title: Anti-Oedipus

text: Anthony Elliott described "Anti-Oedipus" as a "celebrated" work that "scandalized French psychoanalysis and generated heated dispute among intellectuals" and "offered a timely critique of psychoanalysis and Lacanianism at the time of its publication in France". However, he added that most commentators would now agree that "schizoanalysis" is fatally flawed, and that there are several major objections that can be made against "Anti-Oedipus". In his view, even if "subjectivity may be usefully decentred and deconstructed", it is wrong to assume that "desire is naturally rebellious and subversive." He believed that Deleuze and Guattari see the individual as "no more than various organs, intensities and flows, rather than a complex, contradictory identity" and make false emancipatory claims for schizophrenia. He also argued that Deleuze and Guattari's work produces difficulties for the interpretation of contemporary culture, because of their "rejection of institutionality as such", which obscures the difference between liberal democracy and fascism and leaves Deleuze and Guattari with "little more than a romantic, idealized fantasy of the 'schizoid hero'". He wrote that "Anti-Oedipus" follows a similar theoretical direction to Lyotard's "Libidinal Economy", though he sees several significant differences between Deleuze and Guattari on the one hand and Lyotard on the other.


title: Anti-Oedipus

text: Some of Guattari's diary entries, correspondence with Deleuze, and notes on the development of the book were published posthumously as "The Anti-Oedipus Papers" (2004). The philosopher Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen and the psychologist Sonu Shamdasani wrote that rather than having their confidence shaken by the "provocations and magnificent rhetorical violence" of "Anti-Oedipus", the psychoanalytic profession felt that the debates raised by the book legitimated their discipline. Joshua Ramey wrote that while the passage into Deleuze and Guattari's "body without organs" is "fraught with danger and even pain ... the point of "Anti-Oedipus" is not to make glamorous that violence or that suffering. Rather, the point is to show that there is a viable level of Dinoysian [sic] experience." The philosopher Alan D. Schrift wrote in "The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy" (2015) that "Anti-Oedipus" was "read as a major articulation of the philosophy of desire and a profound critique of psychoanalysis."


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The fuel economy of an automobile relates distance traveled by a vehicle and the amount of fuel consumed. Consumption can be expressed in terms of volume of fuel to travel a distance, or the distance traveled per unit volume of fuel consumed. Since fuel consumption of vehicles is a significant factor in air pollution, and since importation of motor fuel can be a large part of a nation's foreign trade, many countries impose requirements for fuel economy. Different methods are used to approximate the actual performance of the vehicle. The energy in fuel is required to overcome various losses (wind resistance, tire drag, and others) encountered while propelling the vehicle, and in providing power to vehicle systems such as ignition or air conditioning. Various strategies can be employed to reduce losses at each of the conversions between the chemical energy in the fuel and the kinetic energy of the vehicle. Driver behavior can affect fuel economy; maneuvers such as sudden acceleration and heavy braking waste energy.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Electric cars do not directly burn fuel, and so do not have fuel economy per se, but equivalence measures, such as miles per gallon gasoline equivalent have been created to attempt to compare them.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: While the thermal efficiency (mechanical output to chemical energy in fuel) of petroleum engines has increased since the beginning of the automotive era, this is not the only factor in fuel economy. The design of automobile as a whole and usage pattern affects the fuel economy. Published fuel economy is subject to variation between jurisdiction due to variations in testing protocols.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: One of the first studies to determine fuel economy in the United States was the Mobil Economy Run, which was an event that took place every year from 1936 (except during World War II) to 1968. It was designed to provide real, efficient fuel efficiency numbers during a coast-to-coast test on real roads and with regular traffic and weather conditions. The Mobil Oil Corporation sponsored it and the United States Auto Club (USAC) sanctioned and operated the run. In more recent studies, the average fuel economy for new passenger car in the United States improved from 17 mpg (13.8 L/100 km) in 1978 to more than 22 mpg (10.7 L/100 km) in 1982.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The average fuel economy for new 2020 model year cars, light trucks and SUVs in the United States was . 2019 model year cars (ex. EVs) classified as "midsize" by the US EPA ranged from 12 to 56 mpg (20 to 4.2 L/100 km) However, due to environmental concerns caused by CO emissions, new EU regulations are being introduced to reduce the average emissions of cars sold beginning in 2012, to 130 g/km of CO, equivalent to 4.5 L/100 km (52 mpg, 63 mpg) for a diesel-fueled car, and 5.0 L/100 km (47 mpg, 56 mpg) for a gasoline (petrol)-fueled car.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The average consumption across the fleet is not immediately affected by the "new vehicle" fuel economy: for example, Australia's car fleet average in 2004 was 11.5 L/100 km (20.5 mpg), compared with the average new car consumption in the same year of 9.3 L/100 km (25.3 mpg)


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Fuel economy at steady speeds with selected vehicles was studied in 2010. The most recent study indicates greater fuel efficiency at higher speeds than earlier studies; for example, some vehicles achieve better fuel economy at rather than at , although not their best economy, such as the 1994 Oldsmobile Cutlass Ciera with the LN2 2.2L engine, which has its best economy at (), and gets better economy at than at ( vs ). The proportion of driving on high speed roadways varies from 4% in Ireland to 41% in the Netherlands.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: When the US National Maximum Speed Law's speed limit was mandated from 1974 to 1995, there were complaints that fuel economy could decrease instead of increase. The 1997 Toyota Celica got better fuel-efficiency at than it did at ( vs ), although even better at than at ( vs ), and its best economy () at only . Other vehicles tested had from 1.4 to 20.2% better fuel-efficiency at vs. . Their best economy was reached at speeds of (see graph).


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Officials hoped that the limit, combined with a ban on ornamental lighting, no gasoline sales on Sunday, and a 15% cut in gasoline production, would reduce total gasoline consumption by 200,000 barrels a day, representing a 2.2% drop from annualized 1973 gasoline consumption levels. This was partly based on a belief that cars achieve maximum efficiency between 40 and 50 mph (65 and 80 km/h) and that trucks and buses were most efficient at .


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: In 1998, the U.S. Transportation Research Board footnoted an estimate that the 1974 National Maximum Speed Limit (NMSL) reduced fuel consumption by 0.2 to 1.0 percent. Rural interstates, the roads most visibly affected by the NMSL, accounted for 9.5% of the U.S' vehicle-miles-traveled in 1973, but such free-flowing roads typically provide more fuel-efficient travel than conventional roads.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Identical vehicles can have varying fuel consumption figures listed depending upon the testing methods of the jurisdiction.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Since the total force opposing the vehicle's motion (at constant speed) multiplied by the distance through which the vehicle travels represents the work that the vehicle's engine must perform, the study of fuel economy (the amount of energy consumed per unit of distance traveled) requires a detailed analysis of the forces that oppose a vehicle's motion. In terms of physics, Force = rate at which the amount of work generated (energy delivered) varies with the distance traveled, or:


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Note: The amount of work generated by the vehicle's power source (energy delivered by the engine) would be exactly proportional to the amount of fuel energy consumed by the engine if the engine's efficiency is the same regardless of power output, but this is not necessarily the case due to the operating characteristics of the internal combustion engine.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: For a vehicle whose source of power is a heat engine (an engine that uses heat to perform useful work), the amount of fuel energy that a vehicle consumes per unit of distance (level road) depends upon:


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Ideally, a car traveling at a constant velocity on level ground in a vacuum with frictionless wheels could travel at any speed without consuming any energy beyond what is needed to get the car up to speed. Less ideally, any vehicle must expend energy on overcoming road load forces, which consist of aerodynamic drag, tire rolling resistance, and inertial energy that is lost when the vehicle is decelerated by friction brakes. With ideal regenerative braking, the inertial energy could be completely recovered, but there are few options for reducing aerodynamic drag or rolling resistance other than optimizing the vehicle's shape and the tire design. Road load energy or the energy demanded at the wheels, can be calculated by evaluating the vehicle equation of motion over a specific driving cycle. The vehicle powertrain must then provide this minimum energy in order to move the vehicle and will lose a large amount of additional energy in the process of converting fuel energy into work and transmitting it to the wheels. Overall, the sources of energy loss in moving a vehicle may be summarized as follows:


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Fuel-efficiency decreases from electrical loads are most pronounced at lower speeds because most electrical loads are constant while engine load increases with speed. So at a lower speed, a higher proportion of engine horsepower is used by electrical loads. Hybrid cars see the greatest effect on fuel-efficiency from electrical loads because of this proportional effect.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Many aftermarket consumer products exist that are purported to increase fuel economy; many of these claims have been discredited. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency maintains a list of devices that have been tested by independent laboratories and makes the test results available to the public.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The mandatory publication of the fuel consumption by the manufacturer led some to use dubious practices to reach better values in the past. If the test is on a test stand, the vehicle may detect open doors and adapt the engine control. Also when driven according to the test regime, the parameters may adapt automatically. Test laboratories use a "golden car" that is tested in each one to check that each lab produces the same set of measurements for a given drive cycle.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Tire pressures and lubricants have to be as recommended by the manufacturer (Higher tire pressures are required on a particular dynamometer type, but this is to compensate for the different rolling resistance of the dynamometer, not to produce an unrealistic load on the vehicle). Normally the quoted figures a manufacturer publishes have to be proved by the relevant authority witnessing vehicle/engine tests. Some jurisdictions independently test emissions of vehicles in service, and as a final measure can force a recall of all of a particular type of vehicle if the customer vehicles do not fulfill manufacturers' claims within reasonable limits. The expense and bad publicity from such a recall encourage manufacturers to publish realistic figures. The US Federal government retests 10–15% of models), to make sure that the manufacturer's tests are accurate.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Real-world fuel consumption can vary greatly as they can be affected by many factors that have little to do with the vehicle. Driving conditions – weather, traffic, temperature; driving style – hard braking, jackrabbit starts, and speeding; road conditions – paved vs gravel, smooth vs potholes; and things like carrying excess weight, roof racks, and fuel quality can all combine to dramatically increase fuel consumption. Expecting to consistently perform in the face of so many variables is impossible as is the expectation for one set of numbers to encompass every driver and their personal circumstances.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: For many years critics had claimed that EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) estimated fuel economy figures had been misleading. The primary arguments of the EPA detractors were focused on the lack of real-world testing, and the very limited scale (i.e., city or highway).


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Partly as a response to these criticisms, the EPA changed their fuel economy rating system in 2008 in an attempt to more adequately address these concerns. Instead of testing simply in two presumed modes, the testing now covers:


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: While the new EPA standards may represent an improvement, real-world user data may still be the best way to gather and collect accurate fuel economy information. As such the EPA has also set up a website where drivers can enter and track their own real-world fuel economy numbers.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: There are also a number of websites that attempt to track and report individual user fuel economy data through real-life driving. Sites or publications such as "Consumer Reports", Edmunds.com, Consumer Guide, and TrueDelta.com offer this service and claim more accurate numbers than those listed by the EPA.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Governments, various environmentalist organizations, and companies like Toyota and Shell Oil Company have historically urged drivers to maintain adequate air pressure in tires and careful acceleration/deceleration habits. Keeping track of fuel efficiency stimulates fuel economy-maximizing behavior.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: A five-year partnership between Michelin and Anglian Water shows that 60,000 liters of fuel can be saved on tire pressure. The Anglian Water fleet of 4,000 vans and cars are now lasting their full lifetime. This shows the impact that tire pressures have on the fuel efficiency.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Environmental management systems EMAS, as well as good fleet management, includes record-keeping of the fleet fuel consumption. Quality management uses those figures to steer the measures acting on the fleets. This is a way to check whether procurement, driving, and maintenance in total have contributed to changes in the fleet's overall consumption.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: From October 2008, all new cars had to be sold with a sticker on the windscreen showing the fuel consumption and the CO emissions. Fuel consumption figures are expressed as "urban", "extra urban" and "combined", measured according to ECE Regulations 83 and 101 – which are the based on the European driving cycle; previously, only the "combined" number was given.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Australia also uses a star rating system, from one to five stars, that combines greenhouse gases with pollution, rating each from 0 to 10 with ten being best. To get 5 stars a combined score of 16 or better is needed, so a car with a 10 for economy (greenhouse) and a 6 for emission or 6 for economy and 10 for emission, or anything in between would get the highest 5 star rating. The lowest rated car is the Ssangyong Korrando with automatic transmission, with one star, while the highest rated was the Toyota Prius hybrid. The Fiat 500, Fiat Punto and Fiat Ritmo as well as the Citroen C3 also received 5 stars. The greenhouse rating depends on the fuel economy and the type of fuel used. A greenhouse rating of 10 requires 60 or less grams of CO per km, while a rating of zero is more than 440 g/km CO. The highest greenhouse rating of any 2009 car listed is the Toyota Prius, with 106 g/km CO and . Several other cars also received the same rating of 8.5 for greenhouse. The lowest rated was the Ferrari 575 at 499 g/km CO and . The Bentley also received a zero rating, at 465 g/km CO. The best fuel economy of any year is the 2004–2005 Honda Insight, at .


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Vehicle manufacturers follow a controlled laboratory testing procedure to generate the fuel consumption data that they submit to the Government of Canada. This controlled method of fuel consumption testing, including the use of standardized fuels, test cycles and calculations, is used instead of on-road driving to ensure that all vehicles are tested under identical conditions and that the results are consistent and repeatable.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Selected test vehicles are “run in” for about 6,000 km before testing. The vehicle is then mounted on a chassis dynamometer programmed to take into account the aerodynamic efficiency, weight and rolling resistance of the vehicle. A trained driver runs the vehicle through standardized driving cycles that simulate trips in the city and on the highway. Fuel consumption ratings are derived from the emissions generated during the driving cycles.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: In the European Union, passenger vehicles are commonly tested using two drive cycles, and corresponding fuel economies are reported as "urban" and "extra-urban", in liters per 100 km and (in the UK) in miles per imperial gallon.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The urban economy is measured using the test cycle known as ECE-15, first introduced in 1970 by EC Directive 70/220/EWG and finalized by EEC Directive 90/C81/01 in 1999. It simulates a 4,052 m (2.518 mile) urban trip at an average speed of 18.7 km/h (11.6 mph) and at a maximum speed of 50 km/h (31 mph).


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The extra-urban driving cycle or EUDC lasts 400 seconds (6 minutes 40 seconds) at an average speed 62.6 km/h (39 mph) and a top speed of 120 km/h (74.6 mph).


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: EU fuel consumption numbers are often considerably lower than corresponding US EPA test results for the same vehicle. For example, the 2011 Honda CR-Z with a six-speed manual transmission is rated 6.1/4.4 L/100 km in Europe and 7.6/6.4 L/100 km (31/37 mpg ) in the United States.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: In the European Union advertising has to show carbon dioxide (CO)-emission and fuel consumption data in a clear way as described in the UK Statutory Instrument 2004 No 1661. Since September 2005 a color-coded "Green Rating" sticker has been available in the UK, which rates fuel economy by CO emissions: A: <= 100 g/km, B: 100–120, C: 121–150, D: 151–165, E: 166–185, F: 186–225, and G: 226+. Depending on the type of fuel used, for gasoline A corresponds to about and G about . Ireland has a very similar label, but the ranges are slightly different, with A: <= 120 g/km, B: 121–140, C: 141–155, D: 156–170, E: 171–190, F: 191–225, and G: 226+. From 2020, EU requires manufacturers to average 95 g/km emission or less, or pay an excess emissions premium.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: In the UK the ASA (Advertising standards agency) have claimed that fuel consumption figures are misleading. Often the case with European vehicles as the MPG (miles per gallon) figures that can be advertised are often not the same as "real world" driving.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The ASA have said that car manufacturers can use "cheats" to prepare their vehicles for their compulsory fuel efficiency and emissions tests in a way set out to make themselves look as "clean" as possible. This practice is common in gasoline and diesel vehicle tests, but hybrid and electric vehicles are not immune as manufacturers apply these techniques to fuel efficiency.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Car experts also assert that the "official" MPG figures given by manufacturers do not represent the "true" MPG values from real-world driving. Websites have been set up to show the real-world MPG figures, based on crowd-sourced data from real users, vs the official MPG figures.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The major loopholes in the current EU tests allow car manufacturers a number of "cheats" to improve results. Car manufacturers can:


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: According to the results of a 2014 study by the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), the gap between official and real-world fuel-economy figures in Europe has risen to about 38% in 2013 from 10% in 2001. The analysis found that for private cars, the difference between on-road and official values rose from around 8% in 2001 to 31% in 2013, and 45% for company cars in 2013. The report is based on data from more than half a million private and company vehicles across Europe. The analysis was prepared by the ICCT together with the Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), and the German Institut für Energie- und Umweltforschung Heidelberg (IFEU).


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The evaluation criteria used in Japan reflects driving conditions commonly found, as the typical Japanese driver doesn't drive as fast as other regions internationally (Speed limits in Japan).


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The 10–15 mode driving cycle test is the official fuel economy and emission certification test for new light duty vehicles in Japan. Fuel economy is expressed in km/L (kilometers per liter) and emissions are expressed in g/km. The test is carried out on a dynamometer and consist of 25 tests which cover idling, acceleration, steady running and deceleration, and simulate typical Japanese urban and/or expressway driving conditions. The running pattern begins with a warm start, lasts for 660 seconds (11 minutes) and runs at speeds up to . The distance of the cycle is , average speed of , and duration 892 seconds (14.9 minutes), including the initial 15 mode segment.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: A new more demanding test, called the JC08, was established in December 2006 for Japan's new standard that goes into effect in 2015, but it is already being used by several car manufacturers for new cars. The JC08 test is significantly longer and more rigorous than the 10–15 mode test. The running pattern with JC08 stretches out to 1200 seconds (20 minutes), and there are both cold and warm start measurements and top speed is . The economy ratings of the JC08 are lower than the 10–15 mode cycle, but they are expected to be more real world. The Toyota Prius became the first car to meet Japan's new 2015 Fuel Economy Standards measured under the JC08 test.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Starting on April 7, 2008 all cars of up to 3.5 tonnes GVW sold other than private sale need to have a fuel economy sticker applied (if available) that shows the rating from one half star to six stars with the most economic cars having the most stars and the more fuel hungry cars the least, along with the fuel economy in L/100 km and the estimated annual fuel cost for driving 14,000 km (at present fuel prices). The stickers must also appear on vehicles to be leased for more than 4 months. All new cars currently rated range from to and received respectively from 4.5 to 5.5 stars.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia announced new light-duty vehicle fuel economy standards in November 2014 which became effective January 1, 2016 and will be fully phased in by January 1, 2018 (Saudi Standards regulation SASO-2864). A review of the targets will be carried by December 2018, at which time targets for 2021–2025 will be set.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The Energy Tax Act of 1978 in the US established a gas guzzler tax on the sale of new model year vehicles whose fuel economy fails to meet certain statutory levels. The tax applies only to cars (not trucks) and is collected by the IRS. Its purpose is to discourage the production and purchase of fuel-inefficient vehicles. The tax was phased in over ten years with rates increasing over time. It applies only to manufacturers and importers of vehicles, although presumably some or all of the tax is passed along to automobile consumers in the form of higher prices. Only new vehicles are subject to the tax, so no tax is imposed on used car sales. The tax is graduated to apply a higher tax rate for less-fuel-efficient vehicles. To determine the tax rate, manufacturers test all the vehicles at their laboratories for fuel economy. The US Environmental Protection Agency confirms a portion of those tests at an EPA lab.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: In some cases, this tax may apply only to certain variants of a given model; for example, the 2004–2006 Pontiac GTO (captive import version of the Holden Monaro) did incur the tax when ordered with the four-speed automatic transmission, but did not incur the tax when ordered with the six-speed manual transmission.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Two separate fuel economy tests simulate city driving and highway driving: the "city" driving program or Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule or (UDDS) or FTP-72 is defined in and consists of starting with a cold engine and making 23 stops over a period of 31 minutes for an average speed of 20 mph (32 km/h) and with a top speed of 56 mph (90 km/h).


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The "highway" program or Highway Fuel Economy Driving Schedule (HWFET) is defined in and uses a warmed-up engine and makes no stops, averaging 48 mph (77 km/h) with a top speed of 60 mph (97 km/h) over a distance. The measurements are then adjusted downward by 10% (city) and 22% (highway) to more accurately reflect real-world results. A weighted average of city (55%) and highway (45%) fuel economies is used to determine the combined rating and guzzler tax.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The procedure has been updated to FTP-75, adding a "hot start" cycle which repeats the "cold start" cycle after a 10-minute pause.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Because EPA figures had almost always indicated better efficiency than real-world fuel-efficiency, the EPA has modified the method starting with 2008. Updated estimates are available for vehicles back to the 1985 model year.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: US EPA altered the testing procedure effective MY2008 which adds three new Supplemental Federal Test Procedure (SFTP) tests to include the influence of higher driving speed, harder acceleration, colder temperature and air conditioning use.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: SFTP US06 is a high speed/quick acceleration loop that lasts 10 minutes, covers , averages and reaches a top speed of . Four stops are included, and brisk acceleration maximizes at a rate of per second. The engine begins warm and air conditioning is not used. Ambient temperature varies between to .


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: SFTO SC03 is the air conditioning test, which raises ambient temperatures to , and puts the vehicle's climate control system to use. Lasting 9.9 minutes, the loop averages and maximizes at a rate of . Five stops are included, idling occurs 19 percent of the time and acceleration of 5.1 mph per second is achieved. Engine temperatures begin warm.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Lastly, a cold temperature cycle uses the same parameters as the current city loop, except that ambient temperature is set to .


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: EPA tests for fuel economy do not include electrical load tests beyond climate control, which may account for some of the discrepancy between EPA and real world fuel-efficiency. A 200 W electrical load can produce a 0.4 km/L (0.94 mpg) reduction in efficiency on the FTP 75 cycle test.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Beginning with model year 2017 the calculation method changed to improve the accuracy of the estimated fuel economy, with lower uncertainty for fuel efficient vehicles.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Following the efficiency claims made for vehicles such as Chevrolet Volt and Nissan Leaf, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory recommended to use EPA's new vehicle fuel efficiency formula that gives different values depending on fuel used. In November 2010 the EPA introduced the first fuel economy ratings in the Monroney stickers for plug-in electric vehicles.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: For the fuel economy label of the Chevy Volt plug-in hybrid EPA rated the car separately for all-electric mode expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPG-e) and for gasoline-only mode expressed in conventional miles per gallon. EPA also estimated an overall combined city/highway gas-electricity fuel economy rating expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPG-e). The label also includes a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios: , , and driven between a full charge, and a never charge scenario. This information was included in order to make the consumers aware of the variability of the fuel economy outcome depending on miles driven between charges. Also the fuel economy for a gasoline-only scenario (never charge) was included. For electric-only mode the energy consumption estimated in kWh per is also shown.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: For the fuel economy label of the Nissan Leaf electric car EPA rated the combined fuel economy in terms of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent, with a separate rating for city and highway driving. This fuel economy equivalence is based on the energy consumption estimated in kWh per 100 miles, and also shown in the Monroney label.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: In May 2011, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and EPA issued a joint final rule establishing new requirements for a fuel economy and environment label that is mandatory for all new passenger cars and trucks starting with model year 2013, and voluntary for 2012 models. The ruling includes new labels for alternative fuel and alternative propulsion vehicles available in the US market, such as plug-in hybrids, electric vehicles, flexible-fuel vehicles, hydrogen fuel cell vehicle, and natural gas vehicles. The common fuel economy metric adopted to allow the comparison of alternative fuel and advanced technology vehicles with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles is miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent (MPGe). A gallon of gasoline equivalent means the number of kilowatt-hours of electricity, cubic feet of compressed natural gas (CNG), or kilograms of hydrogen that is equal to the energy in a gallon of gasoline.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The new labels also include for the first time an estimate of how much fuel or electricity it takes to drive , providing US consumers with fuel consumption per distance traveled, the metric commonly used in many other countries. EPA explained that the objective is to avoid the traditional miles per gallon metric that can be potentially misleading when consumers compare fuel economy improvements, and known as the "MPG illusion" – this illusion arises because the reciprocal (i.e. non-linear) relationship between cost (equivalently, volume of fuel consumed) per unit distance driven and MPG value means that "differences" in MPG values are not directly meaningful – only ratios are (in mathematical terms, the reciprocal function does not commute with addition and subtraction; in general, a difference in reciprocal values is not equal to the reciprocal of their difference). It has been claimed that many consumers are unaware of this, and therefore compare MPG values by subtracting them, which can give a misleading picture of relative differences in fuel economy between different pairs of vehicles – for instance, an increase from 10 to 20 MPG corresponds to a 100% improvement in fuel economy, whereas an increase from 50 to 60 MPG is only a 20% improvement, although in both cases the difference is 10 MPG. The EPA explained that the new gallons-per-100-miles metric provides a more accurate measure of fuel efficiency – notably, it is equivalent to the normal metric measurement of fuel economy, liters per 100 kilometers (L/100 km).


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations in the United States, first enacted by Congress in 1975, are federal regulations intended to improve the average fuel economy of cars and light trucks (trucks, vans and sport utility vehicles) sold in the US in the wake of the 1973 Arab Oil Embargo. Historically, it is the sales-weighted average fuel economy of a manufacturer's fleet of current model year passenger cars or light trucks, manufactured for sale in the United States. Under Truck CAFE standards 2008–2011 this changes to a "footprint" model where larger trucks are allowed to consume more fuel. The standards were limited to vehicles under a certain weight, but those weight classes were expanded in 2011.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: The Clean Air Act of 1970 prohibited states from establishing their own air pollution standards. However, the legislation authorized the EPA to grant a waiver to California, allowing the state to set higher standards. The law provides a “piggybacking” provision that allows other states to adopt vehicle emission limits that are the same as California's. California's waivers were routinely granted until 2007, when the George W. Bush administration rejected the state's bid to adopt global warming pollution limits for cars and light trucks. California and 15 other states that were trying to put in place the same emissions standards sued in response. The case was tied up in court until the Obama administration reversed the policy in 2009 by granting the waiver.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: In August 2012, President Obama announced new standards for American-made automobiles of an average of 54.5 miles per gallon by the year 2025. In April 2018, EPA Administrator Scott Pruitt announced that the Trump administration planned to roll back the 2012 federal standards and would also seek to curb California's authority to set its own standards. Although the Trump administration was reportedly considering a compromise to allow state and national standards to stay in place, on February 21, 2019 the White House declared that it had abandoned these negotiations. A government report subsequently found that, in 2019, new light-duty vehicle fuel economy fell 0.2 miles per gallon (to 24.9 miles per gallon) and pollution increased 3 grams per mile traveled (to 356 grams per mile). A decrease in fuel economy and an increase in pollution had not occurred for the previous five years. The Obama-era rule was officially rolled back on March 31, 2020 during the Trump administration, but the rollback was reversed on December 20, 2021 during the Biden administration.


title: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: Trucks are usually bought as an investment good. They are meant to earn money. As the Diesel fuel burnt in heavy trucks accounts for around 30% of the total costs for a freight forwarding company there is always a lot of interest in both the haulage industry and the truck builder industry to strive for best fuel economy. For truck buyers the fuel economy measured by standard procedures is only a first guideline. Professional trucking companies measure the fuel economy of their trucks and truck fleets in real usage. Fuel economy of trucks in real usage is determined by four important factors: The truck technology that is constantly improved by the various OEMs. The driver's driving style contributes a lot to the real fuel economy (different from the test cycles where a standard driving style is used). The maintenance condition of the vehicle influences the fuel efficiency - again different from standardized procedures where the trucks are always presented in flawless condition. Last but not least the usage of the vehicle influences the fuel consumption: Hilly roads and heavy loads will increase the fuel consumption of a vehicle.


title: Les Brown (speaker)

text: Leslie Calvin "Les" Brown (born February 17, 1945) is an American politician and motivational speaker. He was a member of the Ohio House of Representatives from 1977 to 1981.


title: Les Brown (speaker)

text: Brown was born with his twin brother, Wesley, in Liberty City, a low-income section of Miami, Florida. He was adopted by Mamie Brown, a 38-year-old single woman who worked as a cafeteria attendant and domestic assistant. Brown claims that he was declared "educable mentally retarded" in grade school, which damaged his self-esteem and confidence.


title: Les Brown (speaker)

text: According to many of Brown's speeches, when he first decided to get into public radio he was repeatedly unsuccessful. It was only after the on-air failures of the previous afternoon DJ that he was hired full-time. Upon his termination from the radio station, he ran for election in the Ohio House of Representatives and won. After leaving the Ohio State Legislature, he shifted his career to television and became a host on PBS.


title: Quality management

text: Quality management ensures that an organization, product or service consistently functions well. It has four main components: quality planning, quality assurance, quality control and quality improvement. Quality management is focused not only on product and service quality, but also on the means to achieve it. Quality management, therefore, uses quality assurance and control of processes as well as products to achieve more consistent quality. Quality control is also part of quality management. What a customer wants and is willing to pay for it, determines quality. It is a written or unwritten commitment to a known or unknown consumer in the market. Quality can be defined as how well the product performs its intended function.


title: Quality management

text: Quality management is a recent phenomenon but important for an organization. Civilizations that supported the arts and crafts allowed clients to choose goods meeting higher quality standards than normal goods. In societies where arts and crafts were the responsibility of master craftsmen or artists, these masters would lead studios and train and supervise others. However, the importance of craftsmen diminished as mass production and repetitive work practices were instituted. This approach’s aim was to produce large numbers of the same goods. The first proponent in the US for this approach was Eli Whitney, who proposed (interchangeable) parts manufacture for muskets, hence producing the identical components and creating a musket assembly line. The next step forward was promoted by several people including Frederick Winslow Taylor, a mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency. He is sometimes called "the father of scientific management." He was one of the intellectual leaders of the Efficiency Movement and part of his approach laid a further foundation for quality management, including aspects like standardization and adopting improved practices. Henry Ford was also important in bringing process and quality management practices into operation in his assembly lines. In Germany, Karl Benz, often called the inventor of the motor car, was pursuing similar assembly and production practices, although real mass production was only properly initiated in Volkswagen after World War II. From this period onwards, North American companies focused predominantly upon production against lower cost with increased efficiency.


title: Quality management

text: Walter A. Shewhart made a major step in the evolution towards quality management by creating a method for quality control for production, using statistical methods, first proposed in 1924. This became the foundation for his ongoing work on statistical quality control. W. Edwards Deming later applied statistical process control methods in the United States during World War II, thereby successfully improving quality in the manufacture of munitions and other strategically important products.


title: Quality management

text: Quality leadership from a national perspective has changed over the past decades. After the second world war, Japan decided to make quality improvement a national imperative as part of rebuilding their economy, and sought the help of Shewhart, Deming and Juran, amongst others. W. Edwards Deming championed Shewhart's ideas in Japan from 1950 onwards. He is probably best known for his management philosophy establishing quality, productivity, and competitive position. He has formulated 14 points of attention for managers, which are a high level abstraction of many of his deep insights. They should be interpreted by learning and understanding the deeper insights. These 14 points include key concepts such as:


title: Quality management

text: In the 1950s and 1960s, Japanese goods were synonymous with cheapness and low quality, but over time their quality initiatives began to be successful, with Japan achieving high levels of quality in products from the 1970s onward. For example, Japanese cars regularly top the J.D. Power customer satisfaction ratings. In the 1980s Deming was asked by Ford Motor Company to start a quality initiative after they realized that they were falling behind Japanese manufacturers. A number of highly successful quality initiatives have been invented by the Japanese (see for example on this pages: Genichi Taguchi, QFD, Toyota Production System). Many of the methods not only provide techniques but also have associated quality culture (i.e. people factors). These methods are now adopted by the same western countries that decades earlier derided Japanese methods.


title: Quality management

text: Customers recognize that quality is an important attribute in products and services. Suppliers recognize that quality can be an important differentiator between their own offerings and those of competitors (quality differentiation is also called the quality gap). In the past two decades this quality gap has been greatly reduced between competitive products and services. This is partly due to the contracting (also called outsourcing) of manufacture to countries like China and India, as well internationalization of trade and competition. These countries, among many others, have raised their own standards of quality in order to meet international standards and customer demands. The ISO 9000 series of standards are probably the best known International standards for quality management.


title: Quality management

text: Some themes have become more significant including quality culture, the importance of knowledge management, and the role of leadership in promoting and achieving high quality. Disciplines like systems thinking are bringing more holistic approaches to quality so that people, process and products are considered together rather than independent factors in quality management.


title: Quality management

text: Government agencies and industrial organizations that regulate products have recognized that quality culture may assist companies that produce those products. A survey of more than 60 multinational companies found that those companies whose employees rated as having a low quality culture had increased costs of $67 million/year for every 5000 employees compared to those rated as having a strong quality culture.


title: Quality management

text: The influence of quality thinking has spread to non-traditional applications outside of walls of manufacturing, extending into service sectors and into areas such as sales, marketing and customer service. Statistical evidence collected in the banking sector shows a strong correlation between quality culture and competitive advantage.


title: Quality management

text: Customer satisfaction has been the backbone of quality management and still is important. However, there is an expansion of the research focus from a sole customer focus towards a stakeholder focus. This is following the development of stakeholder theory. A further development of quality management is the exploration of synergies between quality management and sustainable development.


title: Quality management

text: The International Standard for Quality management (ISO 9001:2015) adopts a number of management principles, that can be used by top management to guide their organizations towards improved performance.


title: Quality management

text: The primary focus of quality management is to meet customer requirements and to strive to exceed customer expectations.


title: Quality management

text: Sustained success is achieved when an organization attracts and retains the confidence of customers and other interested parties on whom it depends. Every aspect of customer interaction provides an opportunity to create more value for the customer. Understanding current and future needs of customers and other interested parties contributes to sustained success of an organization


title: Quality management

text: Leaders at all levels establish unity of purpose and direction and create conditions in which people are engaged in achieving the organization’s quality objectives.


title: Quality management

text: Leadership has to take up the necessary changes required for quality improvement and encourage a sense of quality throughout organisation.


title: Quality management

text: Creation of unity of purpose and direction and engagement of people enable an organization to align its strategies, policies, processes and resources to achieve its objectives


title: Quality management

text: Competent, empowered and engaged people at all levels throughout the organization are essential to enhance its capability to create and deliver value.


title: Quality management

text: To manage an organization effectively and efficiently, it is important to involve all people at all levels and to respect them as individuals. Recognition, empowerment and enhancement of competence facilitate the engagement of people in achieving the organization’s


title: Quality management

text: Consistent and predictable results are achieved more effectively and efficiently when activities are understood and managed as interrelated


title: Quality management

text: The quality management system consists of interrelated processes. Understanding how results are produced by this system enables an organization to optimize the system and its performance.


title: Quality management

text: Improvement is essential for an organization to maintain current levels of performance, to react to changes in its internal and external conditions and to create new opportunities.


title: Quality management

text: Decisions based on the analysis and evaluation of data and information are more likely to produce desired results.


title: Quality management

text: Decision making can be a complex process, and it always involves some uncertainty. It often involves multiple types and sources of inputs, as well as their interpretation, which can be subjective. It is important to understand cause-and-effect relationships and potential unintended consequences. Facts, evidence and data analysis lead to greater objectivity and confidence in decision making.


title: Quality management

text: For sustained success, an organization manages its relationships with interested parties, such as suppliers, retailers.


title: Quality management

text: Interested parties influence the performance of an organizations and industry. Sustained success is more likely to be achieved when the organization manages relationships with all of its interested parties to optimize their impact on its performance. Relationship management with its supplier and partner networks is of particular importance.


title: Quality management

text: The social scientist Bettina Warzecha (2017) describes the central concepts of Quality Management (QM), such as e.g. process orientation, controllability, and zero defects as modern myths. She alleges that zero-error processes and the associated illusion of controllability involve the epistemological problem of self-referentiality. The emphasis on the processes in QM also ignores the artificiality and thus arbitrariness of the difference between structure and process. Above all, the complexity of management cannot be reduced to standardized (mathematical) procedures. According to her, the risks and negative side effects of QM are usually greater than the benefits (see also "brand eins", 2010).


title: Quality management

text: There are many methods for quality improvement. These cover product improvement, process improvement and people based improvement. In the following list are methods of quality management and techniques that incorporate and drive quality improvement:


title: Quality management

text: Proponents of each approach have sought to improve them as well as apply them for small, medium and large gains. Simple one is Process Approach, which forms the basis of Quality Management System standard, duly driven from the 'Eight principles of Quality management', process approach being one of them. Thareja writes about the mechanism and benefits: "The process (proficiency) may be limited in words, but not in its applicability. While it fulfills the criteria of all-round gains: in terms of the competencies augmented by the participants; the organisation seeks newer directions to the business success, the individual brand image of both the people and the organisation, in turn, goes up. The competencies which were hitherto rated as being smaller, are better recognized and now acclaimed to be more potent and fruitful". The more complex Quality improvement tools are tailored for enterprise types not originally targeted. For example, Six Sigma was designed for manufacturing but has spread to service enterprises. Each of these approaches and methods has met with success but also with failures.


title: Quality management

text: Some of the common differentiators between success and failure include commitment, knowledge and expertise to guide improvement, scope of change/improvement desired (Big Bang type changes tend to fail more often compared to smaller changes) and adaption to enterprise cultures. For example, quality circles do not work well in every enterprise (and are even discouraged by some managers), and relatively few TQM-participating enterprises have won the national quality awards.


title: Quality management

text: There have been well publicized failures of BPR, as well as Six Sigma. Enterprises therefore need to consider carefully which quality improvement methods to adopt, and certainly should not adopt all those listed here.


title: Quality management

text: It is important not to underestimate the people factors, such as culture, in selecting a quality improvement approach. Any improvement (change) takes time to implement, gain acceptance and stabilize as accepted practice. Improvement must allow pauses between implementing new changes so that the change is stabilized and assessed as a real improvement, before the next improvement is made (hence continual improvement, not continuous improvement).


title: Quality management

text: Improvements that change the culture take longer as they have to overcome greater resistance to change. It is easier and often more effective to work within the existing cultural boundaries and make small improvements (that is 'Kaizen') than to make major transformational changes. Use of Kaizen in Japan was a major reason for the creation of Japanese industrial and economic strength.


title: Quality management

text: On the other hand, transformational change works best when an enterprise faces a crisis and needs to make major changes in order to survive. In Japan, the land of Kaizen, Carlos Ghosn led a transformational change at Nissan Motor Company which was in a financial and operational crisis. Well organized quality improvement programs take all these factors into account when selecting the quality improvement methods.


title: Quality management

text: The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an independent non-governmental coalition representing 165 countries through their national standards bodies. ISO brings together experts to share knowledge and develop voluntary, consensus-based international commercial, industrial and technical standards.


title: Quality management

text: ISO created Quality Management System (QMS) standards in 1987. They were the ISO 9000:1987 series of standards comprising ISO 9001:1987, ISO 9002:1987 and ISO 9003:1987; which were applicable in different types of industries, based on the type of activity or process: designing, production or service delivery.


title: Quality management

text: The standards are reviewed every few years by the International Organization for Standardization. The version in 1994 was called the ISO 9000:1994 series; consisting of the ISO 9001:1994, 9002:1994 and 9003:1994 versions.


title: Quality management

text: A major revision was published in the year 2000 and the series was called series. The ISO 9002 and 9003 standards were integrated into one single certifiable standard: ISO 9001:2000. After December 2003, organizations holding ISO 9002 or 9003 standards had to complete a transition to the new standard.


title: Quality management

text: ISO released a minor revision, ISO 9001:2008 on 14 October 2008. It contains no new requirements. Many of the changes were to improve consistency in grammar, facilitating translation of the standard into other languages for use by over 950,000 certified organization in the 175 countries (as at Dec 2007) that use the standard.


title: Quality management

text: The ISO 9004:2009 document gives guidelines for performance improvement over and above the basic standard (ISO 9001:2000). This standard provides a measurement framework for improved quality management, similar to and based upon the measurement framework for process assessment.


title: Quality management

text: The last major revision was published 15 September 2015. This change adopted the High Level Structure, contained in ISO Directive 1 Annex SL, for the first time.


title: Quality management

text: The Quality Management System standards created by ISO are meant for certification of the processes and management arrangements of an organization, not the product or service itself. The ISO 9000 family of standards do not set out requirements for product or service approval. Instead, ISO 9001 requires that product or service requirements are agreed between the organization and its customers, and that the organization manages its business processes to achieve these agreed requirements.


title: Quality management

text: ISO 9001 states that the Quality Management System requirements of the standard are generic and are intended to be applicable to any organization, regardless of its type or size, or the products and services it provides, however, ISO has also published a number of separate standards which specify Quality Management System requirements for specific industries, in many cases those involved in the production or processing of goods typically regulated by nations and other global jurisdictions, in order to ensure that unique elements pertaining to public health and safety are integrated into these Quality Management Systems.


title: Quality management

text: ISO 13485 specifies Quality Management System requirements for organizations involved in the design and manufacture of medical devices in order to demonstrate the ability to meet relevant regulatory requirements. Such organizations can be involved in one or more stages of the life-cycle, including design and development, production, storage and distribution, installation, or servicing of a medical device and design and development or provision of associated activities (e.g. technical support). ISO 13485 can also be used by suppliers or external parties that provide product, including quality management system-related services to such organizations. ISO has not published a standard in similar manner specifying Quality Management System requirements unique to the pharmaceutical industry for regulatory purposes, therefore compliance with ISO 9001 is typically utilized by organizations involved in the design and manufacture of pharmaceuticals.


title: Quality management

text: In 2005 ISO published ISO 22000 specifying the Food Safety Management System requirements for the food industry. This standard covers the values and principles of ISO 9000 and the HACCP standards. It gives one single integrated standard for the food industry, defining requirements for any organization in the food chain.


title: Quality management

text: Technical Standard TS 16949 defines requirements in addition to those in ISO 9001:2008 specifically for the automotive industry.


title: Quality management

text: ISO has a number of standards that support quality management. One group describes processes (including ISO/IEC 12207 and ISO/IEC 15288) and another describes process assessment and improvement ISO 15504.


title: Quality management

text: The Software Engineering Institute has its own process assessment and improvement methods, called CMMI (Capability Maturity Model Integration) and IDEAL respectively.


title: Quality management

text: Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI) is a process improvement training and appraisal program and service administered and marketed by Carnegie Mellon University and required by many DOD and U.S. Government contracts, especially in software development. Carnegie Mellon University claims CMMI can be used to guide process improvement across a project, division, or an entire organization. Under the CMMI methodology, processes are rated according to their maturity levels, which are defined as: Initial, Managed, Defined, Quantitatively Managed, Optimizing. Currently supported is CMMI Version 1.3. CMMI is registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office by Carnegie Mellon University.


title: Quality management

text: CMMI Version 1.3 was released on November 1, 2010. This release is noteworthy because it updates all three CMMI models (CMMI for Development, CMMI for Services, and CMMI for Acquisition) to make them consistent and to improve their high maturity practices. The CMMI Product Team has reviewed more than 1,150 change requests for the models and 850 for the appraisal method.


title: Quality management

text: As part of its mission to transition mature technology to the software community, the SEI has transferred CMMI-related products and activities to the CMMI Institute, a 100%-controlled subsidiary of Carnegie Innovations, Carnegie Mellon University’s technology commercialization enterprise.


title: Quality management

text: Quality Management Software is a category of technologies used by organizations to manage the delivery of high quality products. Solutions range in functionality, however, with the use of automation capabilities they typically have components for managing internal and external risk, compliance, and the quality of processes and products. Pre-configured and industry-specific solutions are available and generally require integration with existing IT architecture applications such as ERP, SCM, CRM, and PLM.


title: Quality management

text: The intersection of technology and quality management software prompted the emergence of a new software category: Enterprise Quality Management Software (EQMS). EQMS is a platform for cross-functional communication and collaboration that centralizes, standardizes, and streamlines quality management data from across the value chain. The software breaks down functional silos created by traditionally implemented standalone and targeted solutions. Supporting the proliferation and accessibility of information across supply chain activities, design, production, distribution, and service, it provides a holistic viewpoint for managing the quality of products and processes.


title: Lucario

text: Known as the Pokémon, Lucario can sense and manipulate , a special kind of energy emitted by Ash in the anime, and some special Lucario users who have a special and strong bond with their Lucario creatures. Since its debut, Lucario has received critical acclaim, and has been featured in several forms of merchandise, including figurines, plush toys, and the "Pokémon Trading Card Game". Lucario has also been featured as a playable character in the "Super Smash Bros." series since "Super Smash Bros. Brawl".


title: Lucario

text: The design and art direction for Lucario was provided by Ken Sugimori, a friend of the creator of the "Pokémon" games, Satoshi Tajiri. In an interview, "Pokémon Diamond" and "Pearl" director Junichi Masuda noted Lucario's name as one of the most difficult to create, due to an effort to make it appealing to both Japanese and American audiences.


title: Lucario

text: Lucario is a canid-like Pokémon partly based on Anubis, the jackalheaded god of death from Egyptian mythology that is a bipedal digitigrade with finger-like digits on its forepaws. Its chest and the exterior of its wrists each feature a single, white spike. It also has a large snout and ears, red irises with vertical slit pupils, an "hourglass"-shaped figure with leering thighs significantly thicker than the rest of its body, iron rings incorporated into its shoulders and waist, and a raccoon's "mask" that loosely resembles a khakkhara with four small dreadlock-like appendages on the back of its head that are used to sense Aura. The coloration of Lucario's fur is predominantly blue and black, although its torso features buff-colored fur slightly shaggier than the rest of its body. When it opens its mouth wide enough, sharp fangs can be seen.


title: Lucario

text: Lucario's debut and video game appearance is in "Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Blue Rescue Team" and "Red Rescue Team", though it only appears as a Statue Cameo when the player gets 15,000 points and the Lucario rank (the highest rank in the game). It then appeared in "Pokémon Diamond" and "Pearl", where its pre-evolved form, Riolu, can be obtained as an egg from Riley. Riolu evolves into Lucario when it reaches a sufficiently high level of happiness. Lucario is used by notable trainers Maylene, the third Sinnoh Gym Leader; a tag team partner known as Riley; Cynthia, Sinnoh's Elite Four Champion; and by Bruno, an Elite Four member of Johto. In "" Lucario is perceived as the greatest rescue leader of all time, and his adventures have become legendary. After reaching a certain number of points, a Lucario statue will be displayed outside the rescue base. While the player never meets Lucario, Alakazam tells the player that his goal is to become closer to Lucario's greatness. Lucario can be found and befriended in Lost Wilderness dungeon in "" "," but it has no particular main role. However, in "Pokémon Mystery Dungeon Explorers of Sky" and "Pokémon Super Mystery Dungeon", its pre-evolution form Riolu may be played as the main character or be chosen as the partner Pokémon. Lucario appears as a boss Pokémon in "", as the guardian of the Blue Gem. Lucario is one of the few Pokémon in "Pokémon X" and "Y" that can use the new Mega Evolution mechanic. While holding Lucarionite, its Mega Stone, it can Mega Evolve into Mega Lucario during battle. Lucario also appears as an NPC in "" and its sequel, "".


title: Lucario

text: Due to an unintentional leak on Nintendo's official "Super Smash Bros." website, which detailed how certain stickers could only be applied to certain characters, Lucario was indirectly confirmed as a playable character for "Super Smash Bros. Brawl". In "Brawl", Lucario is unlocked upon being encountered in the story mode at The Glacial Peak, or through other special means. Lucario's special moveset consists of Aura Sphere, Force Palm, ExtremeSpeed, and Double Team, each of which it can learn within the "Pokémon" games. Its "Final Smash", Aura Storm, consists of launching a powerful beam of Aura, which the player can adjust in a slow, fanning motion. Lucario's fighting style revolves around a mixture of martial arts, predominately Shaolin Kung Fu, and Aura manipulation. Aura itself is also a game mechanic unique to Lucario: its attacks become stronger as it continues to receive damage.


title: Lucario

text: Lucario returned as a playable character in "Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS" and "Wii U" and again in "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate", now being voiced by Sean Schemmel as in "Pokémon: Lucario and the Mystery of Mew". Additionally, its Aura mechanic now affects the entirety of its moveset and has made Lucario's attacks riskier, yet more rewarding, due to the mechanic's damage multipliers being adjusted. In "Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS" and "Wii U", Lucario's Mega Evolution, Mega Lucario, replaced Aura Storm as its Final Smash, reflecting the form change introduced in "Pokémon X" and "Y". In "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate", its Final Smash consists of it Mega Evolving into Mega Lucario before performing Aura Storm. In addition to the "Super Smash Bros." series, Lucario appears as a playable character in "Pokkén Tournament", "Pokémon Go", "New Pokémon Snap" and "Pokémon Unite". He also appears as a usable Pokémon in Pokémon Masters as the personal partner of Korrina. In the game, the player gets access to using Korrina as they progress through the story, with her Lucario being able to Mega Evolve. When the 6-Star EX rarity was introduced, Korrina was one of the very first characters to able to be raised to 6-Star EX, which lets her Sync Move target all opponents, and makes her clothes blue to match her Lucario.


title: Lucario

text: Lucario's main role in the anime is his appearance in the eighth Pokémon movie, "Pokémon: Lucario and the Mystery of Mew". In the movie, Lucario is a servant to a nobleman named Sir Aaron in a Renaissance-themed city called Cameron Palace. Lucario thinks of Sir Aaron as both his master and close friend, although after Aaron traps him in a magic staff, Lucario begins questioning any Pokémon-human relationship. The Lucario in the movie, voiced in English by Sean Schemmel, can speak human languages with telepathy. Lucario sacrifices himself to save the Tree of Beginning, though the credits showed him with Sir Aaron in the afterlife, where they happily eat a chocolate bar.


title: Lucario

text: Maylene, the third Sinnoh Gym Leader, has a Lucario and it was seen in four different episodes of the "" series. It was first seen battling with Maylene in their training. Lucario uses Aura Sphere to stop the battle of Electabuzz, Piplup, and Pikachu, and is seen battling Paul's Pokémon in a flashback. Lucario was seen again where it battles in Dawn's gym battle with Maylene, where it defeats Dawn's Piplup. Then, in the next episode, it battles in Ash's gym battle against Maylene. It defeats Ash's Staravia and Chimchar, but gets knocked out along with Ash's Buizel, resulting in a tie. Finally, Lucario was seen when it helps Ash and the others defeat Saturn and Team Galactic. A different Lucario appears on Iron Island, owned by a trainer named Riley. Lucario protects Ash from Pokémon on the island that are fighting against each other.


title: Lucario

text: In the Black and White series, during the Unova League, a trainer named Cameron had his Riolu evolve into Lucario and easily pulverized Ash's Snivy and Pikachu winning Cameron the match, despite bringing only five Pokémon into battle (His Riolu turned Lucario being the last member of his team, after Hydreigon, Samurott, Ferrothorn, and Swanna). Cameron did use his Lucario against Virgil only for it to lose to Virgil's Flareon, because of Lucario's weakness to Fire-types and Cameron's poor strategy.


title: Lucario

text: In the XY series, Ash meets Korrina, the Fighting-type Gym Leader, who owns a Lucario capable of Mega-Evolution. However, because Korrina acted arrogant and failed to notice that her Lucario was too obsessed with battle, it goes berserk whenever Lucario goes into its Mega-evolved form. As a result, Korrina and Lucario have to train under Mabel and her Mega-Mawile in order to learn to be in sync with each other through floral designs. Korrina was later successful in calming Lucario's rage; she used it in battle against Ash for the third Kalos Gym badge but lost. In the Journeys series, Korrina used her Mega-Lucario against Ash in the Battle Festival only to again lose to him and his newly obtained Dragonite.


title: Lucario

text: In Sun and Moon series, Professor Kukui/Masked Royal was revealed to own a Lucario to help drive back the three Guzzlord that were attacking Alola, shortly after Ash was crowned Champion of Alola. Kukui later used Lucario in his full exhibition match against Ash only to lose to Ash's Naganadel.


title: Lucario

text: In Pokémon Journeys, Ash was able to obtain a Lucario himself when his Riolu evolved to fight against and defeat Chairman Rose's Ferrothorn and Copperajah. Ash later gets his Keystone from Korrina and heads to Mega Island to obtain a Lucarionite. He was able to succeed in Mega-evolving his Lucario and used it to knock out Bea's Gigantamax Machamp.


title: Lucario

text: In the "Pokémon Adventures" manga, like in games, it appears under the ownership of Riley who was on a boat heading to the Battle Frontier. Diamond meets Riley at Iron Island, and Byron asks Riley to help Diamond sharpen his Pokémon battle skills before Diamond goes to Lake Verity. In "Pokémon Diamond and Pearl Adventure!" the main character, Hareta, gains an egg from Riley which hatches into a Riolu; it later evolves into Lucario. "Phantom Thief Pokémon 7" is centered on a boy and his Lucario who take back stolen items from thieves. The name Lucario itself appeared also in the "" saga where, after the end of the main scenario, the player can talk to Alakazam who tells them the story of a Lucario being a legendary Pokémon rescuer.


title: Lucario

text: Since it appeared in the "Pokémon" series, Lucario has received universal acclaim from critics. Beckett "Pokémon" Unofficial Collector editor Sean Cooper stated that Lucario had grown popular in recent years due to its starring role in "Lucario and the Mystery of Mew" and its appearance in "Super Smash Bros. Brawl". Kevin Slackie of "Paste" listed Lucario as the 29th best Pokémon. "Official Nintendo Magazine" writer Thomas East included it in his list of some of the coolest Pokémon, further stating that it also happens to be one of the very best-looking Pokémon. "GamesRadar" described it as "the Bruce Lee of Pokémon". "IGN" readers voted Lucario as the ninth-best Pokémon. Dale Bishir of "IGN" described Lucario as the most important Pokémon that impacted the franchise's history, and further stated that it rose through popularity to become one of the most beloved Pokémon of all time, who also made it into "Super Smash Bros." and was heavily featured in its own movie, "Lucario and the Mystery of Mew". Steven Bogos of "The Escapist" listed Lucario as tenth of their favorite Pokémon, describing it as one of the most recognizable faces of the franchise. "International Business Times" cited Lucario as an example of best Pokémon design in Generation IV. CJ Andriessen of "Destructoid" ranked Lucario as 39th at his list on "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate" characters, stating that "He’s actually my favorite Pokémon to play as in Smash, but compared to the other Pokémon games represented on this list, the Diamond and Pearl duo is probably the least exciting and inventive of the bunch."


title: Lucario

text: UGO described Lucario as "a new breed of Pokémon" citing its "cooler, more dangerous look". "IGN" called its presence in "Super Smash Bros. Brawl" "a bit on the head scratching side" in light of more familiar characters in the title, such as Pikachu. On the other hand, another "IGN" editor stated that it made sense for the franchise to be represented by a Fighting-type Pokémon, since "Super Smash Bros. Brawl" is a fighting game. "Game Informer" stated that Lucario earned its spot in "Super Smash Bros." from being one of the most popular Pokémon in "Diamond" and "Pearl". In the "Pokémon of the Year" poll held by The Pokémon Company, Lucario was voted the most popular Pokémon from "Diamond" and "Pearl", receiving 102,259 votes. It was also the second-most popular Pokémon overall. Jeremy Parish of Polygon ranked 73 fighters from "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate" "from garbage to glorious", listing Lucario as 34th. Gavin Jasper of "Den of Geek" ranked Lucario as 43rd of "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate" characters, criticizing the character that it only belongs to a fight.


title: Lucario

text: Lucario has been featured in several forms of merchandise, including figurines, plush toys, and the "Pokémon Trading Card Game". Lucario has also been a part of the third wave of amiibo, with its figure having been released on January 22, 2015, in Japan, and as a Toys "R" Us-exclusive beginning in February 2015 in North America. Nanoblock kits, and gallery figures have been also made.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: The Hudson Motor Car Company made Hudson and other branded automobiles in Detroit, Michigan, U.S., from 1909 until 1954. In 1954, Hudson merged with Nash-Kelvinator to form American Motors Corporation (AMC). The Hudson name was continued through the 1957 model year, after which it was discontinued.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: The name "Hudson" came from Joseph L. Hudson, a Detroit department store entrepreneur and founder of Hudson's department store, who provided the necessary capital and gave permission for the company to be named after him. A total of eight Detroit businessmen formed the company on February 20, 1909, to produce an automobile which would sell for less than US$1,000 (equivalent to approximately $ in funds).


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: One of the lead "car men" and an organizer of the company was Roy D. Chapin Sr., a young executive who had worked with Ransom E. Olds. (Chapin's son, Roy Jr., would later be president of Hudson-Nash descendant American Motors Corporation in the 1960s). The company quickly started production, with the first car driven out of a small factory in Detroit on July 3, 1909, at Mack Avenue and Beaufait Street on the East Side of Detroit, occupying the old Aerocar factory.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: The new Hudson "Twenty" was one of the first low-priced cars on the American market and became successful with 4,508 sold the first year. This was the best first year's production in the history of the automobile industry and put the newly formed company in 17th place industry-wide, "a remarkable achievement at a time" when there were hundreds of makes being marketed.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: Successful sales volume required a larger factory. A new facility was built on a parcel at Jefferson Avenue and Conner Avenue in Detroit's Fairview section that was diagonally across from the Chalmers Automobile plant. The land was the former farm of D.J. Campau. It was designed by the firm of renowned industrial architect Albert Kahn with 223,500 square feet and opened on October 29, 1910. Production in 1911 increased to 6,486. For 1914 Hudsons for the American market were now left hand drive.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: Coachbuilder Fisher Body Co. built bodies for Hudson cars (as well as many other automotive marques) until they were bought out by General Motors in 1919. From 1923, Hudson bodies were built exclusively by Massachusetts company Biddle and Smart. The lucrative contract with Hudson would see Biddle and Smart buy up many smaller local coachbuilders to meet the Hudson demand. Peak shipments came in 1926, when the company delivered 41,000 bodies to Hudson. An inability to stamp steel meant that their products were made using aluminum.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: On 1 July 1926, Hudson's new US$10 million ($ in dollars ) body plant was completed where the automaker could now build the all-steel closed bodies for both the Hudson and Essex models. Biddle and Smart continued to build aluminum body versions of the Hudson line and were marketed by Hudson as "custom-built" although they were exactly the same as the steel-body vehicles. With Hudson now building in-house, Biddle and Smart saw their work for Hudson drop by 60%. From 1927 Hudson gradually began to utilize local coachbuilders Briggs Manufacturing Company and Murray Corporation of America to supplement Hudson's own production which was expanding domestically and internationally. With car prices falling due to the Great Depression and the costs to transport vehicles from Massachusetts to Detroit becoming too expensive, the contract with Biddle and Smart was terminated in 1930, and Biddle and Smart went out of business shortly thereafter.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: At their peak in 1929, Hudson and Essex produced a combined 300,000 cars in one year, including contributions from Hudson's other factories in Belgium and England; a factory had been built in 1925 in Brentford in London. Hudson was the third largest U.S. car maker that year, after Ford Motor Company and Chevrolet.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: Hudson had a number of firsts for the auto industry; these included dual brakes, the use of dashboard oil-pressure and generator warning lights, and the first balanced crankshaft, which allowed the Hudson straight-six engine, dubbed the "Super Six" (1916), to work at a higher rotational speed while remaining smooth, developing more power for its size than lower-speed engines. The Super Six was the first engine built by Hudson, previously Hudson had developed engine designs and then had them manufactured by Continental Motors Company. Most Hudsons until 1957 had straight-6 engines. The dual brake system used a secondary mechanical emergency brake system, which activated the rear brakes when the pedal traveled beyond the normal reach of the primary system; a mechanical parking brake was also used. Hudson transmissions also used an oil bath and cork clutch mechanism that proved to be as durable as it was smooth.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: In 1919, Hudson introduced the Essex brand line of automobiles; the line was originally for budget-minded buyers, designed to compete with Ford and Chevrolet, as opposed to the more up-scale Hudson line competing with Oldsmobile and Studebaker. Local coachbuilder Briggs Manufacturing introduced their first-of-its-kind closed coach body in 1922 for Hudson's Essex. It was the first closed vehicle available at a price close to its open-bodied brethren. The 1922 Essex closed body was priced only $300 more than the 1922 Essex touring. Within three years, its popularity enabled Hudson to reduce its price so that both the 1925 Essex touring and coach were priced the same. The Essex found great success by offering one of the first affordable sedans, and combined Hudson and Essex sales moved from seventh in the U.S. to third by 1925.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: In 1932, Hudson began phasing out its Essex nameplate for the modern Terraplane brand name. The new line was launched on July 21, 1932, with a promotional christening by Amelia Earhart. For 1932 and 1933, the restyled cars were named Essex-Terraplane; from 1934 as Terraplane, until 1938 when the Terraplane was renamed the Hudson 112. Hudson also began assembling cars in Canada, contracting Canada Top and Body to build the cars in their Tilbury, Ontario, plant. In England, Terraplanes built at the Brentford factory were still being advertised in 1938.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: An optional accessory on some 1935–1938 Hudson and Terraplane models was a steering column-mounted electric gear pre-selector and electro-mechanical automatic shifting system, known as the "Electric Hand", manufactured by the Bendix Corporation. This took the place of the floor-mounted shift lever, but required conventional clutch actions. Cars equipped with Electric Hand also carried a conventional shift lever in clips under the dash, which could be pulled out and put to use in case the Electric Hand should ever fail. Hudson was also noted for offering an optional vacuum-powered automatic clutch, starting in the early 1930s.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: For the 1930 model year, Hudson debuted a new flathead inline eight cylinder engine with block and crankcase cast as a unit and fitted with two cylinder heads. A 2.75-inch bore and 4.5-inch stroke displaced developing at 3,600 rpm with the standard 5.78:1 compression ratio. The 5 main bearing crankshaft had 8 integral counterweights, an industry first, and also employed a Lanchester vibration damper. Four rubber blocks were used at engine mount points. A valveless oil pump improved the Hudson splash lubrication system.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: The new eights were the only engine offering in the Hudson line, supplanting the Super Six, which continued in the Essex models.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: At the 1931 Indianapolis 500, Buddy Marr's #27 "Hudson Special" (using a Winfield carburetor) finished the 200 laps in tenth place.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: In 1936, Hudson revamped its cars, introducing a new "radial safety control" / "rhythmic ride" suspension which suspended the live front axle from two steel bars, as well as from leaf springs. Doing this allowed the use of longer, softer leaf springs ("rhythmic ride"), and prevented bumps and braking from moving the car off course. The 1936 Hudsons were also considerably larger inside than competitive cars — Hudson claimed a interior, comparing it to the in the "largest of other popular cars" of the time. With an optional bulging trunk lid, Hudson claimed the trunk could accommodate of luggage. The 1936 engines were powerful for the time, from .


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: The 1939 models joined other American cars in the use of a column-mounted gearshift lever. This freed front-seat passenger space and remained the industry standard through the 1960s, when "bucket seats" came into vogue. Hudson became the first car manufacturer to use foam rubber in its seats. The Hudson Terraplane was dropped. For 1940 Hudson introduced coil spring independent front suspension, aircraft-style shock absorbers mounted within the front springs, and true center-point steering on all its models, a major advance in performance among cars in this price range. The Super Six model was reintroduced as well. Despite all these changes, Hudson's sales for 1940 were lower than in 1939 and the company lost money again. The advent of military contracts the following year brought relief.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: The 1941 Hudsons retained the front end styling of the 1940 models but the bodies were new with 5.5 inches added to their length giving more legroom. A new manual 3-speed syncromesh transmission was quieter with all helical gears. Wheelbases increased by 3 inches, with offerings of 116, 121, and 128 inches, and height was decreased with flatter roofs. Convertibles now had a power-operated top. Big Boy trucks now used the 128-inch wheelbase. In 1942, as a response to General Motors' Hydramatic automatic transmission, Hudson introduced its "Drive-Master" system. Drive-Master was a more sophisticated combination of the concepts used in the Electric Hand and the automatic clutch. It contained a vacuum-powered module on the transmission to switch between second and third gear and a vacuum-powered module to pull the clutch in and out. At the touch of a button, Drive-Master offered the driver a choice of three modes of operation: ordinary, manual shifting and clutching; manual shifting with automatic clutching; and automatic shifting with automatic clutching. All this was accomplished by a large and complicated mechanism located under the hood. They worked well, and in fully automatic mode served as a good semi-automatic transmission. When coupled with an automatic overdrive, Drive-Master became known as Super-Matic. Re-engineering of the frame rear end to use lower springs reduced car height by . Sheet metal "spats" on the lower body now covered the running boards and new wider front and rear fenders accommodated this.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: As the role of women increased in car-purchase decisions, automakers began to hire female designers. Hudson, wanting a female perspective on automotive design, hired Elizabeth Ann Thatcher in 1939, one of America's first female automotive designers. Her contributions to the 1941 Hudson included exterior trim with side lighting, interior instrument panel, interiors and interior trim fabrics. She designed for Hudson from 1939 into 1941, leaving the company when she married Joe Oros, then a designer for Cadillac. He later became head of the design team at Ford that created the Mustang.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: As ordered by the Federal government, Hudson ceased auto production from 1942 until 1945 in order to manufacture material during World War II, including aircraft parts and naval engines, and anti-aircraft guns. The Hudson "Invader" engine powered many of the landing craft used on the D-Day invasion of Normandy, June 6, 1944.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: During World War II Hudson had also an aircraft division that produced ailerons for one large eastern airplane builder. The plant was capable of large scale production of wings and ailerons as well as other airplane parts. On May 22, 1941, Hudson was given a contract for the Oerlikon 20 mm cannon with the Jefferson Avenue Plant, on Jefferson Avenue and Connor Avenue, responsible to convert the original Swiss drawings to American production standards. The company produced 33,201 Oerlikons for the United States Navy with the original mechanism continued in use without major change and with complete interchangeability of parts until the end of the war. Hudson also manufactured millions of other weaponry and vehicle parts for the war effort. Hudson ranked 83rd among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: The Fisher Body Company, later the Fisher Body Division of GM, manufactured bodies for many automobile marques throughout the early 20th Century. From 1926 the business had become part of General Motors. Just before World War II, the Fisher brothers contemplated a takeover of Hudson and commissioned engineer Roscoe C. (Rod) Hoffman, from Detroit, to design and build several rear-engine prototype vehicles for possible eventual production as Hudsons. One prototype was built in secret in 1935.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: World War II forced the brothers to shelve their plans while the company turned their efforts to the war effort. When brothers Fred and Charles retired from GM in 1944 they revived the Hudson takeover idea with the view of establishing new, independent automobile manufacturing operations. The brothers contacted Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, Hudson's main stockholder, offering to buy. Using an intermediary, Queen Wilhelmina expressed her interest to sell, prompting the Fisher brothers to begin devoting time to Hudson and their own plant in anticipation of a sale. When news of these events reached Wall Street, the price of Hudson stock skyrocketed with the general consensus held by investors that a Fisher takeover would be the best thing for Hudson. However, the Fisher brothers tender offer fell short of Hudson's sudden increased market value and the deal did not go through.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: In 1948, the company launched their "step-down" bodies, which lasted through the 1954 model year. The term step-down referred to Hudson's placement of the passenger compartment down inside the perimeter of the frame; riders stepped down into a floor that was surrounded by the perimeter of the car's frame. The result was not only a safer car, and greater passenger comfort as well, but, through a lower center of gravity, a good handling car. In time almost all U.S. automakers would embrace it as a means of building bodies. Automotive author Richard Langworth described the step-down models as the greatest autos of the era in articles for "Consumer Guide" and "Collectible Automobile".


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: For the 1951 model year, the 6-cylinder engine received a new block with thicker walls and other improvements to boost horsepower by almost 18% and torque by 28.5% making Hudson a hot performer again. The GM-supplied 4-speed Hydramatic automatic transmission was now optional in Hornets and Commodore Custom 6s and 8s.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: Hudson's strong, light-weight bodies, combined with its high-torque inline six-cylinder engine technology, made the company's 1951–54 Hornet an auto racing champion, dominating NASCAR in 1951, 1952, 1953, and 1954.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: Herb Thomas won the 1951 and 1954 Southern 500s and Dick Rathmann won in 1952. Some NASCAR records set by Hudson in the 1950s ("e.g." consecutive wins in one racing season) still stand even today. Hudson cars also did very well in races sanctioned by the AAA Contest Board from 1952 until 1954 with Marshall Teague winning the 1952 AAA Stock Car Championship and Frank Mundy in 1953. Often Hudsons finished in most of the top positions in races. Later, these cars met with some success in drag racing, where their high power-to-weight ratio worked to their advantage. Hudsons enjoyed success both in NHRA trials and local dirt track events.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: As the post-war marketplace shifted from a seller's to a buyer's market the smaller U.S. automakers, such as Hudson and Nash, found it increasingly difficult to compete with the Big Three (Ford, GM and Chrysler) during the 1950s. A sales war between Ford and General Motors conducted during 1953 and 1954 had left little business for the much smaller "independent" automakers trying to compete against the standard models offered by the domestic Big Three. The Big Three could afford constant development and styling changes, so that their cars looked fresh every year, whereas the smaller manufacturers could only afford gradual changes. Hudson's once-innovative "step-down" unit-body construction, while sturdy and innovative, also made restyling difficult and expensive. Although Hudsons dominated racing during this period, their feats did little to affect showroom traffic. Sales fell each year from 1951 until 1954 and only Korean War military contracts kept the company afloat. On March 20, 1954, the Hudson Motor Car Company reported a loss of $10,411,060 in 1953 as compared with a profit of $8,307,847 in 1952.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: After the company's high-priced Jet compact car line failed to capture buyers in its second straight year, Hudson CEO A.E. Barit engaged with George W. Mason, CEO of Nash-Kelvinator (makers of Nash and Rambler) to discuss the possibility of a merger with Nash. Mason already had the vision of merging the four independent automakers (Nash, Hudson, Packard, and Studebaker) into one company to compete with the Big Three, having floated the idea as early as 1946 with Packard to no avail. Mason had previously discussed the idea with Barit in 1952. On 14 January 1954 an agreement was reached and Nash and Hudson executives took the first steps to bring the two companies together.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: On May 1, 1954, Hudson merged with Nash-Kelvinator to become American Motors Corporation. George W. Mason became CEO and president of AMC while Hudson's president, A.E. Barit retired to become an AMC board member.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: The Hudson factory, located in Detroit, Michigan, was converted to military contract production at the end of the model year, and the remaining three years of Hudson production took place at the Nash plant in Kenosha, Wisconsin building rebadged Nash cars with the Hudson brand name. Nash would focus most of its marketing resources on its smaller Rambler models, and Hudson would focus its marketing efforts on its full-sized cars. The first Hudson model to terminate production was the Jet. The new company could then focus on the more successful Nash Rambler. Henceforth, Hudson dealers would have badge-engineered versions of the Nash Rambler and Metropolitan compacts to sell as Hudson products.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: One of the first things Mason did as CEO of the new company was to initiate talks with James J. Nance, president of Packard, for parts-sharing arrangements between AMC and Packard. At this time AMC did not have its own V8 engine and an agreement was made for the new Packard V8 engine and Packard's Ultramatic automatic transmission to be used in the 1955 Nash Ambassador and Hudson Hornet models.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: In July 1954, Packard acquired Studebaker to form Studebaker-Packard Corporation. However further talks of a merger between AMC and Studebaker-Packard were cut short when Mason died on October 8, 1954. A week after his death, Mason's successor, George W. Romney, announced "there are no mergers under way either directly or indirectly". Nevertheless, Romney continued with Mason's commitment to buy components from Studebaker-Packard Corporation. Although Mason and Nance had previously agreed that Studebaker-Packard would purchase parts from AMC, it did not do so. Moreover, Packard's engines and transmissions were comparatively expensive, so AMC began development of its own V8 engine, and replaced the outsourced unit by mid-1956.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: For 1955, both Hudson and Nash senior models were built on a common automobile platform using styling themes by Pinin Farina, Edmund E. Anderson, and Frank Spring. Common-body shell production for competing makes of automobiles was a manufacturing technique that had been used by the Big Three for decades.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: Although the 1955 Hudson used the inner body shell of the Nash, the car incorporated a front cowl originally designed by Spring and the Hudson team to be put on the 1954 Step-Down platform. The 1955 models also used the Hudson dashboard, "triple safe brakes" and the Nash Weather Eye heater with Harrison Radiator Corporation-supplied lower cost Freon/compressor type air conditioning.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: For 1955, for the first time, Hudson offered a V8 engine, the Packard-designed and -built engine rated at . All cars with the Packard V8 also used Packard's Ultramatic automatic transmission as an option costing $494 (equivalent to approximately $); the Nash 3-speed manual was also available at US$295.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: Hudson dealers also sold Rambler and Metropolitan models under the Hudson brand. (4357 Metropolitans were sold as "Hudson.") When sold by Hudson dealers, both cars were identified as Hudson vehicles via hood/grille emblems and horn buttons. Hudson Ramblers also received "H" symbols on fuel filler caps (and, in 1956, also on hubcaps).


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: In 1956, ex-Hudson president A.E Barit resigned from the Board in protest over the likelihood that Hudson would be phased out of production.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: For 1956, the design of the senior Hudsons was given over to designer Richard Arbib, which resulted in the "V-Line" styling motif, a combination of "V" motifs that carried Hudson's triangular corporate logo theme. Sales fell below 1955 figures.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: With a wider front track than Nash used, Hudson was the better handling car and was powered by the famed Hornet Six with the optional high-compression cylinder head and dual-carburetor manifold ("Twin-H Power"); the Twin H would disappear at the end of the 1956 model year.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: The Wasp used the L-head Jet Six engine (up to ) and this model (in sedan version) was Hudson's top seller. For 1957, Hudson dropped the shorter-wheelbase Wasp line, selling only the Hornet Custom and Super, which featured a lowered profile and slightly updated styling.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: George W. Romney felt that Hudson and Nash were no longer relevant players in the automotive market and retired both names at the end of the 1957 model year production. Both Rambler and Metropolitan became makes in their own right, and no longer were identified as Hudson or Nash.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: The last Hudson rolled off the Kenosha assembly line on June 25, 1957 without ceremony, as at that point there had still been hope of continuing the Hudson and Nash names into the 1958 model year on the Rambler chassis as deluxe, longer-wheelbase senior models. The combined Nash and Hudson production volume was not sufficient to justify all-new design and tooling, so the Rambler's platform was expected to be adopted to the longer cars. One major trade magazine said rumors of discontinuance were false and the 1958 Hudsons and Nashes "would be big and smart". Factory styling photographs show designs for a 1958 Hudson (and Nash) line based on a longer-wheelbase 1958 Rambler. Front-end prototype photos show separate Hudson and Nash styling themes.


title: Hudson Motor Car Company

text: AMC's President, George W. Romney, came to the conclusion that the only way to compete with the "Big Three" was to stake the future of AMC on a new smaller-sized car line. Neither Hudson nor Nash brand names had as much positive market recognition as the successful Rambler and their sales were lagging. Together with AMC's chief engineer Meade Moore, Romney had completely phased out the Nash and Hudson brands at the end of 1957. The decision to retire the brands came so quickly that preproduction photographs of the eventual 1958 Rambler Ambassador show both Nash- and Hudson-badged versions. The Rambler brand was selected for further development and promotion while focusing exclusively on compact cars.