title: Monokini

text: To avoid letting others sensationalize the swimsuit and to retain some control of the design, Gernreich asked William Claxton, the husband of Gernreich's usually sole model Peggy Moffitt, to take pictures of his wife in the yellow wool swimsuit. Claxton, Moffitt, and Gernreich wanted to publish their own pictures for the fashion press and news media, and Gernreich gave pictures of Moffit modeling the monokini to a carefully selected handful of news organizations.


title: Monokini

text: Moffitt was initially resistant to the idea of posing topless. She said, "I didn't want to do it when he asked me. I am a puritanical descendent of the Mayflower. I carried that goddamned Plymouth Rock on my back. When I did give in, I did so with a lot of rules. I would not show myself on the runway that way. I'd do it only with Bill. Since Rudi would never ever have enough money to do this, I did it for free. But I had final say on everywhere it went photographically." "Look" published a rear view, of an adventurous local from Montego Bay, modeling the swimsuit on June 2, 1964. Claxton took his pictures of Moffit to "Life" but they said they could only print pictures of naked breasts "if the woman is an aborigine." Claxton took additional pictures of Moffit especially for "Life" with her arms covering her breasts. The picture was one of several images of Moffit in a story about the historical evolution of the breast in fashion history from 1954 to 1964. Moffit said, "The photograph of me in that issue—hiding my breasts with my arms—is dirty. If you are wearing a fashion that does not have a top as part of its design and hold your arms over your bosom, you're going along with the whole prudish, teasey thing like a Playboy bunny."


title: Monokini

text: The following day columnist Carol Bjorkman of "Women's Wear Daily" published Claxton's frontal view of Moffitt wearing the suit. It became a celebrated image of the extremism of 1960s designs. Moffit later said, "It was a political statement. It wasn't meant to be worn in public."


title: Monokini

text: On June 12, 1964 the "San Francisco Chronicle" featured a photo of a woman in a monokini with her exposed breasts clearly visible on its front page. Claxton's frontal image of Moffit modeling the swimsuit was subsequently published by "Life" and numerous other publications. "Life" writer Shana Alexander noted, "One funny thing about toplessness is that it really doesn't have much to do with breasts. Breasts of course are not absurd; topless swimsuits are. Lately people keep getting the two things mixed up." She mocked the swimsuit design as a "joke". The photo catapulted Moffitt into instant celebrity, reportedly resulting in her receiving everything from marriage proposals to death threats. Moffitt and Claxton later wrote "The Rudi Gernreich Book", described as an aesthetic biography of the fashion revolutionary.


title: Monokini

text: Gernreich originally thought that only "six or seven" monokinis would likely be sold, but decided to design it anyway. However, when the design got worldwide notice, orders for the non-existent suit poured in until over 1,000 orders were pending. Despite the reaction of fashion critics and church officials, Harmon Knitwear made over 3,000 monokinis. Gernreich first sold the suit to the Joseph Magnin department store in San Francisco, where it was an instant hit. In New York City, leading stores like B. Altman & Company, Lord & Taylor, Henri Bendel, Splendiferous and Parisette placed orders. On June 16, 1964, Gernreich's topless swimsuit went on sale in New York City. The suit was priced at $24 each.


title: Monokini

text: Moffit said in 1985 that she had been offered $17,000 in 1964 () by "Playboy" to publish Claxton's photograph of her wearing the suit, but refused. "I turned it down as unthinkable. And I don't want to exploit women any more now than I did in 1964. The statement hasn't changed. The suit still is about freedom and not display."


title: Monokini

text: On August 13, 1985, Los Angeles Fashion Group produced a gala at the Wiltern Theatre to benefit the Rudi Gernreich Design Scholarship Fund. Moffit was a member of the committee. When the group considered showing the Monokini suit during the benefit, Moffitt strongly objected. She told the Los Angeles Times,


title: Monokini

text: The regional director of the Fashion Group, Sarah Worman, believed that the swimsuit was "the single most important idea he ever had—the one that changed the way women dressed all over the Western world." She said Moffitt's refusal to show it on a model did not make sense when the benefit was modeling everything else he ever did on live models.


title: Monokini

text: Gernreich did not originally intend to produce the swimsuit commercially. It had more meaning to Gernreich as an idea than as a reality. Gernreich had Moffitt model the suit in person for Diana Vreeland of "Vogue", who asked him why he conceived of the design. Gernreich told her he felt it was time for "freedom-in fashion as well as every other facet of life," but that the swimsuit was just a statement. He said, “[Women] drop their bikini tops already,” he said, “so it seemed like the natural next step.” She told him, "If there's a picture of it, it's an actuality. You must make it." Gernreich said in television interview, "It may well be a bit much now. But, just wait. In a couple of years topless bikinis will be a reality and regarded as perfectly natural."


title: Monokini

text: Gernreich purposefully used his designs to advance his socio-political views. He wanted to reduce the stigma of a naked body, to “cure our society of its sex hang up,” as he put it. Gernreich stated, "To me, the only respect you can give to a woman is to make her a human being. A totally emancipated woman who is totally free."


title: Monokini

text: Gernreich said, "Baring the breasts seemed logical in a period of freer attitudes, freer minds, the emancipation of women." Gernreich told "Time" magazine in 1969, the monokini "is a natural development growing out of all the loosening up, the re-evaluation of values that's going on. There is now an honesty hangup, and part of this is not hiding the body—it stands for freedom."


title: Monokini

text: In January, 1965, he told Gloria Steinem in an interview that despite the criticism he'd do it again.


title: Monokini

text: Moffitt said the design was a logical evolution of Gernreich's avant-garde ideas in swimwear design as much as a scandalous symbol of the permissive society. She said, "He was trying to take away the prurience, the whole perverse side of sex." She said his design was "prophetic." "It had to do with more than what to wear to the beach. It was about a changing culture throughout all society, about freedom and emancipation. It was also a reaction against something particularly American: the little boy snickering that women had breasts."


title: Monokini

text: Los Angeles Times staff writer Bettijane Levine wrote, "His topless was an artistic statement against women as sex objects, much as Pablo Picasso painted "Guernica" as a statement against war." Over the next few weeks, his design was covered in more than 20,000 press articles.


title: Monokini

text: There was a strong public reaction to the original swimsuit design. The Soviet Union denounced the suit, saying it was "barbarism" and indicated "capitalistic decay". The Vatican denounced the swimsuit, and the "L'Osservatore Romano" said the "industrial-erotic adventure" of the topless bathing suit "negates moral sense." Many of Rudi's contemporaries in the fashion industry reacted negatively. In the US, some Republicans tried to blame the suit on the Democrats' stance on moral issues. Gernreich introduced the monokini at a time when U.S. nudists were trying to establish a public persona. The United States Postmaster General had banned nudist publications from the mail until 1958, when the Supreme Court of the United States declared that the naked body in and of itself could not be deemed obscene. Use of the word "monokini" was first recorded in English that year.


title: Monokini

text: In the 1960s, the monokini influenced the sexual revolution by emphasizing a woman's personal freedom of dress, even when her attire was provocative and exposed more skin than had been the norm during the more conservative 1950s. Quickly renamed a "topless swimsuit", the design was never successful in the United States, although the issue of allowing both genders equal exposure above the waist has been raised as a feminist issue from time to time.


title: Monokini

text: As the suit gained notoriety, the New York City Police Department was strictly instructed by the commissioner of parks to arrest any woman wearing a monokini. In Dallas, Texas, when a local store featured the suit in a window display, members of the Carroll Avenue Baptist Mission picketed until they removed the display. Copious coverage of the event helped to send the image of exposed breasts across the world. Women's clubs and the Catholic church actively condemned the design. In Italy and Spain, the Catholic Church warned against the topless fashion.


title: Monokini

text: In France in 1964, Roger Frey led the prosecution of the use of the monokini, describing it as: "a public offense against the sense of decency, punishable according to article 330 of the penal code. Consequently, the police chiefs must employ the services of the police so that the women who wear this bathing suit in public places are prosecuted." At St. Tropez on the French Riviera, where toplessness later became the norm, the mayor ordered police to ban toplessness and to watch over the beach via helicopter.


title: Monokini

text: Jean-Luc Godard, a founding mover of French New Wave cinema, incorporated monokini footage shot by Jacques Rozier in Riviera into his film "A Married Woman", but it was edited out by the censors. A few defended Gernreich's design. Fashion designers Geraldine Stutz, president of Henri Bendel, said, "I only wish I were young enough to be one of the pioneers myself." Carol Bjorkman, a columnist at "Women's Wear-Daily's" wrote, "What's the matter with the front? After all, it is here to stay, and it is awfully nice being a girl."


title: Monokini

text: When Toni Lee Shelley, a 19-year-old artists model, wore the topless bathing suit to the North Avenue beach in Chicago, 12 police officers responded, 11 to control and disperse the public and photographers, and one to arrest her. She was charged with disorderly conduct, indecent exposure, and appearing on a public beach without suitable attire. At her arraignment she asked for an all-male jury. She told the press that the swimsuit was "certainly more comfortable." Shelley was fined US$100 for wearing the swimsuit on a public beach.


title: Monokini

text: By June 22, 1964, Davey Rosenberg, the publicist of the Condor Club in San Francisco's North Beach district had bought Gernreich's monokini from Joseph Magnin, and had given it to former prune picker, file clerk, and waitress Carol Doda to wear for her act. That night, Doda became the first modern topless dancer in the United States, renewing the burlesque era of the early Twentieth Century in the U.S. San Francisco Mayor John Shelley said, "topless is at the bottom of porn." Within a few days, women were baring their breasts in many of the clubs lining San Francisco's Broadway St., ushering in the era of the topless bar. Her debut as a topless dancer was featured in Playboy magazine in April 1965.


title: Monokini

text: San Francisco public officials tolerated the topless bars until April 22, 1965, when the San Francisco Police Department arrested Doda on indecency charges. Hundreds of protesters gathered outside the police department, calling for release of both Doda and free speech activist Mario Savio, held in the same station. Doda rapidly became a symbol of sexual freedom, while topless restaurants, shoeshine parlors, ice-cream stands and girl bands proliferated in San Francisco and elsewhere. Journalist Earl Wilson wrote in his syndicated column, "Are we ready for girls in topless gowns? Heck, we may not even notice them." English designers created topless evening gowns inspired by the idea. The "San Francisco Examiner" published a real estate advertisement that promised "bare top swimsuits are possible here".


title: Monokini

text: Going topless reached its highest popularity during the 1970s. In the early 1980s monokini designs that were simply a bikini-bottom (also known as the unikini) became popular. , some swimsuit designers continue to produce a variety of monokini or topless swimsuits that women can wear in private settings or in places where topless swimsuits are allowed.


title: Monokini

text: Unlike Gernreich's original design exposing the women's breasts, current designs are one-piece swimsuits that cover the women's breasts but typically include large cut-outs on the sides, back, or front. The cutouts are connected with varying fabrics, including mesh, chain, and other materials to link the top and bottom sections together. From the back the monokini looks like a two-piece swimsuit. The design may not be functional but aesthetic. Some suits are designed with a g-string style back and others offer full coverage.


title: Monokini

text: In 1985, four weeks before his death, Gernreich unveiled the lesser-known pubikini, a topless bathing suit that exposed the wearer's mons pubis. It was a thin, V-shaped, thong-style bottom that in the front featured a tiny strip of fabric that exposed the wearer's pubic hair. The pubikini was described as a "pièce de résistance" totally freeing the human body.


title: Internalized racism

text: Internalized racism is a form of internalized oppression, defined by sociologist Karen D. Pyke as the "internalization of racial oppression by the racially subordinated." In her study "The Psychology of Racism, " Robin Nicole Johnson emphasizes that internalized racism involves both "conscious and unconscious acceptance of a racial hierarchy in which whites are consistently ranked above people of color." These definitions encompass a wide range of instances, including, but not limited to, belief in negative stereotypes, adaptations to white cultural standards, and thinking that supports the status quo (i.e. denying that racism exists).


title: Internalized racism

text: Internalized racism as a phenomenon is a direct product of a racial classification system, and is found across different racial groups and regions around the world where race exists as a social construct. In these places, internalized racism can have adverse effects on those who experience it. For example, high internalized racism scores have been linked to poor health outcomes among Caribbean black women, higher propensity for violence among African American young males, and increased domestic violence among Native American populations in the US.


title: Internalized racism

text: Responses to internalized racism have been varied. Many of the approaches focus on dispelling false narratives learned from racial oppression. An example of opposition to internalized racism is the "Black is beautiful" cultural movement in the US, which sought to "directly attack [the] ideology" that blackness was ugly.


title: Internalized racism

text: Scholarship addressing internalized racism has existed long before the emergence of the terminology itself. In 1903, African American civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois wrote about the existence of "double-consciousness", or "this sense of always looking at one's self through the eyes of others, of measuring one's soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity," to explain American racial minorities' self-perception as heavily influenced by the white majority's perception of them.


title: Internalized racism

text: Sociologists Karen and Tran Dang wrote: "Due to the discomfort, confusion, and embarrassment the subject raises, an intellectual taboo surrounds the study of internalized racism. A major concern is that because internalized racism reveals dynamics by which oppression is reproduced, it will lead to blaming the victims and move attention away from the racist institutions and practices that privilege whites at the expense of people of color. Internalized racism also causes discomfort because it suggests that the effects of racism are deeper and broader than many would like to admit. As a result, it remains one of the least explained features of racism."


title: Internalized racism

text: Although some definitions of internalized racism only include when racial stereotypes are internalized by the racial marginalized groups, internalized racism has been used to discuss much more than this. The creators of the Appropriated Racial Oppression Scale (AROS) note that perhaps a more accurate phrase would be "appropriated racial oppression", because this distances the usage away from potentially "victim blaming" implications that the internalization of racist ideals and attitudes is due to some failure of the oppressed. Additionally, the term "appropriation" indicates that internalized racism is learned from context, and therefore a product of socialization in a racialized society.


title: Internalized racism

text: Alternatively, Bianchi, Zea, Belgrave, and Echeverry propose that internalized racism is a "state of racial self-conceptualization", conforming to racial oppression, as opposed to dissonance, resistance or the internalization of a positive racial identity.


title: Internalized racism

text: Internalized racism has also been referred to as indoctrination and mental colonization. These phrases draw attention to the historical context of colonialism being used to create and maintain a system of white superiority.


title: Internalized racism

text: Internalized racism is also explored in the Nigrescence model, introduced by William E. Cross in 1971. It explains how internalized racism in African Americans involves the belief that white cultural values are superior than their own. Cross writes, "The driving force behind this need requires Afro-Americans to seek approval from whites in all activities, to use white expectations as the yardstick for determining what is good, desirable or necessary." This conviction can be corrected when black individuals self-determine their identities apart from the influence of their white counterparts.


title: Internalized racism

text: Scholars have picked different dimensions to categorize internalized racism. Psychologists David and Okazaki proposed that examples of internalized racism could be divided into the following: "internalized inferiority, feelings of shame and embarrassment, physical characteristics, within-group discrimination, and minimization or acceptance of oppression." Alternatively, Campón and Carter use this list: "appropriations of negative stereotypes, thinking that maintains status quo (denying racism), adaptation to white cultural standards, devaluation of own group, and emotional reactions." These categories influence how scholars organize their measurements of internalized racism.


title: Internalized racism

text: Academics have attempted to create reliable measures of internalized racism, in order to test its correlation to health outcomes and other variables of interest. Some examples of existing scales are the Nadanolitization (NAD) and Internalized Racial Oppression Scales (used for African Americans), the Colonial Mentality scale (used for Filipinos), and the Mochichua Tepehuani Scale (used for Chicano/Latino populations). The Appropriated Racial Oppression Scale (AROS) is designed as measure for all racial minorities. In the AROS, Campón and Carter use items such as "There have been times when I have been embarrassed to be a member of my race", "I would like for my children to have light skin", and "People take racial jokes too seriously" to assess an individual's level of internalized racism.


title: Internalized racism

text: To explore the dimensions of internalized racism mentioned above, here are some of the ways in which scholars have observed the effects of internalized racism.


title: Internalized racism

text: An empirical example of internalized racism is Kenneth and Mamie Clark's doll experiment, which was done in America in 1939 and 1940 at a time when black and white children were segregated. It involved an African-American child being presented with two dolls that were identical apart from skin and hair color, one doll being white with yellow hair and the other being brown with black hair. The child was asked which doll they would prefer to play with and why. All children in the study expressed a clear preference for the white doll.


title: Internalized racism

text: In 2006 Kiri Davis recreated the experiment with 21 African-American preschool children for her documentary "A Girl Like Me". Davis found that 15 of the children chose white dolls over black dolls, giving similar reasons as the original study subjects that associated white with "pretty" or "good" and black with "ugly" or "bad".


title: Internalized racism

text: There is also an industry behind skin whitening products, which can be found from India to China to the United States. Because lighter skin is associated with desirable characteristics, people purchase such products in order to become lighter skinned.


title: Internalized racism

text: Stereotype threat is a phenomenon studied in psychology in which members of a stigmatized group risk conforming to negative stereotypes through internalization of their validity. In a 2018 study from Taylor, Garcia, Shelton and Yantis, note that both stereotype threat and a "black sheep effect" are products of internalized racism. Through being reminded of negative stereotypes associated with their race, participants responded with increased uncertainty, lower performance on tasks, and emotional reactions of anger and shame. They also sought to distance themselves from ingroup, stereotype confirming members, so as to avoid being targeted with negative generalizations.


title: Internalized racism

text: Stereotype threat from internalized racism goes beyond the individual. Those who experience internalized racism may end up projecting internalized negative attitudes onto others in their racial group. For example, teachers of color in the United States risk seeing their students through the lens of internalized racism. Because a teacher's expectations for a student's success can have empirical impacts on their educational outcomes, this puts students of color at an increased risk for impaired educational development.


title: Internalized racism

text: Todd Platts and Kim Hoosier professors of sociology at Piedmont Virginia Community College examined ways to reduce stereotype threats in the classroom. These ways include task reframing, by implementing a change in the grading system, that will keep students anonymous by assigning students a number or a codename, to eliminate known or unknown biases that the instructor might have, positive affirmation, recognizing positive traits students possess to enhance self-worth and ambitions, constructive feedback, by providing feedback in areas that students are struggling in and how they can improve the in those areas. Platts and Hoosier also stated that stereotype threat needs to be faced head on, needs to be discussed early in the semester, along with expectations of the students and the time should be spent reviewing material, that way students known that it is achievable to pass the class.


title: Internalized racism

text: Internalized racism manifests itself in both intraracial and interracial discrimination. As an example of the intraracial case, Karen Pyke uses the term "defensive othering" to describe an individual or collective act of distancing oneself from members within one's own race that have a closer proximity to negative stereotypes. Defensive othering includes the use of the derogatory term "FOB" (short for "Fresh Off the Boat") among Asian Americans. Although the racism towards newly arrived immigrants of Asian origin is neither the fault of the immigrants themselves or other Asian Americans, immigrants are often socially ostracized by members of their shared race because of internalized racism.


title: Internalized racism

text: In terms of interracial discrimination among the non-dominant racial groups, Robert E. Washington discusses "brown racism", his term for prejudice among non-black people of color towards black people, worldwide. With examples from Egypt, China, India and other regions, Washington notes that, through internalized racism, non-black people of color are reproducing white desirability and a devaluation of blackness. Internalized racism goes beyond negative attitudes and beliefs about one's own group: one can internalize racism directed towards other races as well.


title: Internalized racism

text: A comprehensive and systematic study by Heberle et al. (2020) reviewed and analyzed literature on critical consciousness. They evaluated the impact of critical consciousness on children and adolescents up to 18 years of age. The study found that adolescents who are marginalized based on characteristics of their identity such as their race, social class, income, and gender can benefit from being critically conscious. To be critically conscious, an individual must be more than aware of the oppressive systemic forces in society. Individuals must also have "a sense of efficacy to work against oppression, and engagement in individual or collective action against oppression". According to Heberle et al. (2020), being critically conscious is a developmental asset that promotes empowerment and fosters thriving in individuals or adolescents who are marginalized.


title: Internalized racism

text: The educational environment students are surrounded in can result in the development of internalized racism. Racial disparities projected onto minority students can lead to a decline in their academic performance that can in turn affect students throughout their academic career. When students from a minority group are placed in a school where the teachers and/or peers are majority white, the lack of diverse representation can produce feelings of inferiority. The perception of the majority group as superior can compel minority students to take on the cultural norms of that group in order to prevent alienation. Furthermore, the predominately white curriculum incorporated into the education system can give minority students the impression that only Eurocentric history is important. This further makes underrepresented students internalize that the history of their origins are insignificant.


title: Internalized racism

text: Although much of the literature that has been produced on internalized racism has been confined to the African American experience in the United States, internalized racism is characteristic of systemic racism. The following is a look at internalized racism in different geographical regions around the world.


title: Internalized racism

text: In order to create the nation of the United States on land that was already inhabited, a narrative of native inferiority was often employed to justify their subjugation. As a result of an overgeneralized picture of native peoples as being defeated and white invaders as victors, internalized racism continues to present itself in Native American communities. Julian Rice notes that apathy towards cultural traditions, self-centeredness, and materialistic obsession could all be seen as an adoption of narratives from the US government or missionaries that emphasized the superior mindset of whiteness. Lisa Poupart adds to these assertions, saying that Native Americans are forced into a "double consciousness", of being simultaneously deprived of past traditions and constantly reminded that those traditions were taken from them. Although she does not seek to use internalized racism to dismiss blame in cases of alcoholism, family violence, and sexual assault, she describes how the combination of stereotypes about the stoic and savage native, the introduction of physical violence to native communities through requiring children to go to boarding schools, and the adoption of white notions of patriarchy combined to create these types of violence and abuses in American Indian communities, where they had been virtually nonexistent before European contact. In the case of alcoholism especially, internalized racism about native inferiority created conditions of dependency on European superiority, leading to the creation of negative stereotypes.


title: Internalized racism

text: A 1993 study on Asian American students at predominately white colleges found that "the students relied heavily on the negative images that the dominant group had of Asians in forming their own everyday sense of self. They worried about how others saw them and took special efforts to distance themselves from the negative stereotypes by not appearing too Asian." The study also found that, "in attempting to gain acceptance among whites, some Asian American students avoided and expressed disgust toward coethnics, to whom they applied the negative stereotypes." A 2000 study found that, due to racially derogatory images of Asians in the mainstream, "Asian Americans learned at a young age that fitting into the larger dominant white society means disassociating from co-ethnics possessing undesirable qualities."


title: Internalized racism

text: A 2001 study of third-generation-plus Chinese and Japanese Americans found that respondents "developed various strategies to cope with their own identities in reaction to their racialization as 'perpetual foreigners' and 'model minorities.' These strategies include self-mockery or diversion from one's Asianness and disassociation from other Asians." These behaviors are performed "in an effort to 'get on the good side of their white peers' and to appear less threatening." A 2003 study of second-generation Korean and Vietnamese Americans stated: "Whether they are first or later generation Americans, Asian Americans can face distrust, hostility, and derision for their assumed disloyalty and lack of assimilation to the white mainstream." The study found that respondents internalized these sentiments and "genuinely felt a sense of shame, embarrassment, disgust, and discomfort toward those" to whom they referred as "FOBs" (short for "fresh off the boat"). A significant segment of respondents identified themselves as "whitewashed" or as people who are "ashamed of their race and ethnicity" and "try to fit into Euro-American culture in order to appear 'cool' and improve their social status," with one respondent stating, "I'm not saying that Koreans are bad but it seems that to be white is to be the best."


title: Internalized racism

text: A 2018 study of first- and second-generation Asian Americans found that "respondents displayed (and reproduced) IRO [internalized racial oppression] as a reactionary response ... to their experiences with stigma and discrimination for being Asian. Furthermore, for many respondents, experiencing racism went hand in hand with possessing the desire for whiteness. ... Their statements of desiring blonde hair and blue eyes or not viewing 'whitewashed' as problematic, along with any association with 'Asian' as foreign and undesirable, reflects their socialization to view whites as normative and the default Americans. In their young eyes, to be white was to be a 'normal American.


title: Internalized racism

text: Because Brazilians have many different ethnic origins, race in Brazil is often conceptualized as a racial democracy: a system that involves so much interracial marriage and interaction that systemic racism is not a national problem. However, many scholars actually contest this definition, referring to this idea as "the myth of racial democracy", because prejudice and discrimination based on race is still prevalent. Nonetheless, it is important to note that race, as a social construct, has a unique conceptualization in Brazil. As opposed to the "one-drop" rule employed in the US (i.e. "one-drop" of black blood constitutes a person's blackness), Brazilians recognize a spectrum of race and color-based identities.


title: Internalized racism

text: The first major instance of internalized racism in Brazil comes out of this spectrum. A 1976 national survey found that there were over 100 colloquial terms in use to describe race-related phenotypes. Examples of these terms include "black (preto, negro), white (branco), brown or mixed (moreno, mulato), dark (escuro), light (claro), closed (fechado), freckled (sarard), and others." The use of various terms for color and race often serves as evidence of the following notions, among others: whiteness is beauty, whiteness is clean, whiteness is successful and blackness is dirty. Anthropologist Elizabeth Hordge-Freeman found this especially apparent when working with and around pregnant women in a poor and working-class neighborhood in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. Women expressed a clear desire and preferential treatment for children that were "whiter" in appearance, even engaging in practices of pinching an infant's nose to try to make it smaller. Many of the women she worked with were racially black, or mixed race.


title: Internalized racism

text: Additionally, race in Brazil is not confined to physical indicators. Individuals who are black can gain higher economic status and gain recognition as "white" or "whitened" by both black and white Brazilians alike. This conflates economic success with whiteness and poverty with blackness, as well as incentivizing the idea of "whitening", whether through "money whiteness" or interracial mixture. This furthers the incidence of internalized racism by getting Brazilians of all race to have largely positive associations with whiteness and largely negative associations with blackness.


title: Internalized racism

text: In a study designed to compare the incidence of internalized racism in a country that underwent direct European colonization (Zimbabwe) and a country that has maintained is pre-colonial monarchy to date (Swaziland), social science researchers investigated the role of historical context and education in internalized racism. A major motivating factor for this study was the fact that internalized racism has largely gone unstudied in the African continent. The study found that, despite the scholars' hypothesis that Zimbabwe would have more internalized racism, there was no significant difference in internalized racism incidence between the countries. They believe that this is due to the widespread nature of racism systems, which still came into contact with Swaziland through trade relations. They also found increased education had a significant negative correlation with internalized racism.


title: Internalized racism

text: The case of China is of interest because some have argued that racism, and race itself does not exist in China. Dutch Historian Frank Dikötter argued in 1994 that everything from the practice of using cranium weight between races as a measure of white and Chinese superiority to the 1988 Nanjing anti-African protests show that race is recognized in China. The context of race and racism in China is heavily affected by the fact that the large majority of the county is identified as Han Chinese (90.56% of the reported population in 2005). 55 minority ethnic groups are recognized by the government, giving the government the power to dictate different groups as legitimate (and therefore eligible for less taxes, more subsidies and less restrictions) or illegitimate. This creates an environment in which groups attempt to gain their validation and sense of worth from the dominant Han Chinese and the state, internalizing a subordinate position. One author argued that the policing of rural migrant workers in some cities was affected by their status as recognized or unrecognized minority groups.


title: Internalized racism

text: This section discusses the implications of internalized racism, and why the topic is significant. Examples of psychological harm related to internalized racism are not given in attempt to describe internalized racism as product of the psyche of the oppressed. Internalized racism is not defined as a weakness in the minds of the oppressed.


title: Internalized racism

text: High scores on internalized racism have been repeatedly correlated with a variety of poor psychological and physical health outcomes among sample populations including African Americans, US-Born Caribbean Blacks, foreign-born Caribbean Blacks, Filipino Americans, non-American Pacific Islanders and multiracial samples of Americans.


title: Internalized racism

text: A study conducted by researchers Mouzon and McLean found that there is a positive correlation between internalized racism in black individuals and the state of their mental health, specifically depression and psychological distress. The results showed that African-Americans and US-born Caribbean Blacks embodied more internal racism, and thus experienced poorer mental health than foreign born Caribbean Blacks. A similar study by researchers Graham and West discovered that anxiety is also correlational to internalized racism in black individuals. This conclusion is significant considering that, "anxiety disorders have been found to be more persistent in Black American populations as compared to other racial groups." The same study goes on to describe the methods therapists can take to mitigate the anxiety in black individuals caused by internalized racism, such as rationalizing negative thoughts.


title: Internalized racism

text: Asian Americans are also subject to internalized racism, and the Internalized Racism in Asian Americans Scale (IRAAS) was created by researchers to determine the extent in which Asian Americans accepted the negative stereotypes about themselves. This results revealed that there is a correlation between mental health and the degree in which Asian Americans subscribe to the adverse racial stereotypes. These effects include lower self esteem, symptoms of depression, and general psychological distress.


title: Internalized racism

text: For more examples of studies that show significant relations of internalized racism to increased incidence of anxiety and depression, low individual and collective self-esteem, low sense of ethnic identity, lower levels of life satisfaction, higher body fat measures and other measures of psychological distress. These studies imply that internalized racism subjects the racially oppressed to a wide range of adverse mental and physical health outcomes.


title: Internalized racism

text: In her book, "What Does It Mean to Be White? Developing White Racial Literacy", Robin DiAngelo describes the cycle of racism as a feedback loop that uses power, control, and economics to go from (1) systematic mistreatment of a group to creation of misinformation to, (2) societal acceptance of misinformation to, (3) internalized oppression and internalized dominance to, (4) racism perpetuated and enforced by institutions, leading to, (5) justification for further mistreatment. In other words, internalized racism is involved in reinforcing racism, and ensuring that it continues. It creates a justification for continued mistreatment of the racially subjugated. Additionally, it can create an acceptance of the status quo, leading some to conclude that racism is not an issue that needs to be addressed. If members of racially oppressed groups internalize the validity of their own oppression, they have no reason to contest the system. Internalized racism can also be seen as a means of "dividing and conquering" racially subordinate groups to create conflicts between them and suppress united efforts to contest racism.


title: Internalized racism

text: Many have offered approaches to address internalized racism. Ron Chisom, the co-founder and executive director of The People's Institute for Survival and Beyond in New Orleans, suggests a six-point approach for those who experience internalized racism:


title: Internalized racism

text: David W. Concepción notes that because confronting internalized oppression often creates a paradox for people having to see themselves as both a victim and perpetrator of that oppression, a major factor in addressing internalized oppression is being able to confront false narratives while at the same time employing self-forgiveness.


title: Internalized racism

text: Marc Weinblatt and Cheryl Harrison emphasize that one must acknowledge that race is a social category with real implications while at the same time reject the falsehoods behind racist attitudes. Because finding this balance can be difficult, it is often helpful to have separate spaces for those who experience internalized oppression and those who experience internalized privilege. Additionally, Weinblatt makes it clear that there is a need for those with privilege to risk it in order to seek the end of racism.


title: Internalized racism

text: An example of a movement that considers some of the above considerations is the "Black is Beautiful" movement. These efforts began during the Black Power movement in the 1960s in the United States. In order to contest the narratives that blackness was something ugly, inferior and less valuable, members of the Black community began fighting back with advertising and other media campaigns. The idea behind the movement has persisted to the present day, with social media based movements such as "Black Girl Magic" and "Black Boy Joy" that aim to celebrate blackness.


title: Internalized racism

text: Dr. Watts-Jones indicates in her study that there is a possible method in which African Americans can overcome their internalized racism. By finding sanctuary within the African American community, members are able to achieve mental and physical security from their racist environment. Watts-Jones states that the collective experience of pain in African Americans work in tandem to heal together. However, the process of healing can be extended outside the African American community, by allowing other racial groups to perceive African Americans’ internalized racism as well. In doing so, White people can be utilized as an ally rather than another force of oppression.


title: Walk Among Us

text: Walk Among Us is the debut album by the American punk rock band Misfits, released in March 1982 by Ruby Records and its parent label Slash Records. It was the first full-length album to be released by the band, although it was the third to be recorded, after "Static Age" and "12 Hits from Hell". The recording sessions for "Walk Among Us" took place at multiple studios between June 1981 and January 1982, and the album also includes the track "Mommy, Can I Go Out and Kill Tonight?", which was recorded live in New York City. The album features the single "Night of the Living Dead", which was released on October 31, 1979.


title: Walk Among Us

text: "Walk Among Us" was first pressed with cover artwork featuring a pink background, with band's logo in pink. The second pressing introduced a purple background on the cover, though the pink logo remained unchanged. When the album was reissued in 1988 by Ruby Records, the purple cover was retained, but the band's logo was changed to a green color. Until 2018, all official vinyl or CD releases of the album in the United States were issued through Ruby, Slash, or Warner Records/Rhino. The album was reissued again on November 30, 2018, by Earache Records, with six limited-run variant colored pressings.


title: Walk Among Us

text: Prior to "Walk Among Us", the Misfits had recorded and shelved two full-length albums: "Static Age", which was recorded in 1978 but would remain unreleased in its entirety until 1996, and "12 Hits from Hell", which was recorded in 1980 and has never received an official wide release. The recording sessions for "Walk Among Us" took place at multiple studios. The majority of the songs were recorded at Mix-O-Lydian Studio in Boonton, New Jersey no later than August 1981, and these sessions also produced the recordings for the group's single "Halloween".


title: Walk Among Us

text: The album's sixth track, "Hate Breeders", was recorded at Newfound Sound in Fair Lawn, New Jersey in June 1981. The seventh and only live track on the album, "Mommy, Can I Go Out & Kill Tonight", was recorded on December 17, 1981, at the Ritz in New York City. As the track fades out, the band can be heard beginning to play the song "London Dungeon", which was not included on the album in its entirety. In January 1982, overdubbing took place at Quad Teck in Los Angeles, California, where Misfits vocalist Glenn Danzig would also mix the tracks with both Chris Desjardins of the Flesh Eaters and Pat Burnette.


title: Walk Among Us

text: The track "Astro Zombies" takes its name from the title of the 1968 film "The Astro-Zombies". Additionally, the album title was inspired by the 1956 film "The Creature Walks Among Us".


title: Walk Among Us

text: The cover for "Walk Among Us" features flying saucers from the 1956 film "Earth vs. the Flying Saucers", as well as the "Rat-Bat-Spider" creature from the 1959 film "The Angry Red Planet". The first pressing of the album in the United States (as well as the Italian-issued import) featured cover artwork with a pink background and logo, whereas the second pressing of the album introduced a purple background, though the pink logo was retained. When the album was reissued in 1988, the cover artwork once again featured a purple background, but the band's logo was changed from pink to green. Reissues since 1988 in all formats have varied in usage of either the pink or purple covers. When the album was reissued in 2018 by Earache Records, the colors of the cover artwork were changed again, this time with a pink background and a green logo.


title: Walk Among Us

text: In a 2009 interview with Joe Matera, Danzig expressed his displeasure with the album's cover artwork, stating that "I remember I flipped out on our label because it was supposed to be in all these different colors such as red, black and orange but the way it came out was truly awful. But they had already printed them anyway, though they had not shown us any proofs beforehand".


title: Walk Among Us

text: "Walk Among Us" was originally slated for release in 1981 on the band's own label, Plan 9 Records, but was neither pressed nor released due to a lack of financing. After several independent labels on the West Coast took interest in releasing the album, and it was released in the United States on 12" LP by Ruby Records, an imprint of Slash Records, in March 1982. The first pressing of "Walk Among Us" featured a pink background and logo, while the second pressing featured a purple background. Danzig began claiming as early as 1983 that "Walk Among Us" had sold over 20,000 copies, and that it sold even greater numbers in overseas markets. Chris Desjardins, who helped mix the album and who operated Ruby Records, has considered Danzig's claims about the album's sales figures to be most likely inaccurate, as the label's most successful releases at the time generally sold between 2,500 and 5,000 copies.


title: Walk Among Us

text: The album was reissued in 1988 on CD and cassette, this time with a green logo, and Warner Bros. circulated promotional copies of the album in approximately 3,000 custom Misfits Halloween bags that year. The album was released in Canada on LP by Slash/London Records in 1996. Until 2018, all official releases of "Walk Among Us" on vinyl or CD in the U.S. were issued through Ruby, Slash, or Warner Records/Rhino.


title: Walk Among Us

text: The album was reissued on November 30, 2018, by Earache Records with six limited-run variant colored pressings, identified by the catalog number MOSH666. The cover artwork for the Earache reissue features a pink background and a green logo, and the vinyl records within were available in a total of six colored variants, limited to 300 each: "'20 Eyes' Clear", "'Martian' Green", "'Devil's' Purple", "'Hatebreeder' Red", "'Hell' Orange", and "'Skull' White". Pre-orders for the reissued variants were first announced no later than October 2, 2018, and both the green and purple variants sold out by October 10, 2018.


title: Walk Among Us

text: In his book "This Music Leaves Stains: The Complete Story of the Misfits", author James , Jr. writes that "Walk Among Us" was considered "an instant triumph" among Misfits fans upon its release, and that it was "the record everyone had patiently been waiting for since "Beware" and 'Horror Business'." In a May 1982 issue of "Sounds", music journalist Tim Sommer described it as "a truly awesome album". "Forced Exposure"s review of the album stated: "Just [buy] this fuckin' record".


title: Walk Among Us

text: Ned Raggett of AllMusic gave the album a rating of 4.5 out of 5, writing that "Nearly every song on the album – 13 total, delivered in a light-speed 25 minutes – is a twisted classic, with the band's trademark '50s/'60s melodies run through a punk/metal meatgrinder on full display". Raggett also wrote that the album "became a legendary effort of U.S. punk, the more so because it so willfully violated many [of punk's] rules" at the time of its release, noting that the album is "[u]tterly devoid of political confrontation or social uplift".


title: Walk Among Us

text: Jason Heller of "Pitchfork" gave the album a rating of 9.4 out of 10, praising the "insidiously catchy" nature of the songs and writing: "This album is a work of feverish imagination, but it's in no way escapist [... Danzig] sings of butchering people and keeping their body parts even as the names Ted Bundy and John Wayne Gacy sent chills down the spine of a nation. [...] Neither glorifying nor condemning, Misfits simply distilled the anxieties of the early '80s into a putrid elixir." Doug Brod of "Spin" gave the album 4 out of 5 stars, writing that the album's tracks "perfectly capture [the Misfits'] "danse macabre" before the tempos quickened and the choruses became scarce on 1983's "Earth A.D."". In his book "The Complete Misfits Discography", author Robert Michael "Bobb" Cotter calls "Walk Among Us" "one of the greatest officially released punk albums of all time."


title: Walk Among Us

text: Guitarist Jay Yuenger of the heavy metal band White Zombie called "Walk Among Us" "the definitive statement" from the Misfits, noting its "dangerous sound with sweet melodies [...] it's just so unique, and so uniquely American. It made a huge impact on everyone I knew." Vocalist Dave Brockie of the heavy metal band Gwar called "Walk Among Us" a "nearly perfect album".


title: Walk Among Us

text: Rolling Stone Magazine ranked the album Number 32 on its list of the 40 greatest punk rock albums of all time.


title: Syria (region)

text: Syria (Hieroglyphic Luwian: 𔒂𔒠 "Sura/i"; ) or Sham () is the name of a historical region located east of the Mediterranean Sea in Western Asia, broadly synonymous with the Levant. Other synonyms are Greater Syria or Syria-Palestine. The region boundaries have changed throughout history. In modern times, the term "Syria" alone is used to refer to the Arab Republic of Syria.


title: Syria (region)

text: The term is originally derived from Assyria, an ancient civilization centered in northern Mesopotamia, modern-day Iraq. During the Hellenistic period, the term Syria was applied to the entire Levant as Coele-Syria. Under Roman rule, the term was used to refer to the province of Syria, later divided into Syria Phoenicia and Coele Syria, and to the province of Syria Palaestina. Under the Byzantines, the provinces of Syria Prima and Syria Secunda emerged out of Coele Syria. After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, the term was superseded by the Arabic equivalent "Shām," and under the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, and Fatimid caliphates, Bilad al-Sham was the name of a metropolitan province encompassing most of the region. In the 19th century, the name Syria was revived in its modem Arabic form to denote the whole of Bilad al-Sham, either as "Suriyah" or the modern form "Suriyya", which eventually replaced the Arabic name of Bilad al-Sham.


title: Syria (region)

text: After World War I, the boundaries of the region were last defined in modern times by the proclamation of and subsequent definition by French and British mandatory agreement. The area was passed to French and British Mandates following World War I and divided into Greater Lebanon, various states under Mandatory French rule, British-controlled Mandatory Palestine and the Emirate of Transjordan. The term Syria itself was applied to several mandate states under French rule and the contemporaneous but short-lived Arab Kingdom of Syria. The Syrian-mandate states were gradually unified as the State of Syria and finally became the independent Syria in 1946. Throughout this period, pan-Syrian nationalists advocated for the creation of a Greater Syria.


title: Syria (region)

text: Several sources indicate that the name "Syria" itself is derived from Luwian term "Sura/i", and the derivative ancient Greek name: , ', or , ', both of which originally derived from Aššūrāyu (Assyria) in northern Mesopotamia, modern-day Iraq For Herodotus in the 5th century BC, Syria extended as far north as the Halys (the modern Kızılırmak River) and as far south as Arabia and Egypt. For Pliny the Elder and Pomponius Mela, Syria covered the entire Fertile Crescent.


title: Syria (region)

text: In Late Antiquity, "Syria" meant a region located to the East of the Mediterranean Sea, West of the Euphrates River, North of the Arabian Desert and South of the Taurus Mountains, thereby including modern Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, the Palestine, and parts of Southern Turkey, namely the Hatay Province and the western half of the Southeastern Anatolia Region. This late definition is equivalent to the region known in Classical Arabic by the name ' ( , which means "the north [country]" (from the root ' "left, north")). After the Islamic conquest of Byzantine Syria in the 7th century CE, the name "Syria" fell out of primary use in the region itself, being superseded by the Arabic equivalent "Shām", but survived in its original sense in Byzantine and Western European usage, and in Syriac Christian literature. In the 19th century the name Syria was revived in its modem Arabic form to denote the whole of Bilad al-Sham, either as "Suriyah" or the modern form "Suriyya", which eventually replaced the Arabic name of Bilad al-Sham. After World War I, the name Syria was applied to the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon and the contemporaneous but short-lived Arab Kingdom of Syria.


title: Syria (region)

text: In the most common historical sense, 'Syria' refers to the entire northern Levant, including Alexandretta and the Ancient City of Antioch or in an extended sense the entire Levant as far south as Roman Egypt, but not including Mesopotamia. The area of "Greater Syria" (, '); also called "Natural Syria" (, ') or "Northern Land" (, ""), extends roughly over the Bilad al-Sham province of the medieval Arab caliphates, encompassing the Eastern Mediterranean (or Levant) and Western Mesopotamia. The Muslim conquest of the Levant in the seventh century gave rise to this province, which encompassed much of the region of Syria, and came to largely overlap with this concept. Other sources indicate that the term Greater Syria was coined during Ottoman rule, after 1516, to designate the approximate area included in present-day Palestine, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, and Israel.


title: Syria (region)

text: The uncertainty in the definition of the extent of "Syria" is aggravated by the etymological confusion of the similar-sounding names Syria and Assyria. The question of the ultimate etymological identity of the two names remains open today, but regardless of etymology, the two names have often been taken as exchangeable or synonymous from the time of Herodotus. However, in the Roman Empire, 'Syria' and 'Assyria' began to refer to two separate entities, Roman Syria and Roman Assyria.


title: Syria (region)

text: Killebrew and Steiner, treating the Levant as the Syrian region, gave the boundaries of the region as such: the Mediterranean Sea to the west, the Arabian Desert and Mesopotamia to the east, and the Taurus Mountains of Anatolia to the north. The Muslim geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi visited the region in 1150 and assigned the northern regions of "Bilad al-Sham" as the following:


title: Syria (region)

text: In the Levantine sea are two islands: Rhodes and Cyprus; and in Levantine lands: Antarsus, Laodice, Antioch, Mopsuhestia, Adana, Anazarbus, Tarsus, Kirkesia, Ḥamrtash, Antalya, al-Batira, al-Mira, Macri, Astroboli; and in the interior lands: Apamea, Salamiya, Qinnasrin, al-Castel, Aleppo, Resafa, Raqqa, Rafeqa, al-Jisr, Manbij, Mar'ash, Saruj, Ḥarran, Edessa, Al-Ḥadath, Samosata, Malatiya, Ḥusn Mansur, Zabatra, Jersoon, al-Leen, al-Bedandour, Cirra and Touleb.


title: Syria (region)

text: For Pliny the Elder and Pomponius Mela, Syria covered the entire Fertile Crescent. In Late Antiquity, "Syria" meant a region located to the east of the Mediterranean Sea, west of the Euphrates River, north of the Arabian Desert, and south of the Taurus Mountains, thereby including modern Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, the State of Palestine, and the Hatay Province and the western half of the Southeastern Anatolia Region of southern Turkey. This late definition is equivalent to the region known in Classical Arabic by the name ' ( ), which means "the north [country]" (from the root ' "left, north"). After the Islamic conquest of Byzantine Syria in the seventh century, the name "Syria" fell out of primary use in the region itself, being superseded by the Arabic equivalent "Bilād ash-Shām" ("Northern Land'"), but survived in its original sense in Byzantine and Western European usage, and in Syriac Christian literature. In the 19th century, the name Syria was revived in its modern Arabic form to denote the whole of Bilad al-Sham, either as "Suriyah" or the modern form "Suriyya", which eventually replaced the Arabic name of Bilad al-Sham. After World War I, the name 'Syria' was applied to the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, and the contemporaneous but short-lived Arab Kingdom of Syria.


title: Syria (region)

text: Today, the largest metropolitan areas in the region are Amman, Tel Aviv, Damascus, Beirut, Aleppo and Gaza City.


title: Syria (region)

text: Several sources indicate that the name "Syria" itself is derived from Luwian term "Sura/i", and the derivative ancient Greek name: , ', or , ', both of which originally derived from Aššūrāyu (Assyria) in northern Mesopotamia, modern-day Iraq However, during the Seleucid Empire, this term was also applied to The Levant, and henceforth the Greeks applied the term without distinction between the Assyrians of Mesopotamia and Arameans of the Levant.


title: Syria (region)

text: The oldest attestation of the name 'Syria' is from the 8th century BC in a bilingual inscription in Hieroglyphic Luwian and Phoenician. In this inscription, the Luwian word "Sura/i" was translated to Phoenician "ʔšr" "Assyria." For Herodotus in the 5th century BC, Syria extended as far north as the Halys (the modern Kızılırmak River) and as far south as Arabia and Egypt.


title: Syria (region)

text: The name 'Syria' derives from the ancient Greek name for Assyrians, ', which the Greeks applied without distinction to various Near Eastern peoples living under the rule of Assyria. Modern scholarship confirms the Greek word traces back to the cognate , .


title: Syria (region)

text: The classical Arabic pronunciation of Syria is ' (as opposed to the Modern Standard Arabic pronunciation '). That name was not widely used among Muslims before about 1870, but it had been used by Christians earlier. According to the Syriac Orthodox Church, "Syrian" meant "Christian" in early Christianity. In English, "Syrian" historically meant a Syrian Christian such as Ephrem the Syrian. Following the declaration of Syria in 1936, the term "Syrian" came to designate citizens of that state, regardless of ethnicity. The adjective "Syriac" (" ) has come into common use since as an ethnonym to avoid the ambiguity of "Syrian".


title: Syria (region)

text: Currently, the Arabic term " usually refers to the modern state of Syria, as opposed to the historical region of Syria.


title: Syria (region)

text: Greater Syria has been widely known as "Ash-Shām". The term etymologically in Arabic means "the left-hand side" or "the north", as someone in the Hejaz facing east, oriented to the sunrise, will find the north to the left. This is contrasted with the name of Yemen ( ), correspondingly meaning "the right-hand side" or "the south". The variation (""), of the more typical (")", is also attested in Old South Arabian, (), with the same semantic development.


title: Syria (region)

text: The root of "Shaam", ("") also has connotations of unluckiness, which is traditionally associated with the left-hand and with the colder north-winds. Again this is in contrast with Yemen, with felicity and success, and the positively-viewed warm-moist southerly wind; a theory for the etymology of Arabia Felix denoting Yemen, by translation of that sense.


title: Syria (region)

text: The Shaam region is sometimes defined as the area that was dominated by Damascus, long an important regional center. In fact, the word "Ash-Sām", on its own, can refer to the city of Damascus. Continuing with the similar contrasting theme, Damascus was the commercial destination and representative of the region in the same way Sanaa held for the south.


title: Syria (region)

text: There is no connection with the name Shem, son of Noah, whose name usually appears in Arabic as "", with a different initial consonant and without any internal glottal stop. Despite this, there has been a long-standing folk association between the two names and even the region, as most of the claimed Biblical descendants of Shem have been historically placed in the vicinity.


title: Syria (region)

text: Historically, "Baalshamin" (), was a Semitic sky god in Canaan/Phoenicia and ancient Palmyra. Hence, Sham refers to ("heaven" or "sky"). Moreover; in the Hebrew language, "sham" (שָׁמַ) is derived from Akkadian "šamû" meaning "sky". For instance, the Hebrew word for the Sun is "shemesh", where "shem/sham" from "shamayim " (Akkadian: "šamû") means "sky" and "esh" (Akkadian: "išātu") means "fire", i.e. "sky-fire".


title: Syria (region)

text: Herodotus uses to refer to the stretch of land from the Halys river, including Cappadocia (The Histories, I.6) in today's Turkey to the Mount Casius (The Histories II.158), which Herodotus says is located just south of Lake Serbonis (The Histories III.5). According to Herodotus various remarks in different locations, he describes Syria to include the entire stretch of Phoenician coastal line as well as cities such Cadytis (Jerusalem) (The Histories III.159).


title: Syria (region)

text: In Greek usage, "Syria" and "Assyria" were used almost interchangeably, but in the Roman Empire, Syria and Assyria came to be used as distinct geographical terms. "Syria" in the Roman Empire period referred to "those parts of the Empire situated between Asia Minor and Egypt", i.e. the western Levant, while "Assyria" was part of the Persian Empire, and only very briefly came under Roman control (116–118 AD, marking the historical peak of Roman expansion).


title: Syria (region)

text: In the Roman era, the term Syria is used to comprise the entire northern Levant and has an uncertain border to the northeast that Pliny the Elder describes as including, from west to east, the Kingdom of Commagene, Sophene, and Adiabene, "formerly known as Assyria".


title: Syria (region)

text: Various writers used the term to describe the entire Levant region during this period; the New Testament used the name in this sense on numerous occasions.


title: Syria (region)

text: In 64 BC, Syria became a province of the Roman Empire, following the conquest by Pompey. Roman Syria bordered Judea to the south, Anatolian Greek domains to the north, Phoenicia to the West, and was in constant struggle with Parthians to the East. In 135 AD, Syria-Palaestina became to incorporate the entire Levant and Western Mesopotamia. In 193, the province was divided into Syria proper (Coele-Syria) and Phoenice. Sometime between 330 and 350 (likely c. 341), the province of "Euphratensis" was created out of the territory of Syria Coele and the former realm of Commagene, with Hierapolis as its capital.


title: Syria (region)

text: After c. 415 Syria Coele was further subdivided into Syria I, with the capital remaining at Antioch, and Syria II or Salutaris, with capital at Apamea on the Orontes River. In 528, Justinian I carved out the small coastal province Theodorias out of territory from both provinces.


title: Syria (region)

text: The region was annexed to the Rashidun Caliphate after the Muslim victory over the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Yarmouk, and became known as the province of "Bilad al-Sham". During the Umayyad Caliphate, the Shām was divided into five "junds" or military districts. They were "Jund Dimashq" (for the area of Damascus), "Jund Ḥimṣ" (for the area of Homs), "Jund Filasṭīn" (for the area of Palestine) and "Jund al-Urdunn" (for the area of Jordan). Later "Jund Qinnasrîn" was created out of part of Jund Hims. The city of Damascus was the capital of the Islamic Caliphate, until the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate.


title: Syria (region)

text: In the later ages of the Ottoman times, it was divided into wilayahs or sub-provinces the borders of which and the choice of cities as seats of government within them varied over time. The vilayets or sub-provinces of Aleppo, Damascus, and Beirut, in addition to the two special districts of Mount Lebanon and Jerusalem. Aleppo consisted of northern modern-day Syria plus parts of southern Turkey, Damascus covered southern Syria and modern-day Jordan, Beirut covered Lebanon and the Syrian coast from the port-city of Latakia southward to the Galilee, while Jerusalem consisted of the land south of the Galilee and west of the Jordan River and the Wadi Arabah.


title: Syria (region)

text: Although the region's population was dominated by Sunni Muslims, it also contained sizable populations of Shi'ite, Alawite and Ismaili Muslims, Syriac Orthodox, Maronite, Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholics and Melkite Christians, Jews and Druze.


title: Syria (region)

text: The Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA) was a British, French and Arab military administration over areas of the former Ottoman Empire between 1917 and 1920, during and following World War I. The wave of Arab nationalism evolved towards the creation of the first modern Arab state to come into existence, the Hashemite Arab Kingdom of Syria on 8 March 1920. The kingdom claimed the entire region of Syria whilst exercising control over only the inland region known as OETA East. This led to the acceleration of the declaration of the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon and British Mandate for Palestine at the 19–26 April 1920 San Remo conference, and subsequently the Franco-Syrian War, in July 1920, in which French armies defeated the newly proclaimed kingdom and captured Damascus, aborting the Arab state.


title: Syria (region)

text: Thereafter, the French general Henri Gouraud, in breach of the conditions of the mandate, subdivided the French Mandate of Syria into six states. They were the states of Damascus (1920), Aleppo (1920), Alawite State (1920), Jabal Druze (1921), the autonomous Sanjak of Alexandretta (1921) (modern-day Hatay in Turkey), and Greater Lebanon (1920) which later became the modern country of Lebanon.


title: Syria (region)

text: The boundaries of the region have changed throughout history, and were last defined in modern times by the proclamation of the short-lived Arab Kingdom of Syria and subsequent definition by French and British mandatory agreement. The area was passed to French and British Mandates following World War I and divided into Greater Lebanon, various Syrian-mandate states, Mandatory Palestine and the Emirate of Transjordan. The Syrian-mandate states were gradually unified as the State of Syria and finally became the independent Syria in 1946. Throughout this period, Antoun Saadeh and his party, the Syrian Social Nationalist Party, envisioned "Greater Syria" or "Natural Syria", based on the etymological connection between the name "Syria" and "Assyria", as encompassing the Sinai Peninsula, Cyprus, modern Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, the Ahvaz region of Iran, and the Kilikian region of Turkey.


title: Tánaiste

text: The Tánaiste ( , ) is the deputy head of the government of Ireland and thus holder of its second-most senior office. The Tánaiste is appointed by the President of Ireland on the advice of the Taoiseach. The current office holder is former Taoiseach Micheál Martin, TD, who was appointed on 17 December 2022.


title: Tánaiste

text: Under the Gaelic system of tanistry, the word (plural , , ) had been used for the heir of the chief () or king (). The word was adopted in the 1937 Constitution of Ireland as the title for a member of the government nominated by the Taoiseach to act in their place as needed during periods of the Taoiseach's temporary absence. Tánaiste is the official title of the deputy head of government in both English and Irish, and is not used for other countries' deputy prime ministers, who are referred to in Irish by the generic term , , . The longer Irish form, , is sometimes used in English instead of "the Tánaiste".


title: Tánaiste

text: The office was created in 1937 under the new Constitution of Ireland and replaced the previous office of Vice-President of the Executive Council, which had existed under the Constitution of the Irish Free State, which was first held by Kevin O'Higgins of Cumann na nGaedheal from 1922 to 1927.


title: Tánaiste

text: The Taoiseach nominates a member of Dáil Éireann, who is also member of the government, to the office. The nominee then receives their seal of office from the President of Ireland in recognition of the appointment. The Tánaiste acts in the place of the Taoiseach during a temporary absence. In the event of the Taoiseach's death or permanent incapacitation, the Tánaiste acts as Taoiseach until another is appointed. The Tánaiste is, , a member of the Council of State. The Tánaiste chairs meetings of the government in the absence of the Taoiseach and may take questions on their behalf in the Dáil or Seanad.


title: Tánaiste

text: Aside from those duties, the title is largely honorific as the Constitution does not confer any additional powers on the office holder. The Department of the Taoiseach is a Department of State, but there is no equivalent for the Tánaiste. In theory, the Tánaiste could be a minister without portfolio, but every Tánaiste has in parallel held a ministerial portfolio as head of a Department of State. Dick Spring in the 1994–1997 "Rainbow Coalition" had an official "Office of the Tánaiste", but other parties have not used that nomenclature. Under Spring, Eithne Fitzgerald was "Minister of State at the Office of the Tánaiste", with responsibility for co-ordinating Labour policy in the coalition.


title: Tánaiste

text: Under a coalition government, the Tánaiste is typically the leader of the second-largest government party, just as the Taoiseach is usually leader of the largest, but during the coalition governments in 1989–1992, and in 2007–2011 governments, the position was held by a Fianna Fáil member, rather than a member of a junior party. As part of a [Rotation Government|rotating Taoiseach]] agreement since 2020, the role of Tánaiste gained increased prominence and responsibility in coordinating and Government policy as it was held by Leo Varadkar for the first half of the Government's term in office prior to his appointment as Taoiseach and Micheál Martin in the second half.


title: Tánaiste

text: Three Tánaistí later held the office of Taoiseach: Seán Lemass, Bertie Ahern, and Brian Cowen. Two Tánaistí, Leo Varadkar and Micheál Martin, had previously held the office of Taoiseach. Two Tánaistí were later elected as President of Ireland: Seán T. O'Kelly and Erskine H. Childers.


title: Dream Story

text: Rhapsody: A Dream Novel, also known as Dream Story (), is a 1926 novella by the Austrian writer Arthur Schnitzler. The book deals with the thoughts and psychological transformations of Doctor Fridolin over a two-day period after his wife confesses having had sexual fantasies involving another man. In this short time, he meets many people who give clues to the world Schnitzler creates. This culminates in the masquerade ball, a wondrous event of masked individualism, sex, and danger for Doctor Fridolin, the outsider.


title: Dream Story

text: It was first published in installments in the magazine "Die Dame" between December 1925 and March 1926. The first book edition appeared in 1926 in S. Fischer Verlag. The best known of the film adaptations is the 1999 film "Eyes Wide Shut" by director-screenwriter Stanley Kubrick and co-screenwriter Frederic Raphael, although it makes significant alterations to the setting and story. Prior to this film, it had been adapted for Austrian television in 1969, and a low-budget Italian film entitled "Nightmare in Venice" in 1989.


title: Dream Story

text: The book belongs to the period of the Decadent movement in Vienna after the turn of the 20th century.


title: Dream Story

text: Dream Story is set in early-20th-century Vienna. The protagonist of the story is Fridolin, a successful 35-year-old doctor who lives with his wife, Albertina (also translated as Albertine), and their young daughter.


title: Dream Story

text: One night, Albertina confesses that the previous summer, while they were on vacation in Denmark, she had a sexual fantasy about a young Danish military officer. Fridolin then admits that during that same vacation he had been attracted to a young girl on the beach. Later that night, Fridolin is called to the deathbed of an important patient. Finding the man dead, he is shocked when the man's daughter, Marianne, professes her love to him. Restless, Fridolin leaves and begins to walk the streets. Although tempted, he refuses the offer of a young prostitute named Mizzi.


title: Dream Story

text: He encounters his old friend, Nachtigall, who tells Fridolin that he will be playing piano at a secret high-society orgy that night. Intrigued, Fridolin procures a mask and costume and follows Nachtigall to the party at a private residence. Fridolin is shocked to find several men in masks and costumes and naked women with only masks engaged in various sexual activities. When a young woman warns him to leave, Fridolin ignores her plea and is soon exposed as an interloper. The woman then announces to the gathering that she will sacrifice herself for Fridolin, and he is allowed to leave.


title: Dream Story

text: Upon his return home, Albertina awakens and describes a dream she has had: While making love to the Danish officer from her sexual fantasies, she had watched without sympathy as Fridolin was tortured and crucified before her eyes. Fridolin is outraged because he believes that this proves his wife wants to betray him. He resolves to pursue his own sexual temptations.


title: Dream Story

text: The next day, Fridolin learns that Nachtigall has been taken away by two mysterious men. He then goes to the costume shop to return his costume and discovers that the shop-owner is prostituting his teenage daughter to various men. He finds his way back to where the orgy had taken place the previous night; before he can enter, he is handed a note addressed to him by name that warns him not to pursue the matter. Later, he visits Marianne, but she no longer expresses any interest in him. Fridolin searches for Mizzi, the prostitute, but is unable to find her. He reads that a young woman has been poisoned. Suspecting that she is the woman who sacrificed herself for him, he views the woman's corpse in the morgue but cannot identify her.


title: Dream Story

text: Fridolin returns home that night to find Albertina asleep, with his mask from the previous night set on the pillow on his side of the bed. When she wakes up, Fridolin confesses all of his activities. After listening quietly, Albertina comforts him. Fridolin says that it never will happen again, but Albertina tells him not to look too far into the future, and that the important thing is that they survived through their adventures.


title: Pet peeve

text: A pet peeve, pet aversion, or pet hate is a minor annoyance that an individual finds particularly irritating to them, to a greater degree than would be expected based on the experience of others.


title: Pet peeve

text: The noun "peeve", meaning an annoyance, is believed to have originated in the United States early in the twentieth century, derived by back-formation from the adjective "peevish", meaning "ornery or ill-tempered", which dates from the late 14th-century.


title: Pet peeve

text: The term "pet peeve" was introduced to a wide readership in the single-panel comic strip "The Little Pet Peeve" in the "Chicago Tribune" during the period 1916–1920. The strip was created by cartoonist Frank King, who also created the long-running "Gasoline Alley" strip. King's "little pet peeves" were humorous critiques of generally thoughtless behaviors and nuisance frustrations. Examples included people reading the inter-titles in silent films aloud, cracking an egg only to smell that it's gone rotten, back-seat drivers, and rugs that keep catching the bottom of the door and bunching up. King's readers submitted topics, including theater goers who unwrap candy in crinkly paper during a live performance, and (from a 12 year old boy) having his mother come in to sweep when he has the pieces of a building toy spread out on the floor.


title: Pet peeve

text: Pet peeves often involve specific behaviors of someone close, such as a spouse or significant other. These behaviors may involve disrespect, manners, personal hygiene, relationships, and family issues. A key aspect of a pet peeve is that it may well seem acceptable or insignificant to others, while the person is likewise not bothered by things that might upset others. For example, a supervisor may have a pet peeve about people leaving the lid up on the copier, when others interrupt when speaking, or their subordinates having messy desks.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: GoldenEye 007 is a 2010 first-person shooter video game developed by Eurocom and published by Activision for the Wii video game console, with a handheld version for Nintendo DS developed by n-Space. It is a modern reimagining of the 1995 "James Bond" film "GoldenEye" as well as a remake of the 1997 video game of the same name, developed for the earlier Nintendo 64 console. The game was officially announced by Nintendo at their E3 2010 conference presentation. The game was released on 2 November 2010 in tandem with another "James Bond" game, "", which was also released for the DS, but not the Wii. Nintendo, the publisher of the Nintendo 64 game, published the Wii version in Japan the following summer, where it remains Wii-exclusive. It was the fourth 007 game developed by Eurocom and their second under Activision, after the PlayStation 2 version of "" two years prior.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: Although not as critically acclaimed as its original Nintendo 64 version, the game received positive reviews from critics, with many calling it a return to form for the series, with particular praise for its gameplay, campaign, voice acting, multiplayer and controls. An enhanced port of the game, titled "GoldenEye 007: Reloaded", was released in November 2011 for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: Although Pierce Brosnan starred as Bond in "GoldenEye" and was featured in the 1997 game, subsequent Bond actor Daniel Craig's likeness and voice are featured in the 2010 game. The plot has been modified to match the style of the first two Craig reboot era films, which also meant the exclusion of Q and Moneypenny (who later returned to the franchise in Skyfall). Judi Dench (who has portrayed M since "GoldenEye") reprises her role in voice only, as does Rory Kinnear as Bill Tanner. With the exception of M, all other main characters from the film have had their appearances and voices altered while retaining their original names.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: Unlike the original video game and movie, the whole story takes place after the Cold War due to the Soviet Union's dissolution and replacement by Russia. Accordingly, the story does not jump nine years ahead after the opening sequence.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: Set in between "Quantum of Solace" and "Skyfall", MI6 Agents James Bond and Alec Trevelyan are tasked by M with infiltrating a chemical weapons facility in Arkhangelsk, Russia, which is believed to be the source of weapons used by a terrorist cell to target British embassies around the globe. The mission goes awry when Trevelyan is captured and shot by General Ourumov. Bond escapes by detonating explosives he had placed throughout the facility before fleeing Arkhangelsk via an aeroplane.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: Later, a phone call intercepted from Ourumov connects him to Russian gangster Valentin Zukovsky as Ourumov attempts to acquire a helicopter that has been modified to survive an electromagnetic pulse. Bond convenes with Zukovsky at his nightclub, where Zukovsky reluctantly directs him to an arms fair in Dubai before he is killed by Xenia Onatopp, an operative for Ourumov posing as a waitress. Bond is able to escape Zukovsky's armed guards and eventually reach the arms fair. Onatopp and Ourumov hijack the helicopter but Bond is able to plant his smartphone on board, and MI6 is able to track the helicopter to a remote base in Siberia. Bond is unable to thwart the theft of a GoldenEye weapons satellite, which is detonated by Ourumov. Bond rescues Natalya Simonova before they're both arrested by the Russian army.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: Believing Bond and Simonova to be responsible for the GoldenEye blast, Russian Defence Minister Dmitri Mishkin interrogates the two in Saint Petersburg. Mishkin is killed by Ourumov, who then abducts Natalya. Bond commanders a tank and pursues him to a train and confronts him over his plan for the GoldenEye satellite, but Onatopp betrays Ourumov and kills him. Bond is able to help Natalya off the train and goes to a meeting at Statue Park, learning that Trevelyan survived his execution at the hands of Ourumov and is now Janus, the mastermind behind the GoldenEye theft. Alec leaves with Natalya, who is instrumental in his plan, while Bond is left in the helicopter as it fires missiles on itself, but Bond escapes before its explosion.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: Bond traverses a jungle in northwestern Nigeria in order to infiltrate Trevelyan's solar panel facility. Before making his way into the facility, he's attacked by Onatopp but he manages to defeat her. Bond plants bombs on various engines before he's captured and brought to Trevelyan. Trevelyan attempts to use Natalya's fingerprints to activate the GoldenEye key to use the satellite to destroy London and erase evidence of the finances he stole, but ends up sabotaging the solar panels vital to the GoldenEye. After Bond and Natalya sabotage the satellite, Bond pursues Trevelyan before eventually overloading the facility control room and shooting Trevelyan, sending him to his death over the tower. Simonova and Bond escape the base by helicopter, with the couple kissing in the mission's aftermath.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: While "GoldenEye 007" is a re-imagining of the film, the game does have noticeable differences. Levels have been altered to reflect the game's modified story. According to Craig Harris of IGN, ""GoldenEye" still retains the basics of "GoldenEye"s story, but retells it in a way that makes sense with Daniel Craig's interpretation of James Bond." Likewise, the game features modern game elements to coincide with other modern first-person shooters, such as destructible environments, regenerating health, and online multiplayer.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: Eurocom has added a few updated features while retaining some features from the original game. Instead of a watch, players use a mobile phone to scan documents, take photos, and communicate with MI6. This change was reflective of the initial departure of high end gadgets for the Craig films. The original "GoldenEye 007" featured a cheat menu which is available from the start in the re-make. The game updates the AI-Bot system which is built upon Eurocom's previous game, "". Each computer player possesses its own AI-bot system to make them dynamic and challenging.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: The game offers players several choices of controllers: Wii Remote with Nunchuk, Wii Zapper, Classic Controller, Classic Controller Pro, or a Nintendo GameCube controller. "GoldenEye 007" also provides players using the Remote with Nunchuk or Wii Zapper with the ability to peer around cover by tilting the Nunchuk. The game includes twenty-five weapons based upon counterparts from the franchise overall. The game does not open with any gun barrel sequence like the Craig films prior to the release of "Spectre" which was the first 007 film to open with it since "Die Another Day".


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: "GoldenEye 007" features both offline split screen for up to four local players and online play for up to eight players. There are 10 multiplayer maps. There are four different game modes for offline multiplayer and nine different game modes for online multiplayer. Online multiplayer is provided through the free Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, and though up to eight players can connect to a game remotely, only one local player is allowed at a time. Multiplayer includes characters from the single player campaign, such as James Bond and Alec Trevelyan, as well as classic "Bond"-series characters including Jaws, Oddjob, and Julius No. Additionally, online multiplayer offers XP progression, unlockables and multipliers.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: Split screen combat provides over a dozen modifiers, including Melee Only, You Only Live Twice, and Paintball Mode from the original game.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: In November 2006, Nintendo of America president Reggie Fils-Aime announced that Nintendo was exploring the possibility of adding the Nintendo 64 video game "GoldenEye 007" to the Virtual Console, despite a complicated situation in which the game's developer Rare is owned by Microsoft (producers of the rival Xbox 360 console) and the video game rights to the James Bond franchise are held by Activision. He stated, "We would love to see it [on the Virtual Console], so we're exploring all the rights issues." On 7 January 2008, Xbox Evolved reported that an updated version of "GoldenEye 007" would be released on Xbox Live Arcade. However, on 11 January 2008, 1UP.com reported that a "GoldenEye 007" port (as opposed to a remake) had been in development at Rare for several months, but stated that the title would not be released on the Xbox Live Arcade since "Microsoft and Nintendo couldn't agree on the financial side of things". However, "Perfect Dark", a Nintendo 64 title which used the same engine as "GoldenEye", would later make it to Xbox Live Arcade, and the near-complete port of "Goldeneye 007" was leaked online in 2021. It was revealed at E3 2010 that a new Goldeneye video game would be released for the Wii in November 2010. "GoldenEye 007" is built on a modified version of the game engine from another Wii game by Eurocom, "".


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: Originally, Free Radical Design (now Crytek UK) were approached by Activision to develop the game because former Rare staff were working there, with the PS3 and Xbox 360 initially being considered as target platforms early into development. Free Radical Design even rebuilt the first level, "Dam" for those consoles. However, negotiations fell through and Activision instead went for Eurocom, with Free Radical entering Administration soon afterwards, and Activision then shelved PS3 and Xbox 360 releases to target Nintendo platforms exclusively on initial release. The non-Nintendo console versions were released a year later as enhanced ports, subtitled "Reloaded".


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: "James Bond" film producer Michael G. Wilson spoke in June 2010 about Daniel Craig's participation in revisiting the story from the original film. "When we first pitched the game to him, he was really excited about it. He thought the original game was great. Daniel plays a lot of games and... gives us a lot of good criticism. We'll show him what the plan is and he'll suggest changes and get very hands-on." Wilson went on to say that Craig is aware of the original game's impact, but that his on-screen interpretation of James Bond also required changes to the tone of the story and an increased physical nature to the gameplay.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: Eurocom hired motion graphics director Alex Donne Johnson (founder of DAZZLE SHIP) to collaborate with Carlos Villareal Kwasek to create the intro title sequence and cut scenes for the game.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: David Arnold, composer of the 007 film scores from "Tomorrow Never Dies" until "Quantum of Solace", composed the game's score. Nicole Scherzinger performs the title song "GoldenEye", a cover version of the film's theme which was originally performed by Tina Turner. The game's script is penned by Bruce Feirstein, the co-writer of the "GoldenEye" film, who has described several changes made to update the story in the fifteen years since its release; for example, Alec Trevelyan's motivations have changed, as the character's backstory involving a Lienz Cossack father would make Trevelyan seventy-one years old in 2010, while Valentin Zukovsky no longer has any connection to the KGB. Feirstein also cited a sequence of the game set at a Dubai arms fair. Rory Kinnear reprises his role from "Quantum of Solace" as Bill Tanner, M's Chief of Staff.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: Although not as critically acclaimed as its original Nintendo 64 version, "GoldenEye 007" received positive reviews. Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the Wii version 83.67% and 81/100 and the Nintendo DS version 68.82% and 64/100.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: Japanese game magazine "Famitsu" gave the Wii version a 34 out of 40 score, and the NDS version a 22 out of 40. IGN awarded the game a 9.0 out of 10 and an Editor's Choice Award, praising its multiplayer component and its well-crafted story while criticising the lack of voice chat. The reviewer, Craig Harris, concluded by acknowledging that the game—as of its release—is the Wii's best first person shooter. Gaming Nexus gave "GoldenEye 007" an A−, stating, "instead of standing in the original "GoldenEye"s shadow, Eurocom has created a brand new game that is just as compelling and addictive as the original." GameSpot reviewer Tom McShea also praised the game, awarding it an 8.5 out of 10. Joystiq scored the game 4 out of 5.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: "Nintendo World Report" awarded the game an 8.5/10, with the reviewer stating, "Frankly, I haven't seen a more impressive Wii shooter." The "Official Nintendo Magazine" gave "GoldenEye 007" a score of 90%. GameTrailers scored the game at 8.6 of 10, indicating that while most aspects are well-done, the game's performance suffers from inconsistent framerates, particularly during splitscreen play. They also derided the menus as "bland" and the "not very crisp" overall picture due to aliasing. Digital Trends' gave the game 8 of 10, complaining of the enemy AI's simplistic strategies and lack of adaptability. While the multiplayer gameplay was highly praised by the reviewer, the lack of voice chat was seen as a significant omission.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: GamesRadar, although less positive, were still pleased with the result, awarding the game a 7 out of 10, stating that it was impossible for the game to live up to the original, but that it was still "a damn fine, 'serious' shooter on the Wii, and that's saying something," adding that "even without the limited options for mature action for Wii owners, "GoldenEye 007" is a solid game in its own right." In contrast, "Game Informer" was less impressed, giving the game a 6.5/10, calling it "a lackluster game that fails to hit the same high notes of the original, or keep pace with modern shooters".


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: At the 2011 San Diego Comic-Con International, Activision unveiled "GoldenEye 007: Reloaded", a remastering of the Wii game for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 consoles. The game features high-definition graphics due to running on a new game engine, an achievement system, new "MI6 Ops Missions", and PlayStation Move compatibility for the PlayStation 3 version. The game was released on 1 November 2011 in North America, and on 4 November 2011 in Europe. Activision also released a PlayStation 3 bundle called "GoldenEye 007: Reloaded – Double 'O' Edition"; the bundle features the game itself, the PlayStation Move motion and navigation controllers, PlayStation Eye Camera, the Sharp Shooter peripheral, and access to the downloadable character Hugo Drax. The bundle was released along with the standalone game.


title: GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game)

text: "GoldenEye 007: Reloaded" received generally mixed to positive reviews. Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 75.60% and 72/100 and the Xbox 360 version 73.20% and 72/100.


title: Silchar

text: Silchar is a city and the headquarters of the Cachar district of the state of Assam, India. It is located south east of Guwahati. It was founded by Captain Thomas Fisher in 1832 when he shifted the headquarters of Cachar to Janiganj in Silchar. It earned the moniker “Island of Peace” from Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India. Silchar is the site of the world's first polo club and the first competitive polo match. In 1985, an Air India flight from Kolkata to Silchar became the world's first all-women crew flight. Silchar was a tea town and Cachar club was the meeting point for tea planters.


title: Silchar

text: The name Silchar comes from the two Bengali words 'shil' and 'char', meaning 'rock' and 'shore/island' respectively. The city was founded in Janiganj-Sadarghat area of the town near the Barak bank which was used as a river port. It is theorised that the locals started calling the area 'Shiler Chor' meaning the rocky shore, which got shortened to 'Silchar', which was in turn adopted and popularised by the British.


title: Silchar

text: Since Silchar was only founded after the introduction of the British in 1832, the pre-colonial history of Silchar can be approximated through the history of the region and nearby areas.


title: Silchar

text: Cachar district, whose headquarters is in Silchar, was ruled by the Tippera dynasty in the 13th century. The initial capital of the kingdom was in Khalangsha in Cachar, which has been identified as Rajghat village in Sonai, 18 km from Silchar. The Tippera eventually moved eastwards to present day Tripura. By the 16th century, Cachar was a part of the Tripura kingdom.


title: Silchar

text: The Tippera kings continued their rule in Barak Valley till mid-16th century, when commander Chilarai of the Koch dynasty defeated the king of Tripura in 1562 in Longai. Longai became the boundary between the Tripura and Koch kingdoms. Bir Chilarai, also known as Shukladhwaja, was the younger brother of the Koch king Naranarayan. Gosai Kamal, also known as Kamal Narayan, was another brother of Naranarayan. He was made the governor of Barak Valley and ruled the area from Khaspur, 20 km away from Silchar.


title: Silchar

text: Even after the collapse of the Koch kingdom elsewhere, the Koch continued ruling Cachar from Khaspur. The area was ruled by seven more Koch kings after Gosai Kamal: Udita Singha, Dhir Singha, Mehendra Singha, Ranjit Singha, Nara Singha and Bhim Singha. Bhim Singha, the last Koch Raja of Khaspur, only had a daughter called Kanchani who was married off to Prince Laksmichandra of the Kachari Dimasa kingdom of Maibang in 1745. Maibang is in present-day hill district of Dima Hasao, adjacent to Cachar. Laksmichandra was made the governor of a part of the kingdom which is still named after him - Lakhipur, situated 25 km away from Silchar. Laksmichandra became the Raja after Bhim Singha's death and eventually the two kingdoms were merged and present day Cachar came under Dimasa rule. Under the Dimasa kings, Cachar witnessed attacks from the Mughals, the Jaintias, the Manipuri kings, the Burmese, and the Ahoms.


title: Silchar

text: While the hill areas of the Kachari kingdom i.e. Dima Hasao, had a Dimasa stronghold, the plain areas i.e. present day Cachar had Bengalis constituting the majority. While Bengalis had been inhabiting Cachar before the Koch rule, the Dimasa kings encouraged increased migration of Bengalis from nearby areas as priests, cultivators, and ministers at court. Eventually, the formal conversion of Dimasa kings into Hinduism was carried out under Bengali Brahmins when Raja Krishna Chandra and Raja Govinda Chandra performed the Hiranyagarbha ceremony in 1790.


title: Silchar

text: The kings in turn were great patrons of Bengali literature; Bengali was the court language of the Kachari kings, translation of Sanskrit texts into Bengali was carried out, and the kings themselves composed prose and poetry in Bengali. In fact some of the only surviving written examples of the Bengali tradition in later 18th and early 19th century Cachar are the 27 letters written by Raja Krishna Chandra and Raja Gobinda Chandra to the East India Company.


title: Silchar

text: After taking over parts of the Brahmaputra Valley and Manipur by 1823, the Burmese made forays into Cachar as well. The then Governor General of India, Lord William Amherst, saw the British occupation of Cachar as essential towards guarding the nearby British held district of Sylhet from the Burmese. On 6 March 1824, Gobinda Chandra signed the Treaty of Badarpur with the British, who declared Cachar as a British protectorate and recognised Raja Gobinda Chandra as the ruler of Cachar.