title: Drillbit Taylor

text: Wade suggests hiring a bodyguard. They place an ad on the Internet, and after a series of disturbing interviews with ex-cons and hired guns, they end up selecting Drillbit Taylor. Drillbit pretends to be a martial arts expert and mercenary, but is really a homeless beggar. His real intention of becoming their bodyguard was to rob them and use the money to buy a ticket to Canada.


title: Drillbit Taylor

text: Drillbit suggests they find some common interests with Filkins and Ronnie. Ryan challenges Filkins to a rap battle, but gets carried away and ends up unintentionally humiliating him. So, an angry Filkins, alongside Ronnie, ambushes the trio. Trying out a tactic Drillbit taught them ultimately fails. The boys are furious with his teachings. But they decide to bring him to school as a substitute teacher, and in that capacity he is able to protect them. While there, Drillbit meets a teacher, Lisa Zachey, and they start a sexual relationship.


title: Drillbit Taylor

text: One morning as his mother is driving him to school, Ronnie sees Drillbit showering at the beach; his mother reveals that he is homeless. Filkins finds the boys and punches Drillbit. Later, at Wade's, they catch Drillbit's homeless friends stealing everything in sight, leaving the house completely empty. Drillbit confesses that his real name is Bob and he went AWOL from the U.S. Army and his name was Drillbit because he hurt his pinky finger in high school with a drillbit.


title: Drillbit Taylor

text: The boys fire Drillbit, who later recovers all of Wade's possessions and places them back before Wade's parents return home. Unfortunately, the boys accidentally let slip about Drillbit. Their parents take things up with the principal, who contacts the police. Filkins plays innocent and charms all the adults; Filkins continues to ridicule the boys after Drillbit's disappearance. Tensions finally burst when Filkins interrupts Wade's attempt to ask his crush, Brooke Nguyen, out. Without thinking, Wade challenges Filkins to a fight. After Ryan insults Emmit, he refuses to help them.


title: Drillbit Taylor

text: Wade and Ryan arrive at Filkins' house, where he is hosting a party; initially the duo knock him down, but he soon overpowers them. Ronnie shows up to help Filkins against them. Emmit, who has a change of heart, comes to their aid and for a while causes quite a lot of pain to Filkins, almost defeating him; but Ronnie knocks him out while he is trying to break Filkins' leg.


title: Drillbit Taylor

text: Drillbit shows up and Filkins punches him. Drillbit refuses to fight back until it is revealed Filkins is 18, no longer an emancipated minor. Hearing this, Drillbit quickly begins fighting to defend the freshmen. He doesn't attack Ronnie when he reveals he's only 17. Within minutes, the police arrive and Drillbit flees for fear of prosecution. Filkins then throws a samurai sword at the boys in retaliation, but Drillbit catches it. He saves them, at the cost of half of his pinkie. Ronnie reveals to the police that Filkins had bullied him into being his accomplice when they interview him.


title: Drillbit Taylor

text: Filkins is arrested and shipped off to Hong Kong with his parents as an alternative to being sent to prison for breaking several underage drinking laws. Wade, with renewed confidence, asks Brooke out and she accepts, while Ryan finally accepts Emmit, and declares him a friend.


title: Drillbit Taylor

text: Drillbit is taken to jail for deserting, but ends up being released within three weeks. He is reunited with Lisa and the boys and is soon employed at their school as a nurse. A post-credits scene shows a student entering the nurse's office telling Drillbit he received bruises from being beaten up. Drillbit then asks him for the name of the student, assuring he'll be safer from then on.


title: Drillbit Taylor

text: In addition, Valerie Tian plays Brooke, the girl Wade is sweet on, while cameo appearances include standup comics Kevin Hart and Lisa Lampanelli, the film's director, Steven Brill, and "bodyguard candidates" that include Israeli Defence Force martial arts expert and Israel's Heavyweight Full Contact Champion Amir Perets, UFC Light Heavyweight Champion Chuck Liddell, and Adam Baldwin, who makes a dismissive reference to the plot of his 1980 film "My Bodyguard".


title: Drillbit Taylor

text: Marketing for the movie included television promos and coming attractions previews, but actor Owen Wilson did not conduct any interviews to promote the film. Instead, Paramount Pictures had Wilson record introductions for Fox's Sunday night primetime shows such as "The Simpsons", "American Dad!", "King of the Hill", "Family Guy", and "Unhitched". The character of Drillbit was also featured as a "Superstar" on the RAW page of WWE.com for a period of time. Wilson's publicist said his availability was limited due to filming "Marley & Me".


title: Drillbit Taylor

text: John Horn and Gina Piccalo of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that the reason for Wilson's limited promotional schedule was due to studio executives being worried that interviewers would bring up Wilson's hospitalization for severe depression in the summer of 2007.


title: Drillbit Taylor

text: In its opening weekend, the film grossed $10.2 million in 3,056 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking #4 at the box office. The film has grossed $32,862,104 in the United States and $16,828,521 in other countries adding to a total worldwide gross of $49,690,625.


title: Drillbit Taylor

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of based on reviews from critics, with an average rating of . The site's consensus states: "Owen Wilson's charms can't save "Drillbit Taylor", an unfunny, overly familiar bullied-teen comedy." On Metacritic the film has a score of 41 out of 100 based on reviews from 31 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B on scale of A to F.


title: Drillbit Taylor

text: The film was released on both rated (102 minutes) and unrated (109 minutes) DVD and Blu-ray on July 1, 2008. About 620,927 units have been sold, bringing in $11,669,617 in revenue.


title: Bounty (chocolate bar)

text: Bounty is a coconut-filled, chocolate-enrobed candy bar manufactured by Mars, Incorporated, introduced in 1951 in the United Kingdom and Canada. It is a direct emulation of the Mounds bar introduced by Peter Paul in 1936, and also copies the milk chocolate enrobing of Hershey's Almond Joy, introduced in 1948. It is no longer sold in the United States.


title: Bounty (chocolate bar)

text: Bounty has a coconut filling, enrobed with milk chocolate (in a blue wrapper) or dark chocolate (in a red wrapper) and is usually sold as two small bars wrapped in one package.


title: Bounty (chocolate bar)

text: Since 2006, a cherry-flavoured version has also been available in Australia. This was initially a limited edition flavour, but remained available as of 2013. In Europe, a limited edition mango flavour was available in 2004-05 and in Russia and Ukraine in 2010. A pineapple-flavoured edition was available in Russia during 2014.


title: Bounty (chocolate bar)

text: Although Bounty is no longer distributed by Mars in the United States, similar products, such as Mounds and Almond Joy, are marketed by Hershey's.


title: Bounty (chocolate bar)

text: On 3 November 2022, it was announced that Bounty bars would be removed from some Celebrations tubs in the United Kingdom, after the manufacturers found that 40% of people hated them. A limited run of "No Bounty" tubs would be available, in the weeks before Christmas. But a final decision had not been made after 18% of people named the Bounty as their favourite.


title: Dan Inosanto

text: Dan Inosanto (born 1936) is an American martial arts instructor. Inosanto is an authority on Jeet Kune Do, Filipino Martial Arts, and Pencak Silat.


title: Dan Inosanto

text: Inosanto is credited for training martial arts to a number of Hollywood actors including Bruce Lee, Chuck Norris and others.


title: Dan Inosanto

text: Dan Inosanto began training in martial arts at the age of 11 receiving instruction from his uncle who first taught him traditional Okinawan Karate and later also Judo and Jujutsu. He was a student of Ed Parker, from whom he received a shodan rank in American Kenpo. Dan served as a paratrooper with the 101st Airborne Division from 1959 to 1961. He was also a member of the Strategic Army Corps. At Fort Campbell he refined his skills in various martial arts, training under Henry Slomanski.


title: Dan Inosanto

text: Inosanto is one of three people who have been appointed to teach at one of the three Jun Fan Gung Fu Institutes under Bruce Lee; Taky Kimura and James Yimm Lee are the other two people. Inosanto studied with different martial arts masters elsewhere in the United States, Southeast Asia, and Europe, including Johnny Lacoste and Chai Sirisute. After Bruce Lee's death, Inosanto became the principal spokesperson and historian for Jeet Kune Do. He has had minor roles in a number of films, including Bruce Lee's uncompleted last film "Game of Death" (1972). During this time period (1964–75), he also taught physical education at Malaga Cove Intermediate School in Palos Verdes Estates, California. Dan was commissioned in 1977 by the Dallas Cowboys to incorporate martial arts into the team’s training.


title: Dan Inosanto

text: The film "I Am Bruce Lee" provided Inosanto an opportunity to reveal a little-known fact about the friendship the two men shared. Inosanto was teacher to Bruce Lee, introducing him to nunchaku. Inosanto explained that he introduced the weapon to Lee, taught him the basics and some exercises to get him started on his weapons training. The "Game of Death" movie, one of the most recognizable of the Bruce Lee films, showcases the use of the nunchaku by Lee and Inosanto. He is featured as the "Black Belt" magazine's 1996 "Man of the Year".


title: Dan Inosanto

text: Inosanto holds Instructor or black belt level ranks in several martial arts. He is known for promoting the Filipino Martial Arts. He is responsible for bringing several obscure forms of the South East Asia Martial Arts into the public eye such as Silat, a hybrid combative form existing in such countries as Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. He has recently acquired his black belt in the Machado family style of Brazilian Jiu Jitsu. He trained Shoot wrestling under Yorinaga Nakamura. Currently he is the vice-president of Lameco International, carrying on the Eskrima of the late Filipino martial artist Edgar Sulite. Inosanto has appeared on YouTube videos talking about training in Systema and appreciation for his teacher, Martin Wheeler.


title: Dan Inosanto

text: Inosanto teaches The Art and Philosophy of Jeet Kune Do, Filipino Martial Arts, Shoot wrestling, Brazilian Jiu Jitsu, Eskrima, Muay Thai, Silat, mixed martial arts and other arts at his Marina del Rey, California school, the Inosanto Academy of Martial Arts.


title: Juan Santamaría International Airport

text: Juan Santamaría International Airport () is the primary airport serving San José, the capital of Costa Rica. The airport is located in the city of Alajuela, 20 km (12 miles) west of downtown San José. It is named after Costa Rica's national hero, Juan Santamaría, a drummer boy who died in 1856 defending his country against forces led by American filibuster William Walker.


title: Juan Santamaría International Airport

text: The airport is a hub for Avianca Costa Rica, Costa Rica Green Airways, Sansa Airlines, and Volaris Costa Rica and a focus city for Copa Airlines. It was the country's only international gateway for many years, but now there is also an international airport in Liberia, Guanacaste. Both airports have direct flights to North and Central America and Europe, but Juan Santamaría International Airport also serves cities in South America and the Caribbean.


title: Juan Santamaría International Airport

text: Juan Santamaría International Airport was once the busiest airport in Central America, but is currently second after Tocumen International Airport in Panamá. In 2016, Juan Santamaría International Airport received 4.6 million passengers (international and domestic). In 2011, the airport was named the 3rd "Best Airport in Latin America - Caribbean" from the Airport Service Quality Awards by Airports Council International.


title: Juan Santamaría International Airport

text: The airport was built to replace the previous one in downtown San Jose where Parque La Sabana is located today. Funding was secured by the government in 1951 and construction proceed slowly until the airport was officially inaugurated on May 2, 1958. It was initially called "Aeropuerto Internacional el Coco" after its location of the same name in the province of Alajuela. It was later renamed in honor of Juan Santamaría. In 1961, funding was secured to build the highway connecting the airport to downtown San José.


title: Juan Santamaría International Airport

text: The road access to the airport is on an exit at Route 1, and near the exit to Alajuela. There is a parking area with surcharge, plus a bus stop with plenty of services to San Jose downtown (with no exact schedule but with 24-hours bus service and approximately one service every 10 minutes during working hours). Licensed taxis are available in the airport and will generally accept both colones and U.S. dollars, but not other currencies. Costa Rican taxis are red with yellow triangles on the doors, ubiquitous all over the country, plus there is a special airport taxi service that is licensed and employs orange taxis. While the rail line linking downtown Alajuela with San José's Atlantic Station passes in close proximity to the airport, there is no station serving the airport and no rail service of any kind to the airport.


title: Juan Santamaría International Airport

text: The airport's sole runway allows operations of large widebody aircraft. Currently, some scheduled flights are operated with Airbus A330, A340 and A350, and Boeing 747, 767, 777 and 787, for both passengers and freight. A Concorde landed in 1999 for that year's airshow. Previously, the airport had a small hangar, called the "NASA" hangar, to house research aircraft, like the Martin B-57 Canberra high altitude aircraft, that were being operated in Costa Rica. After that mission was completed, the hangar was removed.


title: Juan Santamaría International Airport

text: Internationally the largest operator in the airport is Avianca and all their branches, followed by Copa Airlines which uses the Main Terminal (M), domestically the largest airline is Sansa Airlines and their flights depart from the Domestic Terminal (D). The largest US airlines at the airport by number of destinations served all year-long are American Airlines and jetBlue and the largest European airline at the airport is Iberia which is the only European airline that flies daily between Europe and San José from their base Madrid airport using an Airbus A330-200 combined with the Airbus A350-900XWB (specially in European winter season).


title: Juan Santamaría International Airport

text: No major changes were made to the terminal until November 1997 when the government issued a decree requesting participation of private companies to manage the operations of the airport. After a few years of legal challenges and contract negotiations, Alterra Partners was given a 20-year concession and started managing the facilities in May 2001. It was also expected that the company would finish the necessary expansion and construction of new facilities, however in March 2002, Alterra announced it would cease any further construction due to disagreements over financing and airport use fee billing with the government. The dispute was extended for a few years and problems started at the terminal; in 2005, the International Civil Aviation Organization pointed out that the airport did not comply with safety regulations. In July 2009, Alterra yielded the contract to a consortium composed of Houston-based Canadian-American company ADC & HAS and the Brazilian company, Andrade Gutierrez Concessoes (AGC) - subsidiary of the conglomerate Andrade Gutierrez. In December 2009, Alterra Partners changed its name to AERIS Holdings, S.A. In November 2010, Aeris announced it had finished the expansion and construction of new facilities with the installation of the 9th boarding bridge.


title: Juan Santamaría International Airport

text: The airport houses three business lounges for both special card holders and business class travellers; Avianca Club, Copa Club and VIP Lounge (for BAC Credomatic customers).


title: Juan Santamaría International Airport

text: The following airlines have scheduled direct services to and/or from Juan Santamaría International Airport:


title: Juan Santamaría International Airport

text: Volaris Costa Rica flies to Mexico City non-stop but also has flights via Guatemala City. They have fifth freedom rights to transport passengers solely between Guatemala City and Mexico City.


title: Juan Santamaría International Airport

text: Juan Santamaria International Airport is the largest and busiest airport in Costa Rica, having experienced a constant increase in traffic since its opening in 1958, boosted by the growing flow of tourists. The airport reached more than one million passengers per year for the first time in 1991 and having a record number of passengers in 2019. Traffic movements reached its highest number in 2017, while freight (in metric tons) reached a peak in 2011, with 98,609 tons.


title: Morgan Saylor

text: Morgan Frances Saylor (born October 26, 1994) is an American actress. She is best known for starring as Dana Brody in the Showtime series "Homeland", 2019's "Blow the Man Down" and for her critically acclaimed portrayal of Leah in the 2016 Sundance film "White Girl". Along with the rest of the cast of "Homeland", Saylor was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2013 and 2014.


title: Morgan Saylor

text: Saylor was born in Chicago, Illinois. Her mother is an employee at REI and her father does renovations for Starbucks; they are divorced. Saylor moved to Villa Rica, Georgia at age two, and Decatur, Georgia at age ten. Saylor graduated from Decatur High School in May 2013 and subsequently moved to New York to continue acting. She attended the University of Chicago for a few years between roles, and since 2021 has been attending the Columbia University School of General Studies.


title: Morgan Saylor

text: Saylor began acting through summer camps and community theater as a child. In fourth grade, she visited Los Angeles for the summer where she booked her first professional job: a voice-over as young Meadow in HBO's hit television series "The Sopranos". Saylor played Annie in "" in 2009 and young Claire in "Father of Invention" in 2010.


title: Morgan Saylor

text: From 2011 to 2013, Saylor played Dana Brody in "Homeland". The Showtime political thriller television series garnered nearly universal praise, especially for its first two seasons.


title: Morgan Saylor

text: In June 2014, Saylor made her stage debut at the Manhattan Theatre Club as Penny opposite Cherry Jones and Zoe Kazan in "When We Were Young and Unafraid", written by Sarah Treem and directed by Pam MacKinnon. Also in 2014, she played Gracie Highsmith in "Jamie Marks Is Dead", an adaptation of Christopher Barzak's 2007 novel "One for Sorrow", directed by Carter Smith.


title: Morgan Saylor

text: Saylor played Kevin Costner's character's daughter Julie in the sports drama "McFarland, USA", which was released on February 20, 2015. She played the role of Leah in "White Girl", for which she received great critical praise. The film was written and directed by Elizabeth Wood and premiered at the 2016 Sundance Film Festival. Saylor acted alongside Nick Robinson and Common in director Rob Reiner's film "Being Charlie". The film premiered at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival in September of that year.


title: Morgan Saylor

text: In 2017, Morgan was back at Sundance Film Festival to premiere the film "Novitiate" in which she plays a young nun opposite Melissa Leo, Margaret Qualley and Diana Agron. Later that year she starred in "Anywhere With You," formerly titled "We The Coyotes", directed by Hanna Ladoul and Marco La Via. The film premiered the following year in the ACID section of 2018 Cannes Film Festival.


title: Morgan Saylor

text: Saylor's next starring role came in "Blow the Man Down", which premiered in 2019 at Tribeca Film Festival and was released by Amazon Studios on March 20th, 2020. This film was shot on location in Harpswell, Maine.


title: Morgan Saylor

text: Saylor has a small anchor tattooed behind her left ear; her older brother has a similar, larger anchor tattooed on his forearm. As a teenager, Saylor was part of a competitive rock climbing team and was nationally ranked. Saylor lives in Bedford-Stuyvesant with her partner Ben Rosenfield.


title: Bioremediation

text: Bioremediation broadly refers to any process wherein a biological system (typically bacteria, microalgae, fungi, and plants), living or dead, is employed for removing environmental pollutants from air, water, soil, flue gasses, industrial effluents etc., in natural or artificial settings. The natural ability of organisms to adsorb, accumulate, and degrade common and emerging pollutants has attracted the use of biological resources in treatment of contaminated environment. In comparison to conventional physiochemical treatment methods which suffer serious drawbacks, bioremediation is sustainable, eco-friendly, cheap, and scalable.


title: Bioremediation

text: Most bioremediation is inadvertent, involving native organisms. Research on bioremediation is heavily focused on stimulating the process by inoculation of a polluted site with organisms or supplying nutrients to promote the growth. In principle, bioremediation could be used to reduce the impact of byproducts created from anthropogenic activities, such as industrialization and agricultural processes. Bioremediation could prove less expensive and more sustainable than other remediation alternatives.


title: Bioremediation

text: UNICEF, power producers, bulk water suppliers and local governments are early adopters of low cost bioremediation, such as aerobic bacteria tablets which are simply dropped into water.


title: Bioremediation

text: Organic pollutants are generally more susceptible to biodegradation than heavy metals. Typical bioremediations involves oxidations. Oxidations enhance the water-solubility of organic compounds and their susceptibility to further degradation by further oxidation and hydrolysis. Ultimately biodegradation converts hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide and water. For heavy metals, bioremediation offers few solutions. Metal-containing pollutant can be removed or reduced with varying bioremediation techniques. The main challenge to bioremediations is rate: the processes are slow.


title: Bioremediation

text: Bioremediation techniques can be classified as (i) "in situ" techniques, which treats polluted sites directly, vs (ii) "ex situ" techniques which are applied to excavated materials. In both these approaches, additional nutrients, vitamins, minerals, and pH buffers are added to enhance the growth and metabolism of the microorganisms. In some cases, specialized microbial cultures are added (biostimulation). Some examples of bioremediation related technologies are phytoremediation, bioventing, bioattenuation, biosparging, composting (biopiles and windrows), and landfarming. Other remediation techniques include thermal desorption, vitrification, air stripping, bioleaching, rhizofiltration, and soil washing. Biological treatment, bioremediation, is a similar approach used to treat wastes including wastewater, industrial waste and solid waste. The end goal of bioremediation is to remove or reduce harmful compounds to improve soil and water quality.


title: Bioremediation

text: Bioventing is a process that increases the oxygen or air flow into the unsaturated zone of the soil, this in turn increases the rate of natural i"n situ" degradation of the targeted hydrocarbon contaminant. Bioventing, an aerobic bioremediation, is the most common form of oxidative bioremediation process where oxygen is provided as the electron acceptor for oxidation of petroleum, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phenols, and other reduced pollutants. Oxygen is generally the preferred electron acceptor because of the higher energy yield and because oxygen is required for some enzyme systems to initiate the degradation process. Microorganisms can degrade a wide variety of hydrocarbons, including components of gasoline, kerosene, diesel, and jet fuel. Under ideal aerobic conditions, the biodegradation rates of the low- to moderate-weight aliphatic, alicyclic, and aromatic compounds can be very high. As molecular weight of the compound increases, the resistance to biodegradation increases simultaneously. This results in higher contaminated volatile compounds due to their high molecular weight and an increased difficulty to remove from the environment.


title: Bioremediation

text: Most bioremediation processes involve oxidation-reduction reactions where either an electron acceptor (commonly oxygen) is added to stimulate oxidation of a reduced pollutant (e.g. hydrocarbons) or an electron donor (commonly an organic substrate) is added to reduce oxidized pollutants (nitrate, perchlorate, oxidized metals, chlorinated solvents, explosives and propellants). In both these approaches, additional nutrients, vitamins, minerals, and pH buffers may be added to optimize conditions for the microorganisms. In some cases, specialized microbial cultures are added (bioaugmentation) to further enhance biodegradation.


title: Bioremediation

text: Approaches for oxygen addition below the water table include recirculating aerated water through the treatment zone, addition of pure oxygen or peroxides, and air sparging. Recirculation systems typically consist of a combination of injection wells or galleries and one or more recovery wells where the extracted groundwater is treated, oxygenated, amended with nutrients and re-injected. However, the amount of oxygen that can be provided by this method is limited by the low solubility of oxygen in water (8 to 10 mg/L for water in equilibrium with air at typical temperatures). Greater amounts of oxygen can be provided by contacting the water with pure oxygen or addition of hydrogen peroxide (HO) to the water. In some cases, slurries of solid calcium or magnesium peroxide are injected under pressure through soil borings. These solid peroxides react with water releasing HO which then decomposes releasing oxygen. Air sparging involves the injection of air under pressure below the water table. The air injection pressure must be great enough to overcome the hydrostatic pressure of the water and resistance to air flow through the soil.


title: Bioremediation

text: Bioremediation can be carried out by bacteria that are naturally present. In biostimulation, the population of these helpful bacteria can be increased by adding nutrients.


title: Bioremediation

text: Bacteria can in principle be used to degrade hydrocarbons. Specific to marine oil spills, nitrogen and phosphorus have been key nutrients in biodegradation. The bioremediation of hydrocarbons suffers from low rates.


title: Bioremediation

text: Bioremediation can involve the action of microbial consortium. Within the consortium, the product of one species could be the substrate for another species.


title: Bioremediation

text: Anaerobic bioremediation can in principle be employed to treat a range of oxidized contaminants including chlorinated ethylenes (PCE, TCE, DCE, VC), chlorinated ethanes (TCA, DCA), chloromethanes (CT, CF), chlorinated cyclic hydrocarbons, various energetics (e.g., perchlorate, RDX, TNT), and nitrate. This process involves the addition of an electron donor to: 1) deplete background electron acceptors including oxygen, nitrate, oxidized iron and manganese and sulfate; and 2) stimulate the biological and/or chemical reduction of the oxidized pollutants. Hexavalent chromium (Cr[VI]) and uranium (U[VI]) can be reduced to less mobile and/or less toxic forms (e.g., Cr[III], U[IV]). Similarly, reduction of sulfate to sulfide (sulfidogenesis) can be used to precipitate certain metals (e.g., zinc, cadmium). The choice of substrate and the method of injection depend on the contaminant type and distribution in the aquifer, hydrogeology, and remediation objectives. Substrate can be added using conventional well installations, by direct-push technology, or by excavation and backfill such as permeable reactive barriers (PRB) or biowalls. Slow-release products composed of edible oils or solid substrates tend to stay in place for an extended treatment period. Soluble substrates or soluble fermentation products of slow-release substrates can potentially migrate via advection and diffusion, providing broader but shorter-lived treatment zones. The added organic substrates are first fermented to hydrogen (H) and volatile fatty acids (VFAs). The VFAs, including acetate, lactate, propionate and butyrate, provide carbon and energy for bacterial metabolism.


title: Bioremediation

text: During bioattenuation, biodegradation occurs naturally with the addition of nutrients or bacteria. The indigenous microbes present will determine the metabolic activity and act as a natural attenuation. While there is no anthropogenic involvement in bioattenuation, the contaminated site must still be monitored.


title: Bioremediation

text: Biosparging is the process of groundwater remediation as oxygen, and possible nutrients, is injected. When oxygen is injected, indigenous bacteria are stimulated to increase rate of degradation. However, biosparging focuses on saturated contaminated zones, specifically related to ground water remediation.


title: Bioremediation

text: Biopiles, similar to bioventing, are used to reduce petroleum pollutants by introducing aerobic hydrocarbons to contaminated soils. However, the soil is excavated and piled with an aeration system. This aeration system enhances microbial activity by introducing oxygen under positive pressure or removes oxygen under negative pressure.


title: Bioremediation

text: Windrow systems are similar to compost techniques where soil is periodically turned in order to enhance aeration. This periodic turning also allows contaminants present in the soil to be uniformly distributed which accelerates the process of bioremediation.


title: Bioremediation

text: Landfarming, or land treatment, is a method commonly used for sludge spills. This method disperses contaminated soil and aerates the soil by cyclically rotating. This process is an above land application and contaminated soils are required to be shallow in order for microbial activity to be stimulated. However, if the contamination is deeper than 5 feet, then the soil is required to be excavated to above ground.


title: Bioremediation

text: Heavy metals become present in the environment due to anthropogenic activities or natural factors. Anthropogenic activities include industrial emissions, electronic waste, and ore mining. Natural factors include mineral weathering, soil erosion, and forest fires. Heavy metals including cadmium, chromium, lead and uranium are unlike organic compounds and cannot be biodegraded. However, bioremediation processes can potentially be used to reduce the mobility of these material in the subsurface, reducing the potential for human and environmental exposure. Heavy metals from these factors are predominantly present in water sources due to runoff where it is uptake by marine fauna and flora.


title: Bioremediation

text: The mobility of certain metals including chromium (Cr) and uranium (U) varies depending on the oxidation state of the material. Microorganisms can be used to reduce the toxicity and mobility of chromium by reducing hexavalent chromium, Cr(VI) to trivalent Cr (III). Uranium can be reduced from the more mobile U(VI) oxidation state to the less mobile U(IV) oxidation state. Microorganisms are used in this process because the reduction rate of these metals is often slow unless catalyzed by microbial interactions Research is also underway to develop methods to remove metals from water by enhancing the sorption of the metal to cell walls. This approach has been evaluated for treatment of cadmium, chromium, and lead. Genetically modified bacteria has also been explored for use in sequestration of Arsenic. Phytoextraction processes concentrate contaminants in the biomass for subsequent removal.


title: Bioremediation

text: For various herbicides and other pesticides both aerobic- and anaerobic-heterotrophs have been investigated.


title: Bioremediation

text: Bioremediation can be used to completely mineralize organic pollutants, to partially transform the pollutants, or alter their mobility. Heavy metals and radionuclides are elements that cannot be biodegraded, but can be bio-transformed to less mobile forms. In some cases, microbes do not fully mineralize the pollutant, potentially producing a more toxic compound. For example, under anaerobic conditions, the reductive dehalogenation of TCE may produce dichloroethylene (DCE) and vinyl chloride (VC), which are suspected or known carcinogens. However, the microorganism "Dehalococcoides" can further reduce DCE and VC to the non-toxic product ethene. The molecular pathways for bioremediation are of considerable interest. In addition, knowing these pathways will help develop new technologies that can deal with sites that have uneven distributions of a mixture of contaminants.


title: Bioremediation

text: Biodegradation requires microbial population with the metabolic capacity to degrade the pollutant. The biological processes used by these microbes are highly specific, therefore, many environmental factors must be taken into account and regulated as well. It can be difficult to extrapolate the results from the small-scale test studies into big field operations. In many cases, bioremediation takes more time than other alternatives such as land filling and incineration. Another example is bioventing, which is inexpensive to bioremediate contaminated sites, however, this process is extensive and can take a few years to decontaminate a site.>


title: Bioremediation

text: In agricultural industries, the use of pesticides is a top factor in direct soil contamination and runoff water contamination. The limitation or remediation of pesticides is the low bioavailability. Altering the pH and temperature of the contaminated soil is a resolution to increase bioavailability which, in turn, increased degradation of harmful compounds.


title: Bioremediation

text: The compound acrylonitrile is commonly produced in industrial setting but adversely contaminates soils. Microorganisms containing nitrile hydratases (NHase) degraded harmful acrylonitrile compounds into non-polluting substances.


title: Bioremediation

text: Since the experience with harmful contaminants are limited, laboratory practices are required to evaluate effectiveness, treatment designs, and estimate treatment times. Bioremediation processes may take several months to several years depending on the size of the contaminated area.


title: Bioremediation

text: The use of genetic engineering to create organisms specifically designed for bioremediation is under preliminary research. Two category of genes can be inserted in the organism: degradative genes which encode proteins required for the degradation of pollutants, and reporter genes that are able to monitor pollution levels. Numerous members of "Pseudomonas" have also been modified with the lux gene, but for the detection of the polyaromatic hydrocarbon naphthalene. A field test for the release of the modified organism has been successful on a moderately large scale.


title: Bioremediation

text: There are concerns surrounding release and containment of genetically modified organisms into the environment due to the potential of horizontal gene transfer. Genetically modified organisms are classified and controlled under the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 under United States Environmental Protection Agency. Measures have been created to address these concerns. Organisms can be modified such that they can only survive and grow under specific sets of environmental conditions. In addition, the tracking of modified organisms can be made easier with the insertion of bioluminescence genes for visual identification.


title: Bioremediation

text: Genetically modified organisms have been created to treat oil spills and break down certain plastics (PET).


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: "Sugar" is a song recorded by American band Maroon 5 for their fifth studio album "V" (2014). It was written by Mike Posner, Adam Levine, Dr. Luke, and Jacob Kasher Hindlin together with its producers Ammo and Cirkut. It was sent to contemporary hit radio in the United States, as the third single from the album on January 13, 2015. "Sugar" is a disco, funk-pop, and soul song that features a wide range of instruments including percussion, keyboards and guitars. Commercially, the song peaked at number two on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and became the band's third top 10 single from "V", and eighth consecutive top 10 entry. "Sugar" is the 68th song in history to score at least 20 weeks in the top 10 of the Hot 100. The song was certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2022, as their third certified single.


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: Film director David Dobkin, shot the accompanying music video for the single in Los Angeles. Inspired by the 2005 romantic comedy "Wedding Crashers", it features Maroon 5 crashing weddings that happened in the city. The video premiered on January 14, 2015, and received its television premiere on January 17. A reality television series based on the music video was released on YouTube in August 2018. The remix versions of the song were released, one featuring rapper Nicki Minaj on March 10, and the other by Matt Medved (also known as Sicarii) on November 9, 2015, respectively.


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: Since the release of his debut studio album, "31 Minutes to Takeoff" (2010), American singer and songwriter Mike Posner started writing material to be included in his follow-up record, titled "Pages". One of the songs set to be included in the album was "Sugar", which Adam Levine heard and wanted to have it on the upcoming Maroon 5 album, but Posner declined. However, in 2014, he switched labels and announced that "Pages" would not be launched, and instead a new body of music would be released. In an interview with, "Billboard", Posner elaborated, "Well, this is just gonna sit on my laptop' so I gave it to them and when they recorded the song Adam added his flavor to it and he wrote on it as well, lyrically and some melodic things, and he really sang it well. I'm a big fan, so I'm glad they did it." The final version of "Sugar" was written by Levine, Posner, Lukasz Gottwald, Jacob Kasher Hindlin, Joshua Coleman and Henry Walter. The production of the song was done by the latter two under their respective production names Ammo and Cirkut.


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: The lead vocals were sung by Levine, with backing vocals provided by Posner. "Sugar" was recorded at Conway Recording Studios in Hollywood, Dr. Luke in the Boo in Malibu and The Mothership in Sherman Oaks while it was mixed at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach. Doug McKean, Clint Gibbs, Noah Passovoy and Jonathan Sher all served as engineers of the song, while John Armstrong, Eric Eylands, Rachael Findlen and Cameron Montgomery helped them finish the engineering, serving as additional engineers. John Hanes was the mixing engineer while all the instrumentation and programming was provided by Maroon 5, Dr. Luke, Ammo and Cirkut. Artie Smith was the instrument technician. "Sugar" was announced to be the third single from "V" in November 2014. Interscope Records distributed the song to contemporary hit radio stations in the United States on January 13, 2015. The same day, the band unveiled the official artwork for the single that features red-colored lips holding a sugar cube; Mike Wass of "Idolator" called it "candy-colored".


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: "Sugar" is a disco, funk-pop, and soul song with a length of three minutes and fifty-six seconds. It features guitars provided by James Valentine, Jesse Carmichael and Dr. Luke, bass played by Mickey Madden, and synth bass provided by Dr. Luke. The drums were provided by Matt Flynn and Cirkut while PJ Morton, Jesse Carmichael, Dr. Luke, Ammo, and Cirkut contributed to the keyboards and synthesizers. One writer at Popmatters feels that musically, "Sugar" combines the grooves of the funk and "synth-driven" 1980s music. According to Kobalt Music Publishing's digital sheet music for the song, "Sugar" is composed in the key of D-flat major and set in common time signature, and has a moderate groove of 120 beats per minute. Levine's vocals span from the low note of Db to the high note of Fb, over one octave higher.


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: Kyle Anderson of "Entertainment Weekly" noted the reminiscence of "Sugar" to the music of singer Bruno Mars. Brad Wete of "Billboard" magazine compared the song's production to that of Katy Perry's 2014 single "Birthday", which was also produced by Cirkut, together with Dr. Luke. Similarly, "Rolling Stone"'s Jon Dolan compared the song to the works of Perry and wrote that the "funk-guitar licks zip across a spry, sun-drunk groove as Levine sings..." Lyrically, Levine sings the lines to his romantic interest, "I just wanna be there where you are/And I gotta get one little taste". The song's lyrics use the word "sugar" to describe coitus. Jon Caramanica of "The New York Times" wrote that on the Levine sounds most lecherous while singing the lyrics "I want that red velvet, I want that sugar sweet." According to him "he croons so cleanly it's possible to imagine that he is truly singing about cake."


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: In a review of "V", Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote that the best moments on the album "are when Maroon 5 embrace the tuneful, slightly soulful adult contemporary pop band they've always been, as they do on 'Sugar'" among other songs. Alexa Tietjen of VH1 stated that the track is a "radio-friendly pop song". Mike Wass of "Idolator" labeled the song a "ridiculously catchy jam". Similarly, Saeed Saeed of "The National" called the song a "highlight" on "V" and further stated that it "has a bullseye of a chorus that will have you singing along immediately". PopMatters' Annie Galvin praised the song and wrote that it "hits a sweet spot by layering a subtly funky guitar pulse over gossamer synths and multiple tracks of Levine's easy-on-the-ears upper range." On the negative side, Anderson of "Entertainment Weekly" called the song "simultaneously empty and cluttered". In 2022, "Billboard" and "American Songwriter" ranked the song number eight and number nine, respectively, on their lists of the 10 greatest Maroon 5 songs.


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: Following the release of "V", "Sugar" debuted and peaked at number 13 and number 77 on the South Korean International and South Korean Gaon Chart respectively. After the song and its accompanying video was released, it gathered attention at the digital media outlets. "Billboard" predicted that in its first week the song is set to debut in the top 25 with digital sales of over 150,000 copies. For the week dated January 31, 2015, "Sugar" debuted at number eight on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. It became Maroon 5's third song to debut in the top ten of the chart; their previous singles "Moves like Jagger" (2011) debuted same at number eight and "Payphone" (2012) debuted higher, at number three. Consequently, it became the band's 11th top ten hit and their eighth in row. The song peaked at number one on the "Billboard" Twitter Top Tracks chart, their second number one after "Maps" (2014). "Sugar" peaked at number two on the chart for four consecutive weeks, behind "Uptown Funk" by Mark Ronson featuring Bruno Mars. The song spent 21 weeks in the top ten of the chart before falling 10–12 on the chart issue dated June 27, 2015. This marks the longest time the band has spent in the top ten of the chart, along with "Moves Like Jagger" and "One More Night" (2012), which also spent 21 weeks in the top ten. They have since surpassed this feat with their "Girls Like You" single featuring Cardi B in 2018, which spent more than 30 weeks in the top ten. As of August 2015, it has sold 3.3 million copies in the United States.


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: In 2014, film director David Dobkin was in Rome, Italy, for the premiere of his film, "The Judge". During his stay there, he received an e-mail from Levine asking him to direct the band's new music video, "I’ve known Adam for over a decade. I met him before the first Maroon 5 album came out. My wife's parents are best friends with his grandparents and I spend Christmas with him every year. So we’ve known each other for a long time and always talked about doing something together but were never able to get our schedules lined up." After he agreed to film the video for "Sugar", they started discussing ideas for its concept. Dobkin wanted the video to be about the band's connection with their audience and wanted elements of real people and Los Angeles, Levine's hometown. In an interview with VH1, the director revealed, "Then the idea came up of, what if they went to real weddings and showed up as the surprise wedding band?". When Levine heard the idea, he loved it.


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: In 2005, Dobkin directed the film "Wedding Crashers" in which Owen Wilson and Vince Vaughn played the characters of John Beckwith and Jeremy Grey. They star as "two dashing rogues who sneak into nuptials in search of lovelorn bridesmaids." The film received positive reviews from movie critics and was a box office success earning over $285 million worldwide. Dobkin revealed, "For 10 years everyone asks me to do something related to that movie. I’ve never wanted to go back there, just because it's something that worked so well. But we locked in on this idea and thought it would be great. And then it was like, holy shit, how do we pull this off?" After the concept was decided on, they started preparing the wedding crashes. At the beginning, Dobkin thought that no one should know about the crash and filming. After some rethinking, however, he decided that at least one person should know about it. So they informed only the grooms and decided to keep the secret from the brides. The grooms were not, however, told the name of the band; they were only told that they are very popular and had won several Grammy Awards. The next step was deciding how, at the beginning of each performance, the band would hide. Dobkin designed and had built a drop-down tent, where a button was pressed, causing the curtains drop to the floor. After that, Dobkin visited many wedding planners in Los Angeles and visited a number of the locations where weddings would be happening, in order to decide which location at the site would be the best for setting up the tent.


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: The music video was filmed in Los Angeles, California. It was shot at several ballrooms, located at various locations around the city, where weddings were happening. One of the ballrooms was at the Park Plaza Hotel, a very popular location for celebrations and parties. A week before filming the video commenced, Dobkin went to see the band, who were rehearsing for the visual. During the meeting, Levine questioned the concept, "What if people don't like us? What happens if we ruin the bride's moment?" That was the first time they started wondering, "What if we're ruining someone's most special day?" In order to prevent that from happening, Levine got an idea: after performing "Sugar", he and the band's guitarist, James Valentine would perform an acoustic version of their 2004 single "She Will Be Loved" just for the bride and the groom. The dance floor would be cleared of everyone except for the newlyweds and the song would be another traditional "First Dance" for the newlyweds. According to Dobkin, that was a very good idea. "That's awesome. It's just sick romantic."


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: A few days before shooting began, most of the grooms started getting nervous and wanted to cancel the wedding crash. Dobkin met with each of them and talked them out of canceling. At one point, he told them that the mysterious band is in fact Maroon 5. Eventually, it turned out that most of them were fans of Maroon 5 and "Adam from "The Voice"" and had positive responses for performing "She Will Be Loved" after shooting "Sugar". "There's no way she could be mad at me after that." Prior to the filming of each sequence, the production team had approximately 20 minutes to enter the location and begin building the tent, while the band tried to get in unnoticed. During the first wedding, which was a Jewish wedding, the bride and the groom were sitting in their chairs and while the tent was being constructed, Dobkin received a call on his radio saying that the band was stuck in the elevator. Eventually, they got out of the elevator and had to run up nine flights of stairs to get to the ballroom in time for filming. Dobkin recalled that when the performance of "Sugar" finished, the members of the band looked at him like they wanted to say, "Oh my God. That was awesome! Where's the next one?"


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: In a press release for the video, Levine stated, "It was an out of body experience. I had no idea I would be affected by the overwhelming reactions we received from the couples and guests. Being able to create an unforgettable experience for several people was the highlight of it all." He also spoke with Kevin Frazier of "Entertainment Tonight" and told him how it was stressful to arrange the whole video. However, the brides and grooms were shocked that the band crashed their wedding. He added, "It was a lot of fun. It felt good to kind of surprise these people and make them happy. Happy that they liked our band too. It would have been a total disaster [if not]." A representative for Duke Photography, who photographed the weddings, has said, "It was an incredible surprise and everyone at the wedding is going to cherish those memories." The video for "Sugar" premiered on January 14, 2015, via the band's Vevo channel on YouTube. It was available for digital download the same day, via the iTunes Store in Canada and the United States. It received its television premiere on January 17 at 9AM (EST) and won "VH1 Top 20 Video Countdown".


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: The video starts with the members of Maroon 5 leaving the Carondelet House, with Levine saying, "It's December 6, 2014. We're going to drive across L.A. and hit every wedding we possibly can." After his introduction, Levine gets into the car and starts driving. Subsequently, a van parks near the Park Plaza Hotel where a wedding is taking place in the ballroom. A group gets out of the van, enters the building and starts constructing a secret stage, surprising guests, who wonder what's happening. One stands up and starts anxiously questioning the builders, while scenes are intercut with Maroon 5 driving around the city and Levine singing the song lyrics. The band arrives in front of the hotel and sneaks into the building, ducking behind the white curtains where the instruments are set up. As they finish their preparations, the bride and the groom are asked to stand in front of the stage. The curtain drops to reveal the band playing "Sugar" and the couple screams happily while confused guests look on. Afterwards, the unwitting wedding party audience starts smiling and all the guests get up to dance to the song.


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: Scenes are intercut with the band driving to another wedding and sneaking inside the building where it's taking place. A similar situation occurs as they appear before the guests, who are both surprised and delighted. While the band is driving around Los Angeles, young women pulling up to a traffic light beside them recognize the group and take selfies with Valentine. During the last part of the video, the band crashes five more weddings, leaving the attendees utterly surprised. The video concludes with the wedding guests applauding the band, while Maroon 5's members toast, embrace, and cheer with the newlyweds.


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: According to Ryan Reed of "Rolling Stone", video showed the band channeling the roles of actors Owen Wilson and Vince Vaughn in "Wedding Crashers" while surprising the audience with its performance of "Sugar". "The Daily Telegraph"s Catherine Gee felt the video proved that "not a soul in Los Angeles would mind if the rock band arrived at their reception unannounced and performed their new single". Elias Leight of "Billboard" noted that the reaction of the people in the weddings ranged from screaming and pointing to shouting, and finally dancing. He also noted that the women were quicker to recognize Levine than the men. Melodi Smith of CNN wrote that the looks of faces in the rooms are "priceless: delight, tears, confusion". Jennifer Maas of "Entertainment Weekly" noted how every groom should be embarrassed by Levine hugging his bride after the performance and wrote, "All in all, if this is somehow an authentic stunt, the music video director totally stole the thunder of those couples' wedding videographers."


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: Steven Gottlieb of Video Static called the video "fun" and a "gambit" with a goal just to surprise the wedding and not to pick up drunk bridesmaids, a reference to "Wedding Crashers". Elizabeth Vanmetre of "Daily News" wrote that, "Having Adam Levine crash your wedding would be the icing on any wedding cake." "Time"'s Laura Stampler reviewed the video and wrote that although the video will not make you mad like Maroon 5's previous visual for "Animals" in which Levine stalks a woman who is played by his real wife, model Behati Prinsloo, while covered in blood, "but you’ll probably still be annoyed". She further stated that "I do" is the happiest moment in your life, but seeing Levine singing the lyrics "hotter than southern California Bay" to the new wife "is the happiest moment in your life". According to Leigh Weingus of "The Huffington Post" in the video, Levine made the wedding crashing a lot more "awesome" than Wilson and Vaughn. Paul Grein of Yahoo! Music's Chart Watch labeled the video as a little bit "corny"; however, according to him it's also "cute" and "fun".


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: As of June 2022, the video is YouTube's 14th most viewed video, with over 3.7 billion views and is the group's most viewed video.


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: Several sources including "Life & Style", "Rolling Stone" and "Cosmopolitan" reported that the video was allegedly staged and filmed over the course of three days at the same location. According to these sources, the first groom was played by New Zealand actor Nico Evers-Swindell, while actor Eric Satterberg and former "America's Next Top Model" contestant Raina Hein also played the roles of guest and bride, respectively. Additionally, two of the actors who played the role of parents said, "The Buzz on the internet is whether the Maroon 5 'Sugar' music video is real or staged. We played the parents of the Asian bride and yes, everything was staged."


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: Carly Mallenbaum of "USA Today" also analyzed the situation and wrote that although it is possible that some of the weddings were staged, at least two of them were real. She spoke to wedding photographer Eric Parsons, who told her he was shooting one of the weddings when Maroon 5 made the surprise appearance: "Sharon [the bride] knew nothing about it. She's the one who mouths 'what the fuck' in the video." Another photographer, Duke Khodaverdian, was shooting another wedding: "Around 10:30, some producer came up and said, 'Ladies and gentlemen, we have a great surprise for you'. Everyone went berserk. The room was electric." The scenes where the band toasts the newlyweds with cognac were filmed at the wedding in which Khodaverdian was taking photos.


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: Video footage on YouTube contains footage of two of the real weddings crashed in the final video, including couple number 5 (Martin and Sharis) and number 7 (Ryan and Melanie). Eric Parsons' published photograph and testimony confirms that the wedding of couple number 4 (Sharon and Steve) was also genuine. The published article confirms that the groom, Steve Weaver, was a friend of the video producer and was in on the setup, though his bride was unaware.


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: A fan video version of the song was released on January 21, 2015. It features fans from around the world are lip-syncing and dancing to the song with the use of JamCam app.


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: Maroon 5 performed "Sugar" in Puerto Rico for the first edition of "Victoria's Secret Swim Special", which aired on February 26, 2015. They also played the song in various appearances, such as the of "The Voice" and the television talk shows "Jimmy Kimmel Live!"; and "", respectively. On November 19, 2016, the band played "Sugar" for the third annual Airbnb Open Spotlight at downtown Los Angeles. The band performed the song live for their worldwide tour, Maroon V Tour (2015–2018).


title: Sugar (Maroon 5 song)

text: "Sugar" was featured on the television shows, "American Housewife", "Bull", "Stalker", "Lip Sync Battle" and "Dancing with the Stars". It is also featured on the advertisements with two 2015 vehicles namely, the Nissan GT-R and the Toyota Corolla Altis. It appeared in the YouTube Premium web television series of the same name. The song appeared on the band's greatest hits album "Singles" and the dance rhythm video game "Just Dance 2019".


title: British literature

text: British literature is literature from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Channel Islands. This article covers British literature in the English language. Anglo-Saxon (Old English) literature is included, and there is some discussion of Latin and Anglo-Norman literature, where literature in these languages relate to the early development of the English language and literature. There is also some brief discussion of major figures who wrote in Scots, but the main discussion is in the various Scottish literature articles.


title: British literature

text: The article Literature in the other languages of Britain focuses on the literatures written in the other languages that are, and have been, used in Britain. There are also articles on these various literatures: Latin literature in Britain, Anglo-Norman, Cornish, Guernésiais, Jèrriais, Latin, Manx, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, etc.


title: British literature

text: Irish writers have played an important part in the development of literature in England and Scotland, but though the whole of Ireland was politically part of the United Kingdom between January 1801 and December 1922, it can be controversial to describe Irish literature as British. For some this includes works by authors from Northern Ireland.


title: British literature

text: The nature of British identity has changed over time. The island that contains England, Scotland, and Wales has been known as Britain from the time of the Roman Pliny the Elder (–79). English as the national language had its beginnings with the Anglo-Saxon invasion which started around AD 450. Before that, the inhabitants mainly spoke various Celtic languages. The various constituent parts of the present United Kingdom joined at different times. Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1542. However, it was not until 1707 with a treaty between England and Scotland, that the Kingdom of Great Britain came into existence. This merged in January 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Until fairly recent times Celtic languages continued to be spoken widely in Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland, and these languages still survive, especially in parts of Wales.


title: British literature

text: Subsequently, Irish nationalism led to the partition of the island of Ireland in 1921; thus literature of the Republic of Ireland is not British, although literature from Northern Ireland is both Irish and British.


title: British literature

text: Works written in the English language by Welsh writers, especially if their subject matter relates to Wales, has been recognised as a distinctive entity since the 20th century. The need for a separate identity for this kind of writing arose because of the parallel development of modern Welsh-language literature.


title: British literature

text: Because Britain was a colonial power the use of English spread through the world; from the 19th century or earlier in the United States, and later in other former colonies, major writers in English began to appear beyond the boundaries of Britain and Ireland; later these included Nobel laureates.


title: British literature

text: Although the Romans withdrew from Britain in the early 5th century, Latin literature, mostly ecclesiastical, continued to be written, including Chronicles by Bede (672/3–735), "Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum"; and Gildas (–570), "De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae".


title: British literature

text: Various Celtic languages were spoken by many British people at that time. Among the most important written works that have survived are "Y Gododdin" and the Mabinogion. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, Vikings and Norse settlers and their descendants colonised parts of what is now modern Scotland. Some Old Norse poetry survives relating to this period, including the "Orkneyinga saga" an historical narrative of the history of the Orkney Islands, from their capture by the Norwegian king in the 9th century until about 1200.


title: British literature

text: Old English literature, or Anglo-Saxon literature, encompasses the surviving literature written in Old English in Anglo-Saxon England, from the settlement of the Saxons and other Germanic tribes in England (Jutes and the Angles) around 450, until "soon after the Norman Conquest" in 1066; that is, c. 1100–50. These works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles, and others. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period.


title: British literature

text: Oral tradition was very strong in early English culture and most literary works were written to be performed. Epic poems were thus very popular, and some, including "Beowulf", have survived to the present day. "Beowulf" is the most famous work in Old English and has achieved national epic status in England, despite being set in Scandinavia.


title: British literature

text: Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous: twelve are known by name from medieval sources, but only four of those are known by their vernacular works with any certainty: Cædmon, Bede, Alfred the Great, and Cynewulf. Cædmon is the earliest English poet whose name is known. Cædmon's only known surviving work is "Cædmon's Hymn", which probably dates from the late 7th century.


title: British literature

text: Chronicles contained a range of historical and literary accounts, and a notable example is the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle". The poem "Battle of Maldon" also deals with history. This is the name given to a work, of uncertain date, celebrating the real Battle of Maldon of 991, at which the Anglo-Saxons failed to prevent a Viking invasion.


title: British literature

text: Classical antiquity was not forgotten in Anglo-Saxon England, and several Old English poems are adaptations of late classical philosophical texts. The longest is King Alfred's (849–99) translation of Boethius' "Consolation of Philosophy".


title: British literature

text: The linguistic diversity of the islands in the medieval period contributed to a rich variety of artistic production, and made British literature distinctive and innovative.


title: British literature

text: Some works were still written in Latin; these include Gerald of Wales's late-12th-century book on his beloved Wales, "Itinerarium Cambriae". After the Norman Conquest of 1066, Anglo-Norman literature developed, introducing literary trends from Continental Europe, such as the "chanson de geste". However, the indigenous development of Anglo-Norman literature was precocious in comparison to continental Oïl literature.


title: British literature

text: Geoffrey of Monmouth ( – ) was one of the major figures in the development of British history and of the popularity of the tales of King Arthur. He is best known for his chronicle "Historia Regum Britanniae" (History of the Kings of Britain) of 1136, which spread Celtic motifs to a wider audience. Wace ( – after 1174), who wrote in Norman-French, is the earliest known poet from Jersey; he also developed the Arthurian legend.) At the end of the 12th century, Layamon in "Brut" adapted Wace to make the first English-language work to use the legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. It was also the first historiography written in English since the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.


title: British literature

text: Interest in King Arthur continued in the 15th century with Sir Thomas Malory's "Le Morte d'Arthur" (1485), a popular and influential compilation of some French and English Arthurian romances. It was among the earliest books printed in England by Caxton.


title: British literature

text: In the later medieval period a new form of English now known as Middle English evolved. This is the earliest form which is comprehensible to modern readers and listeners, albeit not easily. Middle English Bible translations, notably Wycliffe's Bible, helped to establish English as a literary language. Wycliffe's Bible is the name now given to a group of Bible translations into Middle English that were made under the direction of, or at the instigation of, John Wycliffe. They appeared over a period from about 1382 to 1395.


title: British literature

text: "Piers Plowman" or "Visio Willelmi de Petro Plowman" ("William's Vision of Piers Plowman") (written c. 1360–1387) is a Middle English allegorical narrative poem by William Langland. It is written in unrhymed alliterative verse divided into sections called "passūs" (Latin for "steps"). "Piers" is considered by many critics to be one of the early great works of English literature along with Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales" and "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" during the Middle Ages.


title: British literature

text: "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" is a late-14th-century Middle English alliterative romance. It is one of the better-known Arthurian stories, of an established type known as the "beheading game". Developing from Welsh, Irish and English tradition "Sir Gawain" highlights the importance of honour and chivalry. "Preserved in the same manuscript with Sir Gawayne were three other poems, now generally accepted as the work of its author, including the intricate elegiac poem, "Pearl"."


title: British literature

text: Geoffrey Chaucer ( – 1400), known as the Father of English literature, is widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages and was the first poet to have been buried in Poet's Corner in Westminster Abbey. Chaucer is best known today for "The Canterbury Tales", a collection of stories written in Middle English (mostly written in verse although some are in prose), that are presented as part of a story-telling contest by a group of pilgrims as they travel together on a journey from Southwark to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. Chaucer is a crucial figure in developing the legitimacy of the vernacular, Middle English, at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were French and Latin.


title: British literature

text: The multilingual nature of the audience for literature in the 14th century can be illustrated by the example of John Gower ( – October 1408). A contemporary of Langland and a personal friend of Chaucer, Gower is remembered primarily for three major works, the "Mirroir de l'Omme", "Vox Clamantis", and "Confessio Amantis", three long poems written in Anglo-Norman, Latin, and Middle English respectively, which are united by common moral and political themes.


title: British literature

text: Women writers were also active, such as Marie de France in the 12th century and Julian of Norwich in the early 14th century. Julian's "Revelations of Divine Love" (around 1393) is believed to be the first published book written by a woman in the English language. Margery Kempe ( – after 1438) is known for writing "The Book of Margery Kempe", a work considered by some to be the first autobiography in the English language.


title: British literature

text: Major Scottish writers from the 15th century include Henrysoun, Dunbar, Douglas and Lyndsay. The works of Chaucer had an influence on Scottish writers.


title: British literature

text: In the Middle Ages, drama in the vernacular languages of Europe may have emerged from religious enactments of the liturgy. Mystery plays were presented on the porches of the cathedrals or by strolling players on feast days. Miracle and mystery plays, along with moralities and interludes, later evolved into more elaborate forms of drama, such as was seen on the Elizabethan stages. Another form of medieval theatre was the mummers' plays, a form of early street theatre associated with the Morris dance, concentrating on themes such as Saint George and the Dragon and Robin Hood. These were folk tales re-telling old stories, and the actors travelled from town to town performing these for their audiences in return for money and hospitality.


title: British literature

text: Mystery plays and miracle plays are among the earliest formally developed plays in medieval Europe. Mystery plays focused on the representation of Bible stories in churches as tableaux with accompanying antiphonal song. They developed from the 10th to the 16th century, reaching the height of their popularity in the 15th century before being rendered obsolete by the rise of professional theatre.


title: British literature

text: There are four complete or nearly complete extant English biblical collections of plays from the late medieval period. The most complete is the "York cycle" of forty-eight pageants. They were performed in the city of York, from the middle of the 14th century until 1569. Besides the Middle English drama, there are three surviving plays in Cornish known as the Ordinalia.


title: British literature

text: Having grown out of the religiously based mystery plays, the morality play is a genre of medieval and early Tudor theatrical entertainment, which represented a shift towards a more secular base for European theatre. Morality plays are a type of allegory in which the protagonist is met by personifications of various moral attributes who try to prompt him to choose a godly life over one of evil. The plays were most popular in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries.


title: British literature

text: "The Somonyng of Everyman" ("The Summoning of Everyman") ( – 1519), usually referred to simply as "Everyman", is a late 15th-century English morality play. Like John Bunyan's allegory "Pilgrim's Progress" (1678), "Everyman" examines the question of Christian salvation through the use of allegorical characters.


title: British literature

text: Renaissance style and ideas were slow to penetrate England and Scotland, and the Elizabethan era (1558–1603) is usually regarded as the height of the English Renaissance. However, many scholars see its beginnings in the early 1500s during the reign of Henry VIII (1491 – 1547).


title: British literature

text: Italian literary influences arrived in Britain: the sonnet form was introduced into English by Thomas Wyatt in the early 16th century, and was developed by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, (1516/1517 – 1547), who also introduced blank verse into England, with his translation of Virgil's "Aeneid" in .


title: British literature

text: The spread of printing affected the transmission of literature across Britain and Ireland. The first book printed in English, William Caxton's own translation of "Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye", was printed abroad in 1473, to be followed by the establishment of the first printing press in England in 1474.


title: British literature

text: Latin continued in use as a language of learning long after the Reformation had established the vernaculars as liturgical languages for the elites.


title: British literature

text: "Utopia" is a work of fiction and political philosophy by Thomas More (1478–1535) published in 1516. The book, written in Latin, is a frame narrative primarily depicting a fictional island society and its religious, social and political customs.


title: British literature

text: In the later 16th century, English poetry used elaborate language and extensive allusions to classical myths. Sir Edmund Spenser (1555–99) was the author of "The Faerie Queene", an epic poem and fantastical allegory celebrating the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I. The works of Sir Philip Sidney (1554–1586), a poet, courtier and soldier, include "Astrophel and Stella", "The Defence of Poetry", and "Arcadia". Poems intended to be set to music as songs, such as those by Thomas Campion, became popular as printed literature was disseminated more widely in households (see English Madrigal School).


title: British literature

text: During the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and then James I (1603–25), a London-centred culture that was both courtly and popular, produced great poetry and drama. The English playwrights were intrigued by Italian model: a conspicuous community of Italian actors had settled in London. The linguist and lexicographer John Florio (1553–1625), whose father was Italian, was a royal language tutor at the Court of James I, and a possible friend and influence on William Shakespeare, had brought much of the Italian language and culture to England. He was also the translator of Montaigne into English. The earliest Elizabethan plays include "Gorboduc" (1561), by Sackville and Norton, and Thomas Kyd's (1558–94) revenge tragedy "The Spanish Tragedy" (1592). Highly popular and influential in its time, "The Spanish Tragedy" established a new genre in English literature theatre, the revenge play or revenge tragedy. Jane Lumley (1537–1578) was the first person to translate Euripides into English. Her translation of "Iphigeneia at Aulis" is the first known dramatic work by a woman in English.


title: British literature

text: William Shakespeare (1564–1616) stands out in this period as a poet and playwright as yet unsurpassed. Shakespeare wrote plays in a variety of genres, including histories, tragedies, comedies and the late romances, or tragicomedies. Works written in the Elizabethan era include the comedy "Twelfth Night", tragedy "Hamlet", and history "Henry IV, Part 1".


title: British literature

text: Shakespeare's career continued during the reign of King James I, and in the early 17th century he wrote the so-called "problem plays", like "Measure for Measure", as well as a number of his best known tragedies, including "King Lear" and "Anthony and Cleopatra". The plots of Shakespeare's tragedies often hinge on fatal errors or flaws, which overturn order and destroy the hero and those he loves. In his final period, Shakespeare turned to romance or tragicomedy and completed four major plays, including "The Tempest". Less bleak than the tragedies, these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s, but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors.


title: British literature

text: Other important figures in Elizabethan and Jacobean theatre include Christopher Marlowe (1564–1593), Thomas Dekker ( – 1632), John Fletcher (1579–1625) and Francis Beaumont (1584–1616). Marlowe's subject matter is different from Shakespeare's as it focuses more on the moral drama of the renaissance man. His play Doctor Faustus (), is about a scientist and magician who sells his soul to the Devil. Beaumont and Fletcher are less known, but they may have helped Shakespeare write some of his best dramas, and were popular at the time. Beaumont's comedy, "The Knight of the Burning Pestle" (1607), satirises the rising middle class and especially the "nouveaux riches".


title: British literature

text: After Shakespeare's death, the poet and dramatist Ben Jonson (1572–1637) was the leading literary figure of the Jacobean era. Jonson's aesthetics hark back to the Middle Ages and his characters embody the theory of humours, based on contemporary medical theory, though the stock types of Latin literature were an equal influence. Jonson's major plays include "Volpone" (1605 or 1606) and "Bartholomew Fair" (1614).


title: British literature

text: A popular style of theatre in Jacobean times was the revenge play, which had been popularised earlier by Thomas Kyd (1558–94), and then developed by John Webster (1578–1632) in the 17th century. Webster's most famous plays are "The White Devil" (1612) and "The Duchess of Malfi" (1613). Other revenge tragedies include "The Changeling" written by Thomas Middleton and William Rowley.


title: British literature

text: Shakespeare also popularised the English sonnet, which made significant changes to Petrarch's model. A collection of 154 sonnets, dealing with themes such as the passage of time, love, beauty and mortality, were first published in a 1609 quarto.


title: British literature

text: Besides Shakespeare the major poets of the early 17th century included the metaphysical poets John Donne (1572–1631) and George Herbert (1593–1633). Influenced by continental Baroque, and taking as his subject matter both Christian mysticism and eroticism, Donne's metaphysical poetry uses unconventional or "unpoetic" figures, such as a compass or a mosquito, to achieve surprise effects.


title: British literature

text: George Chapman (?1559-?1634) was a successful playwright who is remembered chiefly for his translation in 1616 of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey into English verse. This was the first ever complete translation of either poem into the English language and it had a profound influence on English literature.


title: British literature

text: Philosopher Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) wrote the utopian novel "New Atlantis", and coined the phrase ""Knowledge is Power"". Francis Godwin's 1638 "The Man in the Moone" recounts an imaginary voyage to the moon and is now regarded as the first work of science fiction in English literature.


title: British literature

text: At the Reformation, the translation of liturgy and the Bible into vernacular languages provided new literary models. The "Book of Common Prayer" (1549) and the "Authorised King James Version" of the Bible have been hugely influential. The King James Bible, one of the biggest translation projects in the history of English up to that time, was started in 1604 and completed in 1611. It continued the tradition of Bible translation into English from the original languages that began with the work of William Tyndale. (Previous translations into English had relied on the Vulgate). It became the standard Bible of the Church of England, and some consider it one of the greatest literary works of all time.


title: British literature

text: The metaphysical poets continued writing in this period. Both John Donne and George Herbert died after 1625, but there was a second generation of metaphysical poets: Andrew Marvell (1621–1678), Thomas Traherne (1636 or 1637–1674) and Henry Vaughan (1622–1695). Their style was witty, with metaphysical conceits — far-fetched or unusual similes or metaphors, such as Marvell's comparison of the soul with a drop of dew; or Donne's description of the effects of absence on lovers to the action of a pair of compasses.


title: British literature

text: Another important group of poets at this time were the Cavalier poets. They were an important group of writers, who came from the classes that supported King Charles I during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639–51). (King Charles reigned from 1625 and was executed in 1649). The best known of these poets are Robert Herrick, Richard Lovelace, Thomas Carew, and Sir John Suckling. They "were not a formal group, but all were influenced" by Ben Jonson. Most of the Cavalier poets were courtiers, with notable exceptions. For example, Robert Herrick was not a courtier, but his style marks him as a Cavalier poet. Cavalier works make use of allegory and classical allusions, and are influenced by Latin authors Horace, Cicero, and Ovid.


title: British literature

text: John Milton (1608–74) is one of the greatest English poets, who wrote at a time of religious flux and political upheaval. He is generally seen as the last major poet of the English Renaissance, though his major epic poems were written in the Restoration period, including "Paradise Lost" (1671). Among these are "L'Allegro", 1631; "Il Penseroso", 1634; "Comus" (a masque), 1638; and "Lycidas", (1638). His later major works are "Paradise Regained", 1671 and "Samson Agonistes", 1671. Milton's works reflect deep personal convictions, a passion for freedom and self-determination, and the urgent issues and political turbulence of his day. Writing in English, Latin, and Italian, he achieved international renown within his lifetime, and his celebrated "Areopagitica" (1644), written in condemnation of pre-publication censorship, is among history's most influential and impassioned defences of free speech and freedom of the press. William Hayley's 1796 biography called him the "greatest English author", and he remains generally regarded "as one of the preeminent writers in the English language".


title: British literature

text: Thomas Urquhart (1611–1660) translation of Rabelais' "Gargantua and Pantagruel" into English has been described as "the greatest Scottish translation since Gavin Douglas's "Eneados"".


title: British literature

text: The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 launched a fresh start for literature, both in celebration of the new worldly and playful court of the king, and in reaction to it. Theatres in England reopened after having been closed during the protectorship of Oliver Cromwell, Puritanism lost its momentum, and the bawdy "Restoration comedy" became a recognisable genre. Restoration comedy refers to English comedies written and performed in the Restoration period from 1660 to 1710. In addition, women were allowed to perform on stage for the first time.


title: British literature

text: The Restoration of the monarchy in Ireland enabled Ogilby to resume his position as Master of the Revels and open the first Theatre Royal in Dublin in 1662 in Smock Alley. In 1662 Katherine Philips went to Dublin where she completed a translation of Pierre Corneille's "Pompée", produced with great success in 1663 in the Smock Alley Theatre, and printed in the same year both in Dublin and London. Although other women had translated or written dramas, her translation of Pompey broke new ground as the first rhymed version of a French tragedy in English and the first English play written by a woman to be performed on the professional stage. Aphra Behn (one of the women writers dubbed "The fair triumvirate of wit") was a prolific dramatist and one of the first English professional female writers. Her greatest dramatic success was "The Rover" (1677).


title: British literature

text: Behn's depiction of the character Willmore in "The Rover" and the witty, poetry-reciting rake Dorimant in George Etherege's "The Man of Mode" (1676) are seen as a satire on John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester (1647–1680), an English libertine poet, and a wit of the Restoration court. His contemporary Andrew Marvell described him as "the best English satirist", and he is generally considered to be the most considerable poet and the most learned among the Restoration wits. His "A Satyr Against Reason and Mankind" is assumed to be a Hobbesian critique of rationalism. Rochester's poetic work varies widely in form, genre, and content. He was part of a "mob of gentlemen who wrote with ease", who continued to produce their poetry in manuscripts, rather than in publication. As a consequence, some of Rochester's work deals with topical concerns, such as satires of courtly affairs in libels, to parodies of the styles of his contemporaries, such as Sir Charles Scroope. He is also notable for his impromptus, Voltaire, who spoke of Rochester as "the man of genius, the great poet", admired his satire for its "energy and fire" and translated some lines into French to "display the shining imagination his lordship only could boast".


title: British literature

text: John Dryden (1631–1700) was an English poet, literary critic, translator, and playwright who dominated the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known in literary circles as the Age of Dryden. He established the heroic couplet as a standard form of English poetry by writing successful satires, religious pieces, fables, epigrams, compliments, prologues, and plays with it; he also introduced the alexandrine and triplet into the form. In his poems, translations, and criticism, he established a poetic diction appropriate to the heroic couplet. Dryden's greatest achievements were in satiric verse in works like the mock-heroic "MacFlecknoe" (1682). W. H. Auden referred to him as "the master of the middle style" that was a model for his contemporaries and for much of the 18th century. The considerable loss felt by the English literary community at his death was evident from the elegies that it inspired. Alexander Pope (1688–1744) was heavily influenced by Dryden, and often borrowed from him; other writers in the 18th century were equally influenced by both Dryden and Pope.


title: British literature

text: Though Ben Jonson had been poet laureate to James I in England, this was not then a formal position and the formal title of Poet Laureate, as a royal office, was first conferred by letters patent on John Dryden in 1670. The post then became a regular British institution.


title: British literature

text: Diarists John Evelyn (1620–1706) and Samuel Pepys (1633–1703) depicted everyday London life and the cultural scene of the times. Their works are among the most important primary sources for the Restoration period in England, and consists of eyewitness accounts of many great events, such as the Great Plague of London (1644–5), and the Great Fire of London (1666).


title: British literature

text: The publication of "The Pilgrim's Progress" (Part I:1678; 1684), established the Puritan preacher John Bunyan (1628–88) as a notable writer. Bunyan's "The Pilgrim's Progress" is an allegory of personal salvation and a guide to the Christian life. Bunyan writes about how the individual can prevail against the temptations of mind and body that threaten damnation. The book is written in a straightforward narrative and shows influence from both drama and biography, and yet it also shows an awareness of the grand allegorical tradition found in Edmund Spenser.


title: British literature

text: The late 17th, early 18th century (1689–1750) in English literature is known as the Augustan Age. Writers at this time "greatly admired their Roman counterparts, imitated their works and frequently drew parallels between" contemporary world and the age of the Roman emperor Augustus (27 AD – BC 14) (see Augustan literature (ancient Rome) ). Some of the major writers in this period were the Anglo-Irish writer Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), William Congreve, (1670–1729), Joseph Addison (1672–1719), Richard Steele (1672–1729), Alexander Pope (1688–1744), Henry Fielding (1707–54), Samuel Johnson (1709–84).


title: British literature

text: The Union of the Parliaments of Scotland and England in 1707 to form a single Kingdom of Great Britain and the creation of a joint state by the Acts of Union had little impact on the literature of England nor on national consciousness among English writers. The situation in Scotland was different: the desire to maintain a cultural identity while partaking of the advantages offered by the English literary market and English literary standard language led to what has been described as the "invention of British literature" by Scottish writers. English writers, if they considered Britain at all, tended to assume it was merely England writ large; Scottish writers were more clearly aware of the new state as a "cultural amalgam comprising more than just England". James Thomson's "Rule Britannia!" is an example of the Scottish championing of this new national and literary identity. With the invention of British literature came the development of the first British novels, in contrast to the English novel of the 18th century which continued to deal with England and English concerns rather than exploring the changed political, social and literary environment. Tobias Smollett (1721–71) was a Scottish pioneer of the British novel, exploring the prejudices inherent within the new social structure of the country through comic picaresque novels. His "The Adventures of Roderick Random" (1748) is the first major novel written in English to have a Scotsman as hero, and the multinational voices represented in the narrative confront Anti-Scottish sentiment, being published only two years after the Battle of Culloden. "The Expedition of Humphry Clinker" (1771) brings together characters from the extremes of Britain to question how cultural and linguistic differences can be accommodated within the new British identity, and influenced Charles Dickens. Richard Cumberland wrote patriotic comedies depicting characters taken from the "outskirts of the empire,". His most popular play, ""The West Indian"" (1771) was performed in North America and the West Indies.


title: British literature

text: In prose, the earlier part of the period was overshadowed by the development of the English essay. Joseph Addison and Richard Steele's "The Spectator" established the form of the British periodical essay, inventing the pose of the detached observer of human life who can meditate upon the world without advocating any specific changes in it. However, this was also the time when the English novel, first emerging in the Restoration, developed into a major art form. Daniel Defoe turned from journalism and writing criminal lives for the press to writing fictional criminal lives with "" and "Moll Flanders."


title: British literature

text: The English novel has generally been seen as beginning with Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" (1719) and "Moll Flanders" (1722), though John Bunyan's "The Pilgrim's Progress" (1678) and Aphra Behn's, "Oroonoko" (1688) are also contenders. Other major 18th-century British novelists are Samuel Richardson (1689–1761), author of the epistolary novels "Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded" (1740) and "Clarissa" (1747–48); Henry Fielding (1707–54), who wrote "Joseph Andrews" (1742) and "The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling" (1749).


title: British literature

text: If Addison and Steele were dominant in one type of prose, then Jonathan Swift author of the satire "Gulliver's Travels" was in another. In "A Modest Proposal" and the "Drapier Letters", Swift reluctantly defended the Irish people from the predations of colonialism. This provoked riots and arrests, but Swift, who had no love of Irish Roman Catholics, was outraged by the abuses he saw.


title: British literature

text: The English pictorial satirist and editorial cartoonist William Hogarth (1697–1764) has been credited with pioneering Western sequential art. His work ranged from realistic portraiture to comic strip-like series of pictures called "modern moral subjects". Much of his work satirises contemporary politics and customs.


title: British literature

text: Although documented history of Irish theatre began at least as early as 1601, the earliest Irish dramatists of note were William Congreve (1670–1729), one of the most interesting writers of Restoration comedies and author of "The Way of the World" (1700) and playwright, George Farquhar (?1677–1707), "The Recruiting Officer" (1706). (Restoration comedy refers to English comedies written and performed in the Restoration period from 1660 to 1710. Comedy of manners is used as a synonym of Restoration comedy).


title: British literature

text: Anglo-Irish drama in the 18th century also includes Charles Macklin (?1699–1797), and Arthur Murphy (1727–1805).


title: British literature

text: The age of Augustan drama was brought to an end by the censorship established by the Licensing Act 1737. After 1737, authors with strong political or philosophical points to make would no longer turn to the stage as their first hope of making a living, and novels began to have dramatic structures involving only normal human beings, as the stage was closed off for serious authors. Prior to the Licensing Act 1737, theatre was the first choice for most wits. After it, the novel was


title: British literature

text: The most outstanding poet of the age is Alexander Pope (1688–1744), whose major works include: "The Rape of the Lock" (1712; enlarged in 1714); a translation of the "Iliad" (1715–20); a translation of the "Odyssey" (1725–26); "The Dunciad" (1728; 1743). Since his death, Pope has been in a constant state of re-evaluation. His high artifice, strict prosody, and, at times, the sheer cruelty of his satire were an object of derision for the Romantic poets, and it was not until the 1930s that his reputation was revived. Pope is now considered the dominant poetic voice of his century, a model of prosodic elegance, biting wit, and an enduring, demanding moral force. The "Rape of the Lock" and "The Dunciad" are masterpieces of the mock-epic genre.


title: British literature

text: It was during this time that poet James Thomson (1700–48) produced his melancholy "The Seasons" (1728–30) and Edward Young (1681–1765) wrote his poem "Night-Thoughts" (1742).


title: British literature

text: The second half of the 18th century is sometimes called the "Age of Johnson". Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), often referred to as Dr Johnson, was an English author who made lasting contributions to English literature as a poet, essayist, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor and lexicographer. Johnson has been described as "arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history". After nine years of work, Johnson's "A Dictionary of the English Language" was published in 1755; it had a far-reaching effect on Modern English and has been described as "one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship.". Through works such as the "Dictionary, his edition of Shakespeare, and his "Lives of the Poets" in particular, he helped invent what we now call English Literature".


title: British literature

text: This period of the 18th century saw the emergence of three major Irish authors Oliver Goldsmith (1728–1774), Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751–1816), and Laurence Sterne (1713–68). Goldsmith settled in London in 1756, where he published the novel "The Vicar of Wakefield" (1766), a pastoral poem "The Deserted Village" (1770) and two plays, "The Good-Natur'd Man" 1768 and "She Stoops to Conquer" 1773. Sheridan was born in Dublin, but his family moved to England in the 1750s. His first play, "The Rivals" 1775, was performed at Covent Garden and was an instant success. He went on to become the most significant London playwright of the late 18th century with plays like "The School for Scandal" and "The Critic". Sterne published his famous novel "Tristram Shandy" in parts between 1759 and 1767.


title: British literature

text: The sentimental novel or the novel of sensibility is a genre which developed during the second half of the 18th century. Among the most famous sentimental novels in English are Samuel Richardson's "Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded" (1740), Oliver Goldsmith's "The Vicar of Wakefield" (1766), and Laurence Sterne's "Tristram Shandy" (1759 – 67).


title: British literature

text: Another novel genre also developed in this period. In 1778, Frances Burney (1752–1840) wrote "Evelina", one of the first novels of manners. Fanny Burney's novels' indeed "were enjoyed and admired by Jane Austen".


title: British literature

text: The graveyard poets were a number of pre-Romantic English poets, writing in the 1740s and later, whose works are characterised by their gloomy meditations on mortality, "skulls and coffins, epitaphs and worms" in the context of the graveyard. To this was added, by later practitioners, a feeling for the 'sublime' and uncanny, and an interest in ancient English poetic forms and folk poetry. They are often considered precursors of the Gothic genre. The poets include; Thomas Gray (1716–71), "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" (1751); William Cowper (1731–1800); Christopher Smart (1722–71); Thomas Chatterton (1752–70); Robert Blair (1699–1746); and Edward Young (1683–1765), "The Complaint, or Night Thoughts on Life, Death and Immortality" (1742–45).


title: British literature

text: Other precursors of Romanticism are the poets James Thomson (1700–48) and James Macpherson (1736–96), the Gothic novel and the novel of sensibility.


title: British literature

text: Also foreshadowing Romanticism was Gothic fiction, in works such as Horace Walpole's 1764 novel "The Castle of Otranto". The Gothic fiction genre combines elements of horror and romance. A pioneering Gothic novelist was Ann Radcliffe author of "The Mysteries of Udolpho" (1794). "The Monk" (1796), by Matthew Lewis, is another notable early work in both the Gothic and horror genres.


title: British literature

text: James Macpherson (1736–96) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard Ossian, he published translations that acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics. Both Robert Burns (1759–96) and Walter Scott (1771–1832) were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle.


title: British literature

text: Robert Burns (1759–1796) was a pioneer of the Romantic movement, and after his death he became a cultural icon in Scotland. Among poems and songs of Burns that remain well known across the world are, "Auld Lang Syne"; "A Red, Red Rose"; "A Man's A Man for A' That"; "To a Mouse"; "Tam o' Shanter" and "Ae Fond Kiss".