title: Iridium satellite constellation

text: The pre-bankruptcy corporate incarnation of Iridium built eleven gateways, most of which have since been closed.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Naval Base Subic Bay was a major ship-repair, supply, and rest and recreation facility of the Spanish Navy and subsequently the United States Navy located in Zambales, Philippines. The base was 262 square miles, about the size of Singapore. The Navy Exchange had the largest volume of sales of any exchange in the world, and the Naval Supply Depot handled the largest volume of fuel oil of any navy facility in the world. The naval base was the largest overseas military installation of the United States Armed Forces, after Clark Air Base in Angeles City was closed in 1991. Following its closure in 1992, it was transformed into the Subic Bay Freeport Zone by the Philippine government.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: In late 2022, plans to reopen the base under the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement emerged after the Philippine Navy reoccupied a portion of the base and a U.S. investment firm purchased the remainder of the port.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Subic Bay's strategic location, sheltered anchorages, and deep water had first been made known when the Spanish explorer Juan de Salcedo reported the bay's existence to the Spanish authorities upon his return to Manila after Salcedo arrived in Zambales to establish the Spanish crown. It would be a number of years before the Spanish would consider establishing a base there.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Cavite, which had been home to most of the Spanish fleet in the Philippines, suffered from unhealthy living conditions and was vulnerable in time of war and bad weather because of its shallow water and lack of shelter. Therefore, a military expedition was sent to Subic Bay in 1868 with orders to survey the bay to find out if it would be a suitable site for a naval yard. The Spanish explored the entire bay and concluded that it had much promise and thus reported their findings to Cavite. This report was not well received in Manila, as the Spanish command was reluctant to move to the provincial isolation of Subic. Finally, in 1884, a Royal Decree declared Subic Bay as a naval port.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: On 8 March 1885, the Spanish Navy authorized construction of the "Arsenal de Olongapo" and by the following September, work started at Olongapo. Both the harbor and its inner basin were dredged and a drainage canal was built, as the Spanish military authorities were planning to make Olongapo and their navy yard an "island." This canal also served as a line of defense and over which the bridge at the base's Main Gate passes. When the Arsenal was finished, the gunboats "Caviteño", "Santa Ana", and "San Quintín" were assigned for its defense. To complement these gunboats, coastal artilleries were planned for the east and west ends of the station, as well as on Grande Island.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Seawalls, causeways and a short railway were built across the swampy tidal flats. To finish these projects, thousands of tons of earth and rock from Kalalake in Olongapo had to be brought in as fill. The magnitude of this quarrying was so huge that a hill eventually disappeared and became a lagoon in the area now known as Bicentennial Park.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The main entrance to the Arsenal was the West Gate, which still stands. This gate was equipped with gunports and also served as a jail. This gate was connected to the South Gate, which was near the water front, by a high wall of locally quarried stone.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Inside the Arsenal, the Spanish constructed a foundry, as well as other shops, which were necessary for the construction and repair of ships. The buildings were laid out in two rows on Rivera Point, a sandy patch of land jutting into the bay, and named after the incumbent Captain-General of the Philippines, Fernando Primo de Rivera. The Arsenal's showpiece was the station commandant's headquarters, which was a one-storey building of molave and narra woods, and stood near today's Alava Pier and had colored glass windows.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The Spanish navy yard was constructed in the area that was last occupied by the U.S. Naval Ship Repair Facility.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: On 25 April 1898, Commodore George Dewey, Commander of the United States Asiatic Fleet, received word that war with Spain had been declared and was ordered to leave Hong Kong and attack the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: In the Philippines, Rear Admiral Patricio Montojo, realizing that Subic Bay would provide a more defensible position than Cavite, ordered his smaller ships and the batteries in Manila Bay to resist Dewey's fleet and deny them the entrance to Manila Bay. His other units would then use Subic Bay as a sally port, with which he could attack the American fleet's rear and cut off its supplies. On 26 April, Montojo arrived at Subic Bay aboard with seven other ships.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: On the morning of the 27 April, "Castilla" was towed northeast of Grande Island to help control the western entrance to Subic Bay. The eastern entrance, which was between Grande and Chiquita Islands, had been blocked by the scuttling of "San Quintín" and two other vessels. On Grande Island, the four Ordóñez guns that had been shipped from Sangley Point were not yet installed. Meanwhile, a cable-laying ship, which was commandeered to lay mines, ended up putting only four of the 15 available mines in place.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: In Hong Kong, Dewey purposely delayed his sailing until he received news from the U.S. Consul at Manila, Oscar F. Williams, with information about the strength and positions of the Spanish fleet. Williams told Dewey that Montojo and his fleet had sailed to Subic Bay.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: On 30 April, Dewey sighted the islands of Luzon and thus ordered and to sail at full speed to Subic Bay to hunt for enemy ships. After seeing no enemy vessels at Subic, "Boston" and "Concord" signaled of their findings and rejoined the squadron underway to Manila.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: At dawn of 1 May 1898, the American fleet entered Manila Bay. Once the ships closed to within of the Spanish fleet, Dewey ordered the Captain, Charles Gridley, of "Olympia" "You may fire when you are ready, Gridley." Montojo's fleet was destroyed, losing 167 men killed and 214 wounded. The Americans only suffered a handful of wounded.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: In June 1898, nearly a thousand Spanish nationals left Olongapo and took refuge at Grande Island. By July, Dewey ordered and "Concord" to sail for Subic Bay to demand the surrender of Grande Island. When the American ships arrived, they saw the German cruiser at the island, but as the Americans cleared for action and started to head for "Irene", she fled around the other end of Grande. The Spanish garrison on the island did not resist and immediately surrendered to Captain Joseph Coghlan of "Raleigh".


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: During the Philippine–American War, the Americans focused on using the Spanish naval station at Sangley Point, largely ignoring Subic Bay, and the arsenal was occupied by Filipino forces. The Filipinos constructed a gun battery on top of a ridge using one of the guns on Grande Island.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: In the summer of 1899, gunboats started patrolling Subic Bay and after realizing that the patrols would not stop, the Filipinos started to prepare to confront the Americans. During a routine patrol, the supply ship entered Subic Bay and came under fire from the newly constructed battery. "Zafiro" withdrew to Cavite and reported the incident to headquarters. The cruiser was then sent to Subic to silence the battery, but as she was withdrawing, the battery gave out one last shot, provoking the Americans.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: On 23 September 1899, "Charleston", "Concord", , and "Zafiro" sailed into Subic Bay to destroy the battery. Upon clearing Kalaklan Point, "Monterey", equipped with guns, opened fire. Under this barrage, the battery was only able to fire one shot.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: "Charleston" then sent a signal for 180 sailors and 70 Marines to land on Subic. Meanwhile, the other ships continued firing. The Filipinos then deployed into the town of Olongapo, returning fire with small arms. When the entire landing force was ashore, the ships ceased firing and the landing party entered the battery. In all, three charges of guncotton were placed on the battery, completely destroying it. The party then went back to their ships and sailed for Manila. While the battery was destroyed, the Filipino forces still held the navy yard as well as Olongapo.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: In December 1899, the U.S. Army launched an operation to clear the countryside of Filipinos who were resisting American rule; 90 soldiers from the 32d U.S. Volunteers set out to capture Olongapo. As the soldiers were entering Santa Rita, just outside Olongapo, they met a pocket of resistance, but after returning fire, the armed Filipinos quickly scattered. The soldiers then proceeded to capture the navy yard.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: When Rear Admiral John C. Watson learned of this action against the navy yard, he set out for Subic aboard , accompanied by . When the ships arrived, Watson was surprised that the U.S. Army was in complete possession of the navy yard. Watson then ordered Marine Captain John Twiggs Myers ashore with 100 Marines to secure the navy yard.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: When the Marines found the highest flagpole on the navy yard, which was in front of the hospital, they immediately raised the American flag on 10 December 1899, one year after the Treaty of Paris was signed. The Marines then took responsibility for the navy yard while the Army took over administrative and operational control of Olongapo.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Drinking water was not available on the navy yard and so water details had to be sent to the village of Binictican, near the mouth of the river of the same name. Early during the occupation of Olongapo, the town was offered as a place of refuge for Filipinos who were sympathetic to the Americans. After an ambush of seven Marines, the inhabitants of the villages of Binictican and Boton were ordered to move into Olongapo or be declared outlaws. Those people who owned property in the two villages were given houses in Olongapo. Six days after the villagers settled in Olongapo, shelled Binictican and Boton and later 100 Marines completed the destruction.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The Marines then exercised civil authority over Olongapo and ordered municipal elections, appointed local policemen, gave away food to supplement poor harvests, supplied medical care and supplies, and set up a school for the teaching of the English language.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: In 1900, the General Board of the United States Navy made a thorough study of the naval base building program and decided that the American fleet in the Philippines could be easily bottled up in either the Manila or Subic bays. They instead recommended Guimaras Island, south of Manila, as the most suitable site for the main American naval base in the Philippines. Admiral of the Navy George Dewey and Admiral George C. Remey, Commander of the Asiatic Fleet, disagreed. They thought Subic Bay held the greatest potential.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The Navy then called for another study with Remey as the senior member. This board then decided that Subic Bay was the most suitable and practicable place to build a naval base. A board of officers under Rear Admiral Henry C. Taylor was then appointed to develop a plan for the naval station. Extensive plans for fortifications, dockyards, drydocks, workshops, a hospital, a railroad linking Olongapo with Manila and storage facilities for 20,000 tons (18,000 metric tons) of coal were drawn up and submitted to the Congress.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The board requested an appropriation of $1 million ($ in 2021 dollars) to begin building the naval station. President Theodore Roosevelt, a strong supporter of the establishment of a naval station at Subic Bay, issued an Executive Order establishing the Subic Bay Naval Reservation.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Because of the establishment of the Subic Bay Naval Reservation in November 1901 more troops were assigned to Subic. When the Samar force returned at the beginning of March 1902, its personnel were divided between Olongapo and Cavite. Cavite, however, still continued to have the largest number of Marines anywhere in the Philippines and continued to be the headquarters of the U.S. Navy because of its proximity to Manila.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: In December 1902, Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans, Commander of the Asiatic Fleet, directed the first fleet exercise in Asian waters. An expeditionary force of 200 Marines occupied and erected guns on Grande Island. The channels on each side of the island were mined, while vessels of the fleet operated in the bay itself. The exercise was highly successful and confirmed the Admiral's opinion of the strategic advantage of Subic Bay.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The value of Subic Bay as a training area was recognized as the Marines practiced movements in wild and difficult environment. Their building of bridges and roads was also considered to be excellent training.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: In June 1907, as tensions with Japan mounted, orders were secretly issued for Army and Navy forces in the Philippines to concentrate at Subic Bay. A large supply of coal and certain advanced base materials including coastal defense guns were to be moved from Cavite. This plan, however, would be opposed by other military leaders and by Governor-General Leonard Wood. An acrimonious debate would emerge and plans to build a major base in the Philippines would be discarded. Roosevelt would be disappointed by this, wrote that the aforementioned decision was a humiliating experience, and instead pushed for the development of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: In 1917, as the United States was drawn into World War I, all the Navy's shipyards including Subic Bay began working at a feverish pace to prepare ships for sea. American and Filipino workers would take pride in their workmanship such that destroyers that were overhauled in Subic Bay became the vanguard of Admiral William Sims's convoy.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 called for the limitation of naval armaments and included provisions that facilities for the repair and maintenance of American naval forces in the Philippines would be reduced. Shops were dismantled at the navy yard at Subic Bay and Fort Wint was reduced to caretaker status and personnel levels were cut.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The Japanese government kept a close eye on activities in the Philippines for violations of the 1922 treaty. During the typhoon season of 1928, VT Squadron Five which operated Martin torpedo aircraft out of Manila, arrived in Subic Bay on a routine training flight. A typhoon suddenly veered toward Subic Bay and the plane crews had to lay down ramps to haul the seaplanes up on the beach. The pontoons were filled with water and the planes lashed down. When the typhoon had passed, the undamaged planes were refloated and returned to their tenders at Manila.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Within three weeks, the squadron commander was informed of a Japanese complaint that the Navy had violated the treaty by increasing the facilities for plane handling at Subic Bay. The squadron commander was to provide all facts concerning the incident to the Office of the Governor-General of the Philippines so that a response could be made to the Tokyo government.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Even though the facilities at Subic Bay were greatly reduced under the Coolidge administration, some ship repair capability remained, including the Dewey Drydock. The Great Kantō earthquake occurred on 30 August 1923, devastating the Yokohama, Japan region. The transport ship "Merritt" set sail from Subic Bay in 72 hours loaded with Red Cross relief supplies and 200 Filipino nurses.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: In the 1930s a tree-planting program had begun, transforming the naval station into a virtual tropical garden, with streets lined with coconut palms, hibiscus, and gardenias. Outside activities and sports were also promoted, with a golf course being laid out where Lowry Hall last stood.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: By the mid-1930s, the Nazis had taken power in Germany and Japan was beginning to flex its military muscle. The United States Congress therefore authorized the release of funds with which to update the Coast Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays. President Franklin D. Roosevelt would complement this by ordering the integration of Filipino military forces into the newly created U.S. Army Forces in the Far East. General Douglas MacArthur, who had been serving as a military advisor to the government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines and was also Field Marshal of the Philippines, was ordered back to active duty with the rank of Lieutenant General with the title of Commander of the United States Army Forces in the Far East.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: To prepare for eventual war, Dewey Drydock, which had been at Subic Bay for 35 years was towed to Mariveles Bay, on the tip of the Bataan Peninsula, and scuttled there on 8 April 1942 to prevent the Japanese from deriving benefit from it.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The 4th Marine Regiment, which had been withdrawn from Shanghai in China, was ordered to withdraw to the Philippines. The first members of the regiment disembarked from "President Madison" at Subic Bay early on the morning of 1 November 1941. The remainder arrived on 1 December. The Marines were housed in temporary wooden barracks and in tents at the naval station and the rifle range.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The freshly arrived Marines were assigned to provide land defense for Subic Bay. Seaward defenses included the batteries at Fort Wint on Grande Island and a minefield, which had been laid off the entrance to Subic Harbor. As the Marines built beach defenses, Consolidated PBY-4 Catalinas from VP-101 and VP-102 of Patrol Wing 10, which was stationed at Subic Bay, were conducting daily patrols off Luzon as a response to rumors that the Japanese were approaching the Philippines. On 11 December, seven Catalinas had just returned from patrol when Japanese Zeroes appeared and strafed the aircraft. One ensign was killed and all Catalinas sank to the bottom of Subic Bay's inner basin.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: As the Japanese continued their advance through Luzon, telephone and telegraph lines between Manila and Olongapo were sabotaged; as a result, all Japanese in Olongapo were rounded up and turned over to the Provost Marshal. A priest had also been questioning Marines and Filipinos about sensitive matters such as troop positions and strength and after the Marines became suspicious, a search of the priest's belongings was ordered and a shortwave radio was found. Right there and then, the battalion commander convened a hearing and after intense interrogation, the priest confessed to being a member of the German-American Bund and had been a spy for the Japanese. He was then taken behind the church and shot by a Marine firing squad.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: By 24 December, the situation at Subic had become hopeless and an order to destroy the station and withdraw was given. All buildings on the station were torched while Filipinos burned the entire town of Olongapo. All that remained on Subic was the former , and she was towed into a deep part of the bay and scuttled. All Marines withdrew to Bataan and eventually to Corregidor where they made their last stand.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Fort Wint, under the command of Colonel Napoleon Boudreau of the U.S. Army, was evacuated on 25 December. All equipment and supplies were destroyed. On 10 January 1942, soldiers of the Japanese Imperial Army's 14th Infantry Division marched into Olongapo and on 12 January, the Japanese commandeered native fishing boats to seize Grande Island. Subic Bay Naval Station was established with four companies of soldiers and a company of Kempeitai.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Within one week of the Japanese's occupation of Subic Bay and Grande Island, American PT boats at Cavite were ordered to attack a Japanese ship, which was anchored at Subic Bay, that was shelling American positions. "PT-31" and "PT-34" entered the bay separately. "PT-31" suffered engine trouble and ran aground on a reef. She was abandoned and destroyed. "PT-34" entered undetected and sunk a transport that was off-loading supplies. She then came under heavy fire but managed to escape undamaged. "PT-32" was then ordered into Subic Bay and attacked and hit a light cruiser on 1 February. On 17 February, "PT-34" made a final but unsuccessful attack at Subic Bay after which all PT boats were ordered to leave the Philippines.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: To protect Subic Bay, the Japanese garrisoned Fort Wint with anti-aircraft artillery and automatic weapons but did not repair the American guns nor build permanent fortification. The Japanese then started shipbuilding at Subic Bay and began constructing wooden auxiliary vessels. Several hundred workers from occupied-China and Formosa were brought in as laborers, in addition to 1,000 Filipinos. Nine ships were built and shipped to Cavite for engine installation, however, none of the ships would see active service as they were destroyed by U.S. Navy aircraft.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: One of the few buildings that were left standing from the bombing and subsequent torching of the station was the Catholic Church. The Japanese removed all religious articles and converted it into a movie theater and was later used to imprison Americans and Filipinos that had been captured. Those who died were buried behind the church in a common cemetery. When all the prisoners were shipped to Manila, the Japanese used the church as a stable for horses.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: On 20 October 1944, four U.S. Army divisions aboard 650 U.S. Navy vessels landed at Palo, Leyte, fulfilling MacArthur's promise to return to the Philippines. On 13 December, the Japanese began evacuating civilians and non-essentials from Manila aboard "Ōryoku Maru" and four other merchant ships. As the ship was heading for Japan, fighter aircraft from the aircraft carrier attacked the ships and left hundred of Japanese dead or wounded. "Ōryoku Maru", heavily damaged with destroyed steering gear, pulled into Subic Bay. Throughout the night, the Japanese disembarked while the American and Allied prisoners, that were carried below decks, were left aboard. The next morning, Japanese guards ordered the prisoners to come up on deck. As Navy aircraft began to strafe the ships, the prisoners started frantically running about. As the pilots approached, they recognized the white shapes as Americans or Allies and sharply pulled up, rocking their wings in recognition. Afterwards, the 1,360 surviving Allied prisoners were forced to strip and swim ashore where they were crowded into a fenced tennis court near the Spanish Gate. Early the next morning, three fighters scored two direct hits on "Oryoku Maru" and she burst into flames. After burning for two hours, she settled into the water about off Alava Pier. When the planes had left the Japanese served the prisoners their first meal since leaving Manila two days before: two teaspoons of dry, raw rice. There was only one faucet from which the water trickled out so slowly that a prisoner was lucky if he managed one drink every 18 hours. Roll call was taken each morning. Those that had died during the night were buried in an improvised cemetery next to the seawall. After four days at Subic, only 450 survived the makeshift prison; they were subsequently sent to the labor camps in Japan.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: By January 1945, the Japanese had all but abandoned Subic Bay. The U.S. Fifth Air Force had dropped 175 tons of bombs on Grande Island evoking only light fire from the skeleton Japanese force manning the anti-aircraft guns. The commander of Japanese forces in the Philippines, General Tomoyuki Yamashita, had withdrawn his forces into defensive mountain positions and ordered Colonel Sanenbou Nagayoshi to block Highway 7 near Subic Bay.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: On 29 January, 40,000 American troops of the 38th Division and 34th Regimental Combat Team came ashore without resistance at San Antonio, Zambales, by the site of what became known as the San Miguel Naval Communications Station. The column advanced toward Subic Bay, meeting their first resistance at the bridge spanning the Kalaklan River near the Olongapo Cemetery. The Japanese, knowing that they would imminently lose the town, decided to destroy Olongapo. Eventually, the Japanese evacuated the town and the 34th Regiment took over. The following day, Grande Island was taken and Navy minesweepers began clearing the bay. Engineers of the 38th Division remained in Olongapo to begin reactivation of Subic Bay Naval Station. Bridges, buildings and the water distilling plant were repaired and the beaches and streets were cleared. Soon enough, LSTs were making dry-ramp landings near the town of Subic.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: While Army engineers were busy around Subic Bay, the remaining troops moved east along Highway 7, planning to cross the base of Bataan to meet elements of the Army's XIV Corps, which were moving west on the same road. On the morning of 31 January 1945, the Americans began climbing the forested hills of Zig Zag Pass and into a hornet's nest of Japanese. In the first three days at Zig Zag Pass the U.S. 152nd had more casualties than during 78 days of combat in Leyte. General Henry L. C. Jones was relieved and command of the 38th was given to General Roy W. Easley who used P-47s for air support. The planes began an intensive strafing and bombing of the jungle and dropped napalm on the Japanese positions. After 15 days of fighting the enemy positions were finally overrun. The Japanese had succeeded in their mission to slow the American advance but lost more than 2,400 troops. American losses had been 1,400 killed.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Subic Bay was designated Naval Advance Unit No. 6, and became a submarine and motor torpedo boat base shortly after the Philippines were liberated. arrived on 11 February 1945 and found Subic Bay " "...a primitive, humid, unhealthy, desolate Siberia far from the pleasant climate, facilities, and girls of Australia..." ". A Naval Supply Depot was established at Maquinaya, about 3 miles (5 km) from the main base in July 1945. A new town of Olongapo was built to replace building burned by the retreating Japanese and provide housing for Filipino civilians employed at the base. Olongapo and its 9,000 Filipino residents remained under United States Navy administration when the remainder of the Philippines became independent on 4 July 1946.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Construction of Naval Air Station Cubi Point began during the Korean War. The town of Banicain was demolished to build the airfield, and its residents were relocated to Olongapo. As Olongapo's population grew to 60,000, Filipinos requested control of the town. On 7 December 1959, 56,000 acres of land with electrical, telephone and water utilities was relinquished to Philippine control. Grande Island was converted to a recreation center for naval personnel; and most of the historic Coastal Artillery guns of Fort Wint were moved to United States coastal defense parks in 1963 and 1968.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The Vietnam War was the period of peak activity as Subic Bay became the U.S. Seventh Fleet forward base for repair and replenishment after the Gulf of Tonkin incident in 1964. The average number of ships visiting the base per month rose from 98 in 1964 to 215 by 1967. The base, with 6 wharves, 2 piers, and 160 mooring points and anchorages, had about 30 ships in port on any given day. Alava pier was extended by in 1967. The record of 47 ships in port was set in October 1968. About one-third of these were Military Sea Transportation Service ships bringing 45,000 tons of food, ammunition, and supplies and 2 million barrels of fuel oil, aviation gasoline, and JP-4 jet fuel each month including fuels transferred to Clark Air Base via a pipeline. The Naval Supply Depot maintained an inventory of 200,000 parts. The 4,224,503 sailors visiting Subic Bay in 1967 purchased more than $25 million in duty-free goods from the Navy Exchange.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: More than $63 million of construction projects contracted between 1964 and 1968 did not prepare the Ship Repair Facility (SRF) for the increasing workload and emergency peaks generated by the war. American military and civilian population totaled about 4,300; and more than 15,000 Filipino SRF workers worked 12-hour shifts for an average of over 60 hours per week. The physical plant consisted of quonset huts put up after World War II; and workers used obsolete tools and equipment supplemented by machine tools made available by decommissioning the New York Navy Yard. Additional floating drydocks and a third repair ship were assigned from the United States to increase the capabilities of the repair facility.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The fire-ravaged was repaired in August 1967 before her return to the United States for a complete overhaul. Destroyers , , and , damaged by North Vietnamese shore batteries, were repaired, as were amphibious assault craft, river patrol boats and other small craft.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The Royal Australian Navy destroyer was repaired at Subic following the attack by USAF aircraft on 17 June 1968.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: On 3 June 1969 the Royal Australian Navy carrier was involved in a collision with about southwest of Manila. brought 196 of the 199 survivors to Subic Bay. A Joint Australian/U.S. Board of Inquiry convened on 9 June in the library of George Dewey High School, the same day the stern section of "Frank E. Evans" arrived under tow by a tug. It was stripped and towed to sea as a gunnery target.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Harbor Clearance Unit One was activated at Subic Bay in 1966 with the mission of salvaging ships from the rivers and harbors of Vietnam. Two of the biggest jobs were the salvaging of "SS Baton Rouge Victory" from the Saigon River and the raising of the dredge "Jamaica Bay" from the Mỹ Tho River. Both jobs were accomplished despite continuous harassment by enemy sniper fire.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: NAS Cubi Point served as the primary maintenance, repair and supply center for the 400 carrier based aircraft of the Seventh Fleet's carrier force. The jet engine shop turned out two jet engines a day to keep pace with the demands of the air war in Vietnam.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Following the Fall of Saigon in the summer of 1975 hundreds of thousands of refugees fled Vietnam. Thousands of these refugees were rescued at sea by U.S. Navy ships and taken to Subic Bay. A temporary processing center that handled thousands of refugees was set up on Grande Island in 1975. They were later taken to the Philippine Refugee Processing Center in Morong, Bataan.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The Military Bases Agreement of 1947 was amended in 1979, changing the role of the Americans at Subic Bay from landlord to guest. The amendment confirmed Philippine sovereignty over the base and reduced the area set aside for U.S. use from to . Philippine troops assumed responsibility for the perimeter security of the base to reduce incidents between U.S. military and Philippine civilians. The unhampered operation of U.S. forces was assured. The U.S. granted the Philippines $500 million in military sales credits and supporting assistance.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: On 15 June 1991, Mount Pinatubo, just 20 miles (32 km) from Subic Bay, exploded with a force eight times greater than the Mount St. Helens eruption. The sun was nearly completely hidden as volcanic ash blotted it out. Volcanic earthquakes and heavy rain, lightning and thunder from Typhoon "Yunya" passing over northern Luzon resulted in a 36-hour period of complete chaos.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: By the morning of 16 June, when the eruption subsided, Subic Bay lay buried under of rain-soaked, sandy ash.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Buildings everywhere collapsed under the weight of the coarse gray ash. Two girls, one a nine-year-old American and the other a Filipino citizen, died when trapped under a falling roof at George Dewey High School. In the city of Olongapo, more than 60 volcano-related deaths were reported, including eight who were crushed when part of Olongapo General Hospital collapsed.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: That night, the threat of continued eruptions combined with the lack of water and electricity led to the decision to evacuate all dependents. U.S. warships and cargo planes began the emergency evacuation of thousands of Navy and Air Force dependents. Seven Navy ships sailed Monday, 17 June, with 6,200 dependents. A total of 17 ships, including the aircraft carriers and , evacuated all 20,000 dependents over the next few days. The evacuees were taken by ship to Mactan Air Base and then were airlifted by U.S. Air Force C-141 Starlifters to Andersen Air Force Base at Guam. After the dependents were evacuated, an intense clean-up was begun. All hands, American service members and Filipino base employees, worked around the clock to restore essential services. Clark Air Base, much closer to Mount Pinatubo, was covered with tons of ash after the eruption. It was declared a total loss and plans for a complete closure were started.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Within two weeks NAS Cubi Point was back in limited operation. Soon, most buildings had electricity and water restored. By mid-July service had been restored to most family housing units. The dependents began returning 8 September 1991 and by the end of the month almost all were back at Subic Bay from the United States. In September 1991, more than twenty thousand Filipino civilians were employed by the base.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: From 1988 to 1992, the US Government and Philippine government tried to renegotiate the terms of an extension of the military bases at Subic and Clark. This referred to the Military Bases Agreement of 1947, which was due to expire. Intense negotiations between the governments of the United States and the Philippines began. These negotiations resulted in the Treaty of Friendship, Peace and Cooperation between the United States and the Republic of the Philippines. This would have extended the lease of the American bases in the Philippines. However, a bone of contention remained the amount of money that the US Government would pay to the Philippine government for the lease and use of the bases.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: As per C.R. Anderegg, the Vice Commander of Clark Air Base, Philippines wanted $825 million per year for a period of seven years, but the U.S. Government would not budge from the earlier agreed $360 million per year for 10 years. This was not the first such hike demanded by the Philippines - in 1984, a similar hike had been asked and given for Clark Air Base. However, this time, the US government did not agree.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: In December 1991, the two governments were again in talks to extend the withdrawal of American forces for three years but this broke down as the United States refused to detail their withdrawal plans or to answer if nuclear weapons were kept on base. Additionally, the United States offered only one quarter of the $825 million in rent sought by the Filipino Government. Finally on 27 December, President Corazon Aquino, who had previously fought to delay the U.S. pullout to cushion the country's battered economy, issued a formal notice for the U.S. to leave by the end of 1992. Naval Station Subic Bay was the U.S.'s largest overseas defense facility after Clark Air Base was closed.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: In 1992, tons of material including drydocks and equipment, were shipped to various Naval Stations. Ship repair, maintenance yards and supply depots were relocated to other Asian countries including Japan and Singapore. On 24 November 1992, the American Flag was lowered in Subic for the last time and the last 1,416 Sailors and Marines at Subic Bay Naval Base left by plane from Naval Air Station Cubi Point and by . This withdrawal marked the first time since the 16th century that no foreign military forces were present in the Philippines. The departure of the United States Navy left a huge clean-up to be completed. Soil and water was contaminated with asbestos, PCBs and pesticides. As of 2012, clean-up estimates for Subic Bay Naval Base and Clark Air Base were $40 million each.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: Beginning in June 2012, the Philippine government said that the United States military could use the old base with prior approval by the Philippine government. This follows expanded military ties between the two nations and an American pivot towards Asia. This follows a Visiting Forces Agreement made in 1999, that saw annual visits of United States forces to conduct large scale exercises (known as Balikatan) between the two allies. "The Sydney Morning Herald" reported on 20 November 2012 that Subic Bay will host US ships, Marines and aircraft on a semi-permanent basis which according to analysts will give the US a strategically important force posture for its shift in emphasis to the Pacific.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: The US Navy began using the base in Subic Bay in 2015 to deliver materiel and personnel for annual joint military exercises. Some 6,000 US personnel came to Subic in April, and returned for exercises in 2016 in agreement with Philippine authorities. US ships have used Subic Bay as a resupply port during routine calls.


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: In 2022, the United States and Philippine governments quietly began preparations for U.S. forces to return to the facility amid heightened tensions with China. The portion of Redondo Peninsula which used by HHIC Phil was acquired by the national government in late 2022 and named a Naval Operation Base (NOB) through the Philippine Navy. After the remainder of the port came up for sale, and interest from at least two Chinese companies, U.S. private equity firm Cerberus Capital Management acquired the port. On November 9, U.S. Ambassador MaryKay Carlson visited Subic Bay. On November 24, a day before the 30th anniversary of the U.S. Navy's departure, Rolen Paulino, chairman of the SBMA, said that he would be "very surprised" if Subic Bay does not return to service as a U.S military facility through the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement, as "during war, time is of the essence."


title: U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay

text: This is the Official list of Base Commanders who served the Subic Naval Base from 1945 to 1992. Base commanders prior to 1945 are not included.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The Byzantine Rite, also known as the Greek Rite or the Rite of Constantinople, identifies the wide range of cultural, liturgical, and canonical practices that developed in the Eastern Christian Church of Constantinople.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The canonical hours are very long and complicated, lasting about eight hours (longer during Great Lent) but are abridged outside of large monasteries. An iconostasis, a partition covered with icons, separates the area around the altar from the nave. The sign of the cross, accompanied by bowing, is made very frequently, e.g., more than a hundred times during the divine liturgy, and there is prominent veneration of icons, a general acceptance of the congregants freely moving within the church and interacting with each other, and distinctive traditions of liturgical chanting.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Some traditional practices are falling out of use in modern times in sundry churches and in the diaspora, e.g., the faithful standing during services, bowing and prostrating frequently, and priests, deacons, and monastics always wearing a cassock and other clerical garb even in everyday life (monastics also sleep wearing a cassock) and not shaving or trimming their hair or beards.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: In addition to numerous psalms read every day, the entire psalter is read each week, and twice each week during Great Lent, and there are daily readings of other scriptures; also many hymns have quotes from, and references to, the scriptures woven into them. On the numerous fast days there is prescribed abstention from meat and dairy products, and on many fast days also from fish, wine, and the use of oil in cooking. Four fasting seasons are prescribed: Great Lent, Nativity Fast, Apostles' Fast and Dormition Fast. In addition, throughout the year most Wednesdays and Fridays, as well as Mondays in monasteries, are fast days.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: In its present form, the rite is the product of a long cultural synthesis that developed in the years after the 8th-9th century Iconoclasm, in which monasteries and their cultural contacts with the Holy Land played a decisive role. From the 9th to the 14th centuries, the influence of the Palestinian Rite exerted a dominating influence and the rite has been called a "hybrid" between an earlier ceremonial rite which scholars have dubbed the cathedral rite of Constantinople, called the "asmatiki akolouthia" ("sung services") and the Palestinian Rite of Jerusalem, the "Hagiopolitan" (Gr. "of the Holy City") in Greek, chiefly through the monastic "typikon" of the Mar Saba monastery near Jerusalem. Later developments were usually connected to monasteries at Constantinople and Mt. Athos patronized by the imperial court, such as Studion, whose Rule formed the nucleus of early monastic communities in Bulgaria and the Rus'. In the early modern period, the traditions of the rite received further elaboration from the interface of Christian and Islamic mystical traditions fostered in the Ottoman court.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Before the mid-17th century, the practices of the Russian Church, relatively remote from the great ecclesiastical and cultural centers of Greek Christianity, showed some significant local and textual variation from the rest of the Christian world. The practices of the Russian Church were brought violently in line with the contemporary Greek usage during the reforms of Patriarch Nikon, resulting in relative uniformity across the Eastern Orthodox Church. The resulting (Rus. "schism") split Russian Christianity into the present Russian Orthodox and the historically persecuted Old Believers, who maintained many archaic practices of worship.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The "Holy Mysteries", or "Sacred Mysteries", or similar, refer to the elements of Holy Communion, the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, in the texts of the Divine Liturgy, the prayers before and after communion, and elsewhere, as, for example, in the first petition of the ectenia after communion, "Arise! Having partaken of the divine, holy, pure, immortal, heavenly, life-creating, and awesome Mysteries of Christ, let us worthily give thanks to the Lord."


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Also termed the sacred mysteries is a broad theological category including the seven sacraments defined in the Western Church but differing slightly in emphasis—stressing their ineffable character and forgoing the intense theological definitions which emerged in the centuries following the Reformation. Although all modern Orthodox churches customarily observe the same seven sacraments as in Catholicism, the number has no dogmatic significance and, up to the 17th century, individual authors varied greatly in the number of rites considered "mysteries". Despite the historical differences, modern Orthodox and Catholic faithful are generally united in viewing the West's seven sacraments and Orthodoxy's looser number of sacred mysteries—seven only by convention—as effectively equivalent. The Catholics regard the two as identical.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The divine liturgy may be celebrated on most days, the exceptions, known as aliturgical days, being in or near Great Lent. Typically, however, the liturgy is celebrated daily only in cathedrals and larger monasteries but elsewhere only on Sundays, major feast days, and some other days, especially during Great Lent.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The daily cycle begins with vespers and proceeds throughout the night and day according to the following table:


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The typica is used whenever the divine liturgy is not celebrated at its usual time, "i.e.", when there is a vesperal liturgy or no liturgy at all. On days when the liturgy may be celebrated at its usual hour, the typica follows the sixth hour (or matins, where the custom is to serve the Liturgy then) and the Epistle and Gospel readings for the day are read therein; otherwise, on aliturgical days or when the Liturgy is served at vespers, the typica has a much shorter form and is served between the ninth hour and vespers.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Also, there are Inter-Hours for the First, Third, Sixth and Ninth Hours. These are services of a similar structure to, but briefer than, the hours. Their usage varies with local custom, but generally they are used only during the Nativity Fast, Apostles Fast, and Dormition Fast on days when the Lenten alleluia replaces "God is the Lord" at matins, which may be done at the discretion of the ecclesiarch when the Divine Liturgy is not celebrated.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: In addition to these public prayers, there are also private prayers prescribed for both monastics and laypersons; in some monasteries, however, these are read in church. These include Morning and Evening Prayers and prayers (and, in Russia, canons) to be prayed in preparation for receiving the Eucharist.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The full cycle of services are usually served only in monasteries, cathedrals, and other Katholika (sobors). In monasteries and parishes of the Russian tradition, the Third and Sixth Hours are read during the Prothesis ( Liturgy of Preparation); otherwise, the Prothesis is served during matins, the final portion of which is omitted, the Liturgy of the Catechumens beginning immediately after the troparion following the Great Doxology.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The Midnight Office is seldom served in parish churches, except at the Paschal Vigil as the essential office, wherein the burial shroud is removed from the tomb and carried to the altar.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The sundry Canonical Hours are, in practice, grouped together into aggregates so that there are three major times of prayer a day: Evening, Morning and Midday.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: On the eves before Great Feasts and, in some traditions, on all Sundays, this grouping is used. However, the All-night vigil is usually abridged so as to not last literally "all-night" and may be as short as two hours; on the other hand, on Athos and in the very traditional monastic institutions, that service followed by the hours and Liturgy may last as long as 18 hours.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: When the feast is a weekday (or, in the Russian tradition, on any day for Christmas, Theophany), Vespers (with the Liturgy in most instances) is served earlier in the day and so Great Compline functions much as Great vespers does on the vigils of other feast days.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Baptism transforms the old and sinful person into a new and pure one; the old life, the sins, any mistakes made are gone and a clean slate is given. Through Baptism a person is united to the Body of Christ by becoming a member of the Orthodox Church. During the service, water is blessed. The catechumen is fully immersed in the water three times, once in the name of each of the figures of the Holy Trinity. This is considered to be a death of the "old man" by participation in the crucifixion and burial of Christ, and a rebirth into new life in Christ by participation in his resurrection. Properly a new name is given, which becomes the person's name.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Children of Orthodox families are normally baptized shortly after birth. Converts to Orthodoxy are usually formally baptized into the Orthodox Church, though exceptions are sometimes made. Those who have left Orthodoxy and adopted a new religion, if they return to their Orthodox roots, are usually received back into the church through the mystery of Chrismation.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Properly, the mystery of Baptism is administered by bishops and priests; however, in emergencies any Orthodox Christian can baptize. In such cases, should the person survive the emergency, it is likely that the person will be properly baptized by a priest at some later date. This is not considered to be a second baptism, nor is it imagined that the person is not already Orthodox, but rather it is a fulfillment of the proper form.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The service of Baptism used in Orthodox churches has remained largely unchanged for more than 1500 years. St. Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386), in his "Discourse on the Sacrament of Baptism", describes the service; it is largely consistent with the service currently in use in the early 21st century.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Chrismation grants the gift of the Holy Spirit through anointing with Holy Chrism. It is normally given immediately after baptism as part of the same service. It may also be used to formally receive again lapsed members of the Orthodox Church. As baptism is a person's participation in the death and resurrection of Christ, so chrismation is a person's participation in the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: A baptized and chrismated Orthodox Christian is a full member of the Church and may receive the Eucharist regardless of age and, indeed, does so beginning at the first liturgy attended after chrismation, infant communion being the universal norm.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The sanctification of chrism may, in theory, be performed by any bishop at any time, but in longstanding practice is performed no more than once a year by hierarchs of most of the autocephalous churches, although some autocephalous churches obtain their chrism from another church. Anointing with it substitutes for the laying-on of hands described in the New Testament, and according to the prayer of consecration of chrism, the apostles made the initial chrism, laying their hands on it, for priests to substitute for laying on of hands for sundry practices, where only the apostles could perform said laying on of hands.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The Eucharist is at the center of Orthodox Christianity. In practice, it is the partaking of the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ in the midst of the Divine Liturgy with the rest of the church. The bread and wine are believed to be transubstantiated as the genuine Body and Blood of the Christ Jesus through the operation of the Holy Spirit.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Communion is given only to baptized Orthodox Christians who have prepared by fasting, prayer and confession. The wine is administered with a spoon directly into the recipient's mouth from the chalice. From baptism young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive holy communion.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Because of the Orthodox understanding of mankind's fallen nature in general, those who wish to commune prepare themselves in a way that reflects mankind in paradise. First, they prepare by having their confession heard and the prayer of repentance read over them by a priest. They are encouraged to increase their prayer rule, adding the prescribed prayers in preparation for communing. Finally, they fast completely from food, drink, and sexual activity from the evening before, a time interpreted variously in sundry locations as: from arising from sleep, or from midnight, or from sunset the previous evening.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: When one who has committed sins repents of them, wishing to reconcile to God and renew the purity of original baptisms, they confess their sins to God before a spiritual guide who offers advice and direction to assist the individual in overcoming their sin. Parish priests commonly function as spiritual guides, but such guides can be any person, male or female, who has been given a blessing to hear confessions. Spiritual guides are chosen very carefully, as this is a mandate that once chosen must be obeyed. Having confessed, the priest lays his hands on the penitent's head while reciting the prayer of absolution.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Sin is a mistake made by the individual, but there is the opportunity for spiritual growth and development. An act of penance (), if the spiritual guide requires it, is never formulaic, but rather is directed toward the individual and their particular problem, as a means of establishing a deeper understanding of the mistake made, and how to effect its cure. Because full participatory membership is granted to infants, it is not unusual for even small children to confess. Though the scope of their culpability is far less than an older child, they also have an opportunity for spiritual growth.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: From the Eastern Orthodox understanding of marriage, it is one of the holy mysteries or sacraments. As well as in many other Christian traditions, for example in the Catholic Church, it serves to unite a woman and a man in eternal union and love before God, with the purpose of following Christ and His Gospel and raising up a faithful, holy family through their holy union. The church understands marriage to be the union of one man and one woman, and certain Orthodox leaders have spoken out strongly in opposition to the civil institution of same-sex marriage.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Jesus said that "when they rise from the dead, they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven" (Mk 12:25). For the Orthodox Christian this passage should not be understood to imply that Christian marriage will not remain a reality in the Kingdom, but points to the fact that relations will not be "fleshy", but "spiritual". Love between wife and husband, as an icon of relationship between Christ and Church, is eternal.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The Church does recognize that there are rare occasions when it is better that couples do separate, but there is no official recognition of civil divorces. For the Orthodox, to say that marriage is indissoluble means that it should not be broken, the violation of such a union, perceived as holy, being an offense resulting from either adultery or the prolonged absence of one of the partners. Thus, permitting remarriage is an act of compassion of the Church towards sinful man. Ecclesiastically divorced Orthodox (not civilly divorced only).


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Should a married deacon or priest die, it is common for his wife to retire to a monastery once their children are out of the house. Widowed priests are not allowed to remarry (no priest may be married after his ordination) and also frequently enter monasteries.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The order of a first marriage consists of three distinct services: the Betrothal, the Mystery of Crowning, and the Taking off of the Crowns, but nowadays these are performed in immediate succession. There is no exchange of vows.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Since its founding, the Church spread to different places and its leaders in each region came to be known as (overseers, plural of , overseer—Gr. ), which became "bishop" in English. The other ordained roles are (Gr. , elder), which became "prester" and then "priest" in English, and (Gr. , servant), which became "deacon" in English (see also subdeacon). There are numerous administrative positions among the clergy that carry additional titles.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Bishops are always monks. Although someone who is not a monk may be elected to be a bishop, which frequently happens with widowed priests, he must receive a monastic tonsure before consecration to the episcopate. Deacons and priests, however, are typically married, and it is customary that only monks or married men be ordained. It is considered preferable for parish priests to be married as they often act as counsel to married couples and thus can draw on their own experience. Unmarried priests usually are monks and live in monasteries, though when there is of a shortage of married priests, a monk-priest may be assigned to a parish.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: A deacon or priest would have to abandon his orders, i.e. be liaised, to marry after ordination; it is common for widowed clergy to enter a monastery. Also, widowed wives of clergy, who are discouraged from remarrying, often become nuns when their children are grown.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Only men can take holy orders, although deaconesses had both liturgical and pastoral functions within the church. This has fallen out of practice, the last deaconess having been ordained in the 19th century; however, in 2016, Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria decided to reinstate the order of deaconesses and, in February 2017, Patriarch Theodoros II appointed six nuns to be subdeacons.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Anointing with oil, often called "unction", is one of the mysteries administered by the Orthodox Church and it is not reserved only for the dying or terminally ill, but for all in need of spiritual or bodily healing, and with reception of this sacrament comes forgiveness of sins. In Greece, during the Ottoman occupation, when parish priests were not allowed to hear confessions, it became the custom to administer this mystery annually on Great Wednesday to all believers so that all could commune the following days through Pascha. In recent decades, this custom has spread to many other locations.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Two main strata exist in the rite, those places that have inherited the traditions of the Russian Church which had been given only the monastic Sabbaite typicon which she uses to this day in parishes and cathedrals as well as in monasteries, and everywhere else where some remnant of the cathedral rite remained in use; therefore, the rite as practiced in monasteries everywhere resembles the Russian recension, while non-Russian non-monastic customs differs significantly. For example, in the Russian tradition, the "all-night vigil" is served in every church on Saturday nights and the eves of feast days (although it may be abridged to be as short as two hours) while elsewhere, it is usual to have matins on the morning of the feast; however, in the latter instance, vespers and matins are rather less abridged but the Divine Liturgy commences at the end of matins and the hours are not read, as was the case in the extinct cathedral rite of Constantinople.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Also, as the rite evolved in sundry places, different customs arose; an essay on some of these has been written by Archbishop Basil Krivoshein and is posted on the web.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: (; Church Slavonic: , ), or "Book of Hours", provides the fixed portions of the Daily Cycle of services () as used by the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Numerous movable parts of the service are inserted into this fixed framework. These are taken from a variety of liturgical books:


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Also some books for special occasions, such as the book for the great week- , the for the 15. August, or the including certain excerpts. The Apostolike Diakonia of the Church of Greece and some Greek-orthodox bishops have also published certain old liturgies. Such as the Liturgy of St. James and other.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The fixed portion of the liturgical year begins on September 1. There is also a movable Paschal cycle fixed according to the date of Pascha (Easter), which is by far the most important day of the entire year. The interplay of these two cycles, plus other lesser cycles influences the manner in which the services are celebrated on a day to day level throughout the entire year.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Traditionally, the Julian Calendar has been used to calculate feast days. Beginning in 1924, several autocephalous churches adopted, for fixed dates, the Revised Julian Calendar which is aligned with the Gregorian calendar; the Paschal cycle, however, continued to be calculated according to the Julian Calendar. Today, some churches and portions of some other churches continue to follow the Julian Calendar while others follow the Revised Julian (Eastern Orthodox) or Gregorian (usually the more Latinized Byzantine Catholic) Calendar. Among Eastern Orthodox, only the Orthodox Church of Finland has adopted the Western calculation of the date of Pascha (see computus); all other Orthodox Churches, and a number of Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as the Ukrainian Lutheran Church, celebrate Pascha according to the ancient rules.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Various cycles of the liturgical year influence the manner in which the materials from the liturgical books (above) are inserted into the daily services:


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Most of the texts come from the , which has a large collections of hymns for each weekday for each of the eight tones; during great lent and, to a lesser degree, the pre-lenten season, the "Lenten Triodion" supplements this with hymns for each day of the week for each week of that season, as does the during the pascal season. Also, there are fixed texts for each day of the week are in the and "Priest's Service Book" (e.g., dismissals) and the Kathismata (selections from the "Psalter") are governed by the weekly cycle in conjunction with the season.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Commemorations on the Fixed Cycle depend upon the day of the calendar year, and also, occasionally, specific days of the week that fall near specific calendar dates, e.g., the Sunday before the Exaltation of the Cross. The texts for this cycle are found in the .


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The commemorations on the Paschal Cycle ("Movable Cycle") depend upon the date of Pascha (Easter). The texts for this cycle are found in the "Lenten Triodion", the , and the , as well as the "Gospel Book" and "Apostle Book" because the daily Epistle and Gospel readings are determined by this cycle. The cycle of the continues through the following great lent, so the variable parts of the lenten services are determined by both the preceding year's and the current year's dates of Easter.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The cycle of the eight Tones is found in the , and is dependent on the date of Easter and commences with the Sunday after (eighth day of) Easter, that week using the first tone, the next week using the second tone, and so, repeating through the week preceding the subsequent Palm Sunday.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The portions of each of the Gospels from the narration of the Resurrection through the end are divided into eleven readings which are read on successive Sundays at matins; there are hymns sung at Matins that correspond with that day's Matins Gospel.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Within Eastern Catholicism, several Eastern Catholic Churches are using Byzantine Rite, in its original Greek or some other form (Slavic, Romanian, Hungarian, Albanian).


title: Byzantine Rite

text: During the early Middle Ages, Byzantine liturgical practices were employed in some (mainly southern) regions of Byzantine Italy. Churches in those regions were returned to papal authority after the Norman conquest of southern Italy in the 11th century, thus creating the base for inclusion of local Byzantine-Rite communities into the Catholic Church. Most notable among those communities was the famous Monastery of Saint Mary of Grottaferrata.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Since the Union of Florence (1439), several efforts were made towards promotion of church union among Orthodox Slavs, who were employing Church Slavic variant of Byzantine Rite in their liturgy. In Latin terminology, Eastern Slavs were also known under an exonymic designation as Ruthenians, and thus an Eastern Slavic form of Byzantine Rite came to be known as the "Ruthenian Rite".


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Since the 14th century, several regions of the former Kievan Rus' came under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland, that later created the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. By the end of the 16th century, many among Orthodox Slavs within the borders of the Commonwealth accepted union with the Catholic Church, but kept their Slavic variant of Byzantine Rite, commonly known as "Ruthenian Rite" in Latin terminology. What was historically called the Ruthenian Uniate Church was set up to accommodate the local Christians and their ecclesiastic leadership under the Catholic umbrella in a state known for its religious tolerance. At the time, the religious boundaries of the Schism were comparatively fluid, and the leadership of what is now western Ukraine had from the 13th to the 15th centuries repeatedly vacillated between eastern and western leadership. The Union of Brest in 1595 finalized the shift of the Orthodox leadership of the lands of White and Little Russia (modern Belarus and Ukraine) to Uniate status. The population of those countries became Greek Catholic without a break in administration. Later, when Muscovite Russia conquered the same, the ecclesiastical leadership largely switched its allegiance again. The modern Ukrainian, Ruthenian, and Hungarian Greek Catholic Churches (approx. 5 million total) compose the great majority of Greek Catholics today, but are only a fraction of the early modern Greek Catholic or Uniate population.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The last Greek Catholic congregation of any size, the Arabic-speaking Melkite Greek Catholic Church (approx. 1.5 million), predominantly resident in Syria and with a large diaspora, is descended from a split within the far more numerous Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch (approx. 4.3 million), when in 1729 a claimant to the Antiochene See, removed from his position by the Ottoman authorities, received recognition by the Papacy as the legitimate incumbent. The Melkite Patriarch is presently resident in Damascus, having fled the city of Antioch upon its annexation by Turkey in 1939, a move disputed by Syria.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: The Byzantine Rite is distinct from other Eastern Catholic liturgies, themselves using the Aramaic-Syriac, Armenian, and Coptic liturgies of the Oriental Orthodox churches that separated from both Greek and Latin worlds before the Great Schism.


title: Byzantine Rite

text: Note: Georgian Byzantine-Rite Catholics are not recognized as a particular Church (cf. canon 27 of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches).


title: Byzantine Rite

text: It has also been employed, although less frequently, in the Anglican Communion, e.g., its being utilized by the Society for Eastern Rite Anglicanism.


title: Éminence grise

text: An éminence grise () or grey eminence is a powerful decision-maker or adviser who operates "behind the scenes", or in a non-public or unofficial capacity.


title: Éminence grise

text: This phrase originally referred to François Leclerc du Tremblay, the right-hand man of Cardinal Richelieu. Leclerc was a Capuchin friar who was renowned for his beige robe attire, as beige was termed "grey" in that era. The style "His Eminence" is used to address or refer to a cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church. Although Leclerc never achieved the rank of cardinal, those around him addressed him as such in deference to the considerable influence this "grey" friar held over "His Eminence the Cardinal". As a result, the term grey cardinal has also been used.


title: Éminence grise

text: Leclerc is referred to in several popular works. Aldous Huxley wrote an English biography of Leclerc entitled "Grey Eminence". There is also an 1873 painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, "L'Éminence Grise", which depicts him descending the grand staircase of the Palais Cardinal and the deference shown to him by others present. Leclerc is referred to in Alexandre Dumas' "The Three Musketeers" as the character Father Joseph, a powerful associate of Richelieu and one to be feared.


title: Anastrozole

text: Anastrozole, sold under the brand name Arimidex among others, is a medication used in addition to other treatments for breast cancer. Specifically it is used for hormone receptor-positive breast cancer. It has also been used to prevent breast cancer in those at high risk. It is taken by mouth.


title: Anastrozole

text: Common side effects of anastrozole include hot flashes, altered mood, joint pain, and nausea. Severe side effects include an increased risk of heart disease and osteoporosis. Use during pregnancy may harm the baby. Anastrozole is in the aromatase-inhibiting family of medications. It works by blocking the production of estrogens in the body, and hence has antiestrogenic effects.


title: Anastrozole

text: Anastrozole was patented in 1987 and was approved for medical use in 1995. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Anastrozole is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 180th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 3million prescriptions.


title: Anastrozole

text: Anastrozole is used in the treatment and prevention of breast cancer in women. The Arimidex, Tamoxifen, Alone or in Combination (ATAC) trial was of localized breast cancer and women received either anastrozole, the selective estrogen receptor modulator tamoxifen, or both for five years, followed by five years of follow-up. After more than 5 years the group that received anastrozole had better results than the tamoxifen group. The trial suggested that anastrozole is the preferred medical therapy for postmenopausal women with localized estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer.


title: Anastrozole

text: Anastrozole is used at a dosage of 0.5 to 1 mg/day in combination with the antiandrogen bicalutamide in the treatment of peripheral precocious puberty, for instance due to familial male-limited precocious puberty (testotoxicosis) and McCune–Albright syndrome, in boys.


title: Anastrozole

text: Anastrozole is available in the form of 1 mg oral tablets. No alternative forms or routes are available.


title: Anastrozole

text: Contraindications of anastrozole include hypersensitivity to anastrozole or any other component of anastrozole formulations, pregnancy, and breastfeeding. Hypersensitivity reactions to anastrozole including anaphylaxis, angioedema, and urticaria have been observed.


title: Anastrozole

text: asthenia, arthritis, pain, arthralgia, hypertension, depression, nausea and vomiting, rash, osteoporosis, bone fractures, back pain, insomnia, headache, bone pain, peripheral edema, coughing, dyspnea, pharyngitis, and lymphedema. Serious but rare adverse effects (<0.1% incidence) include skin reactions such as lesions, ulcers, or blisters; allergic reactions with swelling of the face, lips, tongue, and/or throat that may cause difficulty swallowing or breathing; and abnormal liver function tests as well as hepatitis.


title: Anastrozole

text: Anastrozole is thought to have clinically negligible inhibitory effects on the cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP1A2, CYP2A6, CYP2D6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, and CYP2C19. As a result, it is thought that drug interactions of anastrozole with cytochrome P450 substrates are unlikely. No clinically significant drug interactions have been reported with anastrozole as of 2003.


title: Anastrozole

text: Anastrozole does not affect circulating levels of tamoxifen or its major metabolite "N"-desmethyltamoxifen. However, tamoxifen has been found to decrease steady-state area-under-the-curve levels of anastrozole by 27%. But estradiol levels were not significantly different in the group that received both anastrozole and tamoxifen compared to the anastrozole alone group, so the decrease in anastrozole levels is not thought to be clinically important.


title: Anastrozole

text: Anastrozole works by reversibly binding to the aromatase enzyme, and through competitive inhibition blocks the conversion of androgens to estrogens in peripheral (extragonadal) tissues. The medication has been found to achieve 96.7% to 97.3% inhibition of aromatase at a dosage of 1 mg/day and 98.1% inhibition of aromatase at a dosage of 10 mg/day in humans. As such, 1 mg/day is considered to be the minimal dosage required to achieve maximal suppression of aromatase with anastrozole. This decrease in aromatase activity results in an at least 85% decrease in estradiol levels in postmenopausal women. Levels of corticosteroids and other adrenal steroids are unaffected by anastrozole.


title: Anastrozole

text: The bioavailability of anastrozole in humans is unknown, but it was found to be well-absorbed in animals. Absorption of anastrozole is linear over a dosage range of 1 to 20 mg/day in humans and does not change with repeated administration. Food does not significantly influence the extent of absorption of anastrozole. Peak levels of anastrozole occur a median 3 hours after administration, but with a wide range of 2 to 12 hours. Steady-state levels of anastrozole are achieved within 7 to 10 days of continuous administration, with 3.5-fold accumulation. However, maximal suppression of estradiol levels occurs within 3 or 4 days of therapy.


title: Anastrozole

text: Active efflux of anastrozole by P-glycoprotein at the blood–brain barrier has been found to limit the central nervous system penetration of anastrozole in rodents, whereas this was not the case with letrozole and vorozole. As such, anastrozole may have peripheral selectivity in humans, although this has yet to be confirmed. In any case, estradiol is synthesized peripherally and readily crosses the blood–brain barrier, so anastrozole would still expected to reduce estradiol levels in the central nervous system to a certain degree. The plasma protein binding of anastrozole is 40%.


title: Anastrozole

text: The metabolism of anastrozole is by N-dealkylation, hydroxylation, and glucuronidation. Inhibition of aromatase is due to anastrozole itself rather than to metabolites, with the major circulating metabolite being inactive. The elimination half-life of anastrozole is 40 to 50 hours (1.7 to 2.1 days). This allows for convenient once-daily administration. The medication is eliminated predominantly by metabolism in the liver (83 to 85%) but also by residual excretion by the kidneys unchanged (11%). Anastrozole is excreted primarily in urine but also to a lesser extent in feces.


title: Anastrozole

text: Anastrozole is a nonsteroidal benzyltriazole. It is also known as α,α,α',α'-tetramethyl-5-(1"H"-1,2,4-triazol-1-ylmethyl)-"m"-benzenediacetonitrile. Anastrozole is structurally related to letrozole, fadrozole, and vorozole, with all being classified as azoles.


title: Anastrozole

text: Anastrozole was patented by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) in 1987 and was approved for medical use, specifically the treatment of breast cancer, in 1995.


title: Anastrozole

text: Anastrozole is primarily sold under the brand name Arimidex. However, it is also marketed under a variety of other brand names throughout the world.


title: Anastrozole

text: Anastrozole is surprisingly ineffective at treating gynecomastia, in contrast to selective estrogen receptor modulators like tamoxifen.


title: Anastrozole

text: Anastrozole was under development for the treatment of female infertility but did not complete development and hence was never approved for this indication.


title: Anastrozole

text: An anastrozole and levonorgestrel vaginal ring (developmental code name BAY 98–7196) was under development for use as a hormonal contraceptive and treatment for endometriosis, but development was discontinued in November 2018 and the formulation was never marketed.


title: Anastrozole

text: Anastrozole increases testosterone levels in males and has been studied as an alternative method of androgen replacement therapy in men with hypogonadism. However, there are concerns about its long-term influence on bone mineral density in this patient population, as well as other adverse effects.


title: Diphallia

text: Diphallia, penile duplication (PD), diphallic terata, or diphallasparatus, is an extremely rare developmental abnormality in which a male is born with two penises. The first reported case was by Johannes Jacob Wecker in 1609. Its occurrence is 1 in 5.5 million boys in the United States.


title: Diphallia

text: When diphallia is present, it is usually accompanied by renal, vertebral, hindgut, anorectal or other congenital anomalies. There is also a higher risk of spina bifida. Infants born with PD and its related conditions have a higher death rate from various infections associated with their more complex renal or colorectal systems.


title: Diphallia

text: It is thought diphallia occurs in the fetus between the 23rd and 25th days of gestation when an injury, chemical stress, or malfunctioning homeobox genes hamper proper function of the caudal cell mass of the fetal mesoderm as the urogenital sinus separates from the genital tubercle and rectum to form the penis.


title: Diphallia

text: The first case was reported by Wecker in Bologna, Italy, in 1609, and since then, about one hundred cases have been reported. This condition has existed in humans since ancient times. The two external genitalia may vary in size and shape, either lying beside each other in a sagittal plane or one above the other in a frontal plane.


title: Diphallia

text: According to Schneider classification in 1928, double penis is classified into three groups: (a) glans diphallia, (b) bifid diphallia and (c) complete diphallia or double penis. According to Vilanora and Raventos, in 1954, a fourth group called pseudodiphallia is added.


title: Diphallia

text: The current widely accepted classification, introduced by Aleem in 1972, classifies double penis into two groups: true diphallia and bifid phallus. True diphallia is caused by cleavage of pubic tubercle; bifid phallus is caused by separation of pubic tubercle. Each of these two groups is further subdivided into partial or complete. True diphallia is where each phallus has two corpora cavernosa and a single corpus spongiosum containing a urethra. True diphallia can be either complete with both penises similar in size, or partial when one of the phallia is smaller in size or immature, though structurally same as the larger phallus. In bifid phallus, each phallus has only one corpus cavernosum and one corpus spongiosum containing a urethra. Separation of penises down to the base of the penile shaft is complete bifid, whereas to glans is partial bifid. For complete bifid phallus associated with anomalies, the anterior urethra is absent from each penis and the prostatic urethra is situated in the skin between the two penises. In partial bifid phallus, the duplication of urethra, corpora cavernous and corpus spongiosum in one penis is incomplete, and there is only a corpus cavernosum and a spongiosum surrounding the functioning urethra in the other penis.


title: Diphallia

text: Diphallia is usually accompanied by systemic anomalies; their extent varies, ranging from no associated anomaly to multiple anomalies including urogenital, gastrointestinal and musculoskeletal systems. Penile duplication also varies from a single penis with double glans to complete double penises. The meatus may be normal at tip of glans, hypospadiac, or epispadiac; the scrotum may be normal or bifid. True diphallia is more likely accompanied with associated anomalies and malformations compared with bifid phallus. Infants born with diphallia have higher death rate due to infections associated with anomalies.


title: Diphallia

text: A two-day-old male newborn, associated with complex genitourinary and ano-rectal malformation. He had imperforated anus, hypospadias, bifid scrotum, meatuses on both glandes, two bladders and two colons, and had normal testes, kidneys and ureters.


title: Diphallia

text: Partial true diphallia corresponds to pseudodiphallia. Pseudodiphallia is formed from erectile tissue only, undifferentiated and non-functional. It is independent of the normal penis and can be removed surgically without problem. This rare case was reported, based on the age of the 83-year-old man when diphallia was only detected then when he was hospitalised, and also because of the absence of other anatomical malformations. The small, immature and nonfunctional penis protruded on one side of the large, normal penis. The secondary penis had glans but without urinary meatus.


title: Diphallia

text: A 12-year-old boy, associated with bifid scrotum, epispadia and pubic symphysis diastasis. He had two separate penises, similar in size and shape, each penis had an epispadia urethral meatus. He had bifid scrotum, one testicle on each side of the scrotum. A bowel loop-like structure was over the pubis region. This structure had no communication with any other structures. He had a single normal bladder and ureter.


title: Diphallia

text: A 15-year-old boy, apart from having two penises, had normal external genitalia. His two testicles were within normal scrotum and normally positioned. He had two unequal sized glans at tip of a thick penile shaft, and only urinated through the larger glans. He had a patent anus, one bladder, one normal urethra, normal gastrointestinal and genitourinary systems.


title: Diphallia

text: Cause of diphallia is unknown, and also because its associated anomalies vary largely, it is impossible to give a simple, single explanation of its cause. But it is thought to have started from duplication of cloacal membrane in early embryonic development stages in the fetus, between third and sixth week of gestation, because normal development of cloacal folds in the fetus is complete between this time.


title: Diphallia

text: Normal development of penis occurs with the fusion of cloacal tubercles at anterior end of urogenital sinus. Mesenchyme migrate around cloacal membrane, proliferate and expand around cloacal plate, forming a pair of cloacal folds that fuse to form genital tubercle which develops into penis. If cloacal membrane is doubled, mesenchyme will migrate and surround both cloacal membranes, leading to the formation of two pairs of cloacal folds around two cloacal membranes, resulting in formation of two genital tubercles and thus two penises. The concept of caudal duplication syndrome is used to explain the symptoms of diphallia with associated complex anomalies in lower abdomen and urinary tract. Further, as mesenchyme migrate from more than one area, failure in migration and in the fusion of mesoderm results in formation of two genital tubercles and double penises, as well as producing associated anomalies such as double bladders, double urethra, double colons and imperforated anus. Failure in proper fusion of urethral folds results in hypospadias. Failure in mesoderm cell migration results in epispadia.


title: Diphallia

text: Diphallia is a rare abnormal external genitalia. The cause is uncertain, but most scientists agree that diphallia is a defect of genital tubercle, and occurs at about week three of gestation, when caudal cell mass of mesoderm is affected by various external environmental factors including drugs, infections and malfunctioning homeobox genes.


title: Diphallia

text: Treatment is a case-by-case analysis taking into account considerations for medical and ethical reasons, and involves surgical excision of the non-functioning penis.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: The Israeli occupation of the West Bank began on 7 June 1967, when Israeli forces captured and occupied the territory (including East Jerusalem), then occupied by Jordan, during the Six-Day War, and continues to the present day. The status of the West Bank as a militarily occupied territory has been affirmed by the International Court of Justice and, with the exception of East Jerusalem, by the Israeli Supreme Court. The official view of the Israeli government is that the laws of belligerent occupation do not apply to the territories, which it claims are "disputed", and it administers the West Bank, excepting East Jerusalem, under the Israeli Civil Administration, a branch of the Israeli Ministry of Defense. Considered to be a classic example of an "intractable" conflict, the length of Israel's occupation was already regarded as exceptional after two decades, and is now the longest in modern history. Israel has cited several reasons for retaining the West Bank within its ambit: a claim based on the notion of historic rights to this as a homeland as claimed in the Balfour Declaration of 1917; security grounds, both internal and external; and the deep symbolic value for Jews of the area occupied.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: Perhaps the most closely researched modern conflict, controversies abound even as to what terminology is the most appropriate, with pro-Israeli sources favouring one set of terms and the Palestinian National Authority advocating a different nomenclature. Disputes arise over the bias of keywords, and whether the Israeli or Palestinian viewpoint dominates media representations.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: Israel has controversially, and in contravention of international law, established numerous Jewish settlements throughout the West Bank. The United Nations Security Council has consistently reaffirmed that settlements in that territory are a "flagrant violation of international law", most recently in 2016 with United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334. The creation and ongoing expansion of the settlements have led to Israel's policies being criticized as an example of settler colonialism.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: Israel has been accused of major violations of international human rights law, including collective punishment, in its administration of the occupied Palestinian territories. Israeli settlers and civilians living or traveling through the West Bank are subject to Israeli law, and are represented in the Knesset; in contrast, Palestinian civilians, mostly confined to scattered enclaves, are subject to martial law and are not permitted to vote in Israel's national elections. This two-tiered system has inspired comparisons to apartheid, with many likening the dense disconnected pockets that Palestinians are relegated to with the segregated Bantustans that previously existed in South Africa when the country was still under all-white rule. Israel, the United States, other countries and scholars reject the comparison, while several human rights organizations and other countries and scholars consider Israel to be guilty of the crime of apartheid.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: The occupation also has numerous critics within Israel itself, with some Israeli conscripts refusing to serve due to their objections to the occupation.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: Terminology bias, it has been argued, is written into reportage about the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, with concerns over language manipulation often expressed, with Peter Beinart even suggesting there was a pattern of Orwellian "linguistic fraud and a culture of euphemism" at work, what others have called "sanitized terminology." Each party has its preferred set of descriptive words. The word "occupation", once current, has slipped from view in US mainstream reportage, and is almost taboo. A survey of British newspapers readers in 2001 found that only 9% knew that Israel occupied the Palestinian territories. International usage speaks of the West Bank, whereas Israeli usage prefers Judea and Samaria, and it treats the territory, excepting East Jerusalem, as the Israeli district Judea and Samaria Area; the IDF "says" or "confirms" while Palestinians "claim"; for Israelis, violence is an interruption of the status quo, for Palestinians it is an everyday feature of the occupation; what Palestinians and the international community generally consider to be targeted assassinations are "pinpoint preventive operations" for Israel; what some call "colonies" are called "settlements" or "neighbourhoods" by others; what some call "displacement" is for Palestinians "dispossession". Violence by Palestinians is regularly labeled terrorism whereas Israeli military actions are reported as "retaliation" for Palestinian attacks, while the context before the latter is often omitted, lending credence to the idea Israel never initiates violence.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: The way the conflict is reported are extensively monitoring and analysed: in addition to Israel's public diplomacy, intent on countering negative press images, there are also many private pro-Israeli organizations, among them CAMERA, FLAME, HonestReporting, Palestinian Media Watch, Canary Mission and the Anti-Defamation League which claim much reportage is distorted. The term Pallywood was coined to suggest that Palestinian coverage of their plight is manipulative fake news. John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt have argued that United States media coverage, compared to other countries, tilts strongly in Israel's favour. This view that American media are biased against Palestinians has been challenged by authors who cite research that concluded most mainstream media have a "liberal" bias, a criticism extended to European outlets like Le Monde and the BBC.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: The quality of both media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict and research and debates on university campuses have been the object of extensive monitoring and research. In the latter regard, organizations like Campus Watch closely report and denounce what they consider "anti-Israeli" attitudes. Academics like Sara Roy have argued on the other hand that "the climate of intimidation and censorship surrounding the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, both inside (at all levels of the education hierarchy) and outside the U.S. academy, is real and longstanding". Attempts have been made to silence several high-profile critics of Israeli policies in the territories, among them Tony Judt, Norman Finkelstein, Joseph Massad, Nadia Abu El-Haj and William I. Robinson. Such difficulties have given rise to anxieties that the topic itself is at risk, and that the political pressures circumscribing research and discussion undermine academic freedom itself.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: Internal Israeli studies have argued that local press coverage has traditionally been conservative, reflecting the often tendentious and biased views of the political and military establishment, and similar tendencies have been noted in Palestinian reportage. Tamar Liebes, former director of the Smart Institute of Communication at the Hebrew University, argued that Israeli "Journalists and publishers see themselves as actors within the Zionist movement, not as critical outsiders". The explosive expansion of the Internet has opened up a larger sphere of controversy, with digital forensics on social networks occasionally revealing problems with a few widely circulating images of dead Palestinians, but, also led to the emergence of militant social media practitioners who maintain fraudulence was natural for Palestinians and that images of their dead and wounded were generally faked.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: Israel's economy was 10 times larger than the West Bank's on the eve of the occupation but had experienced two years of recession. The West Bank's population stood between 585,500 and 803,600 and, during the Jordanian rule accounted for 40% of Jordan's GNP, with an annual growth rate of 6-8%. Ownership of land was generally collective, and the 19th century Ottoman land code prevailed, which classified land as either – "waqf", "mülk", "miri", "matruke", and "mawat" – the last three being formally state land, though Jordan never considered these last three as state property, and only a very small proportion of the West Bank was registered as such under Jordanian rule.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: Education was (and remains) a high priority, The enrolment rate averaged an annual increase of 7% over the prior decade, and by 1966, Palestinian youth had the highest enrolment rate of all Arab countries. Palestinians in the West Bank had a favourable educational basis compared to Israeli Arabs and Jordanian youth, due to the preexisting provisions of the Jordanian school system which provided 12 years of free and compulsory education. with some 44.6% of West Bank teenagers in the 15–17 age group participating in some form of secondary schooling.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: Johan Galtung states that the Arabs consider Palestine to be the only Arab land that has been denied Arab rule and independent statehood.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: In 1956, the Israeli leader David Ben-Gurion stated that: "Jordan has no right to exist. The territory to the West of the Jordan should be made an autonomous region of Israel". There had been a very strong opposition to any "Balkanization" or division of Palestine, especially among American Zionists, in the mid-late thirties, since it would have made a prospective homeland, thus truncated, suicidally small. It was in this context that Ben-Gurion argued forcefully for accepting partition agreements as temporary measures, steps on the way to an incremental incorporation of all of Palestine into a Jewish state. According to Israeli historian Adam Raz, as early as 1961, the IDF had drawn up meticulous plans for the conquest and retention of not only the West Bank, but also the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, and the Golan Heights from Syria. In August 1963, within the framework of "expected directions of expansion," southern Lebanon up to the Litani River was also included. Though international pressure might foreseeably force Israel to evacuate these conquered lands, contingency plans envisaged also political circumstances whose development would enable Israel to maintain control of these occupied territory indefinitely. The model for controlling Palestinians in the West Bank, were this to eventuate, was to be modeled on the Israeli governance of their Palestinian communities under a strict regime of permits.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: Before the Six-Day War, there had been an unwritten agreement between Israel and the Jordanian government to uphold the neutrality of the border between the two countries along the Green Line. According to King Hussein, after Israel retaliated against Syrian-backed guerrilla infiltrations and sabotage by conducting on 13 November 1966 an assault on Samu in the West Bank, an area administered by Jordan, that tacit accord was broken. After Israel attacked Egypt at 8 a.m. on 5 June 1967, Jordan responded by shelling Israeli targets in West Jerusalem, and settlements along the border and then, after ignoring an Israeli warning, by attacking Israeli airfields in Ramat David and Kfar Syrkin, but also Netanya. In response, the Israeli army in a swift campaign took possession of East Jerusalem and, after news that King Hussein had ordered his forces to withdraw across the Jordan, took the entire West Bank by noon on 8 June.


title: Israeli occupation of the West Bank

text: Israel expelled many people from areas it had conquered, beginning with an estimated 12,000 people who on the very first day were rounded up in the villages of Imwas, Yalo and Bayt Nuba in the Latrun Salient and ordered by the Israeli military into exile eastwards. All three villages were then blown up, and within two years the area was planned as a recreational area now called Canada Park. Tens of thousands of Palestinians fled to Jordan from the refugee camps of Aqabat Jaber and Ein as-Sultan after Israel bombed the camps. The overall numbers of Palestinians displaced by that war is generally estimated to have been around 280,000-325,000, of which it has been calculated that some 120–170,000 were two-time refugees, having been displaced earlier during the 1948 war. The number who left the West Bank as a consequence of the war ranges from 100,000 to 400,000, of which from 50,000 to 200,000 lived in the Jordan Valley.