title: Basic research

text: Basic research generates new ideas, principles, and theories, which may not be immediately utilized but nonetheless form the basis of progress and development in different fields. Today's computers, for example, could not exist without research in pure mathematics conducted over a century ago, for which there was no known practical application at the time. Basic research rarely helps practitioners directly with their everyday concerns; nevertheless, it stimulates new ways of thinking that have the potential to revolutionize and dramatically improve how practitioners deal with a problem in the future.


title: Basic research

text: In the United States, basic research is funded mainly by federal government and done mainly at universities and institutes. As government funding has diminished in the 2010s, however, private funding is increasingly important.


title: Basic research

text: Applied science focuses on the development of technology and techniques. In contrast, basic science develops scientific knowledge and predictions, principally in natural sciences but also in other empirical sciences, which are used as the scientific foundation for applied science. Basic science develops and establishes "information" to predict phenomena and perhaps to understand nature, whereas applied science uses portions of basic science to develop "interventions" via technology or technique to alter events or outcomes. Applied and basic sciences can interface closely in research and development. The interface between basic research and applied research has been studied by the National Science Foundation. A worker in basic scientific research is motivated by a driving curiosity about the unknown. When his explorations yield new knowledge, he experiences the satisfaction of those who first attain the summit of a mountain or the upper reaches of a river flowing through unmapped territory. Discovery of truth and understanding of nature are his objectives. His professional standing among his fellows depends upon the originality and soundness of his work. Creativeness in science is of a cloth with that of the poet or painter.It conducted a study in which it traced the relationship between basic scientific research efforts and the development of major innovations, such as oral contraceptives and videotape recorders. This study found that basic research played a key role in the development in all of the innovations. The number of basic science research that assisted in the production of a given innovation peaked between 20 and 30 years before the innovation itself. While most innovation takes the form of applied science and most innovation occurs in the private sector, basic research is a necessary precursor to almost all applied science and associated instances of innovation. Roughly 76% of basic research is conducted by universities.


title: Basic research

text: A distinction can be made between basic science and disciplines such as medicine and technology. They can be grouped as "STM" (science, technology, and medicine; not to be confused with "STEM" [science, technology, engineering, and mathematics]) or "STS" (science, technology, and society). These groups are interrelated and influence each other, although they may differ in the specifics such as methods and standards.


title: Basic research

text: The Nobel Prize mixes basic with applied sciences for its award in Physiology or Medicine. In contrast, the Royal Society of London awards distinguish natural science from applied science.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Energy in the United Kingdom came mostly from fossil fuels in 2021. Total energy consumption in the United Kingdom was 142.0milliontonnes of oil equivalent (1,651TWh) in 2019. In 2014, the UK had an energy consumption "per capita" of 2.78tonnes of oil equivalent (32.3MWh) compared to a world average of 1.92tonnes of oil equivalent (22.3MWh). Demand for electricity in 2014 was 34.42GW on average (301.7TWh over the year) coming from a total electricity generation of 335.0TWh.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Successive UK governments have outlined numerous commitments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. One such announcement was the Low Carbon Transition Plan launched by the Brown ministry in July 2009, which aimed to generate 30% electricity from renewable sources, and 40% from low carbon content fuels by 2020. Notably, the UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy, and wind power production is its fastest growing supply. Wind power contributed almost 21% of UK electricity generation in 2019. In 2019, the electricity sector's grid supply for the United Kingdom came from 43% fossil fuelled power (almost all from natural gas), 48.5% zero-carbon power (including 16.8% nuclear power and 26.5% from wind, solar and hydroelectricity), and 8% imports.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Government commitments to reduce emissions are occurring against a backdrop of economic crisis across Europe. During the European financial crisis, Europe's consumption of electricity shrank by 5%, with primary production also facing a noticeable decline. Britain's trade deficit was reduced by 8% due to substantial cuts in energy imports. Between 2007 and 2015, the UK's peak electrical demand fell from 61.5GW to 52.7GW.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: UK government energy policy aims to play a key role in limiting greenhouse gas emissions, whilst meeting energy demand. Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the country's energy mix through changes in costs and consumption. In 2018, the United Kingdom was ranked sixth in the world on the Environmental Performance Index, which measures how well a country carries through environmental policy.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: After UK oil production peaked at nearly 3 million barrels per day in 1999, concerns over peak oil production were raised by high-profile voices in the United Kingdom such as David King and the Industry Task-Force on Peak Oil and Energy Security. The latter's 2010 report states that "The next five years will see us face another crunch – the oil crunch. This time, we do have the chance to prepare. The challenge is to use that time well." (Richard Branson and Ian Marchant). However, world peak oil production was not reached and instead the debate is about oil imports and when peak oil demand will be reached.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: In October 2022, it was confirmed that UK Prime Minister, Liz Truss, would be issuing hundreds of new oil and gas licenses. In the same month, Truss said she will not tax the profits of oil and gas corporations to pay for a freeze in energy bills.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: United Kingdom produced 60% of its consumed natural gas in 2010. In five years the United Kingdom moved from almost gas self-sufficient (see North Sea gas) to 40% gas import in 2010. Gas was almost 40% of total primary energy supply (TPES) and electricity more than 45% in 2010. Underground storage was about 5% of annual demand and more than 10% of net imports. There is an alternative fuel obligation in the United Kingdom. (see Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation)


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Gasfields include Amethyst gasfield, Armada gasfield, Easington Catchment Area, East Knapton, Everest gasfield and Rhum gasfield.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: A gas leak occurred in March 2012 at the Elgin-Franklin fields, where about 200,000cubicmetres of gas was escaping every day. Total missed out on about £83million of potential income.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Coal power in England and Wales has reduced substantially in the beginning of the twenty-first century. The power stations known as the Hinton Heavies closed, and closure or conversion to biomass of the remaining coal plants is planned to complete by 2024.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Electricity production from coal in 2018 was less than any time since the industrial revolution, with the first "coal free day" in 2017 and the first coal free week in 2019. Coal supplied 5.4% of UK electricity in 2018, down from 7% in 2017, 9% in 2016, 23% in 2015 and 30% in 2014.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: The UK Government announced in November 2015 that all the remaining 14 coal-fired power stations would be closed by 2025. In February 2020, the government said that it would consult on bringing the closure date forward to 2024. As of the end of 2020 there are only three active coal-fired power stations remaining on the UK Grid Network.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Britain's fleet of operational reactors consists of 10 advanced gas-cooled reactors at four discrete sites and one PWR unit at Sizewell B. The total installed nuclear capacity in the United Kingdom is about 6.8GW.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: In addition, the UK experimented with Fast Breeder reactor technologies at Dounreay in Scotland; however the last fast breeder (with 250MWe of capacity) was shut down in 1994.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Even with changes to the planning system to speed nuclear power plant applications, there are doubts over whether the necessary timescale could be met to increase nuclear power output, and over the financial viability of nuclear power with present oil and gas prices. With no nuclear plants having been constructed since Sizewell B in 1995, there are also likely to be capacity issues within the native nuclear industry. The existing privatised nuclear supplier, British Energy, had been in financial trouble in 2004.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: In October 2010, the coalition British Government gave the go-ahead for the construction of up to eight new nuclear power plants. However, the Scottish Government, with the backing of the Scottish Parliament, has stated that no new nuclear power stations will be constructed in Scotland.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: In 2007, the United Kingdom Government agreed to an overall European Union target of generating 20% of the European Union's energy supply from renewable sources by 2020. Each European Union member state was given its own allocated target; for the United Kingdom it is 15%. This was formalised in January 2009 with the passage of the EU Renewables Directive. As renewable heat and fuel production in the United Kingdom are at extremely low bases, RenewableUK estimates that this will require 35–40% of the United Kingdom's electricity to be generated from renewable sources by that date, to be met largely by 3335GW of installed wind capacity.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: In the third quarter of 2019, renewables contributed towards 38.9% of the UK's electricity generation, producing 28.8TWh of electricity.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: In June 2017, renewables plus nuclear generated more UK power than gas and coal together for the first time and new offshore wind power became cheaper than new nuclear power for the first time.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: In December 2007, the United Kingdom Government announced plans for a massive expansion of wind energy production, by conducting a Strategic Environmental Assessment of up to 25GW worth of wind farm offshore sites in preparation for a new round of development. These proposed sites were in addition to the 8GW worth of sites already awarded in the two earlier rounds of site allocations, Round 1 in 2001 and Round 2 in 2003. Taken together it was estimated that this would result in the construction of over 7,000 offshore wind turbines.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Wind power delivers a growing fraction of the energy in the United Kingdom and at the beginning of November 2018, wind power in the United Kingdom consisted of nearly 10,000 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of just over 20 gigawatts: 12,254MW of onshore capacity and 7,897MW of offshore capacity.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: In August and September 2021, the UK had to restart coal plants, amidst a lack of wind, as power imports from Europe were insufficient to satisfy demand.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: At the end of 2011, there were 230,000 solar power projects in the United Kingdom, with a total installed generating capacity of 750MW. By February 2012 the installed capacity had reached 1,000MW. Solar power use has increased very rapidly in recent years, albeit from a small base, as a result of reductions in the cost of photovoltaic (PV) panels, and the introduction of a Feed-in tariff (FIT) subsidy in April 2010. In 2012, the government said that 4million homes across the UK will be powered by the sun within eight years, representing 22,000MW of installed solar power capacity by 2020.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Gas from sewage and landfill (biogas) has already been exploited in some areas. In 2004 it provided 129.3GW·h (up 690% from 1990 levels), and was the UK's leading renewable energy source, representing 39.4% of all renewable energy produced (including hydro) in 2006. The UK has committed to a target of 10.3% of renewable energy in transport to comply with the Renewable Energy Directive of the European Union but has not yet implemented legislation to meet this target.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Other biofuels can provide a close-to-carbon-neutral energy source, if locally grown. In South America and Asia, the production of biofuels for export has in some cases resulted in significant ecological damage, including the clearing of rainforest. In 2004 biofuels provided 105.9GW·h, 38% of it wood. This represented an increase of 500% from 1990.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: The UK is importing large quantities of wood pellets from the United States, replacing coal at several generating stations.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Investigations into the exploitation of Geothermal power in the United Kingdom, prompted by the 1973 oil crisis, were abandoned as fuel prices fell. Only one scheme is operational, the Southampton District Energy Scheme. In 2004, it was announced that a further scheme would be built to heat the UK's first geothermal energy model village near Eastgate, County Durham.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: As of 2012, hydroelectric power stations in the United Kingdom accounted for 1.67GW of installed electrical generating capacity, being 1.9% of the UK's total generating capacity and 14% of UK's renewable energy generating capacity. Annual electricity production from such schemes is approximately 5,700GWh, being about 1.5% of the UK's total electricity production.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: There are also pumped-storage power stations in the UK. These power stations are net consumers of electrical energy however they contribute to balancing the grid, which can facilitate renewable generation elsewhere, for example by 'soaking up' surplus renewable output at off-peak times and release the energy when it is required.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: During the 1940s, some 90% of the electricity generation was by coal, with oil providing most of the remainder. With the development of the national grid, the switch to using electricity, United Kingdom electricity consumption increased by around 150% between the post-war nationalisation of the industry in 1948 and the mid-1960s. During the 1960s, growth slowed as the market became saturated.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: The United Kingdom is planning to reform its electricity market, see also Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: It plans to introduce a capacity mechanism and contracts for difference to encourage the building of new generation.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: The United Kingdom started to develop nuclear power capacity in the 1950s, with Calder Hall nuclear power station being connected to the grid on 27 August 1956.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Though the production of weapons-grade plutonium was the main reason behind this power station, other civil stations followed, and 26% of the nation's electricity was generated from nuclear power at its peak in 1997.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Despite the flow of North Sea oil from the mid-1970s, electricity generation from oil remained relatively small and continued to decline.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Starting in 1993, and continuing through the 1990s, a combination of factors led to a so-called Dash for Gas, during which the use of coal was scaled back in favour of gas-fuelled generation. This was sparked by the privatisation of the National Coal Board, British Gas and the Central Electricity Generating Board; the introduction of laws facilitating competition within the energy markets; and the availability of cheap gas from the North Sea. In 1990, just 1.09% of all gas consumed in the country was used in electricity generation; by 2004 the figure was 30.25%.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: By 2004, coal use in power stations had fallen to 50.5milliontonnes, representing 82.4% of all coal used in 2004 (a fall of 43.6% compared to 1980 levels), though up slightly from its low in 1999. On several occasions in May 2016, Britain burned no coal for electricity for the first time since 1882. On 21 April 2017, Britain went a full day without using coal power for the first time since the Industrial Revolution, according to the National Grid.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: From the mid-1990s, new renewable energy sources began to contribute to the electricity generated, adding to a small hydroelectricity generating capacity.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: In 2020, total electricity production stood at 312TWh (down from a peak of 385TWh in 2005), generated from the following sources:


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: The UK energy policy had targeted a total contribution from renewable energy to achieve 10% by 2010, but it was not until 2012 that this figure was exceeded; renewable energy sources supplied 11.3% (41.3TWh) of the electricity generated in the United Kingdom in 2012.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: The Scottish Government had a target of generating 17% to 18% of Scotland's electricity from renewables by 2010, rising to 40% by 2020.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: While in some ways limited by which powers are devolved, the four nations of the United Kingdom have different energy mixes and ambitions. Scotland currently has a target of 80% of electricity from renewables by 2020, which was increased from an original ambition of 50% by 2020 after it exceeded its interim target of 31 percent by 2011. Scotland has most of the UK's hydro-electric power generation facilities. It has a quarter of the EU's estimated offshore wind potential, and is at the forefront of testing various marine energy systems.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Combined heat and power (CHP) plants, where 'waste' hot water from generating is used for district heating, are also a well tried technology in other parts of Europe. While it heats about 50% of all houses in Denmark, Finland, Poland, Sweden and Slovakia, it currently only plays a small role in the United Kingdom. It has, however, been rising, with total generation standing at 27.9TWh by 2008. This consisted of 1,439 predominantly gas-fired schemes with a total CHP electrical generating capacity of 5.47GW, and contributing 7% of the UK's electricity supply. Heat generation utilisation has fallen however from a peak of 65TWh in 1991 to 49TWh in 2012.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Historically, public sector support for energy research and development in the United Kingdom has been provided by a variety of public and private sector bodies.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council funds an energy programme spanning energy and climate change research. It aims to "develop, embrace and exploit sustainable, low carbon and/or energy efficient technologies and systems" to enable the United Kingdom "to meet the Government’s energy and environmental targets by 2020". Its research includes renewable, conventional, nuclear and fusion electricity supply as well as energy efficiency, fuel poverty and other topics.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Since being established in 2004, the UK Energy Research Centre carries out research into demand reduction, future sources of energy, infrastructure and supply, energy systems, sustainability and materials for advanced energy systems.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: The Energy Technologies Institute, set up to 'accelerate the development of secure, reliable and cost-effective low-carbon energy technologies towards commercial deployment', began its work in 2007 and is due to close at the end of 2019.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: In relation to buildings, the Building Research Establishment carries out some research into energy conservation.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: There is currently international research being conducted into fusion power. The ITER reactor is currently being constructed at Cadarache in France. The United Kingdom contributed towards this project through membership of the European Union. Prior to this, an experimental fusion reactor (the Joint European Torus) had been built at Culham in Oxfordshire.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: The United Kingdom government has instituted several policies intended to promote an increase in efficient energy use. These include the roll out of smart meters, the Green Deal, the CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme, the Energy Savings Opportunity Scheme and Climate Change Agreements.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: In tackling the energy trilemma, saving energy is the cheapest of all measures. Improving home insulation helps reduce fossil gas imports.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: The Committee on Climate Change publishes an annual progress report in respect to control the climate change in the United Kingdom.


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Scotland aims to have a carbon-free electricity sector based on renewable energy sources by 2032. Scotland also aims to repair of degraded peatlands, which store a total of 1.7gigatonnes of .


title: Energy in the United Kingdom

text: Since 2013, an Energy Company Obligation (ECO) levy on electricity has been in effect. As of 2022, the levy generates around 1 billion pounds.


title: Pamela Bach

text: Pamela Bach (born Pamela Ann Weissenbach), also known as Pamela Bach-Hasselhoff, is an American actress.


title: Pamela Bach

text: Bach is from Tulsa, Oklahoma, the second of three daughters. Her mother was a model, and she also modeled as a teenager. She attended Tulsa East Central High School and studied engineering/Theatre Arts at Northeastern Oklahoma A&M College. She moved to Los Angeles in 1985.


title: Pamela Bach

text: Bach is one of the recipients of the annual Bravo Otto award as one of German teens' favourite actresses. This is an award given by the German teen magazine "Bravo". She worked together with her husband on the long-running series "Baywatch" and she had a recurring role as a psychologist in the series "Sirens". She participated in the 2011 UK reality TV show/competition "Celebrity Big Brother" and was in the house from August 18–31, 2011. She was the second celebrity to be evicted from the house, being evicted on Day 14.


title: Pamela Bach

text: Bach met David Hasselhoff on the set of the "Knight Rider" episode "Knight Racer" in 1985. They married in December 1989, and in January 2006, Hasselhoff announced he was filing for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences. Their divorce was finalized in August 2006. Bach was given custody of one daughter and Hasselhoff custody of the other. Both appeared on the CBS daytime drama "The Young and the Restless", though not at the same time: Pamela as Mari Jo Mason #1 in 1994 and David as Dr. Snapper Foster #2 between 1975 and 1982.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The Government of the Soviet Union (), formally the All-Union Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, commonly abbreviated to Soviet Government, was the executive and administrative organ of state in the former Soviet Union. It had four different names throughout its existence; Council of People's Commissars (1923–1946), Council of Ministers (1946–1991), Cabinet of Ministers (January – August 1991) and Committee on the Operational Management of the National Economy (August–December 1991). It also was known as Workers-Peasants Government of the Soviet Union.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The government was led by a chairman, most commonly referred to as "premier" by outside observers. The chairman was nominated by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and elected by delegates at the first plenary session of a newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Certain governments, such as Ryzhkov's second government, had more than 100 government ministers, serving as first deputy premiers, deputy premiers, government ministers or heads of state committees/commissions; they were chosen by the premier and confirmed by the Supreme Soviet. The Government of the Soviet Union exercised its executive powers in conformity with the constitution of the Soviet Union and legislation enacted by the Supreme Soviet. The first government was led by Vladimir Lenin, and the last government was led by Valentin Pavlov.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: Following the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR of 1922, the Russian SFSR, Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic, the Byelorussian Socialist Soviet Republic and the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The treaty established the government, which was later legitimised by the adoption of the first Soviet constitution in 1924. The 1924 constitution made the government responsible to the Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union. In 1936, the state system was reformed with the enactment of a new constitution. It abolished the Congress of Soviets and established the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union in its place. At the 1st Plenary Session of the II Supreme Soviet in 1946 the government was renamed Council of Ministers. Minor changes were introduced with the enactment of the 1977 constitution. The CPSU's 19th All-Union Conference voted in favor of amending the constitution. It allowed for multi-candidate elections, established the Congress of People's Deputies and weakened the party's control over the Supreme Soviet. Later on 20 March 1991 the Supreme Soviet on Mikhail Gorbachev's suggestion amended the constitution to establish a semi-presidential system, essentially a fusion of the American and French styles of government. The Council of Ministers was abolished and replaced by a Cabinet of Ministers that was responsible to the President of the Soviet Union. The head of the Cabinet of Ministers was the Prime Minister of the Soviet Union. The government was forced to resign in the aftermath of the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, which Prime Minister Valentin Pavlov participated in. In its place the Soviet state established what was supposed to be a transitory committee headed by Silayev to run the basic governmental functions until a new cabinet was appointed. On 26 December 1991 the Supreme Soviet dissolved the union and therefore, the government of the USSR shut down permanently.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: This article mainly deals with the governmental structure that was established in 1922 and lasted until 1991, when the Council of Ministers was abolished and replaced by the Cabinet of Ministers.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The name Council of People's Commissars was chosen to distinguish the Soviet government from its bourgeois counterparts, especially its tsarist predecessor the Council of Ministers. However, scholar Derek Watson states that "the term 'commissar' was regarded as interchangeable with 'minister', and there seems little doubt that the Bolshevik leaders meant 'minister'." Joseph Stalin, in a speech to the II Supreme Soviet in March 1946, argued to change the name of government from Council of People's Commissars to Council of Ministers because "The commissar reflects the period of revolutionary rupture and so on. But that time has now passed. Our social system has come into being and is now made flesh and blood. It is time to move on from the title 'people’s commissar' to that of 'minister.'" Scholar Yoram Gorlizki writes that "Notwithstanding the reversion to bourgeois precedents, the adoption of the new nomenclature signaled that the Soviet order had entered a new phase of postrevolutionary consolidation."


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The Treaty on the Creation of the Soviet Union saw the establishment of the All-Union Congress of Soviets and its Central Executive Committee (CEC). The Congress of Soviets held legislative responsibilities and was the highest organ of state power, while the CEC was to exercise the powers of the Congress of Soviets whenever it was not in session, which in practice comprised the majority of its existence. It stated that the government, named the Council of People's Commissars, was to be the executive arm of the CEC. This governmental structure was copied from the one established in the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (Russian SFSR), and the government was modeled on the Council of People's Commissars of the Russian SFSR. The government of the Russian SFSR led by Vladimir Lenin governed the Soviet Union until 6 July 1923, when the CEC established the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union. Lenin was appointed its chairman, alongside five deputy chairmen and ten people's commissars (ministers). On 17 July 1923 the All-Union Council of People's Commissars notified the central executive committees of the union republics and their respective republican governments that it had begun to fulfill the tasks entrusted to it.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The original idea was for the Council of People's Commissars to report directly (and be subordinate) to the CEC, but the working relations of the two bodies were never clearly defined in depth. Eventually, the powers of the Council of People's Commissars outstripped those of the CEC. However, the 1924 constitution defined the Council of People's Commissars as the "executive and administrative organ" of the CEC. The ability to legislate was restricted by the powers conferred to it by the CEC, and on the Statute of the Council of People's Commissars. The legislative dominance of the Council of People's Commissars continued despite the 1924 constitution's insistence on its relationship to the CEC. Mikhail Kalinin of the CEC and Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee noted in 1928 that one needed to differentiate between the Presidium of the CEC, which he considered the "organ of legislation", and the administrative role of the Council of People's Commissars.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The 1924 constitution differentiated between All-Union and unified (referred to as republican from 1936 onwards) people's commissariats. The people's commissariats for justice, internal affairs, social security, education, agriculture and public health remained republican-level ministries. In the meantime the commissariats for foreign affairs, commerce and industry, transport, military and navy affairs, finance, foreign trade, labour, post and telegraphs, supply and the interior were granted All-Union status. This system created troubles at first since neither the constitution or any legal document defined the relations between All-Union commissariats, their organs in republics and the separate unified republican commissariats. However, this system was kept with minor changes until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The 1936 constitution defined the Council of People's Commissars as the Soviet government, and conferring upon it the role of the "highest executive and administrative organ of state power". The constitution stripped the Council of People's Commissars of powers to initiate legislation, and instead confined it to issuing "decrees and regulations on the basis and in execution of the laws currently in force". Only the Supreme Soviet and its Presidium, having replaced the Congress of Soviets and the Central Executive Committee respectively, could alter laws.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: Stalin's power grab in the 1930s had weakened the formal institutions of governance, both in the party and government. Scholar T. H. Rigby writes that


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: "all institutions had gradually dissolved in the acid of despotism", and that from 1946 until Stalin's death in 1953 "only the most minimal of gestures were made to reverse the atrophy of formal organs of authority, in both party and state." British academic Leonard Schapiro contended that "Stalin’s style of rule was characterised by the way in which rule through regular machinery (party, government apparatus) gave way increasingly to the rule of personal agents and agencies, each operating separately and often in conflict, with Stalin in supreme overall control." The government, which was at this point the most formalised Soviet state institution, developed neopatrimonial features due to Stalin's habit of ruling through "the strict personal loyalty of his lieutenants".


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: Stalin was elected to the government chairmanship on 6 May 1941. The government continued to function normally until World War II (known as the Great Patriotic War in Russia) when it was subordinated to the State Defense Committee (SDC), formed on 30 June 1941 to govern the Soviet Union during the war. Joseph Stalin concurrently served as SDC head and as chairman of the Soviet government until 1946. On 15 March 1946 the 1st Plenary Session of the 2nd Supreme Soviet transformed the Council of People's Commissars into the Council of Ministers. Accordingly, the people's commissariats were renamed ministries, and the people's commissars into ministers. On 25 February 1947, appropriate changes were made to the Constitution of the Soviet Union.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The government's Bureau was established in 1944. After the war, the bureau was split into two. These bureaus were merged on 20 March 1946, reestablishing the government's Bureau. The party Politburo adopted on 8 February 1947 the resolution "On the Organization of the Council of Ministers", which sought to explain the role of the Council of Ministers, its internal operations and its relationship with the party. It stated that the party politburo had the right to decide on all political matters, which included such topics as governmental appointments and defense, foreign policy and internal security. It went on to define the government solely as an institution of administering the economy. The non-economic ministries, such as the Ministry of State Security, reported to the politburo.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: In addition, the 8 February resolution established eight sectoral bureaus; Bureau for Agriculture, Bureau for Metallurgy and Chemicals, Bureau for Machine Construction, Bureau for Fuel and Electric Power Stations, Bureau for Food Industry, Bureau for Transport and Communication, Bureau for Light Industry and Bureau for Culture and Health. This decision transformed the government's working methods. The new resolution delegated authorities to the bureaus and away from the deputy chairmen of government and high-standing ministers. Every sectoral bureau was headed by a deputy chairman of government, but decision-making was devolved into these collegial decision-making organs. The net effect of these change was to greatly increase the legislative activity of government.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: Stalin, who had not attended a meeting of the Bureau since 1944, resorted to appointing acting government chairmen. Molotov was first appointed, but could rarely fulfill his duties since he was simultaneously Minister of Foreign Affairs and often away on business. On 29 March 1948 the politburo resolved to create a rotational chairmanship headed by Lavrentiy Beria, Nikolai Voznesensky and Georgy Malenkov. Lacking a formal leader, most controversial issues were solved at meetings of the Bureau. On 1 September 1949 power was even more dispersed. The Bureau changed its name to the Presidium of the Council of Ministers, and Beria, Malenkov, Nikolai Bulganin, Lazar Kaganovich and Maksim Saburov were handed the chairmanship. This mode of operating lasted until Stalin's death in 1953.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The Post-Stalin Era saw several changes to the government apparatus, especially during Nikita Khrushchev's leadership. At first, the new leadership sought to solve problems within the existing bureaucratic framework, however, by 1954 the government initiated reforms which devolve more economic decision-making to the republican governments. Around this time Khrushchev suggested abolishing the industrial and construction ministries and distributing their duties and responsibilities to republican governments and regional bureaucrats. The end-goal was to reduce the size of the All-Union government and increase economic growth. A similar idea was proposed to the CPSU Presidium in January 1957. The proposal sought to switch the function of the All-Union government from active management of operational management of industry to active branch policy-making. Operational management was to be decentralised to republican governments and local authorities.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The CPSU Presidium adopted Khrushchev's proposal. By July 1957 the management functions of the construction and industrial ministries had been transferred to 105 newly established Soviets of the National Economy. Republican planning committees were given more responsibility, while the State Planning Committee was given responsibility over companies that could not be decentralised to republican governments. The Soviet media began propagating the idea of developing complex, regional economies and comparing them to the old ministerial system. The belief was that the Soviets of the National economy would increase inter-branch cooperation and specialization. However, the reforms did not manage to cure the failings of the Soviet economy, and actually showed shortcomings in other areas as well. Khrushchev's government responded by initiating reforms that reversed decentralisation measures, and sought to recentralise control over resource allocation.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The removal of Khrushchev was followed by reversing his reforms of the government apparatus. The first move came in early 1965 when Alexei Kosygin's First Government when the All-Union Ministry of Agriculture was regifted responsibility for agriculture (which it lost in one Khrushchev's earlier reforms). By October the same year the Council of Ministers abolished the industrial state committees and regional economic councils and reestablished the system of industrial ministers as they existed before 1957. Of the 33 newly appointed construction- and industry ministers appointed in 1965, twelve had served as ministers in 1957 or before and ten had worked and risen to the rank of deputy minister by this time. This was followed by the establishment of the All-Union Ministry of Education and the All-Union Ministry of Preservation of Public Order in 1966. Four All-Union construction ministries were established in 1967 and a fifth in 1972. In addition, in 1970 the government reestablished the All-Union Ministry of Justice. In the decade 1965 to 1975, twenty-eight industrial ministries were established. Of these seven were All-Union ministries and the remainder seventeen were republican ministries. In addition, the Kosygin Government sought to reform the economy by strengthening enterprise autonomy while at the same time retaining strong centralised authority. The 1979 Soviet economic reform also sought to de-regulate the economy to give state enterprises more autonomy, while giving state enterprises more room to discuss their production goals with their respective ministries.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The Brezhnev Era also saw the adoption of the 1977 constitution. It defined for the first time the responsibilities and membership of the government's Presidium. The constitution defined the Presidium as a permanent governmental organ responsible for establishing and securing good economic leadership and to assume administrative responsibilities. It stated that the government chairman, alongside the first deputy chairmen, deputy chairmen and the republican governmental heads made up the Presidium's membership.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: Gorbachev had been speaking critically of the idea of a Soviet presidency until October 1989. He had argued that a presidency could lead to the reestablishment of the cult of personality and one-man leadership. However, Gorbachev was meeting stiff resistance from bureaucrats and anti-reformist elements against his reformist policies. The establishment of the office of President of the Soviet Union was seen as an important tool to strengthen Gorbachev's control over the state apparatus. Gorbachev proposed to the 3rd Plenary Session of the XXI Supreme Soviet in February 1990 to establish the Office of the President of the Soviet Union. The Supreme Soviet passed the motion, and in March an Extraordinary Session of the Congress of People's Deputies was convened to amend the constitution. The Law on the Presidency which was adopted by the Congress of People's Deputies stated that the president had to be elected in a nationwide election, but Gorbachev argued that the country was not ready for divisive election. Therefore, the Congress of People's Deputies held a vote in which 1329 voted to elect Gorbachev as President of the Soviet Union, while 916 voted against him.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: As President of the Soviet Union Gorbachev could appoint and dismiss government ministers. However, he grew concerned about his inability to control All-Union ministries. On 24 September 1990 Gorbachev managed to get the Supreme Soviet to grant him temporary powers of unrestricted decrees on the economy, law and order and appointment of government personnel until 31 March 1992. Still feeling stifled by anti-reformist elements, Gorbachev proposed in November 1990 to radically reorganise the Soviet political system, being greatly inspired by the presidential system of the United States and the semi-presidential system of France. Gorbachev sought to reorganise institutions at the All-Union level by subordinating executive power to the presidency.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: By November 1990 Gorbachev was calling for the dissolution of the Council of Ministers and its replacement with a Cabinet of Ministers. Formerly executive power had been divided into two separate institutions; the presidency and the Council of Ministers. Both reported to the Supreme Soviet. The Cabinet of Ministers would report directly to the President of the Soviet Union, and be accountable to both the presidency and to the Supreme Soviet. While the term of the Council of Ministers had been tied to the election of the Supreme Soviet, the Cabinet of Ministers was obliged by law to tender its resignation if the sitting president stepped down. Similar to the Council of Ministers, the leading decision-making organ of the Cabinet of Ministers was the Presidium. It was to be chaired by the newly created office of Prime Minister of the Soviet Union. In accordance with law the Presidium had to consist of the prime minister, his first deputies, deputies and an Administrator of Affairs.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The duties and responsibilities of the Cabinet of Ministers overlapped with the former Council of Ministers. It was responsible for formulating and executing the All-Union state budget, administrating defense enterprises and overseeing space research, implementing Soviet foreign policy, crime-fighting, and maintaining defense and state security. It also worked alongside the republican governments to develop financial and credit policy, administer fuel and power supplies and transport systems, and developing welfare and social programs. In addition the Cabinet of Ministers was responsible for coordinating All-Union policy on science, technology, patents, use of airspace, prices, general economic policy, housing, environmental protection and military appointments. At last, the Law on the Cabinet of Ministers granted the Cabinet of Ministers the right to issue decrees and resolutions, but not of the same power and scope of those formerly issued by the Council of Ministers.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The Council of Ministers had been the sole permanent executive and administrative body in the Soviet Union during its existence. The Cabinet of Ministers existed alongside the Federation Council, the Presidential Council and other executive organs that reported directly to the president. However, as the sole executive organ responsible for the economy and the ministries it was the most important.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The Cabinet of Ministers was by law forced to work more closely with republican governments than the Council of Ministers. Republican governments could petition the Cabinet of Ministers at any time, and the Cabinet of Ministers was forced to take all questions from republican governments into consideration. To foster better relations ministers moved to create collegiums with their republican counterparts. For instance, the All-Union Ministry of Culture established the Council of Ministers of Culture to better coordinate policies, while the All-Union Ministry of Foreign Affairs established the Council of Foreign Ministers of the USSR and Union Republics.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, better known as the "August coup attempt", was initiated by the State Committee on the State of Emergency in a bid to oppose the enactment of the New Union Treaty. Prime Minister Valentin Pavlov was one of the leaders of the coup. The Cabinet of Ministers alongside most All-Union organs of power supported the coup attempt against Gorbachev. In the aftermath of the coup attempt, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Russian SFSR) led by Boris Yeltsin sought to weaken Gorbachev's presidential powers. The State Council was established and superseded the government in terms of power by giving each republican president a seat on the council. In addition, every decision had to be decided by a vote–a move that greatly weakened Gorbachev's control. In tandem, the Russian SFSR seized the building and staff of the All-Union Ministry of Finance, the State Bank and the Bank for Foreign Economic Relations. With the central government's authority greatly weakened, Gorbachev established a four-man committee, led by Ivan Silayev, that included Grigory Yavlinsky, Arkady Volsky, and Yuri Luzhkov, to elect a new Cabinet of Ministers. This committee was later transformed into the Committee for the Operational Management of the National Economy (COMSE), also chaired by Silayev, to manage the Soviet economy. On 28 August 1991 a Supreme Soviet temporarily gave the COMSE the same authority as the Cabinet of Ministers, and Silayev became the Soviet Union's "de facto" Premier. The All-Union government tried to rebuff the seizure attempts by the Russian government but by September 1991 the Soviet government had broken down.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: On 25 December 1991 Gorbachev announced in a televised speech his resignation from the post of President of the Soviet Union. On the following day the Soviet of the Republics voted to dissolve the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as a state and subject of international law, legally terminating the Soviet government's existence.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The government was the highest executive and administrative body of the Soviet state. It was formed at the 1st Plenary Session of the Supreme Soviet (the joint meeting of the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities), and had to consist of the government chairman, his first deputies, deputies, ministers, state committees chairmen and the republican governmental chairmen. The premier could recommend individuals who he found suitable for membership in the governmental council to the Supreme Soviet. The government tendered its resignation to the first plenary session of a newly elected Supreme Soviet.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The government was responsible to the Supreme Soviet and its Presidium. It regularly reported to the Supreme Soviet on its work, as well as being tasked with resolving all state administrative duties in the jurisdiction of the USSR which were not the responsibility of the Supreme Soviet or the Presidium. Within its limits, the government had responsibility for:


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The government could issue decrees and resolutions and later verify their execution. All organisations were obliged to obey the decrees and resolutions issued by the government. The All-Union Council also had the power to suspend all mandates and decrees issued by itself or organisations subordinate to it. The Council coordinated and directed the work of the union republics and union ministries, state committees and other organs subordinate to it. The competence of the government and its Presidium with respect to their procedures and activities and the council's relationships with subordinate organs were defined in the Soviet constitution by the Law on the Council of Ministers of the USSR.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: Each union republic and autonomous republic had its own governments formed by the republican legislature of the respective union republic or autonomous republic. Republican governments were not legally subordinate to the All-Union government, but they were obliged in their activities to be guided by the decrees and decisions of the All-Union government. At the same time, the union-republican ministries had double subordination – they simultaneously submitted to the union republican government, within the framework of which they were created, and to the corresponding all-union government, orders and instructions which should have been guided in their activities. In contrast to the union republican ministries of the union republic, the republican ministries were subordinate only to the government of the corresponding union republic.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: Lenin sought to create a governmental structure that was independent of the party apparatus. Valerian Osinsky echoed Lenin's criticism, but Grigory Zinoviev responded to criticism in 1923 by stating that "Everyone understands that our Politburo is the principal body of the state." Boris Bazhanov, the private secretary of Joseph Stalin, echoed the same sentiments. According to Bazhanov appointment of people's commissars were made by the party Politburo and ratified later by the Council of People's Commissars. This informal system of government, in which the party decides and the government implements, lasted until Mikhail Gorbachev's tenure as leader.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The government chairman was until the establishment of the Cabinet of Ministers in 1991 the Soviet head of government. The officeholder was responsible for convening the government and its Presidium, reporting to the Supreme Soviet on behalf of the government and leading the work on formulating the five-year plans. The "Law on the Council of Ministers of the USSR" states that the chairman "heads the Government and directs its activity... coordinates the activity of the first deputy chairmen and deputy chairmen [and] in urgent cases, makes decisions on particular questions of state administration."


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The government appointed first deputy chairmen and deputy chairmen to assist the work of the government chairman. These deputies worked with the responsibilities allocated to them by the government. They could coordinate the activities of ministries, state committees and other organs subordinated to the government, take control of these organs and issue day-to-day instructions. At last, they could give prior consideration to proposals and draft decisions submitted to the government. For example, Kirill Mazurov was responsible for industry, and Dmitry Polyansky was responsible for agriculture in Kosygin's Second Government. In the case of the government chairman not being able to perform his duties one of the first deputy chairmen would take on the role of acting head of government until the premier's return.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The Administrator of Affairs was tasked with co-signing decrees and resolutions made by government with the government chairman. The government apparatus prepared items of policy, which the officeholder would check systematically against decrees of the party-government. This function consisted of several departments and other structural units. In addition the Administrator of Affairs headed the government apparatus and was a member of the government's Presidium.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The Presidium of the Council of Ministers consisted of the Chairman, First Deputy Chairmen, and the Deputy Chairman.It is important to note that the Presidium of the Council of Ministers is different than the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: USSR state committees were different from the ministries in that a state committee was primarily responsible for several parts of government as opposed to the one specific topic for which a ministry was solely responsible. Therefore, many state committees had jurisdiction over certain common activities performed by ministries such as research and development, standardisation, planning, building construction, state security, publishing, archiving and so on. The distinction between a ministry and a state committee could be obscure as for the case of the Committee for State Security (KGB).


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: According to the Soviet constitution, ministries were divided into all-union and union-republican. All-Union ministries managed the branch of state administration entrusted to them throughout the entire Soviet Union directly or through the organs appointed by them, while the union-republican ministries operated, as a rule, through the same-named ministry of the specific union republic in question. It managed only a certain limited number of activities directly according to the list approved by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet.


title: Government of the Soviet Union

text: The government had the right to create, reorganize and abolish subordinate institutions, which were directly subordinate to the government itself.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: The twelve-tone technique—also known as dodecaphony, twelve-tone serialism, and (in British usage) twelve-note composition—is a method of musical composition first devised by Austrian composer Josef Matthias Hauer, who published his "law of the twelve tones" in 1919. In 1923, Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951) developed his own, better-known version of 12-tone technique, which became associated with the "Second Viennese School" composers, who were the primary users of the technique in the first decades of its existence. The technique is a means of ensuring that all 12 notes of the chromatic scale are sounded as often as one another in a piece of music while preventing the emphasis of any one note through the use of tone rows, orderings of the 12 pitch classes. All 12 notes are thus given more or less equal importance, and the music avoids being in a key. Over time, the technique increased greatly in popularity and eventually became widely influential on 20th-century composers. Many important composers who had originally not subscribed to or actively opposed the technique, such as Aaron Copland and Igor Stravinsky, eventually adopted it in their music.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: Schoenberg himself described the system as a "Method of composing with twelve tones which are related only with one another". It is commonly considered a form of serialism.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: Schoenberg's fellow countryman and contemporary Hauer also developed a similar system using unordered hexachords or "tropes"—but with no connection to Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique. Other composers have created systematic use of the chromatic scale, but Schoenberg's method is considered to be historically and aesthetically most significant.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: Though most sources will say it was invented by Austrian composer Arnold Schoenberg in 1921 and first described privately to his associates in 1923, in fact Josef Matthias Hauer published his "law of the twelve tones" in 1919, requiring that all twelve chromatic notes sound before any note is repeated. The method was used during the next twenty years almost exclusively by the composers of the Second Viennese School—Alban Berg, Anton Webern, and Schoenberg himself.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: The twelve tone technique was preceded by "freely" atonal pieces of 1908–1923 which, though "free", often have as an "integrative element ... a minute intervallic cell" which in addition to expansion may be transformed as with a tone row, and in which individual notes may "function as pivotal elements, to permit overlapping statements of a basic cell or the linking of two or more basic cells". The twelve-tone technique was also preceded by "nondodecaphonic serial composition" used independently in the works of Alexander Scriabin, Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Carl Ruggles, and others. Oliver Neighbour argues that Bartók was "the first composer to use a group of twelve notes consciously for a structural purpose", in 1908 with the third of his fourteen bagatelles. "Essentially, Schoenberg and Hauer systematized and defined for their own dodecaphonic purposes a pervasive technical feature of 'modern' musical practice, the ostinato". Additionally, John Covach argues that the strict distinction between the two, emphasized by authors including Perle, is overemphasized:


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: The distinction often made between Hauer and the Schoenberg school—that the former's music is based on unordered hexachords while the latter's is based on an ordered series—is false: while he did write pieces that could be thought of as "trope pieces", much of Hauer's twelve-tone music employs an ordered series.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: The "strict ordering" of the Second Viennese school, on the other hand, "was inevitably tempered by practical considerations: they worked on the basis of an interaction between ordered and unordered pitch collections."


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: Rudolph Reti, an early proponent, says: "To replace one structural force (tonality) by another (increased thematic oneness) is indeed the fundamental idea behind the twelve-tone technique", arguing it arose out of Schoenberg's frustrations with free atonality, providing a "positive premise" for atonality. In Hauer's breakthrough piece "Nomos", Op. 19 (1919) he used twelve-tone sections to mark out large formal divisions, such as with the opening five statements of the same twelve-tone series, stated in groups of five notes making twelve five-note phrases.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: Schoenberg's idea in developing the technique was for it to "replace those structural differentiations provided formerly by tonal harmonies". As such, twelve-tone music is usually atonal, and treats each of the 12 semitones of the chromatic scale with equal importance, as opposed to earlier classical music which had treated some notes as more important than others (particularly the tonic and the dominant note).


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: The technique became widely used by the fifties, taken up by composers such as Milton Babbitt, Luciano Berio, Pierre Boulez, Luigi Dallapiccola, Ernst Krenek, Riccardo Malipiero, and, after Schoenberg's death, Igor Stravinsky. Some of these composers extended the technique to control aspects other than the pitches of notes (such as duration, method of attack and so on), thus producing serial music. Some even subjected all elements of music to the serial process.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: Charles Wuorinen said in a 1962 interview that while "most of the Europeans say that they have 'gone beyond' and 'exhausted' the twelve-tone system", in America, "the twelve-tone system has been carefully studied and generalized into an edifice more impressive than any hitherto known."


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: American composer Scott Bradley, best known for his musical scores for work like "Tom & Jerry" and "Droopy Dog", utilized the 12-tone technique in his work. Bradley described his use thus:


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: An example of Bradley's use of the technique to convey building tension occurs in the "Tom & Jerry" short "Puttin' on the Dog", from 1953. In a scene where the mouse, wearing a dog mask, runs across a yard of dogs "in disguise", a chromatic scale represents both the mouse's movements, and the approach of a suspicious dog, mirrored octaves lower. Apart from his work in cartoon scores, Bradley also composed tone poems that were performed in concert in California.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: Rock guitarist Ron Jarzombek used a twelve-tone system for composing Blotted Science's extended play "The Animation of Entomology". He put the notes into a clock and rearranged them to be used that are side by side or consecutive He called his method "Twelve-Tone in Fragmented Rows."


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: The basis of the twelve-tone technique is the "tone row", an ordered arrangement of the twelve notes of the chromatic scale (the twelve equal tempered pitch classes). There are four postulates or preconditions to the technique which apply to the row (also called a "set" or "series"), on which a work or section is based:


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: A particular transformation (prime, inversion, retrograde, retrograde-inversion) together with a choice of transpositional level is referred to as a "set form" or "row form". Every row thus has up to 48 different row forms. (Some rows have fewer due to symmetry; see the sections on "derived rows" and "invariance" below.)


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: The inversion is the prime form with the intervals inverted (so that a rising minor third becomes a falling minor third, or equivalently, a rising major sixth):


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: P, R, I and RI can each be started on any of the twelve notes of the chromatic scale, meaning that 47 permutations of the initial tone row can be used, giving a maximum of 48 possible tone rows. However, not all prime series will yield so many variations because transposed transformations may be identical to each other. This is known as "invariance". A simple case is the ascending chromatic scale, the retrograde inversion of which is identical to the prime form, and the retrograde of which is identical to the inversion (thus, only 24 forms of this tone row are available).


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: In the above example, as is typical, the retrograde inversion contains three points where the sequence of two pitches are identical to the prime row. Thus the generative power of even the most basic transformations is both unpredictable and inevitable. Motivic development can be driven by such internal consistency.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: Note that rules 1–4 above apply to the construction of the row itself, and not to the interpretation of the row in the composition. (Thus, for example, postulate 2 does not mean, contrary to common belief, that no note in a twelve-tone work can be repeated until all twelve have been sounded.) While a row may be expressed literally on the surface as thematic material, it need not be, and may instead govern the pitch structure of the work in more abstract ways. Even when the technique is applied in the most literal manner, with a piece consisting of a sequence of statements of row forms, these statements may appear consecutively, simultaneously, or may overlap, giving rise to harmony.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: Needless to say, durations, dynamics and other aspects of music other than the pitch can be freely chosen by the composer, and there are also no general rules about which tone rows should be used at which time (beyond their all being derived from the prime series, as already explained). However, individual composers have constructed more detailed systems in which matters such as these are also governed by systematic rules (see serialism).


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: The tone row chosen as the basis of the piece is called the "prime series" (P). Untransposed, it is notated as P. Given the twelve pitch classes of the chromatic scale, there are 12 factorial (479,001,600) tone rows, although this is far higher than the number of "unique" tone rows (after taking transformations into account). There are 9,985,920 classes of twelve-tone rows up to equivalence (where two rows are equivalent if one is a transformation of the other).


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: The various transformations can be combined. These give rise to a set-complex of forty-eight forms of the set, 12 transpositions of the "four" basic forms: P, R, I, RI. The combination of the retrograde and inversion transformations is known as the "retrograde inversion" ("RI").


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: thus, each cell in the following table lists the result of the transformations, a four-group, in its row and column headers:


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: However, there are only a few numbers by which one may "multiply" a row and still end up with twelve tones. (Multiplication is in any case not interval-preserving.)


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: "Derivation" is transforming segments of the full chromatic, fewer than 12 pitch classes, to yield a complete set, most commonly using trichords, tetrachords, and hexachords. A derived set can be generated by choosing appropriate transformations of any trichord except 0,3,6, the diminished triad. A derived set can also be generated from any tetrachord that excludes the interval class 4, a major third, between any two elements. The opposite, "partitioning", uses methods to create segments from sets, most often through registral difference.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: Combinatoriality is a side-effect of derived rows where combining different segments or sets such that the pitch class content of the result fulfills certain criteria, usually the combination of hexachords which complete the full chromatic.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: "Invariant" formations are also the side effect of derived rows where a segment of a set remains similar or the same under transformation. These may be used as "pivots" between set forms, sometimes used by Anton Webern and Arnold Schoenberg.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: "Invariance" is defined as the "properties of a set that are preserved under [any given] operation, as well as those relationships between a set and the so-operationally transformed set that inhere in the operation", a definition very close to that of mathematical invariance. George Perle describes their use as "pivots" or non-tonal ways of emphasizing certain pitches. Invariant rows are also combinatorial and derived.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: A "cross partition" is an often monophonic or homophonic technique which, "arranges the pitch classes of an aggregate (or a row) into a rectangular design", in which the vertical columns (harmonies) of the rectangle are derived from the adjacent segments of the row and the horizontal columns (melodies) are not (and thus may contain non-adjacencies).


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: One possible realization out of many for the "order numbers" of the 3 cross partition, and one variation of that, are:


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: Cross partitions are used in Schoenberg's Op. 33a "Klavierstück" and also by Berg but Dallapicolla used them more than any other composer.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: In practice, the "rules" of twelve-tone technique have been bent and broken many times, not least by Schoenberg himself. For instance, in some pieces two or more tone rows may be heard progressing at once, or there may be parts of a composition which are written freely, without recourse to the twelve-tone technique at all. Offshoots or variations may produce music in which:


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: Also, some composers, including Stravinsky, have used cyclic permutation, or rotation, where the row is taken in order but using a different starting note. Stravinsky also preferred the inverse-retrograde, rather than the retrograde-inverse, treating the former as the compositionally predominant, "untransposed" form.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: Although usually atonal, twelve tone music need not be—several pieces by Berg, for instance, have tonal elements.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: One of the best known twelve-note compositions is "Variations for Orchestra" by Arnold Schoenberg. "Quiet", in Leonard Bernstein's "Candide", satirizes the method by using it for a song about boredom, and Benjamin Britten used a twelve-tone row—a "tema seriale con fuga"—in his "Cantata Academica: Carmen Basiliense" (1959) as an emblem of academicism.


title: Twelve-tone technique

text: Ten features of Schoenberg's mature twelve-tone practice are characteristic, interdependent, and interactive:


title: Cheap Thrills (song)

text: "Cheap Thrills" is a song by Australian singer and songwriter Sia from her seventh studio album, "This Is Acting" (2016). It was written by Sia and Greg Kurstin, and produced by Kurstin. It was originally released on 17 December 2015, and an official remix version of "Cheap Thrills" featuring Jamaican singer Sean Paul was made available for digital download on 11 February 2016 as the album's second single. This version was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance.


title: Cheap Thrills (song)

text: In the United States, "Cheap Thrills" peaked at number one on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 becoming Sia's first number one single in the chart, and Paul's first since "Temperature" in 2006; it also topped the national Mainstream Top 40 and Radio Songs charts. It reached the top position in many countries, including Austria, Canada, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Mexico, Portugal, Spain; as well as the top-10 in Australia, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, where it peaked at number two on its UK Singles Chart. At the APRA Music Awards of 2018, "Cheap Thrills" won Most Played Australian Work Overseas for its songwriters, Sia and Kurstin. It won the award again at the APRA Music Awards of 2019 and again at the APRA Music Awards of 2020. Cheap thrills became the second best-selling single of 2016 worldwide.


title: Cheap Thrills (song)

text: "Cheap Thrills" was written by Sia and Greg Kurstin, and produced by Kurstin. It was originally intended to be performed by Rihanna for her album "Anti" (2016), but was rejected. It is a "bouncy", "reggae-tinged" synthpop and dancehall song. The song features "a constant tropical beat and electropop-style synth layers".


title: Cheap Thrills (song)

text: "Cheap Thrills" is written in the key of F minor and set in a common time, 4/4 time. The vocal range in the song spans an octave, from B to B.


title: Cheap Thrills (song)

text: For certain radio stations, instead of the lyric "turn the radio on", Sia sings the name or call sign of the radio station.


title: Cheap Thrills (song)

text: Brittany Spanos of "Rolling Stone" called it a "bouncy party anthem", whilst "The Guardian" described it as "a perfectly serviceable party tune". Nick Levine of "NME" praised the track's production "and there's no denying this is another superior slab of on-trend ear candy from one of pop's finest songwriters." A CBS affiliate's critic wrote that the song was the No. 3 song that "saved 2016", calling it a "formidable hit".


title: Cheap Thrills (song)

text: In Australia, it was eventually certified Quadruple Platinum for shipments of over 280,000 copies, and reached No. 6. In New Zealand, the song reached No. 3, and was certified Double Platinum for sales of over 30,000 copies. The song was awarded Quadruple Platinum in Sweden, Five time Platinum in Spain, and Double Diamond in Poland. In the UK, it peaked at No. 2 for four weeks, and has since been certified quadruple platinum for shipments of over 2.4 million units.


title: Cheap Thrills (song)

text: The song became the best selling and highest certified single in Italy for a female artist, reaching 10× platinum status, with sales of over 500,000 copies. On 25 September 2017, the song received a Diamond certification in Italy, making Sia the first female singer to ever achieve such status.


title: Cheap Thrills (song)

text: In the United States, the song debuted at No. 81 and peaked at No. 1 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in the issue dated 6 August 2016. The song became Sia's first number-one single in the country, and Sean Paul's fourth; he returned to the top 10 after ten years. It stayed on top for four straight weeks until it was dethroned by "Closer" by the Chainsmokers featuring Halsey. With "Cheap Thrills," Sia became the first woman over 40 to top the Hot 100 since Madonna topped the Hot 100 with "Music" in 2000. It sold 1.7 million copies in the US in 2016, becoming the tenth best-selling song of the year in the country. It sold 1.9 million copies in the US by May 2017. In 2022, It was certified 8x Platinum for sales of over 8.000.000 copies.


title: Cheap Thrills (song)

text: Cheap thrills was the second best selling single of 2016 after Can't Stop The Feeling by Justin Timberlake. On Spotify, Cheap Thrills became Sia's most streamed song on the platform with more than 2 billion streams (1.5 billion for the solo version and 500 million for the feat version).


title: Cheap Thrills (song)

text: Sia has performed "Cheap Thrills" on various television shows and concerts, with a group of dancers usually led by either Maddie Ziegler or Stephanie Mincone dancing to the same choreography as in the music video, including "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" in January 2016, "American Idol" in March, Coachella in April, and YouTube's Brandcast event in New York City as well as the season finale of "The Voice", both in May.


title: Cheap Thrills (song)

text: A lyric video featuring Sean Paul performing a new verse was released on 10 February 2016. In the video, a faceless couple wearing wigs (two dancers Minn Vo and Stefanie Klausmann), which have become part of Sia's signature look, win a dance contest on a retro 1960s black-and-white TV show reminiscent of "American Bandstand" or "The Buddy Deane Show", using visual effects to recreate the look of early 1960s television cameras. The video, directed by Lior Molcho, has been viewed more than 1.6 billion times.


title: Cheap Thrills (song)

text: Sia and Daniel Askill directed a performance video featuring Maddie Ziegler dancing with two male dancers (Wyatt Rocker and Nick Lanzisera) to Ryan Heffington's choreography, which was released on 21 March 2016. A trio of dancers wear nude-coloured, with black and blonde hairstyles and gloves in the half-and-half style used in most of Sia's videos for "This Is Acting". They dance on a plain stage, with Sia at a rear corner in the background singing into a microphone while wearing a similar bobbed two-toned wig, a large hairbow and a white dress. "Billboard" wrote that "the video features the same type of intense, captivating choreography as some of [Sia's] other work. This time, Ziegler is backed by two other dancers, and the trio seems to blend as one". "Teen Vogue" said that Ziegler "delivers another powerful performance". The music video was nominated for Best Video at the ARIA Music Awards of 2016.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Ion chromatography (or ion-exchange chromatography) separates ions and polar molecules based on their affinity to the ion exchanger. It works on almost any kind of charged molecule—including large proteins, small nucleotides, and amino acids. However, ion chromatography must be done in conditions that are one unit away from the isoelectric point of a protein.


title: Ion chromatography

text: The two types of ion chromatography are anion-exchange and cation-exchange. Cation-exchange chromatography is used when the molecule of interest is positively charged. The molecule is positively charged because the pH for chromatography is less than the pI (a/k/a pH(I)). In this type of chromatography, the stationary phase is negatively charged and positively charged molecules are loaded to be attracted to it. Anion-exchange chromatography is when the stationary phase is positively charged and negatively charged molecules (meaning that pH for chromatography is greater than the pI) are loaded to be attracted to it. It is often used in protein purification, water analysis, and quality control. The water-soluble and charged molecules such as proteins, amino acids, and peptides bind to moieties which are oppositely charged by forming ionic bonds to the insoluble stationary phase. The equilibrated stationary phase consists of an ionizable functional group where the targeted molecules of a mixture to be separated and quantified can bind while passing through the column—a cationic stationary phase is used to separate anions and an anionic stationary phase is used to separate cations. Cation exchange chromatography is used when the desired molecules to separate are cations and anion exchange chromatography is used to separate anions. The bound molecules then can be eluted and collected using an eluant which contains anions and cations by running higher concentration of ions through the column or changing pH of the column.


title: Ion chromatography

text: One of the primary advantages for the use of ion chromatography is only one interaction involved during the separation as opposed to other separation techniques; therefore, ion chromatography may have higher matrix tolerance. Another advantage of ion exchange is the predictability of elution patterns (based on the presence of the ionizable group). For example, when cation exchange chromatography is used, certain cations will elute out first and others later. A local charge balance is always maintained. However, there are also disadvantages involved when performing ion-exchange chromatography, such as constant evolution with the technique which leads to the inconsistency from column to column. A major limitation to this purification technique is that it is limited to ionizable group.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Ion chromatography has advanced through the accumulation of knowledge over a course of many years. Starting from 1947, Spedding and Powell used displacement ion-exchange chromatography for the separation of the rare earths. Additionally, they showed the ion-exchange separation of 14N and 15N isotopes in ammonia. At the start of the 1950s, Kraus and Nelson demonstrated the use of many analytical methods for metal ions dependent on their separation of their chloride, fluoride, nitrate or sulfate complexes by anion chromatography. Automatic in-line detection was progressively introduced from 1960 to 1980 as well as novel chromatographic methods for metal ion separations. A groundbreaking method by Small, Stevens and Bauman at Dow Chemical Co. unfolded the creation of the modern ion chromatography. Anions and cations could now be separated efficiently by a system of suppressed conductivity detection. In 1979, a method for anion chromatography with non-suppressed conductivity detection was introduced by Gjerde et al. Following it in 1980, was a similar method for cation chromatography.


title: Ion chromatography

text: As a result, a period of extreme competition began within the IC market, with supporters for both suppressed and non-suppressed conductivity detection. This competition led to fast growth of new forms and the fast evolution of IC. A challenge that needs to be overcome in the future development of IC is the preparation of highly efficient monolithic ion-exchange columns and overcoming this challenge would be of great importance to the development of IC.


title: Ion chromatography

text: The boom of Ion exchange chromatography primarily began between 1935–1950 during World War II and it was through the "Manhattan project" that applications and IC were significantly extended. Ion chromatography was originally introduced by two English researchers, agricultural Sir Thompson and chemist J T Way. The works of Thompson and Way involved the action of water-soluble fertilizer salts, ammonium sulfate and potassium chloride. These salts could not easily be extracted from the ground due to the rain. They performed ion methods to treat clays with the salts, resulting in the extraction of ammonia in addition to the release of calcium. It was in the fifties and sixties that theoretical models were developed for IC for further understanding and it was not until the seventies that continuous detectors were utilized, paving the path for the development from low-pressure to high-performance chromatography. Not until 1975 was "ion chromatography" established as a name in reference to the techniques, and was thereafter used as a name for marketing purposes. Today IC is important for investigating aqueous systems, such as drinking water. It is a popular method for analyzing anionic elements or complexes that help solve environmentally relevant problems. Likewise, it also has great uses in the semiconductor industry.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Because of the abundant separating columns, elution systems, and detectors available, chromatography has developed into the main method for ion analysis.


title: Ion chromatography

text: When this technique was initially developed, it was primarily used for water treatment. Since 1935, ion exchange chromatography rapidly manifested into one of the most heavily leveraged techniques, with its principles often being applied to majority of fields of chemistry, including distillation, adsorption, and filtration.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Ion-exchange chromatography separates molecules based on their respective charged groups. Ion-exchange chromatography retains analyte molecules on the column based on coulombic (ionic) interactions. The ion exchange chromatography matrix consists of positively and negatively charged ions. Essentially, molecules undergo electrostatic interactions with opposite charges on the stationary phase matrix. The stationary phase consists of an immobile matrix that contains charged ionizable functional groups or ligands. The stationary phase surface displays ionic functional groups (R-X) that interact with analyte ions of opposite charge. To achieve electroneutrality, these inert charges couple with exchangeable counterions in the solution. Ionizable molecules that are to be purified compete with these exchangeable counterions for binding to the immobilized charges on the stationary phase. These ionizable molecules are retained or eluted based on their charge. Initially, molecules that do not bind or bind weakly to the stationary phase are first to wash away. Altered conditions are needed for the elution of the molecules that bind to the stationary phase. The concentration of the exchangeable counterions, which competes with the molecules for binding, can be increased or the pH can be changed. A change in pH affects the charge on the particular molecules and, therefore, alters binding. The molecules then start eluting out based on the changes in their charges from the adjustments. Further such adjustments can be used to release the protein of interest. Additionally, concentration of counterions can be gradually varied to separate ionized molecules. This type of elution is called gradient elution. On the other hand, step elution can be used in which the concentration of counterions are varied in one step. This type of chromatography is further subdivided into cation exchange chromatography and anion-exchange chromatography. Positively charged molecules bind to cation exchange resins while negatively charged molecules bind to anion exchange resins. The ionic compound consisting of the cationic species M+ and the anionic species B- can be retained by the stationary phase.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Cation exchange chromatography retains positively charged cations because the stationary phase displays a negatively charged functional group:


title: Ion chromatography

text: Note that the ion strength of either C+ or A- in the mobile phase can be adjusted to shift the equilibrium position, thus retention time.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Before ion-exchange chromatography can be initiated, it must be equilibrated. The stationary phase must be equilibrated to certain requirements that depend on the experiment that you are working with. Once equilibrated, the charged ions in the stationary phase will be attached to its opposite charged exchangeable ions. Exchangeable ions such as Cl- or Na+. Next, a buffer should be chosen in which the desired protein can bind to. After equilibration, the column needs to be washed. The washing phase will help elute out all impurities that does not bind to the matrix while the protein of interest remains bounded. This sample buffer needs to have the same pH as the buffer used for equilibration to help bind the desired proteins. Uncharged proteins will be eluted out of the column at a similar speed of the buffer flowing through the column. Once the sample has been loaded onto to the column and the column has been washed with the buffer to elute out all non-desired proteins, elution is carried out to elute the desired proteins that are bound to the matrix. Bound proteins are eluted out by utilizing a gradient of linearly increasing salt concentration. With increasing ionic strength of the buffer, the salt ions will compete with the desired proteins in order to bind to charged groups on the surface of the medium. This will cause desired proteins to be eluted out of the column. Proteins that have a low net charge will be eluted out first as the salt concentration increases causing the ionic strength to increase. Proteins with high net charge will need a higher ionic strength for them to be eluted out of the column. It is possible to perform ion exchange chromatography in bulk, on thin layers of medium such as glass or plastic plates coated with a layer of the desired stationary phase, or in chromatography columns. Thin layer chromatography or column chromatography share similarities in that they both act within the same governing principles; there is constant and frequent exchange of molecules as the mobile phase travels along the stationary phase. It is not imperative to add the sample in minute volumes as the predetermined conditions for the exchange column have been chosen so that there will be strong interaction between the mobile and stationary phases. Furthermore, the mechanism of the elution process will cause a compartmentalization of the differing molecules based on their respective chemical characteristics. This phenomenon is due to an increase in salt concentrations at or near the top of the column, thereby displacing the molecules at that position, while molecules bound lower are released at a later point when the higher salt concentration reaches that area. These principles are the reasons that ion exchange chromatography is an excellent candidate for initial chromatography steps in a complex purification procedure as it can quickly yield small volumes of target molecules regardless of a greater starting volume.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Comparatively simple devices are often used to apply counterions of increasing gradient to a chromatography column. Counterions such as copper (II) are chosen most often for effectively separating peptides and amino acids through complex formation.


title: Ion chromatography

text: A simple device can be used to create a salt gradient. Elution buffer is consistently being drawn from the chamber into the mixing chamber, thereby altering its buffer concentration. Generally, the buffer placed into the chamber is usually of high initial concentration, whereas the buffer placed into the stirred chamber is usually of low concentration. As the high concentration buffer from the left chamber is mixed and drawn into the column, the buffer concentration of the stirred column gradually increase. Altering the shapes of the stirred chamber, as well as of the limit buffer, allows for the production of concave, linear, or convex gradients of counterion.


title: Ion chromatography

text: A multitude of different mediums are used for the stationary phase. Among the most common immobilized charged groups used are trimethylaminoethyl (TAM), triethylaminoethyl (TEAE), diethyl-2-hydroxypropylaminoethyl (QAE), aminoethyl (AE), diethylaminoethyl (DEAE), sulpho (S), sulphomethyl (SM), sulphopropyl (SP), carboxy (C), and carboxymethyl (CM).


title: Ion chromatography

text: Successful packing of the column is an important aspect of ion chromatography. Stability and efficiency of a final column depends on packing methods, solvent used, and factors that affect mechanical properties of the column. In contrast to early inefficient dry- packing methods, wet slurry packing, in which particles that are suspended in an appropriate solvent are delivered into a column under pressure, shows significant improvement. Three different approaches can be employed in performing wet slurry packing: the balanced density method (solvent’s density is about that of porous silica particles), the high viscosity method (a solvent of high viscosity is used), and the low viscosity slurry method (performed with low viscosity solvents).


title: Ion chromatography

text: Polystyrene is used as a medium for ion- exchange. It is made from the polymerization of styrene with the use of divinylbenzene and benzoyl peroxide. Such exchangers form hydrophobic interactions with proteins which can be irreversible. Due to this property, polystyrene ion exchangers are not suitable for protein separation. They are used on the other hand for the separation of small molecules in amino acid separation and removal of salt from water. Polystyrene ion exchangers with large pores can be used for the separation of protein but must be coated with a hydrophilic substance.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Cellulose based medium can be used for the separation of large molecules as they contain large pores. Protein binding in this medium is high and has low hydrophobic character. DEAE is an anion exchange matrix that is produced from a positive side group of diethylaminoethyl bound to cellulose or Sephadex.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Agarose gel based medium contain large pores as well but their substitution ability is lower in comparison to dextrans. The ability of the medium to swell in liquid is based on the cross-linking of these substances, the pH and the ion concentrations of the buffers used.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Incorporation of high temperature and pressure allows a significant increase in the efficiency of ion chromatography, along with a decrease in time. Temperature has an influence of selectivity due to its effects on retention properties. The retention factor ("k" = ("t" − "t")/("t" − "t")) increases with temperature for small ions, and the opposite trend is observed for larger ions.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Despite ion selectivity in different mediums, further research is being done to perform ion exchange chromatography through the range of 40–175 °C.


title: Ion chromatography

text: An appropriate solvent can be chosen based on observations of how column particles behave in a solvent. Using an optical microscope, one can easily distinguish a desirable dispersed state of slurry from aggregated particles.


title: Ion chromatography

text: A "strong" ion exchanger will not lose the charge on its matrix once the column is equilibrated and so a wide range of pH buffers can be used. "Weak" ion exchangers have a range of pH values in which they will maintain their charge. If the pH of the buffer used for a weak ion exchange column goes out of the capacity range of the matrix, the column will lose its charge distribution and the molecule of interest may be lost. Despite the smaller pH range of weak ion exchangers, they are often used over strong ion exchangers due to their having greater specificity. In some experiments, the retention times of weak ion exchangers are just long enough to obtain desired data at a high specificity.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Resins (often termed 'beads') of ion exchange columns may include functional groups such as weak/strong acids and weak/strong bases. There are also special columns that have resins with amphoteric functional groups that can exchange both cations and anions. Some examples of functional groups of strong ion exchange resins are quaternary ammonium cation (Q), which is an anion exchanger, and sulfonic acid (S, -SOOH), which is a cation exchanger. These types of exchangers can maintain their charge density over a pH range of 0–14. Examples of functional groups of Weak ion exchange resins include diethylaminoethyl (DEAE, -CHN(CHH)), which is an anion exchanger, and carboxymethyl (CM, -CH-COOH), which is a cation exchanger. These two types of exchangers can maintain the charge density of their columns over a pH range of 5–9.


title: Ion chromatography

text: In ion chromatography, the interaction of the solute ions and the stationary phase based on their charges determines which ions will bind and to what degree. When the stationary phase features positive groups which attracts anions, it is called an anion exchanger; when there are negative groups on the stationary phase, cations are attracted and it is a cation exchanger. The attraction between ions and stationary phase also depends on the resin, organic particles used as ion exchangers.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Each resin features relative selectivity which varies based on the solute ions present who will compete to bind to the resin group on the stationary phase. The selectivity coefficient, the equivalent to the equilibrium constant, is determined via a ratio of the concentrations between the resin and each ion, however, the general trend is that ion exchangers prefer binding to the ion with a higher charge, smaller hydrated radius, and higher polarizability, or the ability for the electron cloud of an ion to be disrupted by other charges. Despite this selectivity, excess amounts of an ion with a lower selectivity introduced to the column would cause the lesser ion to bind more to the stationary phase as the selectivity coefficient allows fluctuations in the binding reaction that takes place during ion exchange chromatography.


title: Ion chromatography

text: A sample is introduced, either manually or with an autosampler, into a sample loop of known volume. A buffered aqueous solution known as the mobile phase carries the sample from the loop onto a column that contains some form of stationary phase material. This is typically a resin or gel matrix consisting of agarose or cellulose beads with covalently bonded charged functional groups. Equilibration of the stationary phase is needed in order to obtain the desired charge of the column. If the column is not properly equilibrated the desired molecule may not bind strongly to the column. The target analytes (anions or cations) are retained on the stationary phase but can be eluted by increasing the concentration of a similarly charged species that displaces the analyte ions from the stationary phase. For example, in cation exchange chromatography, the positively charged analyte can be displaced by adding positively charged sodium ions. The analytes of interest must then be detected by some means, typically by conductivity or UV/visible light absorbance.


title: Ion chromatography

text: Control an IC system usually requires a chromatography data system (CDS). In addition to IC systems, some of these CDSs can also control gas chromatography (GC) and HPLC.


title: Ion chromatography

text: A type of ion exchange chromatography, membrane exchange is a relatively new method of purification designed to overcome limitations of using columns packed with beads. Membrane Chromatographic devices are cheap to mass-produce and disposable unlike other chromatography devices that require maintenance and time to revalidate. There are three types of membrane absorbers that are typically used when separating substances. The three types are flat sheet, hollow fibre, and radial flow. The most common absorber and best suited for membrane chromatography is multiple flat sheets because it has more absorbent volume. It can be used to overcome mass transfer limitations and pressure drop, making it especially advantageous for isolating and purifying viruses, plasmid DNA, and other large macromolecules. The column is packed with microporous membranes with internal pores which contain adsorptive moieties that can bind the target protein. Adsorptive membranes are available in a variety of geometries and chemistry which allows them to be used for purification and also fractionation, concentration, and clarification in an efficiency that is 10 fold that of using beads. Membranes can be prepared through isolation of the membrane itself, where membranes are cut into squares and immobilized. A more recent method involved the use of live cells that are attached to a support membrane and are used for identification and clarification of signaling molecules.