "Kings and Queens", arriving in 2009. In 2014, Jamie released his third studio album, "Carry on the Grudge", followed by a fourth studio album, "Trick", in 2016. In 2018, he released "B Sides (06-17)", which was a compilation album of B-Sides from 2006 to 2017. He released his fifth studio album, "The Theory of Whatever", in July 2022.


title: Jamie T

text: Jamie T was born Jamie Alexander Treays in Wimbledon, South London on 8 January 1986. He was educated at Reed's School leaving at 16 to study at a local sixth form college.


title: Jamie T

text: Whilst growing up, Jamie suffered from panic attacks, hence the name of his debut album, "Panic Prevention".


title: Jamie T

text: Zane Lowe made "Salvador" his single of the week and "Back in the Game" his Hottest Record in the World. On John Tweddle's show, "Back in the Game" featured as his "Pet Sound" and his single "Stella" was Jo Whiley's Record of the Week. "Stella" was also playlisted by BBC Radio 1 thus receiving more airtime across all shows.


title: Jamie T

text: "Sheila" was released on 29 July 2006. Two videos were made for the song; the first video in 2006 consisted of monkeys living in a house and short clips of Jamie singing, while the second video in 2007 features actor Bob Hoskins walking along the River Thames lip synching to the lyrics. On 16 October 2006, Jamie released his anthemic tune, "If You Got the Money" which reached No. 13 in the charts. His next single "Calm Down Dearest" was released in the UK on 15 January 2007 and reached No. 9, his first top 10 hit.


title: Jamie T

text: His debut album "Panic Prevention" was then released on 29 January 2007. Lily Allen provided backing vocals on the song "Rawhide" the B-side to the re-release of "Sheila" on 7 May 2007.


title: Jamie T

text: He performed on the Main Stage on 19 May 2007 in Preston for Radio 1's Big Weekend. He also performed at Glastonbury 2007, Benicàssim 2007, Oxegen 2007 (8 July) where he performed at the green room, and Carling Weekend Leeds 2007. He played the 2008 V Festival at the JJB Champion ARENA.


title: Jamie T

text: In September 2007, Jamie T did a US tour and made his US television debut on "Last Call with Carson Daly" performing "Sheila". He also did an iTunes Session EP.


title: Jamie T

text: On 12 January 2009, a music video appeared on Jamie's website for a new song, "Fire Fire", which he explained would not be released as a single nor would it be on the new album.


title: Jamie T

text: 21 May 2009 saw the release of the official video for his single "Sticks 'n' Stones". On 29 June 2009, Jamie released "Sticks 'n' Stones", the first single from his second album "Kings and Queens", as an extended play with three other tracks, "St. Christopher", "On the Green" and "The Dance of the Young Professionals". "Sticks 'n' Stones" reached No. 15 in the UK singles chart. The song also reached number 14 for 2009 songs on the annual Triple J Hottest 100.


title: Jamie T

text: On 31 August 2009, he released a further EP, the "Chaka Demus EP" which includes the second single taken from "Kings & Queens", also called "Chaka Demus". This features three other songs: "Forget Me Not (The Love I Knew Before I Grew)", "Planning Spontaneity" and "When They Are Gone (For Tim)".


title: Jamie T

text: A week later, on 7 September, second album "Kings and Queens" was released. This features 11 tracks (plus bonus track "The Curious Sound" featuring Ben Bones, when downloaded from iTunes). Jamie has said that his favourite song in this album is "Emily's Heart" because it reminds him of a former girfriend. Talking about "Kings & Queens", Jamie said "I didn't do my second album. I did my third one instead."


title: Jamie T

text: "Kings & Queens" reached No. 2 in the UK Albums chart. After its release Zane Lowe, on his BBC Radio 1 show, declared "Kings & Queens" his favourite album of 2009, describing the album as "a brilliant, poignant, incredible observational record" and "flawless".


title: Jamie T

text: On 25 September 2009, Jamie cancelled his Australian tour, due to laryngitis. Six days later, he postponed the first six shows of his sellout UK tour. A week later, however, Jamie cancelled the entire UK and European tours. A statement on his website informs that all Australia, UK and Europe scheduled shows were cancelled and since then, all three tours were rescheduled.


title: Jamie T

text: On 26 October, Jamie announced he would be releasing a third EP from the album, "The Man's Machine". The four-track EP will consist of "The Man's Machine", "Jenny Can Rely on Me", "Man Not a Monster" and "Believing in Things That Can't Be Done". "The Man's Machine" EP was released on CD and 12" vinyl on 23 November 2009.


title: Jamie T

text: A re-recorded version of "Emily's Heart" premiered as Zane Lowe's Hottest Record In The World on 19 January 2010, and it was confirmed as the next single, with a cover of Bruce Springsteen's "Atlantic City" serving as the B-side. It was released on 15 March.


title: Jamie T

text: On 24 June 2010, Jamie T performed material from the "Kings & Queens" album at the Engine Shed in Lincoln as a warm-up to his tour. A day later he played the 02 Academy in Liverpool. He then headlined the John Peel Stage at Glastonbury Festival on 26 June 2010.


title: Jamie T

text: Jamie T played his first gigs for four years in July 2014 at in Glasgow, Liverpool and Portsmouth. Around the same time a new single, "Don't You Find", made its debut on BBC Radio 1, chosen by Zane Lowe as his "Hottest Record in the World". In September 2014 his third album, entitled "Carry on the Grudge", was released.


title: Jamie T

text: In April 2015, Jamie T released the EP "Magnolia Melancholia", which features the album track 'Don't You Find' and five new tracks. He performed at Glastonbury Festival on 28 June on the 'Other Stage'. He supported Blur for their short Australian tour in July 2015, with dates in Sydney, Melbourne and Perth, as well as playing at Splendour in the Grass on 26 July. He also played various other festivals such as T in the Park and Melt! Festival before wrapping up the "Carry on the Grudge" tour at Reading and Leeds Festivals on 30 August.


title: Jamie T

text: In July 2016 it was announced that the new album "Trick" was slated for a 2 September release. The 12-track album was recorded in London and Detroit and preceded by the single "Tinfoil Boy". A UK tour in September and October followed the release, including three dates at Brixton Academy.


title: Jamie T

text: On 27 April, Jamie T announced his new album "The Theory of Whatever" and that it would release on 22nd July 2022. it was preceded by the singles "The Old Style Raiders, St. George Wharf Tower" and "Between The Rocks."


title: Jamie T

text: On 17 July 2007, Jamie T's debut album "Panic Prevention" was shortlisted as one of the 12 nominees for the Mercury Prize. "Panic Prevention" was often included in the 'best albums of the decade' lists, including: No. 13 out of 50 in "Observer Music Monthly" and No. 53 out of 100 in "NME".


title: Jamie T

text: He won the Best Solo Artist award at the 2007 and 2010 NME Awards. In 2015 he was awarded a further three accolades by NME, including Best Song for "Zombie".


title: Jamie T

text: He has been nicknamed "one man Arctic Monkey". "Canvas" magazine has described him as "like the bastard lovechild of Billy Bragg and Mike Skinner doing his best Joe Strummer impression".


title: Sardis

text: Sardis () or Sardes (; Lydian: 𐤳𐤱𐤠𐤭𐤣 "Sfard"; "Sardeis"; ; "Sfarad") was an ancient city at the location of modern "Sart" (Sartmahmut before 19 October 2005), near Salihli, in Turkey's Manisa Province. Sardis was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydia, an important city of the Persian Empire, the seat of a Seleucid satrap, the seat of a proconsul under the Roman Empire, and the metropolis of the province Lydia in later Roman and Byzantine times. It is mentioned in the New Testament. Its importance was due first to its military strength, secondly to it being situated on an important highway leading from the interior to the Aegean coast, and thirdly to its commanding the wide and fertile plain of the Hermus.


title: Sardis

text: Sardis was situated in the middle of Hermus valley, at the foot of Mount Tmolus, a steep and lofty spur which formed the citadel. It was about south of that Hermus. Today, the site is located by the present day village of "Sart", near Salihli in the Manisa province of Turkey, close to the Ankara - İzmir highway (approximately from İzmir). The part of remains including the bath-gymnasium complex, synagogue and Byzantine shops is open to visitors year-round.


title: Sardis

text: The Greek historian and father of history, Herodotus, says that the city was founded by the sons of Hercules, the Heraclides. According to Herodotus, the Heraclides ruled for five hundred and five years beginning with Agron, 1220 BC, and ending with Candaules, 716 BC. They were followed by the Mermnades, which began with Gyges, 716 BC, and ended with Croesus, 546 BC. The earliest reference to Sardis is in "The Persians" of Aeschylus (472 BC); in the "Iliad", the name “Hyde” seems to be given to the city of the Maeonian (i.e. Lydian) chiefs and in later times Hyde was said to be the older name of Sardis, or the name of its citadel.


title: Sardis

text: It is, however, more probable that Sardis was not the original capital of the Maeonians, but that it became so amid the changes which produced the powerful Lydian empire of the 8th century BC.


title: Sardis

text: The city was captured by the Cimmerians in the 7th century BC, by the Persians in the 6th, by the Athenians in the 5th, and by Antiochus III the Great at the end of the 3rd century BC.


title: Sardis

text: In the Persian era, Sardis was conquered by Cyrus the Great and formed the end station for the Persian Royal Road which began in Persepolis, capital of Persia. Sardis was the site of the most important Persian satrapy.


title: Sardis

text: During the Ionian Revolt, the Athenians burnt down the city. Sardis remained under Persian domination until it surrendered to Alexander the Great in 334 BC.


title: Sardis

text: The early Lydian kingdom was very advanced in the industrial arts and Sardis was the chief seat of its manufactures. The most important of these trades was the manufacture and dyeing of delicate woolen stuffs and carpets. The stream Pactolus which flowed through the market-place "carried golden sands" in early antiquity, which was in reality gold dust out of Mount Tmolus. It was during the reign of King Croesus that the metallurgists of Sardis discovered the secret of separating gold from silver, thereby producing both metals of a purity never known before.


title: Sardis

text: This was an economic revolution, for while gold nuggets panned or mined were used as currency, their purity was always suspect and a hindrance to trade. Such nuggets or coinage were naturally occurring alloys of gold and silver known as electrum, and one could never know how much of it was gold and how much was silver. Sardis now could mint nearly pure silver and gold coins, the value of which could be – and was – trusted throughout the known world. This revolution made Sardis rich and Croesus' name synonymous with wealth itself. For this reason, Sardis is famed in history as the place where modern currency was invented.


title: Sardis

text: As one of the seven churches of Asia, Sardis was addressed by Jesus as relayed to John of Patmos, author of the Book of Revelation in the New Testament, in terms that seem to imply that its church members did not finish what they started — that they were about image and not substance.


title: Sardis

text: Disaster came to the great city under the reign of the emperor Tiberius, when in 17 AD, Sardis was destroyed by an earthquake, but it was rebuilt with the help of ten million sesterces from the Emperor and exempted from paying taxes for five years. It was one of the great cities of western Asia Minor until the later Byzantine period.


title: Sardis

text: Later, trade and the organization of commerce continued to be sources of great wealth. After Constantinople became the capital of the East, a new road system grew up connecting the provinces with the capital. Sardis then lay rather apart from the great lines of communication and lost some of its importance.


title: Sardis

text: During the cataclysmic 7th Century Byzantine–Sasanian War, Sardis was in 615 one of the cities sacked in the invasion of Asia Minor by the Persian Shahin. Though the Byzantines eventually won the war, the damage to Sardis was never fully repaired.


title: Sardis

text: Still, Sardis retained its titular supremacy and continued to be the seat of the metropolitan bishop of the province of Lydia, formed in 295 AD. It was enumerated as third, after Ephesus and Smyrna, in the list of cities of the Thracesion thema given by Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 10th century. However, over the next four centuries it was in the shadow of the provinces of Magnesia-upon-Sipylum and Philadelphia, which retained their importance in the region.


title: Sardis

text: After 1071, the Hermus valley began to suffer from the inroads of the Seljuk Turks but the Byzantine general John Doukas reconquered the city in 1097. The successes of the general Philokales in 1118 relieved the district from later Turkish pressure and the ability of the Comneni dynasty together with the gradual decay of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum meant that it remained under Byzantine dominion. When Constantinople was taken by the Venetians and Franks in 1204 Sardis came under the rule of the Byzantine Empire of Nicea.


title: Sardis

text: However once the Byzantines retook Constantinople in 1261, Sardis with the entire Asia Minor was neglected and the region eventually fell under the control of Ghazi (Ghazw) emirs. The Cayster valleys and a fort on the citadel of Sardis was handed over to them by treaty in 1306. The city continued its decline until its capture (and probable destruction) by the Turco-Mongol warlord Timur in 1402.


title: Sardis

text: Some of the important finds from the site of Sardis are housed in the Archaeological Museum of Manisa, including Late Roman mosaics and sculpture, a helmet from the mid-6th century BC, and pottery from various periods.


title: Sardis

text: By the 19th century, Sardis was in ruins, showing construction chiefly of the Roman period. Early excavators included the British explorer George Dennis, who uncovered an enormous marble head of Faustina the Elder, wife of the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius. Found in the precinct of the Temple of Artemis, it probably formed part of a pair of colossal statues devoted to the Imperial couple. The 1.76 metre high head is now kept at the British Museum.


title: Sardis

text: The first large-scale archaeological expedition in Sardis was directed by a Princeton University team led by Howard Crosby Butler between years 1910–1914, unearthing a temple to Artemis, and more than a thousand Lydian tombs. The excavation campaign was halted by World War I, followed by the Turkish War of Independence, though it briefly resumed in 1922. Some surviving artifacts from the Butler excavation were added to the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.


title: Sardis

text: A new expedition known as the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis was founded in 1958 by G.M.A. Hanfmann, professor in the Department of Fine Arts at Harvard University, and by Henry Detweiler, dean of the Architecture School at Cornell University. Hanfmann excavated widely in the city and the region, excavating and restoring the major Roman bath-gymnasium complex, the synagogue, late Roman houses and shops, a Lydian industrial area for processing electrum into pure gold and silver, Lydian occupation areas, and tumulus tombs at Bin Tepe.


title: Sardis

text: From 1976 until 2007, the excavation was directed by Crawford H. Greenewalt, Jr., professor in the Department of Classics at the University of California, Berkeley. Since 2008, the excavation has been under the directorship of Nicholas Cahill, professor at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.


title: Sardis

text: Since 1958, both Harvard and Cornell Universities have sponsored annual archeological expeditions to Sardis. These excavations unearthed perhaps the most impressive synagogue in the western diaspora yet discovered from antiquity, yielding over eighty Greek and seven Hebrew inscriptions as well as numerous mosaic floors. (For evidence in the east, see Dura Europos in Syria.) The discovery of the Sardis synagogue has reversed previous assumptions about Judaism in the later Roman empire. Along with the discovery of the godfearers / theosebeis inscription from Aphrodisias, it provides indisputable evidence for the continued presence of Jewish communities in Asia Minor and their integration into general Roman life at a time when many scholars previously assumed that Christianity had eclipsed Judaism.


title: Sardis

text: The synagogue was a section of a large bath-gymnasium complex, that was in use for about 450–500 years. In the late 4th or 5th century, part of the bath-gymnasium complex was changed into a synagogue.


title: Delta State

text: Delta State is a state in the South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria. Named after the Niger Delta—a large part of which is in the state—the state was formed from the former Bendel State on August 27, 1991. Bordered on the north by Edo State, the east by Anambra and Rivers States, and the south by Bayelsa State while to the west is the Bight of Benin which covers about 160 kilometres of the state's coastline. The State was initially created with 12 local government areas in 1991 which was later extended to 19 and now has 25 local government areas. Asaba as its state capital is located along the River Niger on the northeastern end of the State, while the state's economic centre is the twin cities of Warri and Uvwie


title: Delta State

text: Of the 36 states, Delta is the 23rd largest in area and twelfth most populous with an estimated population of over 5.6 million as of 2016. Geographically, the state is divided between the Central African mangroves in the coastal southwest and the Nigerian lowland forests in most of the rest of the state as a small portion of the Niger Delta swamp forests are in the far south. The other important geographical features are the River Niger and its distributary, the Forçados River, which flow along Delta's eastern and southern borders, respectively; while fellow Niger distributary, the Escravos River, runs through Warri and the coastal areas are riddled with dozens of smaller Niger distributaries that make up much of the western Niger Delta. Much of the state's nature contain threatened dwarf crocodile, Grey parrot, African fish eagle, mona monkey, and African manatee populations along with potentially extirpated populations of African leopard and Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee. Offshore, the state is also biodiverse as there are populations of Lesser African threadfin, crabs, and blue mussel along with various cetacean species.


title: Delta State

text: What is now Delta State is made up of seven distinct ethnic groups, including the Urhobos occupying the delta central senatorial district; Ukwuani, Ika, and Aniocha-Oshimili(Igbo) occupying the delta north senatorial district; the isokos, Ijaws, and the Itsekiris occupying the delta south senatorial district and also other minor tribes which includes; the Olukumi, igalas; found in the delta north region, that have been quite assimilated by the larger igbo group. In the pre-colonial period, now-Delta State was divided into various monarchial states like the Kingdom of Warri and Agbor Kingdom before the area became a part of the British Oil Rivers Protectorate in 1884. In the early 1900s, the British incorporated the protectorate (now renamed the Niger Coast Protectorate) into the Southern Nigeria Protectorate which later amalgamated into British Nigeria. However, colonial forces did not gain permanent control of modern-day Delta State until the 1910s, due to the uprisings of the Ekumeku Movement. Notably, Delta has one of the few parts of now-Nigeria to have been under French control as the UK leased the enclave of Forcados to France from 1903 to 1930.


title: Delta State

text: After independence in 1960, the area of now-Delta was a part of the post-independence Western Region until 1963 when the region was split and the area became part of the Mid-Western Region. In 1967, the Igbo-majority of former Eastern Region attempted to secede as the state of Biafra and invaded the Mid-Western Region in an attempt to capture Lagos and end the war quickly; Biafran forces were halted and eventually pushed back but briefly declared the captured Mid-Western Region (including now-Delta State) as the Republic of Benin. During the occupation there were widespread hostilities between the Biafran forces and the mainly non-Igbo inhabitants of now-Delta State. Upon the liberation of the Mid-West, Nigerian forces committed the Asaba massacre against ethnic Igbos in Asaba. At the war's end and the reunification of Nigeria, the Mid-Western Region was reformed until 1976 when it was renamed Bendel State. In 1991, Bendel State was split with the north becoming Edo State and the south becoming Delta State.


title: Delta State

text: Economically, Delta State is based around the production of crude oil and natural gas as one of the main oil-producing states in the country. Key minor industries involve agriculture as the state has substantial oil palm, yam, and cassava crops along with fishing and heliciculture. In large part due to its vast oil revenues, Delta has the fourth highest Human Development Index in the country; however, disputes between oil companies and local communities along with years of systemic corruption have led to hostilities that are often tied to the lack of development in host communities.


title: Delta State

text: The State covers a landmass of about , of which more than 60% is land. The state lies approximately between 5°00' and 6°45' E and 5°00' and 6°30' N. It is geographically located in Nigeria's Midwest, bounded in the north and west by Edo State, the east by Anambra, Imo, and Rivers States, southeast by Bayelsa State, and on the southern extreme is the Bight of Benin which covers about 160 kilometres of the state's coastline. Delta State is generally low-lying without any remarkable hills. The state has a wide coastal belt inter-laced with rivulets and streams, which form part of the Niger Delta.


title: Delta State

text: Delta State was defined out of the former Bendel State on 27 August 1991. The state was actualized following agitations for the realization of a separate distinct state by the peoples of the old Delta Province. There was yet another state request proposed as "Anioma State" comprising the Asaba and Agbor Divisions of the old Midwest region. The then Military President, Gen. Ibrahim Babangida, recognized Delta state but chose "Asaba" a prominent town within the "Northwestern Lower Niger" as capital city. The proposed capital was a virgin land in the heart of the two constituent divisions that constitutes the Northwestern Lower Niger. Delta state was once integrated in the Mid Western state from 1963 to 1976 and later Bendel state, from 1976 to 1991. The name "Bendel" (Ben-Del) was coined from the old Benin and Delta Provinces of Western Region-Delta to reflect the integration of Benin and Delta provinces.


title: Delta State

text: Delta State is predominantly inhabited by the Urhobo,Aniocha-Oshimili|Delta igbo]], Isoko, Ijaw, Ukwuani People|Ukwuani]], IKA People|Ika]], Itsekiri and the Olukumi people. The population of other groups in the state are negligible.


title: Delta State

text: The Urhobo-Isoko are basically the same people and are the most predominant people inhabiting the state and currently about 2.6 million spanning across 10 local government areas, followed by the Ukwuani, IKA and Aniocha-Oshimili people of Delta State with a population of about 1.8 million spanning across 9 Local government areas who are sometimes referred to as the Anioma people which means. The Itsekiri speak a language very closely related to Yoruba but have been culturally influenced by the Edo from neighbouring Edo state, as well as the Urhobo, and Ijaw. The Ijaws are a group of people related to the predominant people of neighbouring Bayelsa State, while the Olukumi are becoming culturally and linguistically extinct, due to acculturation and assimilation.


title: Delta State

text: Senator Dr. Arthur Okowa Ifeanyi, a member of the People's Democratic Party, was elected Governor and chief executive of Delta State in April 2015. His deputy is Barr. Kingsley Otuaro. The state has three National Senatorial Districts (South, North and Central). In 2011 and 2013, the elected senators were James Manager,


title: Delta State

text: Arthur Okowa Ifeanyi and Emmanuel Aguariavwodo who replaced Pius Ewherido who died in 2013 at National Hospital, Abuja. In 2015, Chief Ighoyeta Amori was elected Senator of Delta Central but his election was annulled and Senator


title: Delta State

text: Ovie Omo-Agege sworn in as Senator of Delta Central, James Manager retained his position and Chief Peter Nwaoboshi was elected Senator of Delta North. The Executive, Legislative and Judicial Chambers are housed in Asaba with a government house annex in Warri.


title: Delta State

text: There are various solid mineral deposits within the state - industrial clay, silica, lignite, kaolin, tar sand, decorative rocks, limestone, etc. These are raw materials for industries such as brick making, ceramics, bottle manufacturing, glass manufacturing, chemical/insulators production, chalk manufacturing and sanitary wares, decorative stone cutting and quarrying, but these minerals are under-utilized.


title: Delta State

text: Delta state also has huge deposits of crude oil and is also one of the largest producers of petroleum products in Nigeria. Sales of petroleum products is what majorly drives its economy.


title: Delta State

text: Delta State has some historical, cultural and socio-political tourist centres that attract visitors from around the globe. Some of these sites of tourism include:


title: Delta State

text: Delta State is known to have produced several sportsmen and women, notably Stephen Okechukwu Keshi, Sunday Ogochukwu Oliseh, Austin Jay-Jay Okocha, Wilson Oruma, Efetobore Sodje Blessing Okagbare, Jonathan Akpoborie, Alex Iwobi and Ogenekaro Etebo.


title: Machine tool

text: A machine tool is a machine for handling or machining metal or other rigid materials, usually by cutting, boring, grinding, shearing, or other forms of deformations. Machine tools employ some sort of tool that does the cutting or shaping. All machine tools have some means of constraining the work piece and provide a guided movement of the parts of the machine. Thus, the relative movement between the workpiece and the cutting tool (which is called the toolpath) is controlled or constrained by the machine to at least some extent, rather than being entirely "offhand" or "freehand". It is a power-driven metal cutting machine which assists in managing the needed relative motion between cutting tool and the job that changes the size and shape of the job material.


title: Machine tool

text: The precise definition of the term "machine tool" varies among users, as discussed below. While all machine tools are "machines that help people to make things", not all factory machines are machine tools.


title: Machine tool

text: Today machine tools are typically powered other than by the human muscle (e.g., electrically, hydraulically, or via line shaft), used to make manufactured parts (components) in various ways that include cutting or certain other kinds of deformation.


title: Machine tool

text: With their inherent precision, machine tools enabled the economical production of interchangeable parts.


title: Machine tool

text: Many historians of technology consider that true machine tools were born when the toolpath first became guided by the machine itself in some way, at least to some extent, so that direct, freehand human guidance of the toolpath (with hands, feet, or mouth) was no longer the only guidance used in the cutting or forming process. In this view of the definition, the term, arising at a time when all tools up till then had been hand tools, simply provided a label for "tools that were machines instead of hand tools". Early lathes, those prior to the late medieval period, and modern woodworking lathes and potter's wheels may or may not fall under this definition, depending on how one views the headstock spindle itself; but the earliest historical records of a lathe with direct mechanical control "of the cutting tool's path" are of a screw-cutting lathe dating to about 1483. This lathe "produced screw threads out of wood and employed a true compound slide rest".


title: Machine tool

text: Abstractly programmable toolpath guidance began with mechanical solutions, such as in musical box cams and Jacquard looms. The convergence of programmable mechanical control with machine tool toolpath control was delayed many decades, in part because the programmable control methods of musical boxes and looms lacked the rigidity for machine tool toolpaths. Later, electromechanical solutions (such as servos) and soon electronic solutions (including computers) were added, leading to numerical control and computer numerical control.


title: Machine tool

text: When considering the difference between freehand toolpaths and machine-constrained toolpaths, the concepts of accuracy and precision, efficiency, and productivity become important in understanding "why" the machine-constrained option adds value.


title: Machine tool

text: Matter-Additive, Matter-Preserving, and Matter-Subtractive "Manufacturing" can proceed in sixteen ways: Firstly, the work may be held either in a hand, or a clamp; secondly, the tool may be held either in a hand, or a clamp; thirdly, the energy can come from either the hand(s) holding the tool and/or the work, or from some external source, including for examples a foot treadle by the same worker, or a motor, without limitation; and finally, the control can come from either the hand(s) holding the tool and/or the work, or from some other source, including computer numerical control. With two choices for each of four parameters, the types are enumerated to sixteen types of Manufacturing, where Matter-Additive might mean painting on canvas as readily as it might mean 3D printing under computer control, Matter-Preserving might mean forging at the coal fire as readily as stamping license plates, and Matter-Subtracting might mean casually whittling a pencil point as readily as it might mean precision grinding the final form of a laser deposited turbine blade.


title: Machine tool

text: Humans are generally quite talented in their freehand movements; the drawings, paintings, and sculptures of artists such as Michelangelo or Leonardo da Vinci, and of countless other talented people, show that human freehand toolpath has great potential. The value that machine tools added to these human talents is in the areas of rigidity (constraining the toolpath despite thousands of newtons (pounds) of force fighting against the constraint), accuracy and precision, efficiency, and productivity. With a machine tool, toolpaths that no human muscle could constrain can be constrained; and toolpaths that are technically possible with freehand methods, but would require tremendous time and skill to execute, can instead be executed quickly and easily, even by people with little freehand talent (because the machine takes care of it). The latter aspect of machine tools is often referred to by historians of technology as "building the skill into the tool", in contrast to the toolpath-constraining skill being in the "person" who wields the tool. As an example, it is "physically possible" to make interchangeable screws, bolts, and nuts entirely with freehand toolpaths. But it is "economically practical" to make them only with machine tools.


title: Machine tool

text: In the 1930s, the U.S. National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) referenced the definition of a machine tool as "any machine operating by other than hand power which employs a tool to work on metal".


title: Machine tool

text: The narrowest colloquial sense of the term reserves it only for machines that perform metal cutting—in other words, the many kinds of [conventional] machining and grinding. These processes are a type of deformation that produces swarf. However, economists use a slightly broader sense that also includes metal deformation of other types that squeeze the metal into shape without cutting off swarf, such as rolling, stamping with dies, shearing, swaging, riveting, and others. Thus presses are usually included in the economic definition of machine tools. For example, this is the breadth of definition used by Max Holland in his history of Burgmaster and Houdaille, which is also a history of the machine tool industry in general from the 1940s through the 1980s; he was reflecting the sense of the term used by Houdaille itself and other firms in the industry. Many reports on machine tool export and import and similar economic topics use this broader definition.


title: Machine tool

text: The colloquial sense implying [conventional] metal cutting is also growing obsolete because of changing technology over the decades. The many more recently developed processes labeled "machining", such as electrical discharge machining, electrochemical machining, electron beam machining, photochemical machining, and ultrasonic machining, or even plasma cutting and water jet cutting, are often performed by machines that could most logically be called machine tools. In addition, some of the newly developed additive manufacturing processes, which are not about cutting away material but rather about adding it, are done by machines that are likely to end up labeled, in some cases, as machine tools. In fact, machine tool builders are already developing machines that include both subtractive and additive manufacturing in one work envelope, and retrofits of existing machines are underway.


title: Machine tool

text: The natural language use of the terms varies, with subtle connotative boundaries. Many speakers resist using the term "machine tool" to refer to woodworking machinery (joiners, table saws, routing stations, and so on), but it is difficult to maintain any true logical dividing line, and therefore many speakers accept a broad definition. It is common to hear machinists refer to their machine tools simply as "machines". Usually the mass noun "machinery" encompasses them, but sometimes it is used to imply only those machines that are being excluded from the definition of "machine tool". This is why the machines in a food-processing plant, such as conveyors, mixers, vessels, dividers, and so on, may be labeled "machinery", while the machines in the factory's tool and die department are instead called "machine tools" in contradistinction.


title: Machine tool

text: Regarding the 1930s NBER definition quoted above, one could argue that its specificity to metal is obsolete, as it is quite common today for particular lathes, milling machines, and machining centers (definitely machine tools) to work exclusively on plastic cutting jobs throughout their whole working lifespan. Thus the NBER definition above could be expanded to say "which employs a tool to work on metal "or other materials of high hardness"". And its specificity to "operating by other than hand power" is also problematic, as machine tools can be powered by people if appropriately set up, such as with a treadle (for a lathe) or a hand lever (for a shaper). Hand-powered shapers are clearly "the 'same thing' as shapers with electric motors except smaller", and it is trivial to power a micro lathe with a hand-cranked belt pulley instead of an electric motor. Thus one can question whether power source is truly a key distinguishing concept; but for economics purposes, the NBER's definition made sense, because most of the commercial value of the existence of machine tools comes about via those that are powered by electricity, hydraulics, and so on. Such are the vagaries of natural language and controlled vocabulary, both of which have their places in the business world.


title: Machine tool

text: Forerunners of machine tools included bow drills and potter's wheels, which had existed in ancient Egypt prior to 2500 BC, and lathes, known to have existed in multiple regions of Europe since at least 1000 to 500 BC. But it was not until the later Middle Ages and the Age of Enlightenment that the modern concept of a machine tool—a class of machines used as tools in the making of metal parts, and incorporating machine-guided toolpath—began to evolve. Clockmakers of the Middle Ages and renaissance men such as Leonardo da Vinci helped expand humans' technological milieu toward the preconditions for industrial machine tools. During the 18th and 19th centuries, and even in many cases in the 20th, the builders of machine tools tended to be the same people who would then use them to produce the end products (manufactured goods). However, from these roots also evolved an industry of machine tool builders as we define them today, meaning people who specialize in building machine tools for sale to others.


title: Machine tool

text: Historians of machine tools often focus on a handful of major industries that most spurred machine tool development. In order of historical emergence, they have been firearms (small arms and artillery); clocks; textile machinery; steam engines (stationary, marine, rail, and otherwise) (the story of how Watt's need for an accurate cylinder spurred Boulton's boring machine is discussed by Roe); sewing machines; bicycles; automobiles; and aircraft. Others could be included in this list as well, but they tend to be connected with the root causes already listed. For example, rolling-element bearings are an industry of themselves, but this industry's main drivers of development were the vehicles already listed—trains, bicycles, automobiles, and aircraft; and other industries, such as tractors, farm implements, and tanks, borrowed heavily from those same parent industries.


title: Machine tool

text: Machine tools filled a need created by textile machinery during the Industrial Revolution in England in the middle to late 1700s. Until that time, machinery was made mostly from wood, often including gearing and shafts. The increase in mechanization required more metal parts, which were usually made of cast iron or wrought iron. Cast iron could be cast in molds for larger parts, such as engine cylinders and gears, but was difficult to work with a file and could not be hammered. Red hot wrought iron could be hammered into shapes. Room temperature wrought iron was worked with a file and chisel and could be made into gears and other complex parts; however, hand working lacked precision and was a slow and expensive process.


title: Machine tool

text: James Watt was unable to have an accurately bored cylinder for his first steam engine, trying for several years until John Wilkinson invented a suitable boring machine in 1774, boring Boulton & Watt's first commercial engine in 1776.


title: Machine tool

text: The advance in the accuracy of machine tools can be traced to Henry Maudslay and refined by Joseph Whitworth. That Maudslay had established the manufacture and use of master plane gages in his shop (Maudslay & Field) located on Westminster Road south of the Thames River in London about 1809, was attested to by James Nasmyth who was employed by Maudslay in 1829 and Nasmyth documented their use in his autobiography.


title: Machine tool

text: The process by which the master plane gages were produced dates back to antiquity but was refined to an unprecedented degree in the Maudslay shop. The process begins with three square plates each given an identification (ex., 1,2 and 3). The first step is to rub plates 1 and 2 together with a marking medium (called bluing today) revealing the high spots which would be removed by hand scraping with a steel scraper, until no irregularities were visible. This would not produce true plane surfaces but a "ball and socket" concave-concave and convex-convex fit, as this mechanical fit, like two perfect planes, can slide over each other and reveal no high spots. The rubbing and marking are repeated after rotating 2 relative to 1 by 90 degrees to eliminate concave-convex "potato-chip" curvature. Next, plate number 3 is compared and scraped to conform to plate number 1 in the same two trials. In this manner plates number 2 and 3 would be identical. Next plates number 2 and 3 would be checked against each other to determine what condition existed, either both plates were "balls" or "sockets" or "chips" or a combination. These would then be scraped until no high spots existed and then compared to plate number 1. Repeating this process of comparing and scraping the three plates could produce plane surfaces accurate to within millionths of an inch (the thickness of the marking medium).


title: Machine tool

text: The traditional method of producing the surface gages used an abrasive powder rubbed between the plates to remove the high spots, but it was Whitworth who contributed the refinement of replacing the grinding with hand scraping. Sometime after 1825, Whitworth went to work for Maudslay and it was there that Whitworth perfected the hand scraping of master surface plane gages. In his paper presented to the British Association for the Advancement of Science at Glasgow in 1840, Whitworth pointed out the inherent inaccuracy of grinding due to no control and thus unequal distribution of the abrasive material between the plates which would produce uneven removal of material from the plates.


title: Machine tool

text: With the creation of master plane gages of such high accuracy, all critical components of machine tools (i.e., guiding surfaces such as machine ways) could then be compared against them and scraped to the desired accuracy.


title: Machine tool

text: The first machine tools offered for sale (i.e., commercially available) were constructed by Matthew Murray in England around 1800. Others, such as Henry Maudslay, James Nasmyth, and Joseph Whitworth, soon followed the path of expanding their entrepreneurship from manufactured end products and millwright work into the realm of building machine tools for sale.


title: Machine tool

text: Important early machine tools included the slide rest lathe, screw-cutting lathe, turret lathe, milling machine, pattern tracing lathe, shaper, and metal planer, which were all in use before 1840. With these machine tools the decades-old objective of producing interchangeable parts was finally realized. An important early example of something now taken for granted was the standardization of screw fasteners such as nuts and bolts. Before about the beginning of the 19th century, these were used in pairs, and even screws of the same machine were generally not interchangeable. Methods were developed to cut screw thread to a greater precision than that of the feed screw in the lathe being used. This led to the bar length standards of the 19th and early 20th centuries.


title: Machine tool

text: American production of machine tools was a critical factor in the Allies' victory in World War II. Production of machine tools tripled in the United States in the war. No war was more industrialized than World War II, and it has been written that the war was won as much by machine shops as by machine guns.


title: Machine tool

text: The production of machine tools is concentrated in about 10 countries worldwide: China, Japan, Germany, Italy, South Korea, Taiwan, Switzerland, US, Austria, Spain and a few others. Machine tool innovation continues in several public and private research centers worldwide.


title: Machine tool

text: “all the turning of the iron for the cotton machinery built by Mr. Slater was done with hand chisels or tools in lathes turned by cranks with hand power”. David Wilkinson


title: Machine tool

text: Machine tools can be powered from a variety of sources. Human and animal power (via cranks, treadles, treadmills, or treadwheels) were used in the past, as was water power (via water wheel); however, following the development of high-pressure steam engines in the mid 19th century, factories increasingly used steam power. Factories also used hydraulic and pneumatic power. Many small workshops continued to use water, human and animal power until electrification after 1900.


title: Machine tool

text: Today most machine tools are powered by electricity; hydraulic and pneumatic power are sometimes used, but this is uncommon.


title: Machine tool

text: Machine tools can be operated manually, or under automatic control. Early machines used flywheels to stabilize their motion and had complex systems of gears and levers to control the machine and the piece being worked on. Soon after World War II, the numerical control (NC) machine was developed. NC machines used a series of numbers punched on paper tape or punched cards to control their motion. In the 1960s, computers were added to give even more flexibility to the process. Such machines became known as computerized numerical control (CNC) machines. NC and CNC machines could precisely repeat sequences over and over, and could produce much more complex pieces than even the most skilled tool operators.


title: Machine tool

text: Before long, the machines could automatically change the specific cutting and shaping tools that were being used. For example, a drill machine might contain a magazine with a variety of drill bits for producing holes of various sizes. Previously, either machine operators would usually have to manually change the bit or move the work piece to another station to perform these different operations. The next logical step was to combine several different machine tools together, all under computer control. These are known as machining centers, and have dramatically changed the way parts are made.


title: Machine tool

text: When fabricating or shaping parts, several techniques are used to remove unwanted metal. Among these are:


title: Machine tool

text: Other techniques are used to "add" desired material. Devices that fabricate components by selective "addition" of material are called rapid prototyping machines.


title: Machine tool

text: The worldwide market for machine tools was approximately $81 billion in production in 2014 according to a survey by market research firm Gardner Research. The largest producer of machine tools was China with $23.8 billion of production followed by Germany and Japan at neck and neck with $12.9 billion and $12.88 billion respectively. South Korea and Italy rounded out the top 5 producers with revenue of $5.6 billion and $5 billion respectively.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: Bangladesh Railway () is the state-owned rail transport agency of Bangladesh. It operates and maintains all railways in the country, and is overseen by the Directorate General of Bangladesh Railway. The Bangladesh Railway is governed by the Ministry of Railways and the Bangladesh Railway Authority. Its reporting mark is "BR".


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: The Bangladesh Railway system has a total length of In 2009, Bangladesh Railway had 34,168 employees. In 2014, Bangladesh Railway carried 65 million passengers and 2.52 million tonnes of freight. The railway made 8,135 million passenger-kilometres and 677 million tonne-kilometres.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: Rail transport in Bangladesh (the then British India) began on 15 November 1862, when 53.11 km of (broad gauge) line was opened between Darshana in Chuadanga District and Jogotee in Kushtia District. On 1 January 1871, extension of Darshana - Jogotee Railway line up to Goalanda by Eastern Bengal Railway. On 4 January 1885, a further 14.98 km (metre gauge) line was opened. In 1891, the Bengal Assam Railway was constructed with the assistance of the government. It was later run by the Bengal Assam Railway Company.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: On 1 July 1895, two sections of metre gauge railway were constructed by English railway companies. One connected Chattogram and Comilla (149.89 km). The other connected Laksam Upazila and Chandpur (50.89 km).


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: In 1947, at the time of the Partition of India, the Bengal Assam Railway was divided into two parts. The 2,603.92 km of track located in East Pakistan, came under the control of the central Government of Pakistan. On 1 February 1961, the Eastern Bengal Railway was renamed the Pakistan Eastern Railway. In 1962, control of the Pakistan Eastern Railway was transferred to the Government of East Pakistan. On 9 June 1962, by order of the president, the Pakistan Eastern Railway management was assumed by a Railway Board.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: In 2005, the total length of the Bangladesh Railway was 2,855 km. There was 660 km of broad gauge track (mostly in the western region), 1,830 km of metre gauge track (mostly in the central and eastern regions) and 365 km of dual gauge track. In 1998, the Jamuna Bridge was built to connect the previously divided east and west rail networks in dual gauge.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: In 2010, funding was received for a bridge over the Titas River. In September 2010, the Government of Bangladesh approved ten rail development projects costing 19·9 billion Bangladeshi taka including plans for new tracks and rolling stock.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: In 2011, Sheikh Hasina Wazed, the Prime Minister of Bangladesh, officiated at the start of construction of a link which would cross several rivers to reach Cox's Bazar. The 100 km of [...] gauge line started from the railhead at Dohazari, southeast of Chittagong. The plan was to reach Satkania, Dulahazra, Chakarin, Edgaon, Ramu and Cox's Bazar, with four major river bridges and a 28 km branch from Ramu to Gundum. In 2013, the Chhattogram Circular Railway was completed.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: In 2015, construction of a 15 km branch to Agartala, Tripura in Northeast India commenced. In 2017, land acquisition took place to facilitate the construction.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: From the end of the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 until 1982, the railway was governed by a Railway Board. It then came under the Railway Division of the Ministry of Communications. The Director General of the railway was the Secretary of the Railway Division of the Ministry of Communications. In 1995, governance of the railway was assumed by the "Bangladesh Railway Authority" which was chaired by the Minister of Railways. Inspections are made by an external government authority.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: The features of Bangladesh Railway include the usage of several gauges and the division of the rail system by the Jamuna River, Brahmaputra into the Western Zone and the Eastern Zone of operations. Crossing the river is one bridge, the Jamuna Bridge which was completed in 2003.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: The East Zone and the West Zone each have a General Manager who answers to the Director General of the Railway Authority. Each zone has its own raft of departments for operation, maintenance, and finances. Each zone is divided into two divisions with departments for personnel, transportation, commercial, finance mechanical, way and works signalling, telecommunication, electrical and medical services.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: The East Zone has a workshop division in Pahartali. The West Zone's workshop division is in Saidpur. The railway has a central locomotive workshop for broad and metre gauge locomotives in Parbatipur. It also has a Railway Training Academy. There are diesel workshops in Pahartali, Dhaka and Parbatipur. Maintenance on coaches and wagons is carried out at the "C and W" shop in Saidpur, Nilphamari and at the "C and W" shop Pahartali.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: Bangladesh Railway's fleet of diesel locomotives includes both diesel-electric and diesel-hydraulic machines. In 2007, there were 77 broad gauge diesel-electric locomotives. In 2012, Bangladesh Railway ordered 16 new broad gauge locomotives of 3100 hp from Banaras Locomotive Works, India. There were also 208 metre gauge diesel-electric locomotives including those of classes 2000, 2600, 2700, and 2900. The total number was 285.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: On 27 July 2020 Indian Railways (IR) handed over 10 WDM-3D diesel locomotives to Bangladesh Railway under its "grant assistance" plan. The vehicles cost an estimated ₹600m ($US 8m) to manufacture.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: The 762 mm gauge locomotives are from the Rupsa Bagerhat railway which was the only 762 mm gauge line in East Pakistan in 1947. It was changed to 1,676 mm gauge in 1970.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: As a national carrier, Bangladesh Railway is obliged to carry essential commodities such as grain and fertiliser to remote parts of Bangladesh at discounted rates. Bangladesh Railway transports containers from the Port of Chittagong to Dhaka Inland Container Depot, where there are customs facilities. The rolling stock to carry containers was manufactured from existing stock. On 5 August 1991, a container-only train came into service. A goods train operates from Singhabad and Petrapole, India to Rohanpur and Benapole, Bangladesh.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: Railway is a principal mode of transport in Bangladesh. In the 2005 financial year, 42 million passengers travelled on the Bangladesh Railway. Inter-city services, contribute to over seventy percent of Bangladesh Railway's revenue. In 2014, the railway owned 312 broad gauge coaches and 1,164 metre gauge coaches.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: In 2017, Bangladesh Railway operated 90 inter-city trains (up & down), 52 mail or express trains, 64 commuter trains (DEMU), 135 shuttle or local trains and 2 international services.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: Two times per week, a passenger train operates a service to India. In April 2008, the Maitri Express between Dhaka and Kolkata came into operation on the Gede Darsana route. On 9 November 2017, a new weekly train, the Bandhan Express, came into operation between Khulna and Kolkata via Petrapole and Benapole (172 km).


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: Tickets for Bangladesh Railway services are available at all stations. Most stations are computerised and tickets which can be purchased within four days of departure, are printed. Full refunds (excluding clerical charges) are available up until two days before departure. The railway reserves ten percent of tickets for online sales. Of these tickets, fifteen percent are reserved for mobile phone sales.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: Bangladesh Railway has three main passenger classes, "Air conditioned", "First" and "Second". Most trains do not provide the "Air conditioned" class. On inter-city and long-distance trains, a restaurant car and a power car are included at the centre of the train. All inter-city trains are partially air-conditioned, feature padded leather seats and provide passengers with on-demand sheets, pillows, blankets, as well as meals in a dining car. Some dieselelectric trains provides commuter services.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: Kamalapur Railway Station is the central railway station in Dhaka. Other major stations are Rajshahi railway station, Chattogram railway station.


title: Bangladesh Railway

text: In 2015, Bangladesh Railway serviced 489 railway stations. These include one block hut, thirteen train halts, and four goods booking points. The schedule of Bangladesh Railway has changed 26 Trains in the new year 2020. The East zone Train schedule will active on 10 January 2020.


title: Occipital bone

text: The occipital bone () is a cranial dermal bone and the main bone of the occiput (back and lower part of the skull). It is trapezoidal in shape and curved on itself like a shallow dish. The occipital bone overlies the occipital lobes of the cerebrum. At the base of skull in the occipital bone, there is a large oval opening called the foramen magnum, which allows the passage of the spinal cord.


title: Occipital bone

text: Like the other cranial bones, it is classed as a flat bone. Due to its many attachments and features, the occipital bone is described in terms of separate parts. From its front to the back is the basilar part, also called the basioccipital, at the sides of the foramen magnum are the lateral parts, also called the exoccipitals, and the back is named as the squamous part. The basilar part is a thick, somewhat quadrilateral piece in front of the foramen magnum and directed towards the pharynx. The squamous part is the curved, expanded plate behind the foramen magnum and is the largest part of the occipital bone.


title: Occipital bone

text: Due to its embryonic derivation from paraxial mesoderm (as opposed to neural crest, from which many other craniofacial bones are derived), it has been posited that "the occipital bone as a whole could be considered as a giant vertebra enlarged to support the brain."


title: Occipital bone

text: The occipital bone, like the other seven cranial bones, has outer and inner layers (also called "plates" or "tables") of cortical bone tissue between which is the cancellous bone tissue known in the cranial bones as diploë. The bone is especially thick at the ridges, protuberances, condyles, and anterior part of the basilar part; in the inferior cerebellar fossae it is thin, semitransparent, and without diploë.


title: Occipital bone

text: Near the middle of the outer surface of the squamous part of the occipital (the largest part) there is a prominence – the external occipital protuberance. The highest point of this is called the inion.


title: Occipital bone

text: From the inion, along the midline of the squamous part until the foramen magnum, runs a ridge – the external occipital crest (also called the medial nuchal line) and this gives attachment to the nuchal ligament.


title: Occipital bone

text: Running across the outside of the occipital bone are three curved lines and one line (the medial line) that runs down to the foramen magnum. These are known as the nuchal lines which give attachment to various ligaments and muscles. They are named as the "highest", "superior" and "inferior" nuchal lines. The inferior nuchal line runs across the midpoint of the "median" nuchal line. The area above the highest nuchal line is termed the occipital plane and the area below this line is termed the nuchal plane.


title: Occipital bone

text: The inner surface of the occipital bone forms the base of the posterior cranial fossa. The foramen magnum is a large hole situated in the middle, with the clivus, a smooth part of the occipital bone travelling upwards in front of it. The median internal occipital crest travels behind it to the internal occipital protuberance, and serves as a point of attachment to the falx cerebri.


title: Occipital bone

text: To the sides of the foramen sitting at the junction between the lateral and base of the occipital bone are the hypoglossal canals. Further out, at each junction between the occipital and petrous portion of the temporal bone lies a jugular foramen.


title: Occipital bone

text: The inner surface of the occipital bone is marked by dividing lines as shallow ridges, that form four fossae or depressions. The lines are called the cruciform (cross-shaped) eminence.


title: Occipital bone

text: At the midpoint where the lines intersect a raised part is formed called the internal occipital protuberance. From each side of this eminence runs a groove for the transverse sinuses.


title: Occipital bone

text: There are two midline skull landmarks at the foramen magnum. The basion is the most anterior point of the opening and the opisthion is the point on the opposite posterior part. The basion lines up with the dens.


title: Occipital bone

text: The foramen magnum () is a large oval foramen longest front to back; it is wider behind than in front where it is encroached upon by the occipital condyles. The clivus, a smooth bony section, travels upwards on the front surface of the foramen, and the median internal occipital crest travels behind it.


title: Occipital bone

text: Through the foramen passes the medulla oblongata and its membranes, the accessory nerves, the vertebral arteries, the anterior and posterior spinal arteries, and the tectorial membrane and alar ligaments.


title: Occipital bone

text: The superior angle of the occipital bone articulates with the occipital angles of the parietal bones and, in the fetal skull, corresponds in position with the posterior fontanelle.


title: Occipital bone

text: The lateral angles are situated at the extremities of the groove for the transverse sinuses: each is received into the interval between the mastoid angle of the parietal bone, and the mastoid portion of the temporal bone.


title: Occipital bone

text: The superior borders extend from the superior to the lateral angles: they are deeply serrated for articulation with the occipital borders of the parietals, and form by this union the lambdoidal suture.


title: Occipital bone

text: The inferior borders extend from the lateral angles to the inferior angle; the upper half of each articulates with the mastoid portion of the corresponding temporal, the lower half with the petrous part of the same bone.


title: Occipital bone

text: These two portions of the inferior border are separated from one another by the jugular process, the notch on the anterior surface of which forms the posterior part of the jugular foramen.


title: Occipital bone

text: The sphenobasilar suture joins the basilar part of the occipital bone and the back of the sphenoid bone body .


title: Occipital bone

text: The petrous-basilar suture joins the side edge of the basilar part of the occipital bone to the petrous-part of the temporal bone .


title: Occipital bone

text: The occipital plane [Fig. 3] of the squamous part of the occipital bone is developed in membrane, and may remain separate throughout life when it constitutes the interparietal bone; the rest of the bone is developed in cartilage.