title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: Several "Prisoner" actors have appeared in British stage drama and pantomime, including Val Lehman ("The Wizard of Oz", "Beatrix Potter" and "Misery"), Peta Toppano, Fiona Spence, Maggie Dence (Bev Baker), Debra Lawrance (Daphne Graham), Linda Hartley (Roach Waters), Ian Smith (Ted Douglas) and Maggie Millar (Marie Winter).


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: In 1997 a "Prisoner" clip from its second episode (Franky Doyle and Lynn Warner's fight in the garden) appeared on the BBC sitcom "Birds of a Feather", and the series was mentioned several times during "Birds of a Feather" seven-and-a-half-year run. The theme song was played briefly in episode three of BBC sitcom "One Foot in the Grave". "Prisoner" has also been referenced in British sitcoms "2point4 Children", "Absolutely Fabulous" and "Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps", as well as the soap operas "Coronation Street", "Brookside" and "EastEnders".


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: "Prisoner" began airing on Yorkshire Television on 8 October 1984, with the franchise cutting scenes involving hanging (including the attempted hanging of Sandy Edwards and the hanging of Eve Wilder). Yorkshire also heavily edited the episode 326 fight scene with Joan and Bea. Several other regions also cut scenes deemed inappropriate despite its time slot, well past the 9 pm watershed.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: The TVS region followed in October 1985. In 1987 Central, Thames, Scottish and TSW began the series; most other regions began broadcasting it in 1988, nearly two years after it finished production. Ulster began broadcasting "Prisoner" in late 1989, usually airing after their Friday night local talk show "Kelly" which aired at 10.40pm, would have a tradition of "Prisoner" following at 11.40pm. When the Kelly Show extended to a 90-minute version from the autumn of 1990, "Prisoner" would air at 12.10am. Maggie Kirkpatrick and Val Lehman both appeared on the Kelly Show on occasions, such was the popularity of the show airing after "Kelly" every Friday night.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: Each ITV region decided when (and how often) "Prisoner" would be broadcast. Central Television screened three episodes weekly, finishing on 16 December 1991 before rerunning the first 95 episodes (from 1993 to 1995). Most other stations also completed the series: Granada Television and Border Television on 9 February 1995, Grampian Television on 11 March 1996, HTV on 25 April 1996, STV on 19 November 1996, Yorkshire Television and Tyne Tees Television on 7 April 1997. When Border, Grampian and Granada TV screened the final episode in the UK, continuity announcer John McKenzie conducted a telephone interview with Maggie Kirkpatrick (Joan "the Freak" Ferguson).


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: Some UK regions did not see the entire series; Channel Television began the series on 16 January 1986 with episode 10, when it aligned its schedule with TVS; it was previously aligned with TSW, which did not broadcast the series in its own region until 1987. Regional alignment meant that around the end of 1992, some episodes were skipped; Tyne Tees skipped 293 and 294 and Border Television omitted 71 episodes, 477 to 547. Furthermore, in some regions, the series was discontinued prior to its final episode in later runs: in Ulster, "Prisoner" ended on Ulster Television with episode 562 on 15 December 1997. In London, where the series ran on Thames and subsequently Carlton Television, viewers were told after episode 598 on 20 August 1998 that the series would resume after a summer break however the series was then discontinued from screening in London. The last ITV "Prisoner" episode was shown on Meridian, which finished an initial run with episode 586 on 12 July 1999.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: Early on 31 March 1997 Channel 5, which had begun broadcasting at 6 p.m. the previous evening, began a full run of "Prisoner" while later episodes were still appearing in many ITV regions. Except for an airing of the fire episode (326), as part of a 1995 Channel 4 soap weekend, it was the series' first UK network broadcast and gave some areas their first full run of the series. Although the schedule varied during the Channel 5 run, episodes were typically shown about five times a week in the 4:40 a.m. slot. It briefly moved to a late-night slot, usually around 11:30pm, before returning to the 4:40 a.m. slot. The Channel 5 run ended on 11 February 2001, with a double bill of the penultimate and final episodes. Channel 5 have no plans to re-run the series, despite viewer requests. For most of the Channel 5 run the programme was sponsored by Pot Noodle, with humorous "Prisoner"-esque sequences (set in a prison cell and playing on the series' wobbly scenery and props) played before and after the episodes and in the leads into and out of commercial breaks.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: The Channel 5 broadcasts included commentary over the closing credits, usually from chief continuity announcer Bill Buckley but sometimes from deputy announcers such as Stuart McWilliam. This began in the early-100s episodes (when "Prisoner" briefly moved to the late-night slot), when Buckley would deliver a quip about the episode before making continuity announcements. This developed into humorous observations about the episode just shown, and the reading of letters and depicting of trivia sent in by viewers (which Buckley called "snippets"). Due to its early-morning slot, when most viewers relied on VCRs to follow the series, upcoming schedule changes were announced as part of the commentary.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: The series was first aired in the United States on KTLA in Los Angeles on 8 August 1979, initially under the original name, "Prisoner". Shown Wednesdays at 8pm, it was the first Australian series broadcast in prime time in the United States. The series, whose first two episodes were screened as a two-hour special, was viewed by a quarter of all television viewers in the Los Angeles market and was in second place for the night, beaten only by ABC's "Charlie's Angels".


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: The series would later be repackaged into a daily half-hour format, as "Prisoner: Cell Block H", KYW-TV ran this format under the title "The Women of Cell Block H." It was syndicated directly to local stations through Firestone Program Syndication Company during the early 1980s (particularly 1980 to '81). In New York City, where "Prisoner: Cell Block H" was telecasted on WPIX, it was rated higher than late-night staple "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson" on WNBC and reruns of legendary series "M*A*S*H" on WNEW-TV, it paved the way for other popular Australian produced shows including miniseries "Against the Wind" and serial "The Sullivans" to be sold to international markets.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: Under the half-hour format, the original episodes were broadcast in two parts, though some scenes were censored or removed for the US telecast.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: KTLA, however, continued to broadcast the series in a weekly hour format, though now Tuesdays at 8pm, and under the "Prisoner: Cell Block H" name. Picked up in at least 38 markets in early 1980, the program would leave the American airwaves by spring 1982, after the few stations that were still carrying the program, such as KOB-TV and WGN-TV, removed "Prisoner" from their schedules.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: During the spring and summer of 1985, the series was screened nationally on USA Network, weekdays at 11am ET, also in a half-hour format. It is unknown which episodes were televised.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: In Canada, "Prisoner" began on 10 September 1979 as "Caged Women" on Global Television Network, at the time a small television network serving southern and eastern Ontario; the program was seen weekly on Monday nights at 9pm


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: The show would move to Tuesdays at 9 p.m. in the fall of 1980, continuing with the "Caged Women" title. The show would be off the schedule by the 1981–1982 television season, but by the fall of 1982, Global would reintroduce the show to the schedule, still as "Caged Women", in the half-hour format, weeknights at midnight and 12:30am. The program would be off the schedule by the start of the 1983–1984 season.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: Curiously, Global's use of "Caged Women" would continue even after the show debuted in the United States as "Prisoner: Cell Block H", which led to viewers in the communities along the Ontario / Michigan border to watch the same program under two different titles: "Caged Women" on Global, and "Prisoner: Cell Block H" on WKBD-TV Detroit.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: In Vancouver, Victoria and the Lower Mainland of British Columbia, "Prisoner: Cell Block H" was telecasted under that title weekdays at 1pm during 1980 and 1981 on KVOS-TV, an independent station in Bellingham, Washington that included the greater Vancouver / Victoria region as part of its viewing area.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: The series was shown in Sweden where it was a cult broadcast on TV4, from 7 September 1994 and entitled "Kvinofangelset" (The Women's Prison). a fan club organised a regular get together and collected several thousands of signatures from fans to repeat the series in again, which TV4 did so in 2000, After the series ended that year, work began to persuade the network to repeat the series a third time. The network originally screened the series three times a week (Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday) in the late night program slot of 1am, with the final episode airing on 3 February 2000.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: During the repeat run from 2000 until October 2004, the network screening was four times a week (Monday to Thursday) at 2:15 am. The episodes were then repeated on weekends with both the Monday and Tuesday episode on Saturday and the Wednesday and Thursday episodes on Sunday.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: The second rerun began in May 2014, by station TV4 Guld and again airing Monday through to Thursdays, and screening at 10:00pm, with episode 32 on July 3.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: The broadcast schedule was later changed to five nights a week airing at midnight. Season 8 began broadcasting Sjuan in September 2017 at 3:00 pm.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: The series began in New Zealand in March 1981 on TV2, showing twice a week at 2:30 p.m., and was later rerun on SKY 1.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: In South Africa, public television network SABC 1 began airing the series in 1998, screening Thursday nights at 9 p.m. and a repeat showing on Fridays at 10:45; it was cancelled on 2 October 2000, after episode 156.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: In Brazil, "Prisoner" aired as "As Prisioneiras" around the end of 1980 and early 1981 by TVS (since renamed SBT), Sundays at 10 p.m. The show was dubbed into Brazilian Portuguese locally by TVS and was cancelled after episode 82 had screened.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: Network Ten began rerunning "Prisoner" on 8 May 1995; the series was cancelled, despite promises that it would return after the 1996 Christmas break. BBC UKTV began airing it from the beginning on 30 November 1997, at 12:15am on Tuesday and Thursday and 11:30pm on Saturday and Sunday. A repeat was broadcast at 2pm on Monday.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: Foxtel channel 111 channel began airing the series on 7 March 2011 at 6:30pm AEDT, later moving to 5:30pm AEDT on 10 December 2012. Each episode was repeated the following afternoon, with the final episode on the initial run airing on 11 November 2013. The next day, the channel began a repeat run from episode one at 3:00pm AEDT, later moving to 1:00pm AEST on 7 July 2014. Foxtel held unlimited screening rights to the series until 2019, airing the series 4 times back to back (from 2011 to 2019). Foxtel's final broadcast was on September 11, 2019.


title: Prisoner (TV series)

text: Believing that "Prisoner" would resonate with new audiences, in 2010 111 group programming director Darren Chau planned to replay the series against the introduction of digital channel Eleven and Network Ten's plan to move "Neighbours" to Eleven. The channel ran a promotional campaign highlighting the rerun, with a new version of the theme song by Ella Hooper and a cast reunion.


title: Austrian Netherlands

text: The Austrian Netherlands was the territory of the Burgundian Circle of the Holy Roman Empire between 1714 and 1797. The period began with the Austrian acquisition of the former Spanish Netherlands under the Treaty of Rastatt in 1714 and lasted until Revolutionary France annexed the territory during the aftermath of the Battle of Sprimont in 1794 and the Peace of Basel in 1795. Austria, however, did not relinquish its claim over the province until 1797 in the Treaty of Campo Formio.


title: Austrian Netherlands

text: Under the Treaty of Rastatt (1714), following the War of the Spanish Succession, the surviving portions of the Spanish Netherlands were ceded to Austria. The Circle continued to give a single seat to the Reichstag to its owner, now the Emperor himself as alleged Duke of Burgundy. Administratively, the country was divided in four traditional duchies, three counties and various lordships.


title: Austrian Netherlands

text: In the 1780s, opposition emerged to the liberal reforms of Emperor Joseph II, which were perceived as an attack on the Catholic Church and the traditional institutions in the Austrian Netherlands. Resistance, focused in the autonomous and wealthy Duchy of Brabant and County of Flanders, grew. In the aftermath of rioting and disruption, known as the Small Revolution, in 1787, many of opponents took refuge in the neighboring Dutch Republic where they formed a rebel army. Soon after the outbreak of the French and Liège revolutions, the "émigré" army crossed into the Austrian Netherlands and decisively defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Turnhout on 27 October 1789. The rebels, supported by uprisings across the territory, soon took control over much of the territory and proclaimed independence. Despite the tacit support of Prussia, the independent United Belgian States, established in January 1790, received no foreign recognition and soon became divided along ideological lines. The Vonckists, led by Jan Frans Vonck, advocated progressive and liberal government, whereas the Statists, led by Hendrik Van der Noot, were staunchly conservative and supported by the Church. The Statists, who had a wider base of support, soon drove the Vonckists into exile through terror.


title: Austrian Netherlands

text: By mid-1790, Habsburg Austria ended its war with the Ottoman Empire and prepared to suppress the rebels. The new Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold II, was also a liberal and proposed an amnesty for the rebels. After defeating a Statist army at the Battle of Falmagne (22 September 1790), the territory was soon overrun and the revolution was defeated by December. The Austrian reestablishment was short-lived, however, and the territory was overrun by the French in 1794 (during the War of the First Coalition) after the


title: Austrian Netherlands

text: 1794 was the third year of the War of the First Coalition. After the Battle of Fleurus (26 June), the Austrians gave up on contesting the Low Countries, and left it to the French. After three months of pure military occupation, on 15 October an "Administration centrale et supérieure de la Belgique" was installed. On 1 October 1795 the departments were activated and the definitive annexation started, liquidating the Belgian Governing Council, which ceased on 22 November. France annexed the Austrian Netherlands from the Holy Roman Empire and integrated them into the French Republic. The commissioner of the Directory, Louis Ghislain de Bouteville-Dumetz, finished his work on January 20, 1797, after which no common Belgian authority remained.


title: Evelyn Lozada

text: Evelyn Alexandra Lozada (born December 10, 1975) is an American television personality, model, and spokesperson. Lozada is best known as one of the six main cast members in the VH1 reality series "Basketball Wives" throughout its run beginning in 2010.


title: Evelyn Lozada

text: Lozada was born in Brooklyn and raised in The Bronx to Nengo Lozada and Sylvia Ferrera. Lozada was raised with her sister by her mother. Lozada is of Puerto Rican ancestry. She moved to Miami in 2007. She worked as a secretary to an entertainment attorney, and later became co-owner of Dulce, a shoe boutique located in Coral Gables, Florida. Lozada was raised as a Roman Catholic.


title: Evelyn Lozada

text: Lozada starred in "Basketball Wives", an American reality television series franchise on VH1 for nine seasons. Another reality television show, "Ev and Ocho", which had been planned to follow the lives of her and former husband Chad Johnson, never aired. Lozada is the center of a third reality television series, "Livin' Lozada", with her daughter, Shaniece. In September 2012, Lozada appeared on the television show "" where she discussed her personal life and sought emotional healing with Iyanla Vanzant.


title: Evelyn Lozada

text: Lozada and her brand strategist, Courtney Parker, wrote the 2012 novel "The Wives Association: Inner Circle." Released by Cash Money Content books, the novel follows a young woman who marries a football star and then forms a group of other sports wives - The Wives Association. In 2019, Lozada published the novel, "The Perfect Date" which was co-written with Holly Lorincz. In 2020, Lozada is scheduled to publish another novel co-written with Holly Lorincz entitled "The Wrong Mr. Darcy".


title: Evelyn Lozada

text: In December 2012, Lozada posed for PETA's "I'd Rather Go Naked than Wear Fur" campaign. In September 2017, Lozada launched the Turn Hurt Into Joy online campaign to raise money for domestic violence and sexual assault survivors.


title: Evelyn Lozada

text: Lozada has a daughter, Shaniece Virginia Sabina Hairston (b. 1993), from a previous relationship with Jamal Hairston. Lozada was engaged to NBA player Antoine Walker, with whom she had a ten-year relationship, from 1998 until 2008.


title: Evelyn Lozada

text: Lozada began dating MLB player Carl Crawford in 2013. In December 2013, Lozada and Crawford announced their engagement. Lozada gave birth to their son, Carl Leo Crawford on March 22, 2014. In August 2017, Lozada and Crawford called off the engagement.


title: Evelyn Lozada

text: On July 4, 2012, Lozada married Chad Johnson (whose name was Chad Ochocinco at that time) in Saint Martin, after a two-year engagement. On August 11, 2012, Johnson was arrested on a charge of domestic battery against Lozada according to Davie, Florida police. On August 14, 2012, Lozada filed for divorce claiming that her marriage was “irretrievably broken”. Their divorce was finalized on September 19, 2012. On September 21, 2012, Johnson entered a plea of no contest to a charge of misdemeanor domestic battery, avoiding jail time in an agreement with prosecutors and Lozada, Johnson received a year of probation.


title: Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats

text: Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats (1939) is a collection of whimsical light poems by T. S. Eliot about feline psychology and sociology, published by Faber and Faber. It serves as the basis for Andrew Lloyd Webber's 1981 musical "Cats".


title: Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats

text: Eliot wrote the poems in the 1930s and included them, under his assumed name "Old Possum", in letters to his godchildren. They were collected and published in 1939, with cover illustrations by the author, and quickly re-published in 1940, illustrated in full by Nicolas Bentley. They have also been published in versions illustrated by Edward Gorey (1982), Axel Scheffler (2009) and Rebecca Ashdown (2014).


title: Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats

text: The contents of "Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats", along with the names of the featured cats where appropriate, are:


title: Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats

text: In 1954, English composer Alan Rawsthorne set six of the poems in a work for speaker and orchestra entitled "Practical Cats", which was recorded soon afterwards, with the actor Robert Donat as the speaker. At about the same time another English composer, Humphrey Searle, composed another narrated piece based on the poems, using flute, piccolo, cello and guitar. This work, "Two Practical Cats", consists of settings of the poems about Macavity and Growltiger.


title: Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats

text: The best-known musical adaptation of the poems is Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical "Cats", which was premiered in the West End of London in 1981 and on Broadway in 1982. It became the longest-running Broadway show in history until it was overtaken by another musical by Lloyd Webber, "The Phantom of the Opera". As well as the characters found in the book, "Cats" introduces several additional characters from Eliot's unpublished drafts, most notably Grizabella. The musical was adapted into a direct-to-video film in 1998. A feature film adaptation of "Cats" was released on 20 December 2019. As of December, 2019, the feature film's production cost was $100 million but only grossed $38.3 million globally, yielding an approximate $70 million loss.


title: Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats

text: In the film "Logan's Run", Logan and Jessica meet an old man in the ruins of the United States Senate Chamber during their search for Sanctuary. The Old Man has many cats and refers to the poem "The Naming of Cats", explaining that each cat has three names: one common, one fancy and one that only the cat knows. Later the Old Man refers to one cat in particular, "Gus", short for "Asparagus", and goes on to recite parts of "Macavity: the Mystery Cat".


title: Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats

text: The British rock band Mungo Jerry derived their name from the book's poem "Mungojerrie and Rumpleteazer".


title: Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats

text: On 5 June 2009, "The Times" revealed that in 1937 Eliot had composed a 34-line poem entitled "Cows" for the children of Frank Morley, a friend who, like Eliot, was a director of the publishing company Faber and Faber. Morley's daughter, Susanna Smithson, uncovered the poem as part of the BBC Two programme "Arena: T.S. Eliot", broadcast that night as part of the BBC Poetry Season.


title: Bhakti

text: Bhakti () literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity". It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to devotion and love for a personal god or a representational god by a devotee. In ancient texts such as the "Shvetashvatara Upanishad", the term simply means participation, devotion and love for any endeavor, while in the "Bhagavad Gita", it connotes one of the possible paths of spirituality and towards moksha, as in "bhakti marga".


title: Bhakti

text: Bhakti in Indian religions is "emotional devotionalism", particularly to a personal god or to spiritual ideas. Thus, bhakti requires a relationship between the devotee and the deity. The term also refers to a movement, pioneered by Alvars and Nayanars, that developed around the gods Vishnu (Vaishnavism), Shiva (Shaivism) and Devi (Shaktism) in the second half of the 1st millennium CE.


title: Bhakti

text: Bhakti ideas have inspired many popular texts and saint-poets in India. The "Bhagavata Purana", for example, is a Krishna-related text associated with the Bhakti movement in Hinduism. Bhakti is also found in other religions practiced in India, and it has influenced interactions between Christianity and Hinduism in the modern era. "Nirguni bhakti" (devotion to the divine without attributes) is found in Sikhism, as well as Hinduism. Outside India, emotional devotion is found in some Southeast Asian and East Asian Buddhist traditions, and it is sometimes referred to as "Bhatti".


title: Bhakti

text: The Sanskrit word "bhakti" is derived from the verb root "bhaj-", which means "to worship, have recourse to, betake onself to" or "bhañj-," which means "to break." The word also means "attachment, devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to something as a spiritual, religious principle or means of salvation".


title: Bhakti

text: The meaning of the term "Bhakti" is analogous to but different from Kama. Kama connotes emotional connection, sometimes with sensual devotion and erotic love. Bhakti, in contrast, is spiritual, a love and devotion to religious concepts or principles, that engages both emotion and intellection. Karen Pechelis states that the word Bhakti should not be understood as uncritical emotion, but as committed engagement. She adds that, in the concept of "bhakti" in Hinduism, the engagement involves a simultaneous tension between emotion and intellection, "emotion to reaffirm the social context and temporal freedom, intellection to ground the experience in a thoughtful, conscious approach". One who practices "bhakti" is called a "bhakta".


title: Bhakti

text: The term bhakti, in Vedic Sanskrit literature, has a general meaning of "mutual attachment, devotion, fondness for, devotion to" such as in human relationships, most often between beloved-lover, friend-friend, king-subject, parent-child. It may refer to devotion towards a spiritual teacher (Guru) as "guru-bhakti", or to a personal God, or for spirituality without form (nirguna).


title: Bhakti

text: According to the Sri Lankan Buddhist scholar Sanath Nanayakkara, there is no single term in English that adequately translates or represents the concept of "bhakti" in Indian religions. Terms such as "devotion, faith, devotional faith" represent certain aspects of "bhakti", but it means much more. The concept includes a sense of deep affection, attachment, but not wish because "wish is selfish, affection is unselfish". Some scholars, states Nanayakkara, associate it with "saddha" (Sanskrit: "Sraddha") which means "faith, trust or confidence". However, "bhakti" can connote an end in itself, or a path to spiritual wisdom.


title: Bhakti

text: The term "Bhakti" refers to one of several alternate spiritual paths to moksha (spiritual freedom, liberation, salvation) in Hinduism, and it is referred to as "bhakti marga" or "bhakti yoga". The other paths are "Jnana marga" (path of knowledge), "Karma marga" (path of works), "Rāja marga" (path of contemplation and meditation).


title: Bhakti

text: The term "bhakti" has been usually translated as "devotion" in Orientalist literature. The colonial era authors variously described "Bhakti" as a form of mysticism or "primitive" religious devotion of lay people with monotheistic parallels. However, modern scholars state "devotion" is a misleading and incomplete translation of "bhakti". Many contemporary scholars have questioned this terminology, and most now trace the term "bhakti" as one of the several spiritual perspectives that emerged from reflections on the Vedic context and Hindu way of life. Bhakti in Indian religions is not a ritualistic devotion to a God or to religion, but participation in a path that includes behavior, ethics, mores and spirituality. It involves, among other things, refining one's state of mind, knowing God, participating in God, and internalizing God. Increasingly, instead of "devotion", the term "participation" is appearing in scholarly literature as a gloss for the term "bhakti".


title: Bhakti

text: David Lorenzen states that "bhakti" is an important term in Sikhism and Hinduism. They both share numerous concepts and core spiritual ideas, but "bhakti" of "nirguni" (devotion to divine without attributes) is particularly significant in Sikhism. In Hinduism, diverse ideas continue, where both "saguni" and "nirguni" bhakti (devotion to divine with or without attributes) or alternate paths to spirituality are among the options left to the choice of a Hindu.


title: Bhakti

text: The last of three epilogue verses of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, dated to be from 1st millennium BCE, uses the word "Bhakti" as follows,


title: Bhakti

text: This verse is one of the earliest use of the word "Bhakti" in ancient Indian literature, and has been translated as "the love of God". Scholars have debated whether this phrase is authentic or later insertion into the Upanishad, and whether the terms "Bhakti" and "Deva" meant the same in this ancient text as they do in the modern era. Max Muller states that the word "Bhakti" appears only once in this Upanishad, that too in one last verse of the epilogue, could have been a later addition and may not be theistic as the word was later used in much later "Sandilya Sutras". Grierson as well as Carus note that the first epilogue verse 6.21 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad is also notable for its use of the word "Deva Prasada" (देवप्रसाद, grace or gift of God), but add that "Deva" in the epilogue of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad refers to "pantheistic Brahman" and the closing credit to sage Shvetashvatara in verse 6.21 can mean "gift or grace of his Soul".


title: Bhakti

text: Scholarly consensus sees "bhakti" as a post-Vedic movement that developed primarily during the Hindu Epics and Puranas era of Indian history (late first mill. BCE-early first mill. CE). The "Bhagavad Gita" is the first text to explicitly use the word "bhakti" to designate a religious path, using it as a term for one of three possible religious approaches. The Bhagavata Purana develops the idea more elaborately, while the Shvetashvatara Upanishad presents evidence of "guru-bhakti" (devotion to one's spiritual teacher).


title: Bhakti

text: The "Bhakti Movement" was a rapid growth of bhakti, first starting in the later part of 1st millennium CE, from Tamil Nadu in southern India with the Shaiva Nayanars and the Vaishnava Alvars. Their ideas and practices inspired bhakti poetry and devotion throughout India over the 12th-18th century CE. The Alvars ("those immersed in God") were Vaishnava poet-saints who wandered from temple to temple, singing the praises of Vishnu. They hailed the divine abodes of Vishnu and converted many people to Vaishnavism.


title: Bhakti

text: Like the Alvars, the Shaiva Nayanar poets were influential. The "Tirumurai", a compilation of hymns by sixty-three Nayanar poets, is still of great importance in South India. Hymns by three of the most prominent poets, Appar (7th century CE), Campantar (7th century) and Sundarar (9th century), were compiled into the "Tevaram", the first volumes of the "Tirumurai". The poets' itinerant lifestyle helped create temple and pilgrimage sites and spread devotion to Shiva. Early Tamil-Shiva bhakti poets quoted the Krishna Yajurveda. The Alvars and Nayanars were instrumental in propagating the Bhakti tradition. The Bhagavata Purana's references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on "bhakti", have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that "bhakti" movement had parallel developments in other parts of India.


title: Bhakti

text: Scholars state that the "bhakti" movement focused on the gods Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti and other deities, that developed and spread in India, was in response to the arrival of Islam in India about 8th century CE, and subsequent religious violence. This view is contested by other scholars.


title: Bhakti

text: The Bhakti movement swept over east and north India from the fifteenth-century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE. Bhakti poetry and ideas influenced many aspects of Hindu culture, religious and secular, and became an integral part of Indian society. It extended its influence to Sufism, Christianity, and Jainism. Sikhism was founded by Nanak in the 15th century, during the bhakti movement period, and scholars call it a Bhakti sect of Indian traditions.


title: Bhakti

text: The movement has traditionally been considered as an influential social reformation in Hinduism, and provided an individual-focused alternative path to spirituality regardless of one's birth caste or gender. Postmodern scholars question this traditional view and whether the Bhakti movement were ever a social reform or rebellion of any kind. They suggest Bhakti movement was a revival, reworking and recontextualization of ancient Vedic traditions.


title: Bhakti

text: The "Bhagavad Gita", variously dated to have been composed in 5th to 2nd century BCE, introduces bhakti yoga in combination with "karma yoga" and "jnana yoga", while the "Bhagavata Purana" expands on bhakti yoga, offering nine specific activities for the bhakti yogi. Bhakti in the "Bhagavad Gita" offered an alternative to two dominant practices of religion at the time: the isolation of the sannyasin and the practice of religious ritual. "Bhakti Yoga" is described by Swami Vivekananda as "the path of systematized devotion for the attainment of union with the Absolute". In various chapters, including the twelfth chapter of the "Bhagavad Gita", Krishna describes "bhakti yoga" as one of the paths to the highest spiritual attainments. In the sixth chapter, for example, the Gita states the following about bhakti yogi:


title: Bhakti

text: Shandilya and Narada produced two important Bhakti texts, the "Shandilya Bhakti Sutra" and "Narada Bhakti Sutra". They define devotion, emphasize its importance and superiority, and classify its forms.


title: Bhakti

text: According to Ramana Maharishi, states David Frawley, bhakti is a "surrender to the divine with one's heart". It can be practiced as an adjunct to self-inquiry, and in one of four ways:


title: Bhakti

text: The "Navaratnamalika" (garland of nine gems), nine forms of "bhakti" are listed: (1) "śravaṇa" (listening to ancient texts), (2) "kīrtana" (praying), (3) "smaraṇa" (remembering teachings in ancient texts), (4) "pāda-sevana" (service to the feet), (5) "archana" (worshiping), (6) "namaskar" or "vandana" (bowing to the divine), (7) "dāsya" (service to the divine), (8) "sākhyatva" (friendship with the divine), and (9) "ātma-nivedana" (self-surrender to the divine).


title: Bhakti

text: Traditional Hinduism speaks of five different "bhāvas" or "affective essences". In this sense, "bhāvas" are different attitudes that a devotee takes according to his individual temperament to express his devotion towards God in some form. The different "bhāvas" are:


title: Bhakti

text: Several saints are known to have practiced these "bhavas". The nineteenth century mystic, Ramakrishna is said to have practiced these five "bhavas". The attitude of Hanuman towards lord Rama is considered to be of "dasya bhava". The attitude of Arjuna and the shepherd boys of Vrindavan towards Krishna is regarded as "sakhya bhava". The attitude of Radha towards Krishna is regarded as "madhura bhava". The attitude of Yashoda, who looked after Krishna during his childhood is regarded as "vatsalya bhava". Caitanya-caritamrta mentions that Mahaprabhu came to distribute the four spiritual sentiments of Vraja loka: dasya, sakhya, vatsalya, and sringara. Sringara is the relationship of the intimate love.


title: Bhakti

text: In olden days, saints such as Mirabai, Soordas, Narsinh Mehta composed several bhajans that were a path towards Bhakti for many, that are universally sung even today. A modern age saint, Shri Devendra Ghia (Kaka) has composed about 10,000 hymns (a phenomenal task.) These hymns are related to bhakti, knowledge, devotion, faith, introspection and honesty.


title: Bhakti

text: Devotionalism, similar to "Bhakti", states Michael Pasquier, has been a common form of religious activity in world religions throughout human history. It is found in Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Judaism.


title: Bhakti

text: Bhakti (called "bhatti" in Pali language) has been a common aspect of Buddhism, where offerings and group prayers are made to images such the images of the Buddha and the "Bodhisattvas", or to deities such as wrathful deities. Karel Werner notes that Bhakti has been a significant practice in Theravada Buddhism, and states, "there can be no doubt that deep devotion or "bhakti / bhatti" does exist in Buddhism and that it had its beginnings in the earliest days".


title: Bhakti

text: According to Sri Lankan scholar Indumathie Karunaratna, the meaning of "bhatti" changed throughout Buddhist history, however. In early Buddhism, such as in the text Theragāthā, "bhatti" had the meaning of 'faithful adherence to the [Buddhist] religion', and was accompanied with knowledge. In later text tradition, however, the term developed the meaning of an advanced form of emotional devotion. Examples of the latter include the veneration of Buddha Amitabha and those in the "Saddharmapundrarika Sutra". This changed the meaning of Buddhist devotion to a more person-centered sense, similar to a theist sense used in Hindu scriptures. This sense of devotion was no longer connected with a belief in a religious system, and had little place for doubt, contradicting the early Buddhist concept of "saddhā". "Saddhā" did not exclude reasonable doubt on the spiritual path, and was a step in reaching the final aim of developing wisdom, not an end in itself.


title: Bhakti

text: In early Buddhism, states Sanath Nanayakkara, the concept of taking refuge to the Buddha had the meaning of taking the Buddha as an ideal to live by, rather than the later sense of self-surrender. But already in the Commentary to the Abhidhamma text "Puggalapaññatti", it is mentioned that the Buddhist devotee should develop his "saddhā" until it becomes "bhaddi", a sense not mentioned in earlier texts and probably influenced by the Hindu idea of "bhakti". There are instances where commentator Buddhaghosa mentions taking refuge in the Buddha in the sense of mere adoration, indicating a historical shift in meaning. Similar developments took place with regard to the term "puja" (honor) and the role of the Buddha image. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the doctrine of the trikāya (three bodies) and the devotion towards "Bodhisattvas" all indicating a shift of emphasis toward devotion as a central concept in later Buddhism.


title: Bhakti

text: In later faith-oriented literature, such as the Avadānas, faith is given an important role in Buddhist doctrine. Nevertheless, faith ("śraddhā") is discussed in different contexts than devotion ("bhakti"). "Bhakti" is often used disparagingly to describe acts of worship to deities, often seen as ineffective and improper for a Buddhist. Also, "bhakti" is clearly connected with a person as an object, whereas "śraddhā" is less connected with a person, and is more connected with truthfulness and truth. Śraddhā focuses on ideas such as the working of karma and merit transfer.


title: Bhakti

text: Nevertheless, affective devotion is an important part of Buddhist practice, not only in Mahāyāna Buddhism. According to Winston King, a scholar on Theravāda Buddhism in Myanmar, "warm, personalized, emotional" "bhakti" has been a part of the Burmese Buddhist tradition apart from the monastic and lay intellectuals. The Buddha is treasured by the everyday devout Buddhists, just like Catholics treasure Jesus. The orthodox teachers tend to restrain the devotion to the Buddha, but to the devout Buddhist populace, "a very deeply devotional quality" was and remains a part of the actual practice. This is observable, states King, in "multitudes of Pagoda worshippers of the Buddha images" and the offerings they make before the image and nowhere else. Another example is the worship of the "Bodhisattvas" and various deities in Tibetan and other traditions of Buddhism, including the so-called wrathful deities.


title: Bhakti

text: Bhakti has been a prevalent ancient practice in various Jaina sects, wherein learned Tirthankara ("Jina") and human "gurus" have been venerated with offerings, songs and Āratī prayers.


title: Bhakti

text: Jainism participated in the Bhakti school of medieval India, and has a rich tradition of bhakti literature ("stavan") though these have been less studied than those of the Hindu tradition. The "Avasyaka sutra" of Jains includes, among ethical duties for the devotee, the recitation of "hymns of praise to the Tirthankaras" as the second Obligatory Action. It explains this "bhakti" as one of the means to destroy negative karma. According to Paul Dundas, such textual references to devotional activity suggests that "bhakti" was a necessary part of Jainism from an early period.


title: Bhakti

text: According to Jeffery D. Long, along with its strong focus on ethics and ascetic practices, the religiosity in Jainism has had a strong tradition of "bhakti" or devotion just like their Hindu counterparts. The Jain community built ornate temples and prided in public devotion for its fordmakers, saints and teachers. "Abhisekha", festival prayers, community recitals and "Murti puja" (rituals before an image) are examples of integrated bhakti in Jain practice. Some Jain monks, however, reject Bhakti.


title: Document (album)

text: Document is the fifth studio album by American rock band R.E.M., released in September, 1987, by I.R.S. Records. It was the first album by the band to be produced by Scott Litt.


title: Document (album)

text: "Document" was R.E.M.'s first album to be co-produced both by the band and Scott Litt; this was a collaboration that continued through the productions of "Green", "Out of Time", "Automatic for the People", "Monster", and "New Adventures in Hi-Fi". The album's clear production and muscular rock riffs both helped to move the band toward mainstream success and built on the work done by Don Gehman, who had produced their previous album "Lifes Rich Pageant". This release not only launched "The One I Love" — R.E.M.'s first Top 10 hit on the "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 9 — but also gave them their first platinum album.


title: Document (album)

text: R.E.M. expanded their instrumentation somewhat on the album, adding a dulcimer to "King of Birds" and a saxophone to "Fireplace". Steve Berlin was brought in to add his saxophone skills because of a prior relationship with producer Scott Litt. This experimentation would lead to their adoption of the mandolin, which featured prominently on their subsequent albums "Green" and "Out of Time"; furthermore, the band's musicians began swapping instruments both in concert and the studio with an effort to create new sounds and avoid stagnation.


title: Document (album)

text: The original sleeve for the album featured the message "File under Fire", a reference to what Michael Stipe considered to be the central lyrical theme of the album, and also references the chorus to "The One I Love". A similar message ("File under water") could be found on the cover of the band's second album, "Reckoning", as well as on the compilation album "Eponymous" ("File under grain") referring to the idea behind "Talk About the Passion", which was about hunger. Two rejected suggestions for the title of the album—"R.E.M. No. 5" and "Table of Content"—also appear on the sleeve artwork. Other possible album titles included "Mr. Evil Breakfast", "Skin Up with R.E.M.", and "Last Train to Disneyland" (the last one having been suggested by Peter Buck, who felt that America under the presidency of Ronald Reagan was beginning to feel a lot like the famed amusement park).


title: Document (album)

text: In a contemporary review for "The Village Voice", Robert Christgau said the band had moved on from their past work's escapism and that "their discovery of the outside world has sharpened their sense of humor along with everything else", citing "It's the End of the World as We Know It (And I Feel Fine)" as an "inspirational title". "Rolling Stone" reviewer David Fricke felt that the album was R.E.M.'s "finest to date", and said that ""Document" is the sound of R.E.M. on the move".


title: Document (album)

text: Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said that "where "Lifes Rich Pageant" sounded a bit like a party record, "Document" is a fiery statement, and its memorable melodies and riffs are made all the more indelible by its righteous anger." "Rolling Stone" went on to include the album in their list of the 100 greatest albums of the 1980s (in 41st place), and then ranked it number 462 on 2012 list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. In 2012, "Slant Magazine" listed the album at number 17 on its list of "Best Albums of the 1980s".


title: Document (album)

text: In 1999, the album was remastered by Bob Ludwig and re-released on Compact Disc by I.R.S. Records in the United States. This version came in a replica of the record sleeve made of cardboard. In 2005, Capitol Records (whose then parent company EMI at that time owned I.R.S. Records' catalog) issued an expanded DualDisc edition of "Document" which includes a digitally remastered version of the album on the CD side, a DVD-Audio, DTS and Dolby Digital 5.1-channel surround sound mix of the album done by Elliot Scheiner on the DVD side, and the original CD booklet.


title: Document (album)

text: 25th anniversary bonus disc, recorded live at Muziekcentrum Vredenburg in Utrecht, Netherlands, September 14, 1987


title: Anchovies as food

text: Anchovies are small, common saltwater forage fish in the family Engraulidae that are used as human food and fish bait. There are 144 species in 17 genera found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. Anchovies are usually classified as oily fish. They are small, green fish with blue reflections due to a silver longitudinal stripe that runs from the base of the caudal fin. They range from to in adult length, and the body shape is variable, with more slender fish in northern populations.


title: Anchovies as food

text: A traditional method of processing and preserving anchovies is to gut and salt them in brine, allow them to mature, and then pack them in oil or salt. This results in the characteristic strong flavor associated with anchovies, and their flesh turns deep grey. Anchovies pickled in vinegar, as with Spanish "boquerones en vinagre", are milder, and the flesh retains a white color. For domestic use, anchovy fillets are sometimes packed in oil or salt in small tins or jars, sometimes rolled around capers. Anchovy paste is also available, as is anchovy essence. Anchovy mash is also sold in the UK under the label of Gentleman's Relish.


title: Anchovies as food

text: They are used in small quantities to flavor many dishes. Because of the strong flavor of anchovies, they are also an ingredient in several sauces, including Worcestershire sauce, remoulade and many fish sauces, and in some versions of Café de Paris butter. Anchovies are a popular pizza topping in some places. In Roman times, anchovies were the base for the fermented fish sauce "garum". Garum had a sufficiently long shelf life for long-distance commerce and was produced in industrial quantities. Anchovies were also eaten raw as an aphrodisiac.


title: Anchovies as food

text: The strong taste people associate with anchovies is due to the curing process. Fresh anchovies, known in Italy as "alici", have a much milder flavor. The rare alici (anchovies - in the local dialect: "Sardoni barcolani") from the Gulf of Trieste near Barcola, which are only caught at Sirocco, are particularly sought after because of their white meat and special taste and fetch high prices for fishermen.


title: Anchovies as food

text: In Sweden and Finland, the name anchovies is related strongly to a traditional seasoning. Hence, the product "anchovies" is normally made of sprats, while fish such as herring can be sold as "anchovy-spiced", leading to confusion when translating recipes.


title: Anchovies as food

text: The European anchovy, "Engraulis encrasicolus", is the main commercial anchovy, with Morocco being the largest supplier of canned anchovies. The anchovy industry along the coast of Cantabria, initiated in Cantabria by Sicilian salters in the mid-19th century, now dwarfs the traditional Catalan salters.


title: Anchovies as food

text: In English-speaking countries, "alici" are sometimes called "white anchovies", and are often served in a weak vinegar marinade, a preservation method associated with the coastal town of Collioure in southwest France. The white fillets (a little like marinated herrings) are sold in heavy salt, or the more popular garlic or tomato oil and vinegar marinade packs.


title: Anchovies as food

text: In Spain they are called "bocarte" when consumed as freshly cooked fish, "anchoa" when salted and commonly sold in cans and "boquerón" when marinated in vinegar and very commonly consumed as snack or appetizer. ()


title: Anchovies as food

text: In Southeast Asian countries, anchovies are known as "ikan teri" in Indonesia, "ikan bilis" or setipinna taty in Malaysia ("ikan" being the Malay word for fish); and "dilis", "gurayan", "monamon", "guno" or "bolinaw" in the Philippines. They are usually sold dried, but are also popularly used in fermented condiments like the Philippine "bagoong" and Malaysian "budu". "Ikan bilis" is normally used in a similar way to dried shrimp in Malaysian cuisine. In Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Singapore anchovies are commonly used to make fish stock or are deep fried. Anchovies are also popular ingredients for the traditional Javanese "sambal".


title: Anchovies as food

text: In Vietnam, anchovy is the main ingredient in the fish sauce - "nước mắm" - the unofficial national sauce of Vietnam. In Thai cuisine, dried anchovies are called "pla katak haeng". They are used in a variety of dishes and especially popular deep-fried as a snack. Similarly to Vietnamese fish sauce, Thai fish sauce ("nam pla") is also often made from anchovies. In other parts of Asia, such as Korea and Japan, sun-dried anchovies are used to produce a rich soup similar to "setipinna taty". These anchovy stocks are usually used as a base for noodle soups or traditional Korean soups. There are many other variations on how anchovies are used in Korea.


title: Anchovies as food

text: Fresh and dried anchovies are a popular part of the cuisine in Kerala and other south Indian states, where they are referred to as "netholi/chooda" (and "nethili" in Tamil Nadu) and provide a cheap source of protein in the diet. Fresh anchovies are eaten fried or as in a spicy curry.


title: Anchovies as food

text: In Turkey, anchovies are known as "hamsi" and are eaten between November and March (their name being derived from "hamsin", an Arabic term for the winter period). They are generally consumed fried, grilled, steamed, as a meatball, and as "Döner", and "pilav".


title: Anchovies as food

text: Anchovies can concentrate domoic acid in their gut which causes amnesic shellfish poisoning in humans when eaten whole. If suspected, medical attention should be sought.


title: Cananga odorata

text: Cananga odorata, known as ylang-ylang ( ) or cananga tree, is a tropical tree that is native to the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Queensland, Australia. It is also native to parts of Thailand and Vietnam. It is valued for the essential oils extracted from its flowers (also called "ylang-ylang"), which has a strong floral fragrance. Ylang-ylang is one of the most extensively used natural materials in the perfume industry, earning it the name "Queen of Perfumes".


title: Cananga odorata

text: The ylang-ylang vine ("Artabotrys odoratissimus") and climbing ylang-ylang ("Artabotrys hexapetalus") are woody, evergreen climbing plants in the same family. "Artabotrys odoratissimus" is also a source of perfume.


title: Cananga odorata

text: The name "ylang-ylang" is the Spanish spelling of the Tagalog term for the tree, - a reduplicative form of the word , meaning "wilderness", alluding to the tree's natural habitat. A common mistranslation is "flower of flowers".


title: Cananga odorata

text: The tree is also called the fragrant cananga, Macassar-oil plant, or perfume tree. It is called "kenanga" in Malay, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *"kanaŋa". Its traditional Polynesian names include "Mataoi" (Cook Islands), "Mohokoi" (Tonga), "Mosooi" (Samoa), "Motooi" (Hawaii), and "Mokosoi", "Mokasoi" or "Mokohoi" (Fiji).


title: Cananga odorata

text: "Cananga odorata" is a fast-growing tree of the custard apple family Annonaceae. Its growth exceeds per year, and it attains an average height of in an ideal climate. The compound evergreen leaves are pinnate, smooth and glossy, and long. Leaflets are oval, pointed and with wavy margins. The flower is drooping, long-stalked, with six narrow, greenish-yellow (rarely pink) petals, rather like a sea star in appearance, and yields a highly fragrant essential oil. Its pollen is shed as permanent tetrads.


title: Cananga odorata

text: The plant is native to the Malesian ecoregion, from parts of Mainland Southeast Asia (Thailand and Vietnam), to Maritime Southeast Asia (the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia), Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and to Queensland, Australia. It has been introduced to other tropical regions in the Pacific Islands, South Asia, Africa, and the Americas. It is commonly grown in Madagascar, Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and the Comoros Islands. It grows in full or partial sun, and prefers the acidic soils of its native rainforest habitat. Ylang-ylang has been cultivated in temperate climates under conservatory conditions.


title: Cananga odorata

text: Its clusters of black fruit are an important food item for birds, such as the collared imperial pigeon, purple-tailed imperial pigeon, Zoe's imperial pigeon, superb fruit dove, pink-spotted fruit dove, coroneted fruit dove, orange-bellied fruit dove, and wompoo fruit dove. Sulawesi red-knobbed hornbill serves as an effective seed disperser for "C. odorata".


title: Cananga odorata

text: The essential oil is used in aromatherapy. It is believed to relieve high blood pressure and normalize sebum secretion for skin problems, and is considered to be an aphrodisiac. The oil from ylang-ylang is widely used in perfumery for oriental- or floral-themed perfumes (such as Chanel No. 5). Ylang-ylang blends well with most floral, fruit, and wood scents.


title: Cananga odorata

text: In Indonesia, ylang-ylang flowers are spread on the bed of newlywed couples. In the Philippines, its flowers, together with the flowers of the sampaguita, are strung into a necklace ("lei") and worn by women and used to adorn religious images.


title: Cananga odorata

text: The fragrance of ylang-ylang is rich and deep with notes of rubber and custard, and bright with hints of jasmine and neroli, thus it is sometimes described as heavy, sweet, and carries a slightly fruity floral scent. The essential oil of the flower is obtained through steam distillation of the flowers and separated into different grades (extra, 1, 2, or 3) according to when the distillates are obtained. The main aromatic components of ylang-ylang oil are benzyl acetate, linalool, "p"-cresyl methyl ether, and methyl benzoate, responsible for its characteristic odor.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Animal consciousness, or animal awareness, is the quality or state of self-awareness within a non-human animal, or of being aware of an external object or something within itself. In humans, consciousness has been defined as: sentience, awareness, subjectivity, qualia, the ability to experience or to feel, wakefulness, having a sense of selfhood, and the executive control system of the mind. Despite the difficulty in definition, many philosophers believe there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is.


title: Animal consciousness

text: The topic of animal consciousness is beset with a number of difficulties. It poses the problem of other minds in an especially severe form because animals, lacking the ability to use human language, cannot tell us about their experiences. Also, it is difficult to reason objectively about the question, because a denial that an animal is conscious is often taken to imply that it does not feel, its life has no value, and that harming it is not morally wrong. The 17th-century French philosopher René Descartes, for example, has sometimes been criticised for providing a rationale for the mistreatment of animals because he argued that only humans are conscious.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Philosophers who consider subjective experience the essence of consciousness also generally believe, as a correlate, that the existence and nature of animal consciousness can never rigorously be known. The American philosopher Thomas Nagel spelled out this point of view in an influential essay titled "What Is it Like to Be a Bat?". He said that an organism is conscious "if and only if there is something that it is like to be that organism—something it is like "for" the organism"; and he argued that no matter how much we know about an animal's brain and behavior, we can never really put ourselves into the mind of the animal and experience its world in the way it does itself. Other thinkers, such as the cognitive scientist Douglas Hofstadter, dismiss this argument as incoherent. Several psychologists and ethologists have argued for the existence of animal consciousness by describing a range of behaviors that appear to show animals holding beliefs about things they cannot directly perceive—Donald Griffin's 2001 book "Animal Minds" reviews a substantial portion of the evidence.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Animal consciousness has been actively researched for over one hundred years. In 1927, the American functional psychologist Harvey Carr argued that any valid measure or understanding of awareness in animals depends on "an accurate and complete knowledge of its essential conditions in man". A more recent review concluded in 1985 that "the best approach is to use experiment (especially psychophysics) and observation to trace the dawning and ontogeny of self-consciousness, perception, communication, intention, beliefs, and reflection in normal human fetuses, infants, and children". In 2012, a group of neuroscientists signed the "Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness", which "unequivocally" asserted that "humans are not unique in possessing the neurological substrates that generate consciousness. Non-human animals, including all mammals and birds, and many other creatures, including octopuses, also possess these neural substrates."


title: Animal consciousness

text: The mind–body problem in philosophy examines the relationship between mind and matter, and in particular the relationship between consciousness and the brain. A variety of approaches have been proposed. Most are either dualist or monist. Dualism maintains a rigid distinction between the realms of mind and matter. Monism maintains that there is only one kind of stuff, and that mind and matter are both aspects of it. The problem was addressed by pre-Aristotelian philosophers, and was famously addressed by René Descartes in the 17th century, resulting in Cartesian dualism. Descartes believed that humans only, and not other animals have this non-physical mind.


title: Animal consciousness

text: The rejection of the mind–body dichotomy is found in French Structuralism, and is a position that generally characterized post-war French philosophy.


title: Animal consciousness

text: The absence of an empirically identifiable meeting point between the non-physical mind and its physical extension has proven problematic to dualism and many modern philosophers of mind maintain that the mind is not something separate from the body. These approaches have been particularly influential in the sciences, particularly in the fields of sociobiology, computer science, evolutionary psychology, and the neurosciences.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Epiphenomenalism is the theory in philosophy of mind that mental phenomena are caused by physical processes in the brain or that both are effects of a common cause, as opposed to mental phenomena driving the physical mechanics of the brain. The impression that thoughts, feelings, or sensations cause physical effects, is therefore to be understood as illusory to some extent. For example, it is not the feeling of fear that produces an increase in heart beat, both are symptomatic of a common physiological origin, possibly in response to a legitimate external threat.


title: Animal consciousness

text: The history of epiphenomenalism goes back to the post-Cartesian attempt to solve the riddle of Cartesian dualism, i.e., of how mind and body could interact. La Mettrie, Leibniz and Spinoza all in their own way began this way of thinking. The idea that even if the animal were conscious nothing would be added to the production of behavior, even in animals of the human type, was first voiced by La Mettrie (1745), and then by Cabanis (1802), and was further explicated by Hodgson (1870) and Huxley (1874). Huxley (1874) likened mental phenomena to the whistle on a steam locomotive. However, epiphenomenalism flourished primarily as it found a niche among methodological or scientific behaviorism. In the early 1900s scientific behaviorists such as Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B. F. Skinner began the attempt to uncover laws describing the relationship between stimuli and responses, without reference to inner mental phenomena. Instead of adopting a form of eliminativism or mental fictionalism, positions that deny that inner mental phenomena exist, a behaviorist was able to adopt epiphenomenalism in order to allow for the existence of mind. However, by the 1960s, scientific behaviourism met substantial difficulties and eventually gave way to the cognitive revolution. Participants in that revolution, such as Jerry Fodor, reject epiphenomenalism and insist upon the efficacy of the mind. Fodor even speaks of "epiphobia"—fear that one is becoming an epiphenomenalist.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Thomas Henry Huxley defends in an essay titled "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History" an epiphenomenalist theory of consciousness according to which consciousness is a causally inert effect of neural activity—"as the steam-whistle which accompanies the work of a locomotive engine is without influence upon its machinery". To this William James objects in his essay "Are We Automata?" by stating an evolutionary argument for mind-brain interaction implying that if the preservation and development of consciousness in the biological evolution is a result of natural selection, it is plausible that consciousness has not only been influenced by neural processes, but has had a survival value itself; and it could only have had this if it had been efficacious. Karl Popper develops in the book "The Self and Its Brain" a similar evolutionary argument.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Bernard Rollin of Colorado State University, the principal author of two U.S. federal laws regulating pain relief for animals, writes that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether animals experience pain, and veterinarians trained in the U.S. before 1989 were simply taught to ignore animal pain. In his interactions with scientists and other veterinarians, Rollin was regularly asked to prove animals are conscious and provide scientifically acceptable grounds for claiming they feel pain. The denial of animal consciousness by scientists has been described as mentophobia by Donald Griffin. Academic reviews of the topic are equivocal, noting that the argument that animals have at least simple conscious thoughts and feelings has strong support, but some critics continue to question how reliably animal mental states can be determined. A refereed journal "Animal Sentience" launched in 2015 by the Institute of Science and Policy of The Humane Society of the United States is devoted to research on this and related topics.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Consciousness is an elusive concept that presents many difficulties when attempts are made to define it. Its study has progressively become an interdisciplinary challenge for numerous researchers, including ethologists, neurologists, cognitive neuroscientists, philosophers, psychologists and psychiatrists.


title: Animal consciousness

text: In 1976 Richard Dawkins wrote, "The evolution of the capacity to simulate seems to have culminated in subjective consciousness. Why this should have happened is, to me, the most profound mystery facing modern biology". In 2004, eight neuroscientists felt it was still too soon for a definition. They wrote an apology in "Human Brain Function":


title: Animal consciousness

text: Consciousness is sometimes defined as the quality or state of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. It has been defined somewhat vaguely as: subjectivity, awareness, sentience, the ability to experience or to feel, wakefulness, having a sense of selfhood, and the executive control system of the mind. Despite the difficulty in definition, many philosophers believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is. Max Velmans and Susan Schneider wrote in "The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness": "Anything that we are aware of at a given moment forms part of our consciousness, making conscious experience at once the most familiar and most mysterious aspect of our lives."


title: Animal consciousness

text: Sentience (the ability to feel, perceive, or to experience subjectivity) is not the same as self-awareness (being aware of oneself as an individual). The mirror test is sometimes considered to be an operational test for self-awareness, and the handful of animals that have passed it are often considered to be self-aware. It remains debatable whether recognition of one's mirror image can be properly construed to imply full self-awareness, particularly given that robots are being constructed which appear to pass the test.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Much has been learned in neuroscience about correlations between brain activity and subjective, conscious experiences, and many suggest that neuroscience will ultimately explain consciousness; "...consciousness is a biological process that will eventually be explained in terms of molecular signaling pathways used by interacting populations of nerve cells...". However, this view has been criticized because consciousness has yet to be shown to be a process, and the so-called "hard problem" of relating consciousness directly to brain activity remains elusive.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Since Descartes's proposal of dualism, it became a general consensus that the mind had become a matter of philosophy and that science was not able to penetrate the issue of consciousness – that consciousness was outside of space and time. However, in recent decades many scholars have begun to move toward a science of consciousness. Antonio Damasio and Gerald Edelman are two neuroscientists who have led the move to neural correlates of the self and of consciousness. Damasio has demonstrated that emotions and their biological foundation play a critical role in high level cognition, and Edelman has created a framework for analyzing consciousness through a scientific outlook. The current problem consciousness researchers face involves explaining how and why consciousness arises from neural computation. In his research on this problem, Edelman has developed a theory of consciousness, in which he has coined the terms primary consciousness and secondary consciousness.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Eugene Linden, author of "The Parrot's Lament" suggests there are many examples of animal behavior and intelligence that surpass what people would suppose to be the boundary of animal consciousness. Linden contends that in many of these documented examples, a variety of animal species exhibit behavior that can only be attributed to emotion, and to a level of consciousness that we would normally ascribe only to our own species.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Consciousness in mammals (including humans) is an aspect of the mind generally thought to comprise qualities such as subjectivity, sentience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and one's environment. It is a subject of much research in philosophy of mind, psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive science. Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is subjective experience itself, and access consciousness, which refers to the global availability of information to processing systems in the brain. Phenomenal consciousness has many different experienced qualities, often referred to as qualia. Phenomenal consciousness is usually consciousness "of" something or "about" something, a property known as intentionality in philosophy of mind.


title: Animal consciousness

text: In humans, there are three common methods of studying consciousness, i.e. verbal report, behavioural demonstrations, and neural correlation with conscious activity. Unfortunately these can only be generalized to non-human taxa with varying degrees of difficulty. While animals cannot speak their minds, a new study employed a very unique way that enabled neuroscientists to separate conscious awareness from non-conscious perception in animals. In this study conducted in rhesus monkeys, Ben-Haim and his team used a process dissociation approach that predicted opposite behavioral outcomes towards the two modes of perception. They found that monkeys displayed the very same opposite behavioral outcomes as did humans when they were aware vs. unaware of the stimuli presented.


title: Animal consciousness

text: The sense in which animals (or human infants) can be said to have consciousness or a self-concept has been hotly debated; it is often referred to as the debate over animal minds. The best known research technique in this area is the mirror test devised by Gordon G. Gallup, in which the skin of an animal (or human infant) is marked, while it is asleep or sedated, with a mark that cannot be seen directly but is visible in a mirror. The animal is then allowed to see its reflection in a mirror; if the animal spontaneously directs grooming behaviour towards the mark, that is taken as an indication that it is aware of itself. Over the past 30 years, many studies have found evidence that animals recognise themselves in mirrors. Self-awareness by this criterion has been reported for:


title: Animal consciousness

text: Until recently it was thought that self-recognition was absent from animals without a neocortex, and was restricted to mammals with large brains and well developed social cognition. However, in 2008 a study of self-recognition in corvids reported significant results for magpies. Mammals and birds inherited the same brain components from their last common ancestor nearly 300 million years ago, and have since independently evolved and formed significantly different brain types. The results of the mirror and mark tests showed that neocortex-less magpies are capable of understanding that a mirror image belongs to their own body. The findings show that magpies respond in the mirror and mark test in a manner similar to apes, dolphins and elephants. This is a remarkable capability that, although not fully concrete in its determination of self-recognition, is at least a prerequisite of self-recognition. This is not only of interest regarding the convergent evolution of social intelligence; it is also valuable for an understanding of the general principles that govern cognitive evolution and their underlying neural mechanisms. The magpies were chosen to study based on their empathy/lifestyle, a possible precursor for their ability of self-awareness. However even in the chimpanzee, the species most studied and with the most convincing findings, clear-cut evidence of self-recognition is not obtained in all individuals tested. Occurrence is about 75% in young adults and considerably less in young and old individuals. For monkeys, non-primate mammals, and in a number of bird species, exploration of the mirror and social displays were observed. However, hints at mirror-induced self-directed behavior have been obtained.


title: Animal consciousness

text: According to a 2019 study, cleaner wrasses have become the first fish ever observed to pass the mirror test. However, the test's inventor Gordon Gallup has said that the fish were most likely trying to scrape off a perceived parasite on another fish and that they did not demonstrate self-recognition. The authors of the study retorted that because the fish checked themselves in the mirror before and after the scraping, this meant that the fish had self-awareness and recognized that their reflections belonged to their own bodies.


title: Animal consciousness

text: The mirror test has attracted controversy among some researchers because it is entirely focused on vision, the primary sense in humans, while other species rely more heavily on other senses such as the olfactory sense in dogs. A study in 2015 showed that the "sniff test of self-recognition (STSR)" provides evidence of self-awareness in dogs.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Another approach to determine whether a non-human animal is conscious derives from passive speech research with a macaw (see Arielle). Some researchers propose that by passively listening to an animal's voluntary speech, it is possible to learn about the thoughts of another creature and to determine that the speaker is conscious. This type of research was originally used to investigate a child's crib speech by Weir (1962) and in investigations of early speech in children by Greenfield and others (1976).


title: Animal consciousness

text: Zipf's law might be able to be used to indicate if a given dataset of animal communication indicate an intelligent natural language. Some researchers have used this algorithm to study bottlenose dolphin language.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Further arguments revolve around the ability of animals to feel pain or suffering. Suffering implies consciousness. If animals can be shown to suffer in a way similar or identical to humans, many of the arguments against human suffering could then, presumably, be extended to animals. Others have argued that pain can be demonstrated by adverse reactions to negative stimuli that are non-purposeful or even maladaptive. One such reaction is transmarginal inhibition, a phenomenon observed in humans and some animals akin to mental breakdown.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Carl Sagan, the American cosmologist, points to reasons why humans have had a tendency to deny animals can suffer:


title: Animal consciousness

text: However, there is no agreement where the line should be drawn between organisms that can feel pain and those that cannot. Justin Leiber, a philosophy professor at Oxford University writes that:


title: Animal consciousness

text: There are also some who reject the argument entirely, arguing that although suffering animals feel anguish, a suffering plant also struggles to stay alive (albeit in a less visible way). In fact, no living organism 'wants' to die for another organism's sustenance. In an article written for "The New York Times", Carol Kaesuk Yoon argues that:


title: Animal consciousness

text: Cognitive bias in animals is a pattern of deviation in judgment, whereby inferences about other animals and situations may be drawn in an illogical fashion. Individuals create their own "subjective social reality" from their perception of the input. It refers to the question "Is the glass half empty or half full?", used as an indicator of optimism or pessimism. Cognitive biases have been shown in a wide range of species including rats, dogs, rhesus macaques, sheep, chicks, starlings and honeybees.


title: Animal consciousness

text: The neuroscientist Joseph LeDoux advocates avoiding terms derived from human subjective experience when discussing brain functions in animals. For example, the common practice of calling brain circuits that detect and respond to threats "fear circuits" implies that these circuits are responsible for feelings of fear. LeDoux argues that Pavlovian fear conditioning should be renamed Pavlovian threat conditioning to avoid the implication that "fear" is being acquired in rats or humans. Key to his theoretical change is the notion of survival functions mediated by survival circuits, the purpose of which is to keep organisms alive rather than to make emotions. For example, defensive survival circuits exist to detect and respond to threats. While all organisms can do this, only organisms that can be conscious of their own brain's activities can feel fear. Fear is a conscious experience and occurs the same way as any other kind of conscious experience: via cortical circuits that allow attention to certain forms of brain activity. LeDoux argues the only differences between an emotional and non-emotion state of consciousness are the underlying neural ingredients that contribute to the state.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. It is a highly active interdisciplinary science that collaborates with many other fields. The scope of neuroscience has broadened recently to include molecular, cellular, developmental, structural, functional, evolutionary, computational, and medical aspects of the nervous system. Theoretical studies of neural networks are being complemented with techniques for imaging sensory and motor tasks in the brain.


title: Animal consciousness

text: According to a 2008 paper, neuroscience explanations of psychological phenomena currently have a "seductive allure", and "seem to generate more public interest" than explanations which do not contain neuroscientific information. They found that subjects who were not neuroscience experts "judged that explanations with logically irrelevant neuroscience information were more satisfying than explanations without.


title: Animal consciousness

text: The neural correlates of consciousness constitute the minimal set of neuronal events and mechanisms sufficient for a specific conscious percept. Neuroscientists use empirical approaches to discover neural correlates of subjective phenomena. The set should be "minimal" because, if the brain is sufficient to give rise to any given conscious experience, the question is which of its components is necessary to produce it.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Visual sense and representation was reviewed in 1998 by Francis Crick and Christof Koch. They concluded sensory neuroscience can be used as a bottom-up approach to studying consciousness, and suggested experiments to test various hypotheses in this research stream.


title: Animal consciousness

text: A feature that distinguishes humans from most animals is that we are not born with an extensive repertoire of behavioral programs that would enable us to survive on our own ("physiological prematurity"). To compensate for this, we have an unmatched ability to learn, i.e., to consciously acquire such programs by imitation or exploration. Once consciously acquired and sufficiently exercised, these programs can become automated to the extent that their execution happens beyond the realms of our awareness. Take, as an example, the incredible fine motor skills exerted in playing a Beethoven piano sonata or the sensorimotor coordination required to ride a motorcycle along a curvy mountain road. Such complex behaviors are possible only because a sufficient number of the subprograms involved can be executed with minimal or even suspended conscious control. In fact, the conscious system may actually interfere somewhat with these automated programs.


title: Animal consciousness

text: The growing ability of neuroscientists to manipulate neurons using methods from molecular biology in combination with optical tools depends on the simultaneous development of appropriate behavioural assays and model organisms amenable to large-scale genomic analysis and manipulation. A combination of such fine-grained neuronal analysis in animals with ever more sensitive psychophysical and brain imaging techniques in humans, complemented by the development of a robust theoretical predictive framework, will hopefully lead to a rational understanding of consciousness.


title: Animal consciousness

text: The neocortex is a part of the brain of mammals. It consists of the grey matter, or neuronal cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers, surrounding the deeper white matter (myelinated axons) in the cerebrum. The neocortex is smooth in rodents and other small mammals, whereas in primates and other larger mammals it has deep grooves and wrinkles. These folds increase the surface area of the neocortex considerably without taking up too much more volume. Also, neurons within the same wrinkle have more opportunity for connectivity, while neurons in different wrinkles have less opportunity for connectivity, leading to compartmentalization of the cortex. The neocortex is divided into frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, which perform different functions. For example, the occipital lobe contains the primary visual cortex, and the temporal lobe contains the primary auditory cortex. Further subdivisions or areas of neocortex are responsible for more specific cognitive processes. The neocortex is the newest part of the cerebral cortex to evolve (hence the prefix "neo"); the other parts of the cerebral cortex are the paleocortex and archicortex, collectively known as the allocortex. In humans, 90% of the cerebral cortex is neocortex.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Researchers have argued that consciousness in mammals arises in the neocortex, and therefore cannot arise in animals which lack a neocortex. For example, Rose argued in 2002 that the "fishes have nervous systems that mediate effective escape and avoidance responses to noxious stimuli, but, these responses must occur without a concurrent, human-like awareness of pain, suffering or distress, which depend on separately evolved neocortex." Recently that view has been challenged, and many researchers now believe that animal consciousness can arise from homologous subcortical brain networks.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things. Attention has also been referred to as the allocation of processing resources. Attention also has variations amongst cultures. Voluntary attention develops in specific cultural and institutional contexts through engagement in cultural activities with more competent community members.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Most experiments show that one neural correlate of attention is enhanced firing. If a neuron has a certain response to a stimulus when the animal is not attending to the stimulus, then when the animal does attend to the stimulus, the neuron's response will be enhanced even if the physical characteristics of the stimulus remain the same. In many cases attention produces changes in the EEG. Many animals, including humans, produce gamma waves (40–60 Hz) when focusing attention on a particular object or activity.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Extended consciousness is an animal's autobiographical self-perception. It is thought to arise in the brains of animals which have a substantial capacity for memory and reason. It does not necessarily require language. The perception of a historic and future self arises from a stream of information from the immediate environment and from neural structures related to memory. The concept was popularised by Antonio Damasio and is used in biological psychology. Extended consciousness is said to arise in structures in the human brain described as "image spaces" and "dispositional spaces". Image spaces imply areas where sensory impressions of all types are processed, including the focused awareness of the core consciousness. Dispositional spaces include convergence zones, which are networks in the brain where memories are processed and recalled, and where knowledge is merged with immediate experience.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Metacognition is defined as "cognition about cognition", or "knowing about knowing." It can take many forms; it includes knowledge about when and how to use particular strategies for learning or for problem solving. It has been suggested that metacognition in some animals provides evidence for cognitive self-awareness.


title: Animal consciousness

text: There are generally two components of metacognition: knowledge about cognition, and regulation of cognition. Writings on metacognition can be traced back at least as far as "De Anima" and the "Parva Naturalia" of the Greek philosopher Aristotle. Metacognologists believe that the ability to consciously think about thinking is unique to sapient species and indeed is one of the definitions of sapience. There is evidence that rhesus monkeys and apes can make accurate judgments about the strengths of their memories of fact and monitor their own uncertainty, while attempts to demonstrate metacognition in birds have been inconclusive. A 2007 study provided some evidence for metacognition in rats, but further analysis suggested that they may have been following simple operant conditioning principles, or a behavioral economic model.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Mirror neurons are neurons that fire both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting. Such neurons have been directly observed in primate and other species including birds. The function of the mirror system is a subject of much speculation. Many researchers in cognitive neuroscience and cognitive psychology consider that this system provides the physiological mechanism for the perception action coupling (see the common coding theory). They argue that mirror neurons may be important for understanding the actions of other people, and for learning new skills by imitation. Some researchers also speculate that mirror systems may simulate observed actions, and thus contribute to theory of mind skills, while others relate mirror neurons to language abilities. Neuroscientists such as Marco Iacoboni (UCLA) have argued that mirror neuron systems in the human brain help us understand the actions and intentions of other people. In a study published in March 2005 Iacoboni and his colleagues reported that mirror neurons could discern if another person who was picking up a cup of tea planned to drink from it or clear it from the table. In addition, Iacoboni and a number of other researchers have argued that mirror neurons are the neural basis of the human capacity for emotions such as empathy. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran has speculated that mirror neurons may provide the neurological basis of self-awareness.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Consciousness is likely an evolved adaptation since it meets George Williams' criteria of species universality, complexity, and functionality, and it is a trait that apparently increases fitness. Opinions are divided as to where in biological evolution consciousness emerged and about whether or not consciousness has survival value. It has been argued that consciousness emerged (i) exclusively with the first humans, (ii) exclusively with the first mammals, (iii) independently in mammals and birds, or (iv) with the first reptiles. Donald Griffin suggests in his book "Animal Minds" a gradual evolution of consciousness. Each of these scenarios raises the question of the possible survival value of consciousness.


title: Animal consciousness

text: In his paper "Evolution of consciousness," John Eccles argues that special anatomical and physical adaptations of the mammalian cerebral cortex gave rise to consciousness. In contrast, others have argued that the recursive circuitry underwriting consciousness is much more primitive, having evolved initially in pre-mammalian species because it improves the capacity for interaction with both social "and" natural environments by providing an energy-saving "neutral" gear in an otherwise energy-expensive motor output machine. Once in place, this recursive circuitry may well have provided a basis for the subsequent development of many of the functions that consciousness facilitates in higher organisms, as outlined by Bernard J. Baars. Richard Dawkins suggested that humans evolved consciousness in order to make themselves the subjects of thought. Daniel Povinelli suggests that large, tree-climbing apes evolved consciousness to take into account one's own mass when moving safely among tree branches. Consistent with this hypothesis, Gordon Gallup found that chimps and orangutans, but not little monkeys or terrestrial gorillas, demonstrated self-awareness in mirror tests.


title: Animal consciousness

text: The concept of consciousness can refer to voluntary action, awareness, or wakefulness. However, even voluntary behaviour involves unconscious mechanisms. Many cognitive processes take place in the cognitive unconscious, unavailable to conscious awareness. Some behaviours are conscious when learned but then become unconscious, seemingly automatic. Learning, especially implicitly learning a skill, can take place outside of consciousness. For example, plenty of people know how to turn right when they ride a bike, but very few can accurately explain how they actually do so.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Neural Darwinism is a large scale theory of brain function initially proposed in 1978 by the American biologist Gerald Edelman. Edelman distinguishes between what he calls primary and secondary consciousness:


title: Animal consciousness

text: Primary consciousness can be defined as simple awareness that includes perception and emotion. As such, it is ascribed to most animals. By contrast, secondary consciousness depends on and includes such features as self-reflective awareness, abstract thinking, volition and metacognition.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Edelman's theory focuses on two nervous system organizations: the brainstem and limbic systems on one side and the thalamus and cerebral cortex on the other side. The brain stem and limbic system take care of essential body functioning and survival, while the thalamocortical system receives signals from sensory receptors and sends out signals to voluntary muscles such as those of the arms and legs. The theory asserts that the connection of these two systems during evolution helped animals learn adaptive behaviors.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Other scientists have argued against Edelman's theory, instead suggesting that primary consciousness might have emerged with the basic vegetative systems of the brain. That is, the evolutionary origin might have come from sensations and primal emotions arising from sensors and receptors, both internal and surface, signaling that the well-being of the creature was immediately threatened—for example, hunger for air, thirst, hunger, pain, and extreme temperature change. This is based on neurological data showing the thalamic, hippocampal, orbitofrontal, insula, and midbrain sites are the key to consciousness of thirst. These scientists also point out that the cortex might not be as important to primary consciousness as some neuroscientists have believed. Evidence of this lies in the fact that studies show that systematically disabling parts of the cortex in animals does not remove consciousness. Another study found that children born without a cortex are conscious. Instead of cortical mechanisms, these scientists emphasize brainstem mechanisms as essential to consciousness. Still, these scientists concede that higher order consciousness does involve the cortex and complex communication between different areas of the brain.


title: Animal consciousness

text: While animals with primary consciousness have long-term memory, they lack explicit narrative, and, at best, can only deal with the immediate scene in the remembered present. While they still have an advantage over animals lacking such ability, evolution has brought forth a growing complexity in consciousness, particularly in mammals. Animals with this complexity are said to have secondary consciousness.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Secondary consciousness is seen in animals with semantic capabilities, such as the four great apes. It is present in its richest form in the human species, which is unique in possessing complex language made up of syntax and semantics. In considering how the neural mechanisms underlying primary consciousness arose and were maintained during evolution, it is proposed that at some time around the divergence of reptiles into mammals and then into birds, the embryological development of large numbers of new reciprocal connections allowed rich re-entrant activity to take place between the more posterior brain systems carrying out perceptual categorization and the more frontally located systems responsible for value-category memory. The ability of an animal to relate a present complex scene to its own previous history of learning conferred an adaptive evolutionary advantage. At much later evolutionary epochs, further re-entrant circuits appeared that linked semantic and linguistic performance to categorical and conceptual memory systems. This development enabled the emergence of secondary consciousness.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Ursula Voss of the Universität Bonn believes that the theory of protoconsciousness may serve as adequate explanation for self-recognition found in birds, as they would develop secondary consciousness during REM sleep. She added that many types of birds have very sophisticated language systems. Don Kuiken of the University of Alberta finds such research interesting as well as if we continue to study consciousness with animal models (with differing types of consciousness), we would be able to separate the different forms of reflectiveness found in today's world.


title: Animal consciousness

text: For the advocates of the idea of a secondary consciousness, self-recognition serves as a critical component and a key defining measure. What is most interesting then, is the evolutionary appeal that arises with the concept of self-recognition. In non-human species and in children, the mirror test (see above) has been used as an indicator of self-awareness.


title: Animal consciousness

text: In 2012, a group of neuroscientists attending a conference on "Consciousness in Human and non-Human Animals" at the University of Cambridge in the UK, signed the "Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness" (see box on the right).


title: Animal consciousness

text: A common image is the "scala naturae", the ladder of nature on which animals of different species occupy successively higher rungs, with humans typically at the top. A more useful approach has been to recognize that different animals may have different kinds of cognitive processes, which are better understood in terms of the ways in which they are cognitively adapted to their different ecological niches, than by positing any kind of hierarchy.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Dogs were previously listed as non-self-aware animals. Traditionally, self-consciousness was evaluated via the mirror test. But dogs, and many other animals, are not (as) visually oriented. A 2015 study claims that the "sniff test of self-recognition" (STSR) provides significant evidence of self-awareness in dogs, and could play a crucial role in showing that this capacity is not a specific feature of only great apes, humans and a few other animals, but it depends on the way in which researchers try to verify it. According to the biologist Roberto Cazzolla Gatti (who published the study), "the innovative approach to test the self-awareness with a smell test highlights the need to shift the paradigm of the anthropocentric idea of consciousness to a species-specific perspective". This study has been confirmed by another study.


title: Animal consciousness

text: Research with captive grey parrots, especially Irene Pepperberg's work with an individual named Alex, has demonstrated they possess the ability to associate simple human words with meanings, and to intelligently apply the abstract concepts of shape, colour, number, zero-sense, etc. According to Pepperberg and other scientists, they perform many cognitive tasks at the level of dolphins, chimpanzees, and even human toddlers. Another notable African grey is N'kisi, which in 2004 was said to have a vocabulary of over 950 words which she used in creative ways. For example, when Jane Goodall visited N'kisi in his New York home, he greeted her with "Got a chimp?" because he had seen pictures of her with chimpanzees in Africa.


title: Animal consciousness

text: In 2011, research led by Dalila Bovet of Paris West University Nanterre La Défense, demonstrated grey parrots were able to coordinate and collaborate with each other to an extent. They were able to solve problems such as two birds having to pull strings at the same time to obtain food. In another example, one bird stood on a perch to release a food-laden tray, while the other pulled the tray out from the test apparatus. Both would then feed. The birds were observed waiting for their partners to perform the necessary actions so their behaviour could be synchronized. The parrots appeared to express individual preferences as to which of the other test birds they would work with.


title: Animal consciousness

text: It was recently thought that self-recognition was restricted to mammals with large brains and highly evolved social cognition, but absent from animals without a neocortex. However, in 2008, an investigation of self-recognition in corvids was conducted revealing the ability of self-recognition in the magpie. Mammals and birds inherited the same brain components from their last common ancestor nearly 300 million years ago, and have since independently evolved and formed significantly different brain types. The results of the mirror test showed that although magpies do not have a neocortex, they are capable of understanding that a mirror image belongs to their own body. The findings show that magpies respond in the mirror test in a manner similar to apes, dolphins, killer whales, pigs and elephants. This is a remarkable capability that, although not fully concrete in its determination of self-recognition, is at least a prerequisite of self-recognition. This is not only of interest regarding the convergent evolution of social intelligence, it is also valuable for an understanding of the general principles that govern cognitive evolution and their underlying neural mechanisms. The magpies were chosen to study based on their empathy/lifestyle, a possible precursor for their ability of self-awareness.