title: Ternopil

text: mortality in the ghetto escalated to such a degree that the "Judenrat" was forced to bury the dead in a common grave. Between August 1942 to June 1943 there were 5 "selections" that depleted the Jewish population of the ghetto by sending the Jews to Belzec extermination camp. A few hundred Jews from Tarnopol and its vicinity attempted to survive by hiding within the town limits. Many were denounced to the Germans, including some 200 people shortly before the Soviets established control over the area. A number of Jews survived by hiding with Ukrainians and Poles. A monument in memory of the Holocaust victims was built at Petrikovsky Yar in 1996. On September 19, 2012, the monument was desecrated, in what seems to be an anti-Semitic act.


title: Ternopil

text: Following Potsdam Conference in 1945, Poland's borders were redrawn and Tarnopol (then again, Терно́поль) was incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR of the Soviet Union. The Polish population was resettled to new Poland before the end of 1946. Following the fall of the Soviet Union, Ternopil has become part of the independent Ukraine.


title: Ternopil

text: In 2013, the mayor of the city Serhiy Nadal issued an order which announced the 2013 year as the year of Jan Tarnowski, the Crown Hetman and Voivode. In 2015, the National Bank of Ukraine released jubilee coins commemorating the founder of Ternopil Jan Tarnowski.


title: Ternopil

text: Until 18 July 2020, Ternopil was designated as a city of oblast significance and did not belong to Ternopil Raion even though it was the center of the raion. As part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Ternopil Oblast to three, the city was merged into Ternopil Raion.


title: Ternopil

text: On 31 December 2013, the 11th Artillery Brigade, descendant of artillery units that had been based in the city since 1949, was disbanded.


title: Ternopil

text: In June 2021, the Polish city of Tarnów decided to suspend its partnership with Ternopil as a reaction to the naming of a stadium in Ternopil in honour of Roman Shukhevych, one of the leaders of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army responsible for the Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia between 1943–1945.


title: Ternopil

text: In June 2022, due to full-scale Russian invasion and missile strikes from the territory of Belarus, Ternopil suspended its partnership with the city of Pinsk.


title: Ternopil

text: An international open-air music festival called has been held annually near Ternopil for 2–4 days in July since 2013.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: LZ 127 "Graf Zeppelin" () was a German passenger-carrying, hydrogen-filled rigid airship that flew from 1928 to 1937. It offered the first commercial transatlantic passenger flight service. Named after the German airship pioneer Ferdinand von Zeppelin, a count () in the German nobility, it was conceived and operated by Dr. Hugo Eckener, the chairman of Luftschiffbau Zeppelin.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: "Graf Zeppelin" made 590 flights totalling almost 1.7 million kilometres (over 1 million miles). It was operated by a crew of 36, and could carry 24 passengers. It was the longest and largest airship in the world when it was built. It made the first circumnavigation of the world by airship, and the first nonstop crossing of the Pacific Ocean by air; its range was enhanced by its use of Blau gas as a fuel. It was built using funds raised by public subscription and from the German government, and its operating costs were offset by the sale of special postage stamps to collectors, the support of the newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst, and cargo and passenger receipts.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: After several long flights between 1928 and 1932, including one to the Arctic, "Graf Zeppelin" provided a commercial passenger and mail service between Germany and Brazil for five years. When the Nazi Party came to power, they used it as a propaganda tool. It was withdrawn from service after the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, and scrapped for military aircraft production in 1940.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The first successful flight of a rigid airship, Ferdinand von Zeppelin's LZ1, was in Germany in 1900. Between 1910 and 1914, Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft (DELAG) transported thousands of passengers by airship. During World War I, Germany used airships to bomb London and other strategic targets. In 1917, the German LZ 104 (L 59) was the first airship to make an intercontinental flight, from Jambol in Bulgaria to Khartoum and back, a nonstop journey of .


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: During and just after the war, Britain and the United States built airships, and France and Italy experimented with confiscated German ones. In July 1919 the British R34 flew from East Fortune in Scotland to New York and back. Luftschiffbau Zeppelin delivered LZ 126 to the US Navy as a war reparation in October 1924. The company chairman Dr. Hugo Eckener commanded the delivery flight, and the ship was commissioned as the USS "Los Angeles" (ZR-3).


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The Treaty of Versailles had placed limits on German aviation; in 1925, when the Allies relaxed the restrictions, Eckener saw the chance to start an intercontinental air passenger service, and began lobbying the government for funds and permission to build a new civil airship. Public subscription raised (the equivalent of US$600,000 at the time, or $ million in 2018 dollars), and the government granted over ($ million).


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The LZ 127 was designed by Ludwig Dürr as a "stretched" version of the zeppelin LZ 126 rechristened the USS "Los Angeles"). It was intended from the beginning as a technology demonstrator for the more capable airships that would follow. It was built between 1926 and September 1928 at the Luftschiffbau Zeppelin works in Friedrichshafen, on Lake Constance, Germany, which became its home port for nearly all of its flights. Its duralumin frame was made of eighteen 28-sided structural polygons joined lengthwise with of girders and braced with steel wire. The outer cover was of thick cotton, painted with aircraft dope containing aluminium to reduce solar heating, then sandpapered smooth. The gas cells were also cotton, lined with goldbeater's skins, and protected from damage by a layer containing of ramie fibre.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: "Graf Zeppelin" was long and had a total gas volume of , of which was hydrogen carried in 17 lifting gas cells ("Traggaszelle"), and was Blau gas in 12 fuel gas cells ("Kraftgaszelle"). The "Graf Zeppelin" was built to be the largest possible airship that could fit into the company's construction hangar, with only between the top of the finished vessel and the hangar roof. It was the longest and most voluminous airship when built, but it was too slender for optimum aerodynamic efficiency, and there were worries that the shape would compromise its strength.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: "Graf Zeppelin" was powered by five Maybach VL II 12-cylinder engines, each of capacity, mounted in individual streamlined nacelles arranged so that each was in an undisturbed airflow. The engines were reversible, and were monitored by crew members who accessed them during flight via open ladders. The two-bladed wooden pusher propellers were in diameter, and were later upgraded to four-bladed units. On longer flights, the "Graf Zeppelin" often flew with one engine shut down to conserve fuel.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: "Graf Zeppelin" was the only rigid airship to burn Blau gas; the engines were started on petrol and could then switch fuel. A liquid-fuelled airship loses weight as it burns fuel, requiring the release of lifting gas, or the capture of water from exhaust gas or rainfall, to avoid the vessel climbing. Blau gas was only slightly heavier than air, so burning it had little effect on buoyancy. On a typical transatlantic journey, the "Graf Zeppelin" used Blau gas 90% of the time, only burning petrol if the ship was too heavy, and used ten times less hydrogen per day than the smaller zeppelin "L 59" did on its Khartoum flight in 1917.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: "Graf Zeppelin" typically carried of ballast water and of spare parts, including an extra propeller. Calcium chloride was added to the ballast water to prevent freezing. The ship retained grey water from the sinks for use as additional ballast. Both fresh and waste water could be moved forward and aft to control trim.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The airship usually took off vertically using static lift (buoyancy), then started the engines in the air, adding aerodynamic lift. Normal cruising altitude was ; it climbed if necessary to cross high ground or poor weather, and often descended in stormy weather. To measure the wind speed over the sea, and calculate drift, floating pyrotechnic flares were dropped.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: When preparing to land the crew advised the ground, either by radio or signal flag. Ground crew lit a smoky fire, to help the airshipmen judge wind speed and direction. The airship slowed, then adjusted buoyancy to neutral by valving off hydrogen or dropping ballast. Echo sounding with the report from an 11-mm blank round was used to measure altitude accurately. The ship flew in with its nose trimmed slightly down, made its final approach into the wind descending at per minute, then used reverse thrust to stop over the landing flag, where it dropped ropes to the ground. Landing in rough weather required a faster approach. Up to 300 people manhandled the airship into a hangar or secured it by the nose to a mooring mast.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: "Graf Zeppelin"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s top airspeed was at ; it cruised at , at . It had a total lift capacity of with a usable payload of on a flight. It was slightly unstable in yaw, and to make it easier to fly, had an automatic pilot which stabilised it in that axis. Pitch was controlled manually by an elevatorman who tried to limit the angle to 5° up or down, so as not to upset the bottles of wine which accompanied the elaborate food served on board. Operating the elevators was so demanding and strenuous that an elevatorman's shift was only four hours, reduced to two in rough weather.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The operational spaces, common areas, and passenger cabins were built into a gondola structure in the forward part of the airship's ventral surface, with the flight deck well forward in a "chin" position. The gondola was long and wide; its streamlined design reflected contemporary aesthetics, minimised overall height, and reduced drag. Behind the flight deck was the map room, with two large hatches to allow the command crew to communicate with the navigators, who could take readings with a sextant through the two large windows. There was also a radio room and a galley with a double electric oven and hot plates.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The galley staff served three hot meals a day in the main dining and sitting room, which was square. It had four large arched windows, wooden inlays, and Art Deco-upholstered furniture. Between meals, the passengers could socialise and look at the scenery. On the round-the-world flight, there was dancing to a phonograph, fine wine, and Ernst Lehmann, one of the officers, played the accordion. A corridor led to ten passenger cabins capable of sleeping 24, a pair of washrooms, and dual chemical toilets. The passenger cabins were set by day with a sofa, which converted at night into two beds. The cabins were often cold, and on some sectors passengers wore furs and huddled under blankets to stay warm. There was a noticeable smell from the Blau gas, especially when the ship was stationary.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: A ladder from the map room led up to the keel corridor inside the hull, and accommodation for the 36 crewmen. Officers' quarters were towards the nose; behind them were the baggage store, the crew mess-room, and the quarters for the ordinary crew, who slept in wire-frame beds with fabric screens. Also along this corridor were petrol, oil and water tanks, and stowage for cargo and spare parts. Branches from the keel corridor led to the five engine nacelles, and there were ladders up to the axial corridor, just below the ship's main axis, which gave access to all the gas cells.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The main generating plant was in a separate compartment mostly inside the hull. Two Wanderer car engines adapted to burn Blau gas, only one of which operated at a time, drove two Siemens & Halske dynamos each. One dynamo on each engine powered the oven and hotplates, and one the lighting and gyrocompass. Cooling water from these engines heated radiators inside the passenger lounge. Two ram air turbines attached to the main gondola on swinging arms provided electrical power for the radio room, internal lighting, and the galley. Batteries could power essential services like radios for half an hour, and there were small petrol generators for emergency power.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: Three radio operators used a one-kilowatt vacuum tube transmitter (about 140 W antenna power) to send telegrams over the low frequency (500–3,000 m) bands. A 70 W antenna power emergency transmitter carried telegraph and radio telephone signals over 300–1,300 m wavelength bands. The main aerial consisted of two lead-weighted -long wires deployed by electric motor or hand crank; the emergency aerial was a wire stretched from a ring on the hull. Three six-tube receivers served the wavelengths from 120 to 1,200 m (medium frequency), 400 to 4,000 m (low frequency) and 3,000 to 25,000 m (overlapping low frequency and very low frequency). The radio room also had a shortwave receiver for 10 to 280 m (high frequency).


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: A radio direction finder used a loop antenna to determine the airship's bearing from any two land radio stations or ships with known positions. During the first transatlantic flight in 1928, the radio room sent 484 private telegrams and 160 press telegrams.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The LZ 127 was christened "Graf Zeppelin" by Countess Brandenstein-Zeppelin on 8 July 1928, after her father Ferdinand von Zeppelin, the founder of the company, on the 90th anniversary of his birth. During most of its career, it was operated by Luftschiffbau Zeppelin's commercial flight arm, DELAG, in conjunction with the Hamburg-American Line (HAPAG); for its final two years it flew for the Deutsche Zeppelin Reederei (DZR).


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: Passengers paid premium fares to fly on the "Graf Zeppelin" ( from Germany to Rio de Janeiro in 1934, equal to $590 then, or $ in 2018 dollars), and fees collected for valuable freight and air mail also provided income. On the first transatlantic flight, "Graf Zeppelin" carried 66,000 postcards and covers.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: Eckener had earned his doctorate in Psychology at Leipzig University under Wilhelm Wundt, and could use his knowledge of mass psychology to the benefit of the "Graf Zeppelin". He identified safety as the most important factor in the ship's public acceptance, and was ruthless in pursuit of this. He took complete responsibility for the ship, from technical matters, to finance, to arranging where it would fly next on its years-long public relations campaign, in which he promoted "zeppelin fever". On one of the Brazil trips British Pathé News filmed on board. Eckener cultivated the press, and was gratified when the British journalist Lady Grace Drummond-Hay wrote, and millions read, that:


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: "Graf Zeppelin" was greeted by large crowds on most of its early voyages. There were 100,000 at Moscow and possibly 250,000 at Tokyo to see it. At Stockholm, spectators launched firework rockets around it, and on the return flight from Moscow it was punctured by rifle shots near the Soviet Union-Lithuania border. On one visit to Rio de Janeiro people released hundreds of small toy petrol-burning hot air balloons near the flammable craft. The airship captured the public imagination and was used extensively in advertising. On visits to England, it photographed Royal Air Force bases, the Blackburn aircraft factory in Yorkshire, and the Portsmouth naval dockyard; it is likely that this was espionage at the behest of the German government.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: During 1928, there were six proving flights. On the fourth one, Blau gas was used for the first time. "Graf Zeppelin" carried Oskar von Miller, head of the Deutsches Museum; Charles E. Rosendahl, commander of USS "Los Angeles"; and the British airshipmen Ralph Sleigh Booth and George Herbert Scott. It flew from Friedrichshafen to Ulm, via Cologne and across the Netherlands to Lowestoft in England, then home via Bremen, Hamburg, Berlin, Leipzig and Dresden, a total of in 34 hours and 30 minutes. On the fifth flight, Eckener caused a minor controversy by flying close to Huis Doorn in the Netherlands, which some interpreted as a gesture of support for the former Kaiser Wilhelm II who was living in exile there.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: In October 1928, "Graf Zeppelin" made its first intercontinental trip, to Lakehurst Naval Air Station, New Jersey, US, with Eckener in command and Lehmann as first officer. Rosendahl and Drummond-Hay flew the outward leg. Ludwig Dettmann and Theo Matejko made an artistic record of the flight.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: On the third day of the flight, a large section of the fabric covering of the port tail fin was damaged while passing through a mid-ocean squall line, and volunteer riggers (including Eckener's son, Knut) repaired the torn fabric. Eckener directed Rosendahl to make a distress call; when this was received, and nothing else was heard from the airship, many believed it was lost. After the ship arrived safely, there was some annoyance from the Lakehurst personnel that it had not answered repeated calls for its position and estimated arrival time. The crossing, the longest non-stop flight at the time, had taken 111 hours 44 minutes.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: Clara Adams became the first female paying passenger to fly transatlantic on the return flight. The ship endured an overnight gale that blew it backwards in the air and off course, to the coast of Newfoundland. A stowaway boarded at Lakehurst and was discovered in the mail room mid-voyage. The airship returned home and on 6 November flew to Berlin Staaken, where it was met by the German president, Paul von Hindenburg.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: "Graf Zeppelin" visited Palestine in late March 1929. At Rome it sent greetings to Benito Mussolini and King Victor Emmanuel III. It entered Palestine, flew over Tel Aviv and Jerusalem, and descended to near the surface of the Dead Sea, below sea level. The ship delivered 16,000 letters in mail drops at Jaffa, Athens, Budapest and Vienna. The Egyptian government (under pressure from Britain) refused it permission to enter their airspace. The second Mediterranean cruise flew over France, Spain, Portugal and Tangier, then returned home via Cannes and Lyon on 23–25 April.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: On 16 May 1929, on the first night of its second trip to the US, "Graf Zeppelin" lost four of its engines. With Eckener struggling for a suitable place to force-land, the French Air Ministry allowed him to land at Cuers-Pierrefeu, near Toulon. Barely able to control the ship, Eckener made an emergency landing. The incident, and the forced comradeship it engendered, softened France's attitude to Germany and its airships slightly. The incident was caused by adjustments that had been made by the chief engineer to the four engines that failed.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: On 4 August, the airship made it to Lakehurst on the second attempt. Aboard was Susie, an eastern gorilla who had been captured near Lake Kivu in the Belgian Congo and sold by her German owner to an American dealer. After a touring career in the US, Susie went to Cincinnati Zoo in 1931, where she died in 1947.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The American newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst's media empire paid half the cost of the project to fly "Graf Zeppelin" around the world, with four staff on the flight; Lady Hay Drummond-Hay, Karl von Wiegand, the Australian explorer Hubert Wilkins, and the cameraman Robert Hartmann. Drummond-Hay became the first woman to circumnavigate the world by air.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: Hearst stipulated that the flight in August 1929 officially start and finish at Lakehurst. Round-the-world tickets were sold for almost $3000 (), but most participants had their costs paid for them. The flight's expenses were offset by the carriage of souvenir mail between Lakehurst, Friedrichshafen, Tokyo, and Los Angeles. A US franked letter flown on the whole trip from Lakehurst to Lakehurst required $3.55 () in postage.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: "Graf Zeppelin" set off from Lakehurst on 8 August, heading eastwards. The ship refuelled at Friedrichshafen, then continued across Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to Tokyo. After five days at a former German airship shed that had been removed from Jüterbog and rebuilt at Kasumigaura Naval Air Station, "Graf Zeppelin" continued across the Pacific to California. Eckener delayed crossing the coast at San Francisco's Golden Gate so as to come in near sunset for aesthetic effect. The ship landed at Mines Field in Los Angeles, completing the first ever nonstop flight across the Pacific Ocean. The takeoff from Los Angeles was difficult because of high temperatures and an inversion layer. To lighten the ship, six crew were sent on to Lakehurst by aeroplane. The airship suffered minor damage from a tail strike and barely cleared electricity cables at the edge of the field. The "Graf Zeppelin" arrived back at Lakehurst from the west on the morning of 29 August, three weeks after it had departed to the east.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: Flying time for the four Lakehurst to Lakehurst legs was 12 days, 12 hours, and 13 minutes; the entire circumnavigation (including stops) took 21 days, 5 hours, and 31 minutes to cover . It was the fastest circumnavigation of the globe at the time.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: Eckener became the tenth recipient and the third aviator to be awarded the Gold Medal of the National Geographic Society, which he received on 27 March 1930 at the Washington Auditorium. Before returning to Germany, Eckener met President Herbert Hoover, and successfully lobbied the US Postmaster General for a special three-stamp issue (C-13, 14 & 15) for mail to be carried on the Europe-Pan American flight due to leave Germany in mid-May. Germany issued a commemorative coin celebrating the circumnavigation.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: On 26 April 1930, "Graf Zeppelin" flew low over the FA Cup Final at Wembley Stadium in England, dipping in salute to King George V, then briefly moored alongside the larger R100 at Cardington. On 18 May, it left on a triangular flight between Spain, Brazil, and the US, carrying 38 passengers, many of them in crew accommodation. The ship arrived at Recife (Pernambuco) in Brazil, docking at Campo do Jiquiá on 22 May, where 300 soldiers helped land it. It then flew to Rio de Janeiro, where there was no post to tether to, so it was held down by the landing party for the two hours of the visit.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: It flew north, via Recife, to Lakehurst; a storm damaged the rear engine nacelle, which had to be repaired in the hangar at Lakehurst. During ground handling of the airship there, it suddenly lifted, causing serious injury to one of the US Marines who was assisting. A few hours from home, when the "Graf Zeppelin" flew through a heavy hailstorm over the Saône, the envelope was damaged and the ship lost lift. Eckener ordered full power and flew the ship out of trouble, but it came within 200 feet of hitting the ground.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The Europe-Pan American flight was largely funded by the sale of special stamps issued by Spain, Brazil, and the US for franking mail carried on the trip. The US issued stamps in three denominations: 65¢, $1.30, and $2.60, all on 19 April 1930.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The second flight to the Middle East took place in 1931, beginning on 9 April. "Graf Zeppelin" crossed the Mediterranean to Benghazi in Libya, then flew via Alexandria, to Cairo in Egypt, where it saluted King Fuad at the Qubbah Palace, then visited the Great Pyramid of Giza and hovered 70 feet above the top of the monument. After a brief stop, the ship flew to Palestine where it circled Jerusalem, then returned to Cairo to pick up Eckener, who had stayed for an audience with the King. It returned to Friedrichshafen on 13 April.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The polar flight ("Polarfahrt 1931") lasted from 24 to 31 July 1931. The ship rendezvoused with the Soviet icebreaker "Malygin", which had the Italian polar explorer Umberto Nobile aboard. It exchanged of souvenir mail with the airship, which Eckener landed on the Arctic Ocean. Fifty thousand cards and letters, weighing , were flown. The costs of the expedition were met largely by the sale of special postage stamps issued by Germany and the Soviet Union to frank the mail carried on the flight.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The writer Arthur Koestler was one of two journalists on board, along with a multinational team of scientists led by the Soviet Professor Samoilowich, who measured the Earth's magnetic field, and a Soviet radio operator. The expedition photographed and mapped Franz Josef Land accurately for the first time, and came within of the North Pole. It deployed three early radiosondes over the Arctic to collect meteorological data from the upper atmosphere.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: From the beginning, Luftschiffbau Zeppelin had plans to serve South America. There was a large community of Germans in Brazil, and existing sea connections were slow and uncomfortable. "Graf Zeppelin" could transport passengers over long distances in the same luxury as an ocean liner, and almost as quickly as contemporary airliners.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: "Graf Zeppelin" made three trips to Brazil in 1931 and nine in 1932. The route to Brazil meant flying down the Rhône valley in France, a cause of great sensitivity between the wars. The French government, concerned about espionage, restricted it to a -wide corridor in 1934. "Graf Zeppelin" was too small and slow for the stormy North Atlantic route, but because of the Blau gas fuel, could carry out the longer South Atlantic service. On 2 July 1932 it flew a 24-hour tour of Britain.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: While returning from Brazil in October 1933, "Graf Zeppelin" stopped at NAS Opa Locka in Miami, Florida, and then Akron, Ohio, where it moored at the Goodyear Zeppelin airdock. The airship then appeared at the Century of Progress World's Fair in Chicago. It displayed swastika markings on the left side of the fins, as the Nazi Party had taken power in January. Eckener circled the fair clockwise so that the swastikas would not be seen by the spectators. The United States Post Office Department issued a special 50-cent airmail stamp (C-18) for the visit, which was the fifth and final one the ship made to the US.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The airship's cotton envelope absorbed moisture from the air in humid tropical conditions. When the relative humidity reached 90%, the ship's weight rose by almost . Exposure to tropical downpours could greatly add to this, but when under way the ship had enough reserve power to generate dynamic lift to compensate. In April 1935 it made a rough forced landing at Recife after it was caught in a rainstorm at low speed on the approach to land and the added weight of several tons of water caused it to sink to the ground. The lower rudder was lost, the outer envelope was ripped in several places, and a petrol tank was punctured by a palm tree.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: In late 1935 "Graf Zeppelin" operated a temporary postal shuttle service between Recife and Bathurst, in the British African colony of the Gambia. On 24 November, during the second trip, the crew learned of an insurrection in Brazil, and there was some doubt whether it would be possible to return to Recife. "Graf Zeppelin" delivered its mail to Maceió, then loitered off the coast for three days until it was safe to land, after a flight of 118 hours and 40 minutes.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: Brazil built a hangar for airships at Bartolomeu de Gusmão Airport, near Rio de Janeiro, at a cost of $1 million (equivalent to $ million in 2018 ). Brazil charged the DZR $2000 ($) per landing, and had agreed that German airships would land there 20 times per year, to pay off the cost. The hangar was constructed in Germany and the parts were transported and assembled on site. It was finished in late 1936, and was used four times by "Graf Zeppelin" and five by "Hindenburg". It now houses units of the Brazilian Air Force.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: "Graf Zeppelin" made 64 round trips to Brazil, on the first regular intercontinental commercial air passenger service, and it continued until the loss of the "Hindenburg" in May 1937.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: Eckener was outspoken about his dislike of the Nazi Party, and was warned about it by Rudolf Diels, the head of the Gestapo. When the Nazis gained power in 1933, Joseph Goebbels (Reich Minister of Propaganda) and Hermann Göring (Commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe) sidelined Eckener by putting the more sympathetic Lehmann in charge of a new airline, Deutsche Zeppelin Reederei (DZR), which operated German airships.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: On 7 March 1936, in violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Treaties, German troops reoccupied the Rhineland. Hitler called a plebiscite for 29 March to retrospectively approve the reoccupation, and adopt a list of exclusively Nazi candidates to sit in the new Reichstag. Goebbels commandeered "Graf Zeppelin" and the newly launched "Hindenburg" for the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. The airships flew in tandem around Germany before the vote, with a joint departure from Löwenthal on the morning of 26 March. They toured the country for four days and three nights, dropping propaganda leaflets, playing martial music and slogans from large loudspeakers, and broadcasting political speeches from a makeshift radio studio on "Hindenburg".


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: The crew heard of the "Hindenburg" disaster by radio on 6 May 1937 while in the air, returning from Brazil to Germany; they delayed telling the passengers until after landing on 8 May so as not to alarm them. The disaster, in which Lehmann and 35 others were killed, destroyed public faith in the safety of hydrogen-filled airships, making continued passenger operations impossible unless they could convert to non-flammable helium. "Hindenburg" had originally been planned to use helium, but almost all of the world's supply was controlled by the US, and its export had been tightly restricted by the Helium Act of 1925.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: "Graf Zeppelin" was permanently withdrawn from service shortly after the disaster. On 18 June, its 590th and last flight took it to Frankfurt am Main, where it was deflated and exhibited to visitors in its hangar. President Roosevelt supported exporting enough helium for the "Hindenburg"-class LZ 130 "Graf Zeppelin II" to resume commercial transatlantic passenger service by 1939, but by early 1938, the opposition of Interior Secretary Harold Ickes, who was concerned that Germany was likely to use the airship in war, made that impossible. On 11 May 1938, Roosevelt's press secretary announced that the US would not sell helium to Germany. Eckener, who had unsuccessfully intervened, responded that it would be "the death sentence for commercial lighter-than-air craft." "Graf Zeppelin II" made 30 test, promotional, propaganda and military surveillance flights around Europe using hydrogen between September 1938 and August 1939; it never entered commercial passenger service. On 4 March 1940, Göring ordered "Graf Zeppelin" and "Graf Zeppelin II" to be scrapped, and their airframes to be melted down for the German military aircraft industry.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: During its career, "Graf Zeppelin" had flown almost 1.7 million km (1,053,391 miles), the first aircraft to fly over a million miles. It made 144 oceanic crossings (143 across the Atlantic, and one of the Pacific), carried 13,110 passengers and of mail and freight. It flew for 17,177 hours (717 days, or nearly two years), without injuring a passenger or crewman. It has been called "the world's most successful airship", but it was not a commercial success; it had been hoped that the "Hindenburg"-class airships that followed would have the capacity and speed to make money on the popular North Atlantic route. "Graf Zeppelin"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s achievements showed that this was technically possible.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: By the time the two "Graf Zeppelin"s were recycled, they were the last rigid airships in the world, and heavier-than-air long-distance passenger transport, using aircraft like the Focke-Wulf Condor and the Boeing 307 Stratoliner, was already in its ascendancy. Aeroplanes were faster, less labour-intensive and safer; by 1958 they developed into passenger jets like the Boeing 707 which could cross the Atlantic reliably in a few hours. By 2017 annual air passenger journeys had surpassed 4 billion.


title: LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin

text: Modern airships like the Zeppelin NT use semi-rigid designs, and are lifted by helium on their mainly sight-seeing duties.


title: Gone Home

text: Gone Home is a first-person exploration video game developed and published by The Fullbright Company. "Gone Home" was first released for Microsoft Windows, OS X, and Linux computers in August 2013, followed by console releases for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in January 2016, the Nintendo Switch in September 2018, and iOS in December 2018.


title: Gone Home

text: Set in the year 1995, "Gone Home" puts the player in the role of a young woman returning from overseas to her rural Oregon family home to find her family currently absent and the house empty, leaving her to piece together recent events. "Gone Home" does not feature much interactivity, but instead has the player explore the house at their own pace and determine what has transpired by examining items, journals, and other items left around the various rooms. The Fullbright team, having previously worked on "", took concepts and ideas from that game to craft an exploration game to engage the player in uncovering the narration by non-linear progression by searching the house, while keeping the project manageable for their small team.


title: Gone Home

text: "Gone Home" was critically praised at release. Several outlets used the game as an example of video games as art, as its non-standard gameplay format demonstrates progression of the video game industry into more artistic forms. However, this also raised the question of whether "Gone Home" should be considered a game, and led to the derogatory term "walking simulators" to describe exploration games with little interactivity, though since then, the industry has come to embrace the term. "Gone Home"s characters and story were praised for addressing LGBT issues with which some players could identify.


title: Gone Home

text: The player takes the role of Katie in the first-person view, who can move around the house and view and interact with objects. There are no defined goals in the game; however, the game encourages and rewards the player when they explore new areas of the house and search for new messages. Much of the interactivity rests upon looking at objects and notes within the house. In order to progress in the game, the player must find certain objects that unlock access to other parts of the house.


title: Gone Home

text: On 7 June 1995, 21-year-old Katie Greenbriar (voiced by Sarah Elmaleh) returns home from overseas to her family's new home in fictional Boon County, Oregon. Her family consists of her father, Terry, a failed writer who makes a living reviewing home electronics; her mother, Janice, a wildlife conservationist who recently got promoted to director; and her 17-year-old sister Samantha (voiced by Sarah Grayson). Upon arriving, she finds the house deserted, much of their possessions still in moving boxes, and a note on the door from Sam imploring Katie not to investigate what happened.


title: Gone Home

text: Searching the house, Katie begins to piece together what happened during her absence. After moving in, Samantha found it difficult to adjust to her new high school, but eventually made friends with another girl, Yolanda "Lonnie" DeSoto, a JROTC cadet. The two bonded over "Street Fighter", punk rock, grunge and the burgeoning riot grrrl movement, and after sneaking off to a concert, the two became romantically involved. After various incidents at school, Sam's parents found out about her relationship, forbade Sam to close her bedroom door while Lonnie was over, and went into denial that their daughter is a lesbian. As Lonnie was set to eventually ship out to begin her service, Sam was left distraught.


title: Gone Home

text: Two days after her farewell show, which coincides with the day of Katie's homecoming, and the week of Sam's parents going on a vacation (which is revealed to actually be a counseling trip instead of a camping trip, as they told others), Lonnie departed to her station, but eventually called Sam from a payphone to tell her that she got off the bus in Salem and she wanted them to be together. Sam's final journal entry to Katie explains that she packed up her things and took her car to find Lonnie, hoping to start a new life with her outside of Oregon. But she promises that she will one day see her again.


title: Gone Home

text: Optionally, Katie can find various other clues that provide information on additional events that happened during the time: it is implied that Janice was beginning to have romantic feelings towards a subordinate, and that Terry was berated by his father via letter about his failed writing work, as well as Sam and Lonnie's suspicion that the house was haunted by the deceased Oscar Masan, Terry's uncle and former owner of the house. It is also implied that Terry's decision to write about a character traveling back in time to 1963 to stop the Kennedy assassination may have been influenced by his own sexual abuse by Masan, which either occurred or ended in 1963, when he was 13 years old.


title: Gone Home

text: Fullbright was founded by Steve Gaynor, Karla Zimonja, and Johnnemann Nordhagen as "The Fullbright Company". The three had previously worked together at 2K Games on "". All three were drawn by the prospect of developing an exploration game influenced by "Minerva's Den" through a small independent team rather than a large company, and subsequently left 2K Games to form Fullbright. To reduce costs, the team moved into a house together in Portland, Oregon, and set up the office in the basement, with "Gone Home" being their first game. Gaynor considered their previous work on the "BioShock" games as effectively the pre-production stage for "Gone Home", allowing them to complete it within seventeen months. The rapid development was aided by first prototyping the game in ""s HPL Engine 2 (which Gaynor had prior experience with), before completing the game in the Unity 4 game engine. The game's budget was less than $200,000.


title: Gone Home

text: The initial concept for "Gone Home" was for the player to explore a smart house that included a central artificial intelligence running everything with robots running around to complete tasks. The player would have been able to change the state of the house through their actions; Gaynor compared this idea to a non-combative "System Shock" game. As they explored this idea, and recognizing the small size of their team, they considered what would change if they made the house more like a regular household without any other characters visibly present, which significantly simplified the development into something more manageable for the team. This created the focus of the game as being "no other people, no other characters, [just] you in a single environment". The reduced scope allowed them to complete the game with the three of them for programming, narrative, and 2D art assets, along with remote work from Kate Craig for the game's 3D modeling. Particularly, the smaller scope eliminated the need for any type of character modeler or animator. Craig's wife Emily Carroll, a comic artist whom Gaynor was a fan of, also assisted by designing some of the game's art asset and logos.


title: Gone Home

text: Narratively, "Gone Home" was designed around family; Gaynor had stated that for all the science fiction trappings of "Minerva's Den", its core narrative was about a man, his wife, and how the man's past was affecting that relationship, and used the same approach for "Gone Home". They placed the player as one of the members of the family to remove any type of morality of exploring a house that did not belong to them. Additionally, they established that the family had only recently moved into the home; Gaynor had worried that the player would have difficulty identifying key elements that would be present among all the other objects within a well lived-in home, while within a recent move, only objects of immediate importance would have been unpacked, making it easy for the player to focus on these. Fullbright set the game in 1995 because they considered it the most recent year in which technology had not made the majority of communication digital in nature, so that they did not have to account for how digital communication would affect their storytelling, while still keeping elements of the game familiar to players. Another source of inspiration was urban exploration, particularly Japanese "haikyo", homes long abandoned due to industrialization. Gaynor said there were mysteries about its residents that people could put together from examining the state of the abandoned home.


title: Gone Home

text: Gaynor stated that "Minerva's Den" was more focused on environmental storytelling than action-driven gameplay, and set the approach and necessary design elements they needed for "Gone Home". Other elements that informed "Gone Home" from their "BioShock" experience was non-linear levels to explore, and discovering narrative elements through audio logs that the player would have to actively seek out, both which supported the exploration elements of the game. Gaynor also considered the approach that Looking Glass Studios used for developing immersive sims. One challenge that Fullbright considered was that not every player would necessarily find every narrative clue for the various plot elements, and so it was necessary for them to make the story flexible enough that the player could understand these narratives without necessarily seeing every element they designed. Gaynor was aware this approach to a game would be considered unconventional, so they did not set out to make something avant-garde but instead more as a proof of concept that such games could be immersive to draw the player in to fully explore and come to understand the narrative themselves.


title: Gone Home

text: The game features music from the riot grrrl bands Heavens to Betsy and Bratmobile; Fullbright knew of their Portland-based label Kill Rock Stars, and worked early on with them to secure the rights to the music once they had settled on the locale and time period. After showing the game at Grrrl Front Fest, a Portland riot grrrl music festival, it attracted the attention of a local band, The Youngins, who went on to provide the music for Girlscout, the fictional band in the game. The game's original musical score was composed by Chris Remo, Gaynor's friend and co-host from the "Idle Thumbs" podcast, and featuring over 30 minutes of music that accompany the game's main exploration gameplay, with unique music also scored to each of the game's audio logs.


title: Gone Home

text: A console version of the game was in development by Midnight City; however, this was later cancelled following Midnight City's closure in March 2015. Later, the development of the console port for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One were switched to Majesco Entertainment, and were released on 12 January 2016. These ports included enhanced graphics and audio, and used the updated Unity 5 game engine.


title: Gone Home

text: "Gone Home" was released for the Nintendo Switch on 6 September 2018 through support of publisher Annapurna Interactive. The Switch version includes licensed Super Nintendo Entertainment System game cartridge artwork on in-game objects, replacing fictional cartridges used in other versions, as part of the game's collaboration with Nintendo. Celebrating the game's fifth anniversary, Annapurna Interactive, in collaboration with iam8bit, announced a limited physical release of the game for the Nintendo Switch, alongside a limited vinyl record release for the game's soundtrack, which launched in 2019.


title: Gone Home

text: "Gone Home" received very positive reviews from game journalists. At Metacritic, the game holds an 86/100 score based on 56 critic reviews.


title: Gone Home

text: Emily Morganti for "Adventure Gamers" commented that "Gone Home" had a "realistic, engrossing story that's beautifully told through environmental clues and audio narration" and that "many people read books for the opportunity to see life through someone else’s eyes, but it’s rare for a game to do it as well as this one does." The "Financial Post"s Matthew Braga also noted that "This is a game that some will hold up as forward-thinking evidence in the ongoing debate of games-as-art", adding that the game was made to "plumb the depths of experience outside of gaming's typically targeted white, male, youthful core." However, "Eurogamer" editor Oli Welsh stated "The Fullbright Company has built a fine house for intimate storytelling in games, but it hasn't found the story to live in it yet."


title: Gone Home

text: The game's LGBT themes were praised. Fullbright reported receiving numerous feedback not only from LGBT players of the game that appreciated how they told the story and how such people have to do deal with rejection by their family, but also from players who had opposed LGBT rights who found the game presented the issues related to LGBT to change their mind on the subject. Fullbright also received some criticism from players from focusing on LGBT themes at the expense of other story elements. Due to statements made by the organizers of PAX Prime that Fulbright considered derogatory towards LGBT, the company pulled out of showing "Gone Home" at the Indie MEGABOOTH showcase during the 2013 PAX Prime event, stressing the importance of respecting LGBT issues. In the wake of this, PAX announced that it would establish Diversity Hubs at its future events for "attendees to find information related to issues surrounding women, LGBTQ, people of color, disabled people, and mental health issues in gaming".


title: Gone Home

text: Some reporters have considered the question of whether "Gone Home" should be considered a video game, as it lacks the normal interactivity one would normally have with a video game. Gaynor asserted that "Gone Home" was specifically developed for the video game medium, stating that they considered it an "edited discussion" between Fullbright and the player, as "[t]he content that you encounter appears differently than for someone else. It is unique to each user and their interpretation. The interactivity of it makes the experience unique to yourself." Gaynor used the example of the ability to turn lights on or off in any room in the house as an example of this. They included this interactivity as they had developed the game, they found that this gave a means for players to track if they had been within a room before or not, since the house starts otherwise dark, so he considered this one method by which they know what players would likely want to do and providing them means for them to do that, thus making the experience interactive. The lack of interactivity led to "Gone Home" to be called "walking simulators" at its release, though since then, the industry has come to accept "walking simulators" to describe similarly contemplative narrative games with little direct interactivity, like "The Stanley Parable", "Firewatch", and "What Remains of Edith Finch". "Gone Home"s approach to exploratory storytelling was a point of influence for parts of "" and "Prey". "Polygon" named "Gone Home" among most important game of the 2010s for how it shifted games to focus on exploration and narrative over purely active gameplay.


title: Gone Home

text: Due to both the atypical nature of "Gone Home" and its narrative centered around LGBT issues, it became a central point of discussion at the onset of the Gamergate controversy in August 2014. A portion of video game players, some who supported the Gamergate movement, criticized games like "Gone Home" and "Depression Quest" for lacking the qualities of normal video games while earning praise from the gaming press, as well as including topics like LGBT issues. Critics countered that these elements are part of considering video games as an art form, demonstrating how the medium is changing.


title: Gone Home

text: By September 2013, Fullbright announced that the game had sold more than 50,000 copies. By February 2014, sales had reached 250,000 copies. By the time of release of "Tacoma", Fullbright's second game released in October 2017, "Gone Home" had sold more than 700,000 copies.


title: Gone Home

text: The game was also nominated for "Excellence in Narrative" for the Independent Games Festival for 2013.


title: Gone Home

text: "Gone Home" was nominated for several categories at the 2014 Game Developers Choice Awards, including "Game of the Year", "Innovation Award", "Best Narrative", and "Best Downloadable Game", while Fullbright won as a studio for "Best Debut" for "Gone Home".


title: Gone Home

text: The game won the 2013 British Academy Games Awards for best "Debut Game" while nominated for "Best Story".


title: Kyle Walker-Peters

text: Kyle Leonardus Walker-Peters (born 13 April 1997) is an English professional footballer who plays as a full-back for Premier League club Southampton and the England national team.


title: Kyle Walker-Peters

text: Walker-Peters was born in Edmonton, London. His uncle Phil Walker was a professional footballer who played for Millwall and Charlton Athletic.


title: Kyle Walker-Peters

text: Walker-Peters signed for Tottenham Hotspur on 1 July 2013. In May 2015, he made his senior team debut in the post-season tour of Malaysia and Australia. In December 2015, he received Premier League Under-21 player of the month for Spurs. February 2017 saw Walker-Peters sign a new contract until 2019.


title: Kyle Walker-Peters

text: At the start of the 2017–18 season Walker-Peters made his full Premier League debut against Newcastle United helping to earn Tottenham a 2–0 away victory at St James' Park. Sky Sports went on to award him Man of the Match. On 28 February 2018, he scored his first goal for Tottenham in the 6–1 win against Rochdale in the fifth round FA Cup tie.


title: Kyle Walker-Peters

text: In the 2018–19 season, Walker-Peters made his first start of the season on 31 October 2017 in the EFL Cup tie against West Ham United that Tottenham won 3–1. He also had his first appearance in the Premier League this season as a substitute in game against Leicester City.


title: Kyle Walker-Peters

text: On 10 December 2018, Walker-Peters signed a new five-year contract with Tottenham following a contract signed earlier in May the same year. He made his first start in the Champions League in the group stage against Barcelona, and despite a moment of poor play that led to a Barcelona goal, he performed well to block a goal in the second half. The match ended 1–1, which sent Tottenham through into the knockout stage together with their opponents.


title: Kyle Walker-Peters

text: On 26 December 2018, Walker-Peters registered three assists during a 5–0 home win against Bournemouth, becoming the youngest player, aged 21 years and 257 days, to provide three assists in a Premier League game since Jermaine Pennant (aged 20 years and 227 days) made three in August 2003 for Leeds United against Middlesbrough.


title: Kyle Walker-Peters

text: On 29 January 2020, Walker-Peters joined fellow Premier League side Southampton on loan until the end of the season. Walker-Peters made his league debut on 15 February 2020 against Burnley which Southampton lost 2–1. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic that suspended the Premier League season, Walker-Peters would not play again for Southampton until their 3–0 victory against Norwich on 19 June 2020. Walker-Peters ended the season with ten appearances for Southampton.


title: Kyle Walker-Peters

text: On 11 August 2020, he signed a permanent, five-year deal with the club for a reported fee of £12 million. On 12 September 2020, Walker-Peters started his first game since his permanent switch in a 1–0 defeat to Crystal Palace. He was initially shown a straight red card by referee Jon Moss, but after Moss reviewed the pitchside monitor the decision was downgraded to a yellow card. On 6 November 2020, Walker-Peters appeared in a 2–0 victory against Newcastle which sent Southampton to the summit of the English top flight for the first time since 1988.


title: Kyle Walker-Peters

text: On 25 January 2021, Southampton manager Ralph Hasenhüttl said that Walker-Peters had sustained a muscle injury. On 11 February 2021, Walker-Peters returned from injury and started in the FA Cup against Wolves which ended in a 2–0 victory. Walker-Peters ended the season with 35 appearances in all competitions.


title: Kyle Walker-Peters

text: On 2 August 2021, Southampton signed right-back Tino Livramento for £5 million, adding competition for Walker-Peters. With the addition of Livramento, Walker-Peters starred as a left-back during parts of the season. On 22 August 2021, Walker-Peters made his first appearance of the season in Southampton’s 1–1 draw with Manchester United after he replaced Romain Perraud. On 25 August 2021, Walker-Peters scored his first professional goal for Southampton in an 8–0 away victory against Newport County in the EFL Cup. It was their biggest away win in their history.


title: Kyle Walker-Peters

text: On 22 January 2022, Walker-Peters scored his first Premier League goal in a 1–1 draw against Manchester City.


title: Kyle Walker-Peters

text: Born in England, Walker-Peters is of Jamaican descent. He was selected to take part in the 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup by coach Paul Simpson. He played in five matches and the final in which he helped England to win a first World Cup since 1966.


title: Kyle Walker-Peters

text: On 21 March 2022, Walker-Peters earned his first call-up to the senior England squad for friendlies against Switzerland and the Ivory Coast. Five days later, he made his senior debut in a 2–1 victory against Switzerland.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The Nigerian Navy (NN) is a branch of the Nigerian Armed Forces. It is among the largest navies on the African continent, consisting of several thousand personnel, including those of the Coast Guard.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The Nigerian Navy owes its origin to the Nigerian Marine. Formed in 1914 after the amalgamation of the then Northern and Southern Nigeria, the Nigerian Marine, as it became known after 1914, was a quasi-military organization. This force expanded to become the Southern Nigerian Marine in 1893. A Northern Nigeria equivalent was formed in 1900. The two Marines were merged in 1914. Responsibilities included administration of the ports and harbours, dredging of channels, buoyage and lighting. It also operated ferry services, touring launches, and other small craft that plied the various creeks and other inland waterways.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The first of these new organizations was the Nigerian Ports Authority, which was charged with the running of ports and ensuring safe navigation. The second organisation was the Inland Waterways Department, which took over the running of ferries and touring launches. The third organisation was the Nigerian Naval Force, made up mostly of reserve Royal Navy officers and ex-Service personnel who had been transferred to the Nigerian Ports Authority from the defunct Nigerian Marine. Its primary responsibility was to train the personnel and set up the appropriate infrastructure necessary for the planned Navy. The first basic training establishment for the future Navy—the HMNS Quorra—was started on 1 November 1957 with 60 junior ratings, who underwent a 6-month basic seamanship course.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: In July 1959, the Nigerian Naval Force was transformed into a full-fledged Navy when Queen Elizabeth II granted permission for it to use the title "Royal Nigerian Navy". The title was changed to the "Nigerian Navy" in 1963 after Nigeria became a republic. The constitutional task of the Navy was expanded in 1964 after the repeal of the 1958 Ordinance. The new law, known as the Navy Act of 1964, for the first time tasked the Navy with the "naval defence of Nigeria". Other tasks assigned to the Navy by the 1964 Act were essentially coast guard duties, namely assisting in the enforcement of customs laws, making hydrographic surveys, and training officers and men in naval duties.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: These tasks were essentially routine functions of any navy. Consequently, the naval leadership began to mount pressure on the political leadership to re-define the constitutional role of the navy. In 1993, this pressure yielded the desired result and under a new law, Armed Forces Decree 105 (now known as the Armed Forces Act), was incorporated as part of the 1999 Constitution. The Nigerian Navy was given expanded military and constabulary roles, especially in the oil and gas sectors of the Nigerian maritime economy.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The NN is currently structured into 9 Branches at the Naval Headquarters, 5 commands and a number of autonomous units. The 5 commands are made up of 3 operational commands – Western Naval Command, Central Naval Command and Eastern Naval Command with headquarters located at Apapa, Yenagoa and Calabar- as well as the Training and Logistics Commands with headquarters at Apapa and Oghara respectively. Each of the 5 commands is headed by a Flag Officer of the rank of Rear Admiral. The NN autonomous units include Naval Ordnance Depot (NOD), Naval Doctrine and Assessment Centre (NDAC) and Navy Holdings Limited (NHL). Navy Holdings has 9 subsidiary companies. These include Naval Dockyard Limited (NDL), Naval Shipyard Limited (NSYL), Naval Building & Construction Company Limited (NBCCL), Navy Hotels & Suites Limited (NHSL), Navy Micro Finance Bank Limited (NMFBL), Navy Maritime Services Limited (NMSL), Naval Exchange (NAVEX), Naval Engineering Services Limited (NESL) and Navy Clearing and Forwarding Services Limited (NCFSL). The autonomous units and support facilities enable the NN to maintain the fleet and personnel for sustained operations. The NN has also, recently, established a Project Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation Directorate at the NHQ for better management of NN projects.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The Naval Headquarters is the administrative and policy-making organ of the Nigerian Navy. At its head is the Chief of the Naval Staff, who exercises full command of the Nigerian Navy. The Chief of Naval Staff has seven staff branches in addition to the Office of the Navy Secretary. The branches are: Policy and Plans, Training and Operations, Administration, Naval Engineering, Logistics, Accounts and Budget, and Safety and Standards. These branches are headed by Principal Staff Officers of flag rank.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The position is often occupied by the most senior commissioned officer appointed by the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Nigeria.The Chief of the Naval Staff reports to the Chief of Defence Staff, who also reports to the Defence Minister.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The Statutory duty of the Officer is to formulate and execute policies towards the highest attainment of National Security and operational competence of the Nigerian Navy.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The current Chief of Naval Staff is Vice Admiral Awwal Zubairu Gambo, who was appointed on 26 January 2021, by President Muhammadu Buhari to succeed Ibok Ekwe Ibas.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The table below is a chronological list of officers holding the position of Chief of the Naval Staff.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: Directly under the Naval Headquarters are three operational commands (Western Naval Command, Eastern Naval Command, and Central Naval Command), one training command, one logistics command, and several autonomous units.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The Western Naval Command Headquarters is located at Apapa in Lagos. It covers the sea and coastal areas from the Nigeria/Benin border at Long 002o 49’ E to Long 005o E in Delta State, from the Nigerian coastline to the limit of the nation's exclusive economic zone. The command has the following units under its jurisdiction:


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The Western Command is headed by a Flag Officer Commanding who is of the rank of Rear Admiral. The previous Flag Officers Commanding are Rear Admiral RO Osondu, Rear Admiral FD Bobai, Rear Admiral SAG Abbah, Rear Admiral OH Ngalabak., Rear Admiral Oladele Bamidele Daji and Rear Admiral Barabutemegha Jason Gbassa. The current Flag officer commanding is Rear Admiral Yakubu Bala Wambai.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The Eastern Naval Command is the second operations command of the Nigerian Navy and covers the sea area from Long 006o 30'E in Delta State to the Nigeria/Cameroon border at Long 008o 30’ E, and from the Nigerian coastline to the limit of the nation's exclusive economic zone. The headquarters is at Calabar. The Command has the following units under its jurisdiction:


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The Central Naval Command is the third operations command of the Nigerian Navy. The headquarters is in Yenagoa in Bayelsa State. Its area of responsibility stretches from the Benin River entrance (Long 0050 00'E) to the Santa Barbara River entrance (Long 0060 30'E), encompassing the coastal states of Bayelsa, Delta, and Edo, and the landward states, including Kogi.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The main functions of the Naval Training Command are the coordination and harmonization of training doctrines and standards for all local training in the Nigerian Navy, as evolved by the Naval Headquarters. The Command is headed by the Flag Officer Commanding, who is assisted by nine principal staff officers, namely: the Command Staff Officer, the Command Technical Training Officer, Command Logistic Training Officer, and Command Medical Training Officer. Others are the Command Academic Training Officer, CABO, CAO, CINTO and CPM. The units under the Naval Training Command are:


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The Logistics Command is headed by a Flag Officers Commanding of Rear Admiral rank. The permanent headquarters is at Oghara, Delta State. However, the Nigerian Navy Order establishing the Logistics Command has been released and the command has since started operation. The order stipulates the organization and responsibilities of the command.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The autonomous units are those units which require prudent management and high-level control that need not be duplicated or represented at the lower hierarchy. Though small in size, they report directly to the Chief of the Naval Staff. Prominent among the autonomous units is the Nigerian Naval Dockyard, located in Victoria Island, Lagos. Hitherto, third line maintenance had been carried out either in foreign dockyards or private ones in Nigeria, at very high cost. The Naval Dockyard in Lagos, which was commissioned on 27 August 1990, now takes care of high level maintenance, such as major overhaul of ships engines, additions and alterations, and modification of designs. The Naval Shipyard in Port Harcourt was also acquired in 1990 from Messrs Witt and Bush. Smaller ships of the Nigerian Navy and merchant ships are repaired there. The shipyard has built and delivered some tugboats and barges to some private organizations.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The 101 Squadron was established in 1985, based at Navytown, near Ojo. It operated AgustaWestland Lynx helicopters for anti-submarine warfare and search and rescue (SAR) operations from the Meko class frigate NNS "Aradu". For quite some time, the Squadron has operated Agusta 109 Helicopters from Warri Naval Base on anti-smuggling and oil protection duties.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: There are four main departments on Nigerian Navy ships. These are operations, marine engineering, weapon engineering, and logistics. An officer, who is referred to as the head of department, is in charge of each department. He reports directly to the commanding officer on operational matters or through the Executive Officer on all administrative matters. The Executive Officer is the second in command on all naval ships, as well as being the head of the Operations Department on smaller ships. On larger ships the Executive Officer remains the second in command, but the Principal Warfare Officer is the leg of the Operations Department. In the ratings cadre, the most senior seaman rating is referred to as the Coxswain. The Coxswain (E.M.T) more like M.P, is responsible for organizing the ratings for work and discipline.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The Special Boat Service is a special operations unit of the Nigerian Navy. It is a male only outfit fashioned after the Royal Navy's Special Boat Service. It is predominantly focused on, but not restricted to; littoral and riverine operations, including reconnaissance and surveillance; covert beach reconnaissance in advance of an amphibious assault; recovery or protection of ships and oil installations subject to hostile state or non-state action; maritime counter-terrorism; and offensive action.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: On 21 April 2020, ten SBS commandos boarded the "Tommi Ritscher", a container ship captured by pirates off the shore of Benin. Benin authorities gave the SBS commandos a letter of commendation.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: On 3 September 2018, in an official ceremony held at the Naval Dockard in Lagos, the Nigerian Navy commissioned six new Ocea fast patrol boats and ten new small boats. The patrol boats include two FPB 110 MKII hulls – "Nguru" (P 187) and "Ekulu" (P 188) delivered earlier this year by France's Ocea Shipbuilding company – and four smaller FPB 72 MKII hulls – "Shiroro" (P 185), "Ose" (P 186), "Gongola" (P 189), and "Calabar" (P 190). All vessels were delivered between late 2017 and April 2018.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The six new Ocea fast patrol boats came on the heels of a Two new Ocea FPB 110 MK II Fast Patrol Boats delivered to the Nigerian Navy. Ocea has previously delivered 7 units of the FPB 72 MK II boats in three batches: three in 2012, one FPB 98 in 2013, two in 2017 and two in January of this year. The FPB 72 and FPB 98 were ordered by the Nigerian Port Authority but handed over to the Nigerian Navy.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: On October, Paramount Maritime Holding, a South African-based defense company revealed that the Nigerian Navy has placed an order for 15 new build Rigid Hull Inflatable Boats (RHIB). The order which comprises 8.5 metre and 9.5 metre Guardian fast patrol boats amongst others would also includes training for the Nigerian Navy and maritime personnel.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: On 8 September 2018, the Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety Agency handed over its AgustaWestland AW139 Search and Rescue helicopter to the Nigerian Navy.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: On 10 December 2021, Nigeria's President Muhammadu Buhari commissioned 118 newly acquired ships and boats, including a helicopter, as part of his administration's drive to boost the capacity of the Nigerian Navy.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: The Nigerian Navy possesses one MEKO 360 Type H1 frigate, NNS Aradu, which just completed a refit in 2020 and now awaits for a new role as a combat training ship for Nigeria's plan to buy new frigates.


title: Nigerian Navy

text: Nigeria's mid- and long-term acquisition plans aim to fill some of these capability gaps. For example, the keel for a Damen LST-100 class landing ship for amphibious operations and force projection has been laid.


title: Serious Sam

text: Serious Sam is a video game series created and primarily developed by Croteam. It consists predominantly of first-person shooters. The series follows the advances of mercenary Sam "Serious" Stone against Mental, an extraterrestrial overlord who attempts to destroy humanity at various points in time. The first game, "", was released for Microsoft Windows in March 2001. Several spin-offs were developed by other developers, such as a Palm OS conversion of "The First Encounter" by InterActive Vision, "" (on GameCube and PlayStation 2) by Climax Solent, and "Serious Sam Advance" (on Game Boy Advance) by Climax London. All three were published by Global Star Software.


title: Serious Sam

text: Croteam created a proprietary engine for use in both "" and "". At the time Croteam was making "Serious Sam", licensing other engines was costly (upwards of ), so they made their own from scratch, following the feature set of the first "Doom" engine, which simulated 3D spaces in 2D, and did not include up or down targeting. As they were creating their own, both "Duke Nukem 3D" (which added up-and-down freelook) and "Quake" (a fully 3D rendered environment) were released, requiring Croteam to incorporate these features into their engine for their game to be competitive. Development was further complicated when the first 3D accelerators were released, forcing Croteam to develop for hardware rendering over software. Recognizing they needed to bring something new to what other games were pushing at that time, Croteam decided that they would make their Serious Engine support extremely large environments, with virtual view distances of over a kilometre, physics support, and capable of rendering up to a hundred enemies on screen at a time, and do this on the processing power of what current low-end computers using the original Pentium CPUs could handle. The team devised ways of doing object path caching so that they only had to perform collision detection with environmental features every few seconds rather than every cycle. Collision detection was also sped up by approximating the environment with spheres rather than boxes. This also enabled them to have multidirection gravity which was used for some of the game's secret areas.


title: Serious Sam

text: Serious Engine 1 is available as open-source software. A more powerful iteration of the Serious Engine was developed for use in "Serious Sam 2" and is known as Serious Engine 2. It supports many features of modern GPUs such as pixel and vertex shaders, HDR, bloom and parallax mapping. Serious Engine 3 was used in "" and "". It includes detailed shading, and enemies are re-modelled to look more realistic. This engine is also being developed to harness the full capacity of HDR and high definition mapping. An updated version, Serious Engine 3.5, is used in "Serious Sam 3".


title: Serious Sam

text: After the release of both HD remakes of the original "Serious Sam" episodes, Devolver Digital re-released both classic encounters in 2010 and "Serious Sam 2" in 2011.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: The EF lens mount is the standard lens mount on the Canon EOS family of SLR film and digital cameras. EF stands for "Electro-Focus": automatic focusing on EF lenses is handled by a dedicated electric motor built into the lens. Mechanically, it is a bayonet-style mount, and all communication between camera and lens takes place through electrical contacts; there are no mechanical levers or plungers. The mount was first introduced in 1987.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: The standard autofocus lens mounting technology of the time used a motor in the camera body to drive the mechanics of the focus helicoid in the lens by using a transfer lever. The key innovation of the EF series was to use a motor inside the lens itself for focusing. This allowed for autofocusing lenses which did not require mechanical levers in the mount mechanism, only electrical contacts to supply power and instructions to the lens motor. The motors were designed for the particular lens they were installed in.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: The EF mount reversed the mechanical logic of the FD mount. The FD mount provided the three-eared bayonet fitting on the camera body, and each FD lens provided a breech-lock receptacle to register and fasten the lens to the bayonet. The EF mount reverses this logic, providing the bayonet on each lens, and a receptacle on the camera body.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: The EF mount also changed the logical clamping action of the bayonet receptacle to improve the tactical operation. Attaching an FD lens to a camera body required two hands: one to hold the lens in position, and a second to twist the breech-lock ring to rigidly lock the lens to the camera. The EF mount instead provides leaf springs in the receptacle, which hold the registration surfaces of the lens and receptacle together along the optical axis, while the manual twisting action engages a spring-loaded registration pin in the receptacle which drops into a recess provided on the bayonet fitting, locking the rotation. This EF mount feature provided the convenience of attaching EF lenses with one hand (holding the lens and twisting), versus two hands (one to hold the lens, one to twist the breech-lock) required for the FD attachment. An EF lens may also be removed with one hand by gripping the base of the lens and pressing the nearby release button with the tip of thumb. The one-handed skillful operation of the EF mount allows changing lenses in handheld photography, since the other hand is freed to hold the camera body.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: When the EF mount was introduced in 1987, it had the largest mount diameter (54 mm internal) among all 35 mm SLR cameras.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: The EF series includes over eighty lenses, encompassing focal lengths from 8 to 1200 mm. Many EF lenses include such features as Canon's ultrasonic motor (USM) drive, an image stabilization system (IS), diffractive optics (DO) and, particularly for L-series lenses, fluorite and aspherical lens elements.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Its large diameter and relatively short flange focal distance of 44.0 mm allows mechanical adaptation of EF camera bodies to many types of non-EF lenses. It is possible to mount lenses using the Nikon F mount, Olympus OM, Leica R and universal M42 lens mounts (among others) by the use of a mechanical adapter without electronic control of the aperture or autofocus. In contrast, parfocal adaptation of EF lenses to non-EF camera bodies is not possible with only a mechanical adapter that does not contain optical elements.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Lenses for the earlier Canon FD lens mount are not usable for general photography on an EF mount cameras, unless adapters with optical elements are used because they are made for a flange focal distance of only 42.0 mm. Most of these lenses require autofocus and aperture motors inside the body which isn't available in EOS bodies. Infinity focus would be lost with an adapter which lacks optical elements. The Canon FD-EOS adapter is rare and is only usable with certain FD telephoto lenses. With a manual connection, the aperture and focus controls of the lens cannot be controlled or read from the camera; the lens must be focused manually. Since the only possible metering is through-the-lens, the lens must be manually stopped down to accurately meter at anything less than full aperture. (This is called stop-down metering.)


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Compatible third-party lenses with the EF lens mount are manufactured by Yongnuo, Samyang, Schneider, Sigma, Tamron, Tokina, Cosina and Carl Zeiss. The manufacturers of these lenses have reverse engineered the EOS electronics—except Zeiss, which does not have the rights to use the autofocus or the electronic aperture control of EOS cameras . The use of these third-party lenses is not supported by Canon. Sometimes compatibility problems arise, as no third party has access to Canon's specifications for camera-to-body communication. These compatibility issues mostly occur when using a newer body with an older third-party lens. Over time, most of these issues have been resolved by the major third-party brands.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Due to the high market penetration of EF-mount lenses, other camera manufacturers began to offer EF-mount cameras. Since the EF-mount was created for SLR cameras with their long focal flange distance, mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras can use EF lenses with a mechanical adaptor that bridges the distance.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Red Digital Cinema Company offers various camera models that can be equipped with an electronic EF-mount.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Canon EF lenses typically have a number of controls, switches and physical features, used by the photographer to control the lens. The types and number of the controls can vary from lens to lens. With the most basic lenses having only a few, to the most complex having over a dozen different controls and switches.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: This is a list of the different controls and switches found on most Canon EF lenses, along with a detailed description on what they are used for.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Lens mount index: This raised, round red mark is found on all EF lenses. It is used for matching the EF lens mount to the mount on an EOS body, so one can connect the lens to the body quickly.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Focusing ring: This control, found on most EF lenses, is used for focusing the lens. It is usually a ring on the lens body, that can be turned.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Zoom ring: This control is found on most EF zoom lenses. It is used for changing the focal length of the lens. The zoom ring usually has certain, common, focal lengths marked on it. To set the zoom ring to any given focal length, one must turn the ring so that the marked focal length matches the zoom index. The zoom index is typically a white, or black, line found next to the zoom ring.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Distance scale window: This feature is found on many EF lenses. This feature, while not a control or switch, is useful to the photographer for determining, or setting, the lens's focus distance. It is used in conjunction with the Focusing ring. When rotated, the distance scale will also rotate to show the changing focus distance. On some lenses the distance scale also has an infrared index. These are shown as red markings below the distance scale. This is used for making focus adjustments when the photographer is doing infrared photography, as lenses typically focus infrared light at a different point than visible light, and therefore achieving correct focus using visible light will result in an out-of-focus infrared image. To make an adjustment, first focus the subject, then turn the Focusing ring so it matches the corresponding infrared index mark.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Focus mode switch: This switch is found on most EF lenses that have an autofocus feature. It is used for setting the lens to either autofocus mode, or manual focus. When set to autofocus mode (AF), the lens will autofocus when directed to by the camera. When set to manual focus (MF), the lens is focused using the Focusing ring. Some lenses support full-time manual focusing (FT-M), which allows the photographer to focus the lens manually even with the mode switch set to AF, without damaging the lens (as could happen if a lens without FT-M is manually focused while in AF mode).


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Focusing distance range limiter switch: This switch is found on most longer focal length lenses, and macro lenses. It is used for limiting the focusing distance range of the lens when using it in autofocus mode. Most lenses have two settings; these are usually full focus range (from minimum focus distance to infinity), and distant focus range (from halfway point of focus range to infinity). Other lenses have three settings, with the additional setting usually being near focus range (from minimum focus distance to halfway point of focus range). Longer focal length lenses and macro lenses have a relatively long travel distance for the focusing mechanism inside the lens; this feature shortens the autofocus time. When the photographer knows they will not need a certain part of the focus distance range, limiting it will help shorten the autofocus time, and possibly prevent "focus hunting".


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Soft focus ring: This ring is found only on the 135 mm 'Soft Focus' prime lens, and enables a variable soft focus effect from completely sharp (0) to very soft (2), although it has little effect when used with apertures over f/5.6. Although the ring can be set to any position, two 'stops' are implemented at positions 1 and 2.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Image stabilizer switch: This switch is found on all EF lenses that feature an image stabilizer. It is used for turning the image stabilizer "on"( | ), or "off"( o ).


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Image stabilizer mode switch: This switch is found on many EF lenses that feature an image stabilizer, particularly those of longer focal lengths. The switch has two settings on most lenses: Mode 1 and Mode 2. The newest IS Mark II versions of certain EF super telephoto lenses (the 300mm f/2.8L, 400mm f/2.8L, 500mm f/4L, and 600mm f/4L), plus the 200–400mm f/4L IS and 100–400mm f/4–5.6L IS II, have a third setting, Mode 3. Mode 1 is normal mode, used for typical photography, where the subject does not move. Mode 2 is used for panning; this is useful for sports or wildlife photography, where the subject moves constantly and one will need to pan. Mode 3, intended to track action, is similar to Mode 2 in that it ignores panning; however, it only applies stabilization when the shutter is released—the viewfinder image is not stabilized. One should not use Mode 1 for panning as this will typically cause blurred photographs; the image stabilizer will attempt to correct for all motion, including the panning motion, but cannot do so due to the limited range of motion of the IS mechanism. Older lenses that have an image stabilizer, but do not feature this switch, are permanently in Mode 1. Some newer lenses, such as the Canon EF-S 18-200mm lens, are able to detect if they are being panned in either axis and will automatically disable the stabilization for the axis parallel to movement and therefore do not require this switch.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Autofocus stop buttons: These buttons are found on some super telephoto EF lenses, evenly spaced around the front collar of the lens. They are used for temporarily stopping the autofocus feature of the lens. Only one button needs to be pressed to activate the feature. To use this button, one must first have the autofocus active, then when one wishes to halt autofocus, one presses and holds the button. To resume autofocus, one releases the button. Some newer bodies allow these buttons to be assigned to perform other functions; for instance, the Canon EOS 7D allows the photographer to set these buttons to perform any of six functions.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Focus preset: The focus preset feature is found on most super telephoto EF lenses. The focus preset feature uses one switch, one button, and one ring. It is used for presetting a given focus distance into memory, so that the photographer can quickly recall the focus distance, without the need for autofocus. The switch has three settings "off"( o ), "on"( | ), or "on with sound"( (- ), and is used for turning on the feature, and deciding if sound is desired. The "set" button is used for saving the focus distance into memory. The focus preset ring is used for recalling the memory save point. It is a thin knurled ring, usually located in front of the Focusing ring. To use this feature, one must set the switch to either "on" or "on with sound", focus the lens to the desired distance, then press the "set" button. After this, when the feature is turned on, the photographer can turn the focus preset ring, and the lens will recall and focus quickly to the distance that was saved. This feature is useful for sports and birding photography (for instance, to allow rapid focusing on the goal or on a spot where the birds may perch).


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Filter mounting: This mount is used for attaching filters to EF lenses. There are three types: front threaded mount, inner drop-in mount, and rear gelatin holders. Front threaded filters are used on most lenses, and are attached by threading and tightening the filter. Inner, drop-in filter mounts are used on super telephoto EF lenses. They are attached by first pressing the two buttons on the filter mount, and pulling it out. Then either a round threaded filter is attached, or one can use a gelatin filter. Rear gelatin filter holders are used by cutting out a sheet of gelatin, to the size shown on the back of the lens and then sliding it into the holder. Filter mounts are useful for all types of photography, and every EF lens has either one or two of the three types used.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Lens hood mount: This feature is found on most EF lenses. This mount is used for attaching the lens hood. The hood mount is of a bayonet style on most EF lenses, though a clip-on style hood mount is used for a small selection of current lenses.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Tripod collar: This feature is found on most longer focal length lenses, and macro lenses. The tripod collar is used for attaching the tripod ring. There are two main styles of tripod rings. One type is opened up, placed on the lens' tripod collar, then closed and tightened. The other type does not open, but instead is slid up the lens from the mount end (which can only be done when the lens is not mounted on a camera body) and tightened. To set the tripod ring so that it is level with the lens, rotate the ring until the index mark on the tripod ring matches the index mark on the distance scale. The tripod ring is used for attaching a tripod/monopod near to the point of balance of the lens-body combination, more conveniently than the camera body. In the case of larger and heavier lenses, there is also less strain on the lens mount if the body is supported by the tripod-mounted lens than if the lens were to be supported by a tripod-mounted body.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Ultrasonic motor (USM) lenses appeared with the introduction of the EF 300 mm 2.8L USM lens in 1987. Canon was the first camera maker to successfully commercialise the USM technology. EF lenses equipped with USM drives have fast, silent and precise autofocus operations, and consume less power compared to other AF drive motors.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: There are three types of USMs: "ring-type USM", "micromotor USM", and "Nano USM". Ring-type USM allows for full-time manual focus (FT-M) operations without switching out of AF mode. Micromotor USM is used to bring down the cost of the lens. It is possible to implement FT-M even with micromotor USM; however, it requires additional mechanical components, and the vast majority of micro-USM lenses do not offer such capability. Nano USM was introduced in 2016 with the release of Canon's latest iteration of the EF-S 18–135mm lens. It is intended to offer the AF speed of ring-type USM with the quietness of STM mechanisms (see below).


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Some older USM lenses are identified with a gold ring and the word "Ultrasonic" printed in gold on the lens barrel. L lenses with USM don't have the gold ring, but they still have the word "Ultrasonic" printed on the lens barrel.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Canon announced Stepping motor (STM) lenses first in June 2012, alongside the EOS 650D/Rebel T4i/Kiss X6i.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Canon stated that this technology allows smooth and silent autofocus, and with compatible bodies (the first of which is the 650D) will provide continuous autofocus in live view and video. Unlike USM, STM lenses use focus-by-wire to enable full-time manual mode. Two main disadvantages are linked to focus-by-wire: First, the need to computationally process the input before the intended action is executed leads to a sometimes perceptible lag. Second, using the motor requires power, so when an STM lens is not connected to a camera or the camera is switched off, changing the focus is impossible.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: All stepping-motor lenses are marked with the letters "STM" on the front of the lens as part of the model designation.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: The image stabilization (IS) technology detects handheld motion and optically corrects it. It only corrects handheld motion; if the subject of the photograph is moving, IS will not stop it. It also can only stabilize so much motion, ranging from two to five stops, depending on the specific IS in the lens. Canon has released several versions of the IS system, including the following:


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: All EF lenses that support IS have the words "Image Stabilizer" written on the lens. On some of Canon's larger telephoto lenses, the words "Image Stabilizer" are etched onto a metal plate affixed to the lens.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Diffractive optics (DO) are special lens elements that are used in some lenses. DO lenses are usually smaller and lighter and are better at handling chromatic aberration, compared to conventional lenses of similar focal length and aperture value. They are more expensive to make. Only the EF 400 mm 4 DO IS USM, its updated Mark II version, and the EF 70–300 mm 4.5–5.6 DO IS USM contain DO elements. DO lenses have a green ring on the barrel.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Top range Canon EF lenses are designated "L-series", or "Luxury" lenses. L series lenses are compatible with the full range of EF or EF-S mounts and, as they are aimed at the high-end user, most also include environmental or weather sealing and a constant maximum aperture. All L lenses are supplied complete with a hood and a pouch or case, which are not generally included with non-L lenses. Distinctive visual cues include a red ring around the lens and an off-white colour on longer-focal-length models. The latter also helps to reflect light and reduce heat absorption and subsequent internal expansion of lens components that can affect the image quality of long focal length lenses.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: All L lenses include at least one fluorite, ultra-low-dispersion glass element, super ultra-low-dispersion glass element, and/or certain types of aspherical elements. (Note that a number of non-L lenses also use aspherical element, and at least one non-L lens has a Super UD element) Most L lenses feature an ultrasonic motor (USM) for focusing.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: In 1989 Canon was the first to create a full frame f/1.0 AF (AutoFocus) lens and the only one until today with the Canon EF 50mm f/1.0L USM.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: In 1993 Canon was the first to create an interchangeable 10× superzoom lens for SLR cameras. That lens was Canon EF 35-350mm f/3.5-5.6L USM.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: In 1993 Canon created the first Super UD (Ultra low Dispersion) lens with the Canon EF 400mm f/5.6L USM.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: In 1995 Canon created the first lens with IS (Image Stabilization). That lens was the Canon EF 75-300mm f/4-5.6 IS USM.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Canon in 2001 was the first to create a lens with DO (multi layered Diffractive Optical element) element. That lens was the Canon EF 400mm f/4 DO IS USM.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Canon in 2008 created the first lens with SWC technology (Subwavelentgh Structure Coating). That lens was the Canon EF 24mm f/1.4L II USM.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Canon in 2009 created the first lens with Hybrid IS (Image Stabilization) which compensates both angle camera shake and shift camera shake with the Canon EF 100mm f/2.8L Macro IS USM.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Canon in 2010 was the first to create a lens with Fluoride coating. That lens was the Canon EF 70-300mm f/4-5.6L IS USM.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Canon in 2011 made the first fisheye zoom lens, both circular and rectangular. That lens was the Canon EF 8-15mm f/4L Fisheye USM.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Canon in 2012 made the first wide angle lens with Image Stabilization. That lens was the Canon EF 24mm f/2.8 IS USM.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Canon in 2013 created the first telephoto with built-in 1.4× extender. That lens was Canon EF 200-400mm f/4L IS USM Extender 1.4x.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: The communication protocol between the camera and the lens is 8-data-bit, 1-stop-bit SPI (mode 3). The pins, from right to left on the lens, are:


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: The information from the lens is used by the camera body for focusing and metering, and with digital camera bodies it is used to record the lens parameters in the Exif data in the images.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: 200–400mm zoom and the 50mm Compact Macro have three additional communication pins. These additional pins are used by the Canon Extender EF adapters and the "Life-Size Converter EF" to indicate to the lens the change in focal length so that it is able to report the correct focal length and aperture to the camera body when mounted on a teleconverter. The lens also reduces autofocus speed when a teleconverter is attached to improve autofocus accuracy.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: The "I", "II", "III" Roman numeral suffix after the focal length(s) indicates the generation number. While I is used in the table below, it is not used in official Canon model numbers; the original model lacks a Roman numeral and only the second and subsequent generations have them. Roman numerals are used only when the entire model designation—focal length(s), aperture, IS, DO, L status, and motor mechanism—is identical from one version to the next. This means, for example, that when Canon introduced IS to lenses whose prior versions lacked that feature (24mm, 28mm, 35mm IS primes in 2012, 16–35mm IS zoom in 2014), the first IS versions lacked Roman numerals.


title: Canon EF lens mount

text: Canon has two further types of lenses compatible with the EF mount: Tilt-shift and the 1-5x Macro lens, which are not designated EF, but TS-E and MP-E respectively. TS stands for Tilt-shift while MP stands for macro-photo. These types of lenses are not designated EF as they are manual-focus only lenses. They do, however, retain electronic aperture control as well as focus confirmation.


title: Lincoln's Inn

text: The Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn is one of the four Inns of Court in London to which barristers of England and Wales belong and where they are called to the Bar. (The other three are Middle Temple, Inner Temple and Gray's Inn.) Lincoln's Inn, along with the three other Inns of Court, is recognised as being one of the world's most prestigious professional bodies of judges and lawyers.


title: Lincoln's Inn

text: Lincoln's Inn is situated in Holborn, in the London Borough of Camden, just on the border with the City of London and the City of Westminster, and across the road from London School of Economics and Political Science, Royal Courts of Justice and King's College London's Maughan Library. The nearest tube station is Holborn tube station or Chancery Lane.


title: Lincoln's Inn

text: Lincoln's Inn is the largest Inn, covering . It is believed to be named after Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln.


title: Lincoln's Inn

text: During the 12th and early 13th centuries, the law was taught in the City of London, primarily by the clergy. Then two events happened which ended this form of legal education: firstly, a papal bull in 1218 that prohibited the clergy from teaching the common law, rather than canon law; and secondly, a decree by Henry III of England on 2 December 1234 that no institutes of legal education could exist in the City of London. The secular lawyers migrated to the hamlet of Holborn, near to the law courts at Westminster Hall and outside the City.


title: Lincoln's Inn

text: As with the other Inns of Court, the precise date of founding of Lincoln's Inn is unknown. The Inn can claim the oldest records – its "black books" documenting the minutes of the governing council go back to 1422, and the earliest entries show that the inn was at that point an organised and disciplined body. Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln had encouraged lawyers to move to Holborn, and they moved to Thavie's Inn, one of the Inns of Chancery, later expanding into Furnival's Inn as well. It is felt that Lincoln's Inn became a formally organised inn of court soon after the earl's death in 1310.


title: Lincoln's Inn

text: At some point before 1422, the greater part of "Lincoln's Inn", as they had become known, after the Earl, moved to the estate of Ralph Neville, the Bishop of Chichester, near Chancery Lane. They retained Thavie's and Furnival's Inn, using them as "training houses" for young lawyers, and fully purchased the properties in 1550 and 1547 respectively. In 1537, the land Lincoln's Inn sat on was sold by Bishop Richard Sampson to a Bencher named William Suliard, and his son sold the land to Lincoln's Inn in 1580. The Inn became formally organised as a place of legal education thanks to a decree in 1464, which required a Reader to give lectures to the law students there.


title: Lincoln's Inn

text: During the 15th century, the Inn was not a particularly prosperous one, and the Benchers, particularly John Fortescue, are credited with fixing this situation.