title: Chowmahalla Palace

text: This is heart of Chowmahalla Palace. It is held in high esteem by the people of Hyderabad, as it was the seat of the Asaf Jahi dynasty. The grand pillared Durbar Hall has a pure marble platform on which the Takht-e-Nishan or the royal seat was laid. Here the Nizams held their durbar and other religious and symbolic ceremonies. The 19 spectacular Chandeliers of Belgium crystal recently reinstalled to recreate the lost splendor of this regal hall.


title: Chowmahalla Palace

text: The clock above the main gate to Chowmahalla Palace is affectionately called Khilwat Clock. It has been ticking away since 251 years. An expert family of horologists winds the mechanical clock every week.


title: Chowmahalla Palace

text: This building housed a rare collection of manuscripts and priceless books. The Nizam often met important officials and dignitaries here. Today it is a venue for temporary exhibitions from the treasures of the Chowmahalla Palace Collection of the bygone era.


title: Chowmahalla Palace

text: The Sixth Nizam, Mir Mahbub Ali Khan, is believed to have lived here and the building was named after his mother Roshan Begum.


title: Chowmahalla Palace

text: The present Nizam (Barkat Ali Khan Mukarram Jah) and his family decided to restore the Chowmahalla Palace and open it to the public in January 2005. It took over 5 years to document and restore the palaces of the first courtyard to its former glory. The palace also has a collection of vintage cars, including the Rolls-Royce, which were used by the Nizam Kings.


title: Modal logic

text: Modal logic is a collection of formal systems developed to represent statements about necessity and possibility. It plays a major role in philosophy of language, epistemology, metaphysics, and natural language semantics. Modal logics extend other systems by adding unary operators formula_1 and formula_2, representing possibility and necessity respectively. For instance the modal formula formula_3 can be read as "possibly formula_4" while formula_5 can be read as "necessarily formula_4". Modal logics can be used to represent different phenomena depending on what kind of necessity and possibility is under consideration. When formula_2 is used to represent epistemic necessity, formula_5 states that formula_4 is epistemically necessary, or in other words that it is known. When formula_2 is used to represent deontic necessity, formula_5 states that formula_4 is a moral or legal obligation.


title: Modal logic

text: In the standard relational semantics for modal logic, formulas are assigned truth values relative to a "possible world". A formula's truth value at one possible world can depend on the truth values of other formulas at other "accessible" possible worlds. In particular, formula_3 is true at a world if formula_4 is true at "some" accessible possible world, while formula_5 is true at a world if formula_4 is true at "every" accessible possible world. A variety of proof systems exist which are sound and complete with respect to the semantics one gets by restricting the accessibility relation. For instance, the deontic modal logic D is sound and complete if one requires the accessibility relation to be serial.


title: Modal logic

text: While the intuition behind modal logic dates back to antiquity, the first modal axiomatic systems were developed by C. I. Lewis in 1912. The now-standard relational semantics emerged in the mid twentieth century from work by Arthur Prior, Jaakko Hintikka, and Saul Kripke. Recent developments include alternative topological semantics such as neighborhood semantics as well as applications of the relational semantics beyond its original philosophical motivation. Such applications include game theory, moral and legal theory, web design, multiverse-based set theory, and social epistemology.


title: Modal logic

text: Modal logic differs from other kinds of logic in that it uses modal operators such as formula_2 and formula_1. The former is conventionally read aloud as "necessarily", and can be used to represent notions such as moral or legal obligation, knowledge, historical inevitability, among others. The latter is typically read as "possibly" and can be used to represent notions including permission, ability, compatibility with evidence. While well formed formulas of modal logic include non-modal formulas such as formula_19, it also contains modal ones such as formula_20, formula_21, formula_22, and so on.


title: Modal logic

text: Modal operators can be added to other kinds of logic by introducing rules analogous to #4 and #5 above. Modal predicate logic is one widely used variant which includes formulas such as formula_40. In systems of modal logic where formula_2 and formula_1 are duals, formula_39 can be taken as an abbreviation for formula_44, thus eliminating the need for a separate syntactic rule to introduce it. However, separate syntactic rules are necessary in systems where the two operators are not interdefinable.


title: Modal logic

text: Common notational variants include symbols such as formula_45 and formula_46 in systems of modal logic used to represent knowledge and formula_47 and formula_48 in those used to represent belief. These notations are particularly common in systems which use multiple modal operators simultaneously. For instance, a combined epistemic-deontic logic could use the formula formula_49 read as "I know P is permitted". Systems of modal logic can include infinitely many modal operators distinguished by indices, i.e. formula_50, formula_51, formula_52, and so on.


title: Modal logic

text: The standard semantics for modal logic is called the "relational semantics". In this approach, the truth of a formula is determined relative to a point which is often called a "possible world". For a formula that contains a modal operator, its truth value can depend on what is true at other accessible worlds. Thus, the relational semantics interprets formulas of modal logic using models defined as follows.


title: Modal logic

text: The set formula_54 is often called the "universe". The binary relation formula_61 is called an accessibility relation, and it controls which worlds can "see" each other for the sake of determining what is true. For example, formula_62 means that the world formula_63 is accessible from world formula_64. That is to say, the state of affairs known as formula_63 is a live possibility for formula_64. Finally, the function formula_67 is known as a valuation function. It determines which atomic formulas are true at which worlds.


title: Modal logic

text: According to this semantics, a formula is "necessary" with respect to a world formula_64 if it holds at every world that is accessible from formula_64. It is "possible" if it holds at some world that is accessible from formula_64. Possibility thereby depends upon the accessibility relation formula_61, which allows us to express the relative nature of possibility. For example, we might say that given our laws of physics it is not possible for humans to travel faster than the speed of light, but that given other circumstances it could have been possible to do so. Using the accessibility relation we can translate this scenario as follows: At all of the worlds accessible to our own world, it is not the case that humans can travel faster than the speed of light, but at one of these accessible worlds there is "another" world accessible from "those" worlds but not accessible from our own at which humans can travel faster than the speed of light.


title: Modal logic

text: The choice of accessibility relation alone can sometimes be sufficient to guarantee the truth or falsity of a formula. For instance, consider a model formula_69 whose accessibility relation is reflexive. Because the relation is reflexive, we will have that formula_92 for any formula_93 regardless of which valuation function is used. For this reason, modal logicians sometimes talk about "frames", which are the portion of a relational model excluding the valuation function.


title: Modal logic

text: The Euclidean property along with reflexivity yields symmetry and transitivity. (The Euclidean property can be obtained, as well, from symmetry and transitivity.) Hence if the accessibility relation "R" is reflexive and Euclidean, "R" is provably symmetric and transitive as well. Hence for models of S5, "R" is an equivalence relation, because "R" is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.


title: Modal logic

text: We can prove that these frames produce the same set of valid sentences as do the frames where all worlds can see all other worlds of "W" ("i.e.", where "R" is a "total" relation). This gives the corresponding "modal graph" which is total complete ("i.e.", no more edges (relations) can be added). For example, in any modal logic based on frame conditions:


title: Modal logic

text: We can drop the accessibility clause from the latter stipulation because in such total frames it is trivially true of all "w" and "u" that "w R u". But note that this does not have to be the case in all S5 frames, which can still consist of multiple parts that are fully connected among themselves but still disconnected from each other.


title: Modal logic

text: All of these logical systems can also be defined axiomatically, as is shown in the next section. For example, in S5, the axioms formula_102, formula_103 and formula_104 (corresponding to "symmetry", "transitivity" and "reflexivity", respectively) hold, whereas at least one of these axioms does not hold in each of the other, weaker logics.


title: Modal logic

text: Modal logic has also been interpreted using topological structures. For instance, the "Interior Semantics" interprets formulas of modal logic as follows.


title: Modal logic

text: A "topological model" is a tuple formula_105 where formula_106 is a topological space and formula_67 is a valuation function which maps each atomic formula to some subset of formula_108. The basic interior semantics interprets formulas of modal logic as follows:


title: Modal logic

text: Topological approaches subsume relational ones, allowing non-normal modal logics. The extra structure they provide also allows a transparent way of modeling certain concepts such as the evidence or justification one has for one's beliefs. Topological semantics is widely used in recent work in formal epistemology and has antecedents in earlier work such as David Lewis and Angelika Kratzer's logics for counterfactuals.


title: Modal logic

text: The first formalizations of modal logic were axiomatic. Numerous variations with very different properties have been proposed since C. I. Lewis began working in the area in 1912. Hughes and Cresswell (1996), for example, describe 42 normal and 25 non-normal modal logics. Zeman (1973) describes some systems Hughes and Cresswell omit.


title: Modal logic

text: Modern treatments of modal logic begin by augmenting the propositional calculus with two unary operations, one denoting "necessity" and the other "possibility". The notation of C. I. Lewis, much employed since, denotes "necessarily "p"" by a prefixed "box" (□"p") whose scope is established by parentheses. Likewise, a prefixed "diamond" (◇"p") denotes "possibly "p"". Similar to the quantifiers in first-order logic, "necessarily "p"" (□"p") does not assume the range of quantification (the set of accessible possible worlds in Kripke semantics) to be non-empty, whereas "possibly "p"" (◇"p") often implicitly assumes formula_121 (viz. the set of accessible possible worlds is non-empty). Regardless of notation, each of these operators is definable in terms of the other in classical modal logic:


title: Modal logic

text: In many modal logics, the necessity and possibility operators satisfy the following analogues of de Morgan's laws from Boolean algebra:


title: Modal logic

text: Precisely what axioms and rules must be added to the propositional calculus to create a usable system of modal logic is a matter of philosophical opinion, often driven by the theorems one wishes to prove; or, in computer science, it is a matter of what sort of computational or deductive system one wishes to model. Many modal logics, known collectively as normal modal logics, include the following rule and axiom:


title: Modal logic

text: The weakest normal modal logic, named ""K"" in honor of Saul Kripke, is simply the propositional calculus augmented by □, the rule N, and the axiom K. "K" is weak in that it fails to determine whether a proposition can be necessary but only contingently necessary. That is, it is not a theorem of "K" that if □"p" is true then □□"p" is true, i.e., that necessary truths are "necessarily necessary". If such perplexities are deemed forced and artificial, this defect of "K" is not a great one. In any case, different answers to such questions yield different systems of modal logic.


title: Modal logic

text: Adding axioms to "K" gives rise to other well-known modal systems. One cannot prove in "K" that if ""p" is necessary" then "p" is true. The axiom T remedies this defect:


title: Modal logic

text: "K" through "S5" form a nested hierarchy of systems, making up the core of normal modal logic. But specific rules or sets of rules may be appropriate for specific systems. For example, in deontic logic, formula_125 (If it ought to be that "p", then it is permitted that "p") seems appropriate, but we should probably not include that formula_124. In fact, to do so is to commit the naturalistic fallacy (i.e. to state that what is natural is also good, by saying that if "p" is the case, "p" ought to be permitted).


title: Modal logic

text: The commonly employed system "S5" simply makes all modal truths necessary. For example, if "p" is possible, then it is "necessary" that "p" is possible. Also, if "p" is necessary, then it is necessary that "p" is necessary. Other systems of modal logic have been formulated, in part because "S5" does not describe every kind of modality of interest.


title: Modal logic

text: Sequent calculi and systems of natural deduction have been developed for several modal logics, but it has proven hard to combine generality with other features expected of good structural proof theories, such as purity (the proof theory does not introduce extra-logical notions such as labels) and analyticity (the logical rules support a clean notion of analytic proof). More complex calculi have been applied to modal logic to achieve generality.


title: Modal logic

text: Modalities of necessity and possibility are called "alethic" modalities. They are also sometimes called "special" modalities, from the Latin "species". Modal logic was first developed to deal with these concepts, and only afterward was extended to others. For this reason, or perhaps for their familiarity and simplicity, necessity and possibility are often casually treated as "the" subject matter of modal logic. Moreover, it is easier to make sense of relativizing necessity, e.g. to legal, physical, nomological, epistemic, and so on, than it is to make sense of relativizing other notions.


title: Modal logic

text: In classical modal logic, therefore, the notion of either possibility or necessity may be taken to be basic, where these other notions are defined in terms of it in the manner of De Morgan duality. Intuitionistic modal logic treats possibility and necessity as not perfectly symmetric.


title: Modal logic

text: For example, suppose that while walking to the convenience store we pass Friedrich's house, and observe that the lights are off. On the way back, we observe that they have been turned on.


title: Modal logic

text: (Of course, this analogy does not apply alethic modality in a "truly" rigorous fashion; for it to do so, it would have to axiomatically make such statements as "human beings cannot rise from the dead", "Socrates was a human being and not an immortal vampire", and "we did not take hallucinogenic drugs which caused us to falsely believe the lights were on", "ad infinitum". Absolute certainty of truth or falsehood exists only in the sense of logically constructed abstract concepts such as "it is impossible to draw a triangle with four sides" and "all bachelors are unmarried".)


title: Modal logic

text: For those having difficulty with the concept of something being possible but not true, the meaning of these terms may be made more comprehensible by thinking of multiple "possible worlds" (in the sense of Leibniz) or "alternate universes"; something "necessary" is true in all possible worlds, something "possible" is true in at least one possible world. These "possible world semantics" are formalized with Kripke semantics.


title: Modal logic

text: Something is physically, or nomically, possible if it is permitted by the laws of physics. For example, current theory is thought to allow for there to be an atom with an atomic number of 126, even if there are no such atoms in existence. In contrast, while it is logically possible to accelerate beyond the speed of light, modern science stipulates that it is not physically possible for material particles or information.


title: Modal logic

text: Philosophers debate if objects have properties independent of those dictated by scientific laws. For example, it might be metaphysically necessary, as some who advocate physicalism have thought, that all thinking beings have bodies and can experience the passage of time. Saul Kripke has argued that every person necessarily has the parents they do have: anyone with different parents would not be the same person.


title: Modal logic

text: Metaphysical possibility has been thought to be more restricting than bare logical possibility (i.e., fewer things are metaphysically possible than are logically possible). However, its exact relation (if any) to logical possibility or to physical possibility is a matter of dispute. Philosophers also disagree over whether metaphysical truths are necessary merely "by definition", or whether they reflect some underlying deep facts about the world, or something else entirely.


title: Modal logic

text: Epistemic modalities (from the Greek "episteme", knowledge), deal with the "certainty" of sentences. The □ operator is translated as "x knows that…", and the ◇ operator is translated as "For all x knows, it may be true that…" In ordinary speech both metaphysical and epistemic modalities are often expressed in similar words; the following contrasts may help:


title: Modal logic

text: A person, Jones, might reasonably say "both": (1) "No, it is "not" possible that Bigfoot exists; I am quite certain of that"; "and", (2) "Sure, it's "possible" that Bigfoots could exist". What Jones means by (1) is that, given all the available information, there is no question remaining as to whether Bigfoot exists. This is an epistemic claim. By (2) he makes the "metaphysical" claim that it is "possible for" Bigfoot to exist, "even though he does not": there is no physical or biological reason that large, featherless, bipedal creatures with thick hair could not exist in the forests of North America (regardless of whether or not they do). Similarly, "it is possible for the person reading this sentence to be fourteen feet tall and named Chad" is "metaphysically" true (such a person would not somehow be prevented from doing so on account of their height and name), but not "alethically" true unless you match that description, and not "epistemically" true if it's known that fourteen-foot-tall human beings have never existed.


title: Modal logic

text: From the other direction, Jones might say, (3) "It is "possible" that Goldbach's conjecture is true; but also "possible" that it is false", and "also" (4) "if it "is" true, then it is necessarily true, and not possibly false". Here Jones means that it is "epistemically possible" that it is true or false, for all he knows (Goldbach's conjecture has not been proven either true or false), but if there "is" a proof (heretofore undiscovered), then it would show that it is not "logically" possible for Goldbach's conjecture to be false—there could be no set of numbers that violated it. Logical possibility is a form of "alethic" possibility; (4) makes a claim about whether it is possible (i.e., logically speaking) that a mathematical truth to have been false, but (3) only makes a claim about whether it is possible, for all Jones knows, (i.e., speaking of certitude) that the mathematical claim is specifically either true or false, and so again Jones does not contradict himself. It is worthwhile to observe that Jones is not necessarily correct: It is possible (epistemically) that Goldbach's conjecture is both true and unprovable.


title: Modal logic

text: Epistemic possibilities also bear on the actual world in a way that metaphysical possibilities do not. Metaphysical possibilities bear on ways the world "might have been," but epistemic possibilities bear on the way the world "may be" (for all we know). Suppose, for example, that I want to know whether or not to take an umbrella before I leave. If you tell me "it is "possible that" it is raining outside" – in the sense of epistemic possibility – then that would weigh on whether or not I take the umbrella. But if you just tell me that "it is "possible for" it to rain outside" – in the sense of "metaphysical possibility" – then I am no better off for this bit of modal enlightenment.


title: Modal logic

text: Some features of epistemic modal logic are in debate. For example, if "x" knows that "p", does "x" know that it knows that "p"? That is to say, should □"P" → □□"P" be an axiom in these systems? While the answer to this question is unclear, there is at least one axiom that is generally included in epistemic modal logic, because it is minimally true of all normal modal logics (see the section on axiomatic systems):


title: Modal logic

text: It has been questioned whether the epistemic and alethic modalities should be considered distinct from each other. The criticism states that there is no real difference between "the truth in the world" (alethic) and "the truth in an individual's mind" (epistemic). An investigation has not found a single language in which alethic and epistemic modalities are formally distinguished, as by the means of a grammatical mood.


title: Modal logic

text: Temporal logic is an approach to the semantics of expressions with tense, that is, expressions with qualifications of when. Some expressions, such as '2 + 2 = 4', are true at all times, while tensed expressions such as 'John is happy' are only true sometimes.


title: Modal logic

text: In temporal logic, tense constructions are treated in terms of modalities, where a standard method for formalizing talk of time is to use "two" pairs of operators, one for the past and one for the future (P will just mean 'it is presently the case that P'). For example:


title: Modal logic

text: The operators F and G may seem initially foreign, but they create normal modal systems. Note that FP" is the same as ¬G¬"P". We can combine the above operators to form complex statements. For example, PP" → □P"P" says (effectively), "Everything that is past and true is necessary".


title: Modal logic

text: It seems reasonable to say that possibly it will rain tomorrow, and possibly it won't; on the other hand, since we can't change the past, if it is true that it rained yesterday, it cannot be true that it may not have rained yesterday. It seems the past is "fixed", or necessary, in a way the future is not. This is sometimes referred to as accidental necessity. But if the past is "fixed", and everything that is in the future will eventually be in the past, then it seems plausible to say that future events are necessary too.


title: Modal logic

text: Similarly, the problem of future contingents considers the semantics of assertions about the future: is either of the propositions 'There will be a sea battle tomorrow', or 'There will not be a sea battle tomorrow' now true? Considering this thesis led Aristotle to reject the principle of bivalence for assertions concerning the future.


title: Modal logic

text: Versions of temporal logic can be used in computer science to model computer operations and prove theorems about them. In one version, ◇"P" means "at a future time in the computation it is possible that the computer state will be such that P is true"; □"P" means "at all future times in the computation P will be true". In another version, ◇"P" means "at the immediate next state of the computation, "P" might be true"; □"P" means "at the immediate next state of the computation, P will be true". These differ in the choice of Accessibility relation. (P always means "P is true at the current computer state".) These two examples involve nondeterministic or not-fully-understood computations; there are many other modal logics specialized to different types of program analysis. Each one naturally leads to slightly different axioms.


title: Modal logic

text: Likewise talk of morality, or of obligation and norms generally, seems to have a modal structure. The difference between "You must do this" and "You may do this" looks a lot like the difference between "This is necessary" and "This is possible". Such logics are called "deontic", from the Greek for "duty".


title: Modal logic

text: Deontic logics commonly lack the axiom T semantically corresponding to the reflexivity of the accessibility relation in Kripke semantics: in symbols, formula_136. Interpreting □ as "it is obligatory that", T informally says that every obligation is true. For example, if it is obligatory not to kill others (i.e. killing is morally forbidden), then T implies that people actually do not kill others. The consequent is obviously false.


title: Modal logic

text: Instead, using Kripke semantics, we say that though our own world does not realize all obligations, the worlds accessible to it do (i.e., T holds at these worlds). These worlds are called "idealized" worlds. "P" is obligatory with respect to our own world if at all idealized worlds accessible to our world, "P" holds. Though this was one of the first interpretations of the formal semantics, it has recently come under criticism.


title: Modal logic

text: One other principle that is often (at least traditionally) accepted as a deontic principle is "D", formula_137, which corresponds to the seriality (or extendability or unboundedness) of the accessibility relation. It is an embodiment of the Kantian idea that "ought implies can". (Clearly the "can" can be interpreted in various senses, e.g. in a moral or alethic sense.)


title: Modal logic

text: When we try to formalize ethics with standard modal logic, we run into some problems. Suppose that we have a proposition "K": you have stolen some money, and another, "Q": you have stolen a small amount of money. Now suppose we want to express the thought that "if you have stolen some money, it ought to be a small amount of money". There are two likely candidates,


title: Modal logic

text: But (1) and "K" together entail □"Q", which says that it ought to be the case that you have stolen a small amount of money. This surely isn't right, because you ought not to have stolen anything at all. And (2) doesn't work either: If the right representation of "if you have stolen some money it ought to be a small amount" is (2), then the right representation of (3) "if you have stolen some money then it ought to be a large amount" is formula_140. Now suppose (as seems reasonable) that you ought not to steal anything, or formula_141. But then we can deduce formula_140 via formula_143 and formula_144 (the contrapositive of formula_145); so sentence (3) follows from our hypothesis (of course the same logic shows sentence (2)). But that can't be right, and is not right when we use natural language. Telling someone they should not steal certainly does not imply that they should steal large amounts of money if they do engage in theft.


title: Modal logic

text: "Doxastic logic" concerns the logic of belief (of some set of agents). The term doxastic is derived from the ancient Greek "doxa" which means "belief". Typically, a doxastic logic uses □, often written "B", to mean "It is believed that", or when relativized to a particular agent s, "It is believed by s that".


title: Modal logic

text: In the most common interpretation of modal logic, one considers "logically possible worlds". If a statement is true in all possible worlds, then it is a necessary truth. If a statement happens to be true in our world, but is not true in all possible worlds, then it is a contingent truth. A statement that is true in some possible world (not necessarily our own) is called a possible truth.


title: Modal logic

text: Under this "possible worlds idiom," to maintain that Bigfoot's existence is possible but not actual, one says, "There is some possible world in which Bigfoot exists; but in the actual world, Bigfoot does not exist". However, it is unclear what this claim commits us to. Are we really alleging the existence of possible worlds, every bit as real as our actual world, just not actual? Saul Kripke believes that 'possible world' is something of a misnomer – that the term 'possible world' is just a useful way of visualizing the concept of possibility. For him, the sentences "you could have rolled a 4 instead of a 6" and "there is a possible world where you rolled a 4, but you rolled a 6 in the actual world" are not significantly different statements, and neither commit us to the existence of a possible world. David Lewis, on the other hand, made himself notorious by biting the bullet, asserting that all merely possible worlds are as real as our own, and that what distinguishes our world as "actual" is simply that it is indeed our world – "this" world. That position is a major tenet of "modal realism". Some philosophers decline to endorse any version of modal realism, considering it ontologically extravagant, and prefer to seek various ways to paraphrase away these ontological commitments. Robert Adams holds that 'possible worlds' are better thought of as 'world-stories', or consistent sets of propositions. Thus, it is possible that you rolled a 4 if such a state of affairs can be described coherently.


title: Modal logic

text: Computer scientists will generally pick a highly specific interpretation of the modal operators specialized to the particular sort of computation being analysed. In place of "all worlds", you may have "all possible next states of the computer", or "all possible future states of the computer".


title: Modal logic

text: Modal logics have begun to be used in areas of the humanities such as literature, poetry, art and history.


title: Modal logic

text: The basic ideas of modal logic date back to antiquity. Aristotle developed a modal syllogistic in Book I of his "Prior Analytics" (ch. 8–22), which Theophrastus attempted to improve. There are also passages in Aristotle's work, such as the famous sea-battle argument in "De Interpretatione" §9, that are now seen as anticipations of the connection of modal logic with potentiality and time. In the Hellenistic period, the logicians Diodorus Cronus, Philo the Dialectician and the Stoic Chrysippus each developed a modal system that accounted for the interdefinability of possibility and necessity, accepted axiom T (see below), and combined elements of modal logic and temporal logic in attempts to solve the notorious Master Argument. The earliest formal system of modal logic was developed by Avicenna, who ultimately developed a theory of "temporally modal" syllogistic. Modal logic as a self-aware subject owes much to the writings of the Scholastics, in particular William of Ockham and John Duns Scotus, who reasoned informally in a modal manner, mainly to analyze statements about essence and accident.


title: Modal logic

text: In the 19th century, Hugh MacColl made innovative contributions to modal logic, but did not find much acknowledgment. C. I. Lewis founded modern modal logic in a series of scholarly articles beginning in 1912 with "Implication and the Algebra of Logic". Lewis was led to invent modal logic, and specifically strict implication, on the grounds that classical logic grants paradoxes of material implication such as the principle that a falsehood implies any proposition. This work culminated in his 1932 book "Symbolic Logic" (with C. H. Langford), which introduced the five systems "S1" through "S5".


title: Modal logic

text: After Lewis, modal logic received little attention for several decades. Nicholas Rescher has argued that this was because Bertrand Russell rejected it. However, Jan Dejnozka has argued against this view, stating that a modal system which Dejnozka calls "MDL" is described in Russell's works, although Russell did believe the concept of modality to "come from confusing propositions with propositional functions," as he wrote in "The Analysis of Matter".


title: Modal logic

text: Arthur Norman Prior warned Ruth Barcan Marcus to prepare well in the debates concerning quantified modal logic with Willard Van Orman Quine, due to the biases against modal logic.


title: Modal logic

text: Ruth C. Barcan (later Ruth Barcan Marcus) developed the first axiomatic systems of quantified modal logic — first and second order extensions of Lewis' "S2", "S4", and "S5".


title: Modal logic

text: The contemporary era in modal semantics began in 1959, when Saul Kripke (then only a 18-year-old Harvard University undergraduate) introduced the now-standard Kripke semantics for modal logics. These are commonly referred to as "possible worlds" semantics. Kripke and A. N. Prior had previously corresponded at some length. Kripke semantics is basically simple, but proofs are eased using semantic-tableaux or analytic tableaux, as explained by E. W. Beth.


title: Modal logic

text: A. N. Prior created modern temporal logic, closely related to modal logic, in 1957 by adding modal operators [F] and [P] meaning "eventually" and "previously". Vaughan Pratt introduced dynamic logic in 1976. In 1977, Amir Pnueli proposed using temporal logic to formalise the behaviour of continually operating concurrent programs. Flavors of temporal logic include propositional dynamic logic (PDL), (propositional) linear temporal logic (LTL), computation tree logic (CTL), Hennessy–Milner logic, and "T".


title: Modal logic

text: The mathematical structure of modal logic, namely Boolean algebras augmented with unary operations (often called modal algebras), began to emerge with J. C. C. McKinsey's 1941 proof that "S2" and "S4" are decidable, and reached full flower in the work of Alfred Tarski and his student Bjarni Jónsson (Jónsson and Tarski 1951–52). This work revealed that "S4" and "S5" are models of interior algebra, a proper extension of Boolean algebra originally designed to capture the properties of the interior and closure operators of topology. Texts on modal logic typically do little more than mention its connections with the study of Boolean algebras and topology. For a thorough survey of the history of formal modal logic and of the associated mathematics, see Robert Goldblatt (2006).


title: British Rail Class 37

text: The British Rail Class 37 is a diesel-electric locomotive. Also known as the English Electric Type 3, the class was ordered as part of the British Rail modernisation plan. They were numbered in two series, D6600–D6608 and D6700–D6999.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: The Class 37 became a familiar sight on many parts of the British Rail network, in particular forming the main motive power for InterCity services in East Anglia and within Scotland. They also performed well on secondary and inter-regional services for many years. Many are still in use today on freight, maintenance, and empty stock movement duties. The Class 37s are known to some railway enthusiasts as "tractors", a nickname given due to the similarities between the sound of the Class 37's engine and that of a tractor.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: As part of the large scale dieselisation brought about by the British Rail modernisation plan a need was identified for a number of type 3 locomotives of power output to . English Electric had already been successful with orders for type 1 and type 4 diesels, and had produced locomotives of similar power for railways in East Africa. A design based on the exported locomotives was put forward and accepted. The design was for a general purpose locomotive and initially found service in British Rail's Eastern Region.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: There was no prototype. British Railways placed an order for forty-two Class 37 locomotives in January 1959. The first was delivered in November 1960; it entered service on 2 December. BR had ordered further Class 37s before the last of the original batch had been completed in mid-1962. The final locomotive was delivered to the Western Region on 9 November 1965. English Electric split the construction between Vulcan Foundry at Newton-le-Willows, and Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns of Darlington. The 309 locomotives produced in total were originally numbered in the range D6700-D6999 and D6600-D6608. The bodywork bears a strong family resemblance to other English Electric designs such as the Class 40 and Class 23 'Baby Deltic'.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: The class was designed for both passenger and freight work. Many of the original locomotives were fitted with boilers for steam heating. D6700-6754 were fitted with boilers from new, along with D6758, D6775, D6781-D6818, D6875-D6892. D6960-6968 received boilers from D6701-6709 during 1967/68. 37247 was fitted with a boiler in 1977. With the withdrawal of many Type 2 and Type 3 locomotives in the 1980s the 37s were selected as the standard Type 3 and many of the fleet were given a heavy overhaul to prolong their life into the 1990s and beyond. Some were fitted with electrical train heating (ETH) equipment in the 1980s to become the 37/4 sub-class, initially for use on the West Highland Line, the Welsh Marches line and South Wales - Bristol area services and Far North Lines but later seeing use in north/mid Wales and occasionally the West Country. In 2010, they were used on passenger services on the Cumbrian Coast line and Wherry lines.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: A number of locomotives were rebuilt as Class 37/9s in the late 1980s to evaluate Mirrlees and Ruston engines for possible use on a new Class 38 freight locomotive. These locos were heavily ballasted to improve traction and had excellent load-hauling capabilities, but the Class 38, understood to be a 'modular' locomotive based on the approach that gave rise to the Class 58 diesel loco and the proposed Class 88 electric loco, was never built.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: The Class 37 has a relatively low axle loading for its size and power. With the withdrawal of most of the smaller types of diesel locomotive, this left it as the only mainline type available in significant numbers for lines with weight restrictions, and for a number of years 37s handled almost all locomotive-hauled services on the West Highland Line, the lines north of Inverness (Far North Line) and in parts of Wales. The Class 37 has Route Availability 5 and this is one of the main reasons it is still in use on the network. Note that class 37/7 and 37/9 have an RA of 7 due to their extra ballast weights.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: There are several differences between particular locomotives, some of them easily seen. Western Region Class 37s can be identified by 'cow horns' around halfway up on the outer edge of each end of the lamp brackets. When British Railways took over from the Great Western Railway the use of Great Western lamps continued. Their brackets used an L-shaped upright that was parallel to the direction of travel, unlike the other regions which used transverse brackets. Another difference between the regions is by the nose end headcodes. Lower-numbered, split-box Class 37s were allocated to northern England and east Anglia; centre-box locomotives were almost all allocated to Wales and the south west. After locomotives were transferred between pools in the 1980s they tended to stray from their original depots. Regional decorations included the Highland (Inverness) Stag, the Cockney Sparrow (Stratford) the Cornish lizard (St Blazey) and Eastfield Highland Terrier. All the Cardiff Canton Class 37/4s received Celtic Dragons below the driver's window whilst in large logo blue. Some Scottish locomotives were later fitted with small Saltire flags by their TOPS data panels or on their noses in a similar fashion to the HAA hoppers allocated to Scottish power stations.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: On delivery, the Class 37s were painted in plain green with a grey roof, the 'late' (post-1956) British Railways crest and a D prefix to their running number. Some locomotives were delivered as the small yellow warning panel was introduced, earlier locomotives being given these panels during works visits. Towards the late 1960s, the yellow was extended to the full height of the nose.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: By the 1970s, all locomotives had received all over British Rail blue with a full yellow nose; by 1975 most locomotives had also received their TOPS numbers. Their livery remained the same until the early 1980s when 'Large Logo blue' was introduced. This entailed the yellow nose continuing round to behind the driver's door and up to the top of the windscreen and a full height 'double arrow' logo. These locomotives had the top of the nose painted black to lower the risk of the driver being dazzled by the sun. Freight-allocated examples received a similar livery - the only difference being the blue was replaced by freight grey. In 1987, the Sectors were launched, incorporating a new livery of 'three tone grey'; a light grey lower bodyside, medium grey cantrail and a dark grey roof, along with a bright Sector logo (Coal, Metals, Petroleum, Distribution, General and Construction). In addition a metal double arrow logo was fitted. This livery co-existed with plain blue, large logo blue/grey and the new InterCity and Regional Railways liveries right up to the end of British Rail in 1996.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Some locomotives in the 'sectorised company' pools received Transrail Freight logos or Mainline Freight 'Rolling Balls' over their 3TG (three tone grey) colours, while Loadhaul locomotives were painted orange and black and Mainline locomotives received 'aircraft' blue with silver stripes. Departmental locomotives were initially painted in a plain grey livery, but this didn't find favour and was modified into 'Dutch' grey and yellow livery, similar to that of Nederlandse Spoorwegen. 37 093 was mocked up as a "police" locomotive which pulled over a Class 43 HST power car for speeding in an InterCity 125 advert broadcast in the 1980s.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: As with many diesel classes, the TOPS renumbering was implemented in a straightforward manner, with the locomotive numbers remaining in sequence. Thus 6701 became 37001 and D6999 became 37299; while D6600 - D6608 became 37300-37308. The remaining locomotive, D6700 became 37119, instead of D6819, which became 37283, the number being unused as D6983 was destroyed in an accident in 1965. As members of the class were altered later in their careers, they were renumbered, some more than once.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: D6983 was withdrawn in December 1965 following a fatal collision with a derailed Class 47, number D1671 "THOR", in South Wales, near Bridgend as the result of a landslip. D6983 was the first EE Type 3 to be withdrawn and as a result, the only locomotive in the entire class not to receive a TOPS number. The remains of both locomotives were sold to local scrap merchants, R.S. Hayes, and cut up the following year.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: In the 1980s the Class 37 locomotives were extensively refurbished - from that point 37/0 refers to the original version. The work took place at British Rail Engineering's Crewe Works except for the 37/3 subclass whose bogies were replaced at various depots.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: This designation covered all 309 locomotives as built, but with such a large number of locomotives and with two companies involved in the building, there were several differences within this sub-class alone. The most visible external difference was that the first 119 locos (originally) had a "split" headcode box; for these locos the four digit train reporting number was shown in two square boxes, each containing two digits and separated by a pair of connecting doors, designed to allow the train crew to be exchanged while in motion. Later locomotives had a single centrally placed headcode box and also had the horns mounted on the roof, rather than built into the nose of the locomotive. This difference was the reason for the double change in numbers (involving D6700 and D6819) when implementing the TOPS scheme described earlier.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: There were two incarnations of a 37/3 subclass. The first was a group of 12 Motherwell allocated locos that were fitted with strengthened couplings and modified brake blocks for working the heavy trains to Ravenscraig. These were all renumbered back to their original numbers by the end of 1988.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: The second set of locos were rebogied at various depots with the regeared cast frame type 'CP7 Bogie'. Bogies from the English Electric Deltics, Class 50 and Class 37s are largely interchangeable with only modification to traction motor gearing, to in the case of the 37s, and access step positions needing alteration between the classes. The fuel capacity was doubled by using the redundant train heating boiler water tanks but no other changes were made.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: With ETH (Electric Train Heating) replacing 'steam heated' coaches, some of this class received ETH Supply when refurbished at Crewe Works during 1985 and 1986. During this refurbishment, the locomotives also received regeared CP7 bogies and the English electric generator was replaced with a Brush BA1005A alternator. Extensive re-wiring, as well as a full repaint into BR Large Logo was undertaken. The modifications allowed the rebuilt locomotives to work passenger trains all year round, with the 31 strong fleet being split between Wales and Scotland, Scotland receiving the first 25 and Wales the other six.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: After the extensive refurbishment, the locomotives were allocated the 37/4 sub-class, following the trend of renumbering 'ETH' fitted locomotives xx/4s, (e.g. 474xx and 314xx).


title: British Rail Class 37

text: The next chapter saw the entire sub-class pass to Transrail Freight, which was one of the three regional freight operating companies prior to the privatisation of the entire British Rail network.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Over the years, the locomotives have received a large number of liveries: BR Green, Regional Railways, Trainload Grey, EWS maroon, Transrail Freight, BR Large Logo and Mainline, to name a few.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: The Cambrian, North Wales Coast, Rhymney, West Highland, South Wales and West Country all benefited from the use of 37/4s.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Locomotive hauled operations had virtually ceased by the early 2000s, thanks to the widespread introduction of second-generation diesel multiple units and the replacement of loco hauled trains by multiple units, although the sub-class did hold out on the Cardiff - Rhymney trains for Arriva Trains Wales for some years. 37411 and 37425 were specially painted to mark the end of loco-hauled services on the line, in April 2005, these repaints being funded by Arriva.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: In late 2010 DB Schenker put all of its remaining 37/4s up for sale, with many examples expected to be sold for scrap. Direct Rail Services (DRS) subsequently bought most of the remaining class 37/4s, for use on nuclear flask traffic. These later found further use in 2018/19 on Cumbrian Coast passenger services and East Anglian passenger services between Norwich and Great Yarmouth/Lowestoft, allowing for multiple units to be cascaded (in the first instance) and covering for accident damaged units (in the second). Between 2019 and early 2020 Colas Rail hired three Class 37s, including 37418 and 37421, to Transport for Wales for use (once again) on peak hour commuter services on the Rhymney line.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: This class were updated in similar fashion to the 37/4 subclass, except that they did not receive electric train heating and some were fitted with Sandite ports. Locomotives previously numbered between 37001 and 37119 (those which had split headcode boxes) were given new numbers from 37501 upwards (curtailed at 37521); those previously numbered between 37120 and 37308 were renumbered from 37699 downwards (curtailed at 37667). Nine locomotives from the first batch and three from the second were later modified for use with the aborted Channel Tunnel sleeper Nightstar project, reclassified 37/6 and renumbered 37601-37612 (see below).


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Eurostar (at the time European Passenger Services) had 12 locomotives modified (all ex-37/5) as Class 37/6, with the intention that they would haul overnight international trains ("Nightstar") over the non-electrified sections of their routes in Britain. However, these services were never introduced, and, in 1997, Eurostar sold six of its locomotives to Direct Rail Services (DRS), with a further three sold in 2000. The remaining three locomotives were retained by Eurostar for a variety of tasks, including driver training, route learning, and for rescuing failed Class 373 units. Once Eurostar moved its operations to its new depot at Temple Mills, its Class 37 locomotives became redundant and they too were sold to DRS in 2007. DRS has subsequently sold some of them, Europhoenix being the principal recipient. The Europhoenix 37/6s are used on test trains and have been used to haul EMUs to and from works and to rail-connected scrapyards.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: The Class 37/7 sub-class was intended primarily for heavy freight work, with extra ballast and modified gearing.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: As part of the major refurbishment scheme of the Class 37 locomotives in the 1980s, another freight dedicated fleet of 44 Class 37s was created, the Class 37/7 subclass, which was very similar to the 37/5 subclass except for plating over of a bodyside window and the addition of a ballast weight to give extra 'pulling power' when hauling heavy freight trains, such as the metals trains in South Wales. Again, like the 37/5s, there were two batches completed; from phase 1 and phase 2 Class 37/0 locos. The batch numbered 37701 upwards (curtailed at 37719) were from phase 1 build locos and have the flush front ends and nose-mounted horns, whilst the batch numbered from 37899 downwards (curtailed at 37 883) were rebuilds from phase 2 locos, having the central headcode box (plated over) and roof-mounted horns. A further batch was created; locos numbered 37796-37803 had a different type of electrical equipment fitted (from Brush), as part of a trial, and differ from the other locos in the subclass internally.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: In British Rail use the sub-class were particularly common in South Wales on heavy coal and metals work. They were particularly adept at working coal trains up and down the short but steeply graded branch lines around Swansea and Cardiff, to collieries such as Tower Colliery, Coedbach and Cwmbargoed. They operated merry-go-round trains of 32-ton HAA air-braked hoppers, usually numbering 32 wagons, between collieries, washeries, open cast mines and disposal points to power stations such as Aberthaw and occasionally further afield.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Their use on Metals Sector trains, usually from Llanwern, Port Talbot or English metal works such as Scunthorpe, saw them hauling very heavy trains between docks, works and purchasers in Britain. Indeed, the use of three Class 37/0 locomotives on Llanwern-Port Talbot Docks steel trains (the heaviest on the British rail network at was soon abandoned when Class 56s became available, requiring only two locomotives. Cardiff had a large allocation of 37/7s, some waiting on standby, ready for a call from the mills requiring more wagons to handle any extra traffic. Eventually this work was taken over by Class 56s and Class 60s. This Metals traffic would also become the domain of the sub-class 37/9, which to all intents and purposes was a 37/7 but with a different prime mover.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: When EWS introduced its 250 Class 66s, from 1998, many of the sub-class were put into store. Some have since been involved in construction work in France and Spain building new high-speed lines. A total of 15 were sent to Spain and an additional two were sent to Italy. Most subsequently returned to the UK, although a handful were broken up abroad.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: In 1986, four Class 37s, numbers 37150/148/249/124 respectively, were converted to test the Mirrlees MB275T engine and Brush alternator for the proposed Class 38, and were numbered 37901–904. These were followed in 1987 by 37905/6, converted from 37136/206, which were fitted with the alternative pairing of a Ruston RK270T engine and GEC alternator. All six locomotives were fitted with new bogies, and had ballast weights to increase their overall weight to 120 tons. Although intended as a testbed for the proposed Class 38, the two power units fitted were those considered for the Class 60, which was eventually delivered with an enlarged version of the Mirrlees MB275T. They all had modifications similar to that of Class 37/7, including new nose grilles, removal of the central bodyside windows and 4 fire extinguisher ports. However, 37901-904 had a heavily modified central roof section, consisting of flat panels rather than the curved sheets of the original. All 6 had a new exhaust port fitted, replacing the two of the original design.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: All six Class 37/9s were delivered in Railfreight Grey livery, later receiving 3TG metals sub sector livery, and operated as part of the British Rail Heavy Metals sector, being based in South Wales and hauling trains normally rostered for the much more powerful Class 56 such as the Port Talbot Steelworks - Llanwern Iron Ore tipplers. During the late 1990s, use of the Class 37/9s declined due to availability of the newer and more powerful Class 66s and problems maintaining such a small number of non-standard locos, with all six officially designated as being in storage in 1999.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: This was not, however, the end of the sub-class. In July 2000, 37906 was designated as part of the EWS heritage fleet but has since been sold into preservation, joining 37901 and 37905. 37902 was sold to Direct Rail Services in 2003, but was scrapped and cut up in 2005 after a review by DRS. 37904 was cut up at CF Booth's in Rotherham in November 2004 and 37 903 was scrapped at Crewe Diesel TMD in April 2005. 37901 has since been sold to Europhoenix and returned to service (complete with its "Mirrlees Pioneer" name). 37905 was purchased by UK Rail Leasing and is presently stored at its Leicester depot. In October 2019, 37906 Battlefield Line Railway was sold.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: During their service on British Rail, the Class 37s found use on both passenger and freight workings, being one of the mainstays of the BR fleet. While freight use was widespread, passenger work was predominantly in the Eastern Region with use on London - Norwich and Cambridge/King's Lynn services, the latter through to the 1980s and in West Wales on services west of Swansea to Fishguard Harbour, Milford Haven and Pembroke Dock. Darnall's (later Tinsley's) 37s were used on various passenger services in the Sheffield area, notably the Pullman service to London King's Cross. Hull Dairycoates' 37s were used on local stopping services as well as on King's Cross portions down to Doncaster.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: In the early 1980s, the remaining steam-heat capable locomotives gravitated to Scotland, eventually replacing both Class 27s on the West Highland Line and Class 26s on the Far North and Kyle of Lochalsh lines. However, their use became difficult once ETH-fitted Mark 2 and Mark 3 coaches moved north. The sleeper trains were particularly troublesome. To this end, steam-heat 37/0s were coupled to ETHELs (Electric Train Heating Ex-Locomotive - essentially Class 25s with isolated traction motors that provided Electric Train Heating) which provided the necessary power to run them.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Class 37s were subject to several modifications during their time in service. One short-lived experiment involved 37 175 receiving CP5 'self-steering bogies' designed to reduce excess wear and noise on the tightly-curved West Highland line to Fort William and Mallaig. This however, proved too expensive to be practicable. Some Inverness allocated Class 37s received 'car lights'; these were essentially spotlights that made them more visible on the sharply curved Scottish branches, especially to users of level crossings. These were eventually either removed or superseded by the modern 'sealed beam' lights that became compulsory from 1993. Other classes fitted with these or similar lights were Class 24s, Class 26s, Class 47s and a solitary Class 86 86 225.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: The other notable use was of nominally freight locomotives to Aberystwyth over the Cambrian line, in this case taking over from Class 25s on the holiday trains.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: From 1985, the 37/4 subclass took over on the Scottish lines although the use of original 37/0s continued in the summer when train supply was not required. The Welsh allocation in turn took over from the 37/0s on the Cambrian as well as from Class 33s on Crewe - Cardiff workings. They were also used on the Bristol - Cardiff/Swansea leg of services from Portsmouth Harbour and later on the Heart of Wessex line.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Over time they were displaced from most passenger work by new build DMUs such as the "Sprinter" units, though they still found work in the summer and on secondary services from time to time through the 1990s as traffic demand required. This saw use both on the North Wales Coast and, most remarkably, Cardiff - Rhymney local services through to 2006. In Scotland after being displaced from the West Highland and far north routes, 37/4s were used on two diagrams on the Inverness - Edinburgh route for several years as well as being used to Kyle of Lochalsh in the summer and on Inverness - Aberdeen services. The final daily work in Scotland was the Fort William "Caledonian Sleeper", this ending in June 2006.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Their freight work similarly reduced, being displaced by higher powered locomotives such as the Class 56 and Class 58 locomotives on coal trains, though they continued on other cargos such as oil tankers for longer.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: In the 1980s, many locomotives were refurbished, which has contributed to the Class 37 fleet becoming one of the longest surviving classes on British railways. However, the introduction of new Class 66 locomotives has meant many 37s have been withdrawn or scrapped. English Welsh & Scottish and Direct Rail Services operated small fleets, with several other examples also operated by spot-hire companies. However, second-hand Class 37s have also proved popular in the export market, with some examples operating in Spain and France, serving the construction of those countries' high-speed railway networks. As of 2022, numerous examples of the class are still in mainline service, despite all of them being more than fifty-seven years old.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Colas Rail owns ex-preservation 37057, 37099, 37116, 37175, 37219, 37254, 37421, all currently operational.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Additionally, Colas purchased 37146, 37188 and 37207 with the intention of returning them to main line duty but, as of March 2020, 37146 is unlikely to receive its intended overhaul and is expected to be sold or used as a parts donor. 37188 was broken up at UK Rail Leasing's Leicester depot, in 2019.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Between July 2019 and March 2020, three Colas Rail Class 37s (Nos. 37025, 418, 421) operated peak time loco-hauled services on the Rhymney line with eight Mark 2 carriages, the first passenger loco-hauled services on the route since 2005, due to a lack of rolling stock caused by the two-year delay on the Class 769 that was scheduled to run services on the route.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Direct Rail Services (DRS) has a variety of Class 37s operational and others stored. DRS originally purchased and operated a mix of class 37/0s, 37/4s, 37/5s and 37/6s . Most of the DRS 37s were used on nuclear flask services coming from a host of places including Hunterston, Torness, Heysham, Hartlepool, Sizewell, Bridgwater, Valley, Dungeness, but are now being replaced by Class 68s. These are empty or full FNA wagons often containing spent nuclear fuel. Following a review of traction requirements and delivery of its new Vossloh/Stadler UK Light Class 68 diesels and Stadler UK Dual Class 88 bimodes, DRS has stored, withdrawn or sold most of its Class 37 fleet, apart from the 37/4s.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: DRS Class 37s were hired to power passenger services on the Wherry lines (Norwich to Great Yarmouth/Lowestoft) for Greater Anglia between June 2015 and September 2019, due to a shortage of diesel multiple units, as a result of two serious accidents. Until December 2018 they also hauled passenger services on the Cumbrian Coast line on behalf of Northern Rail (until 2016) and then its successor, Northern.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: EWS usually used Class 37s in pairs, for freight workings. Additionally EWS used the Class 37s on railtours or charter hire to train operating companies. For example, in 2005 Arriva Trains Wales used 37/4 haulage on the Rhymney valley line, from a pool of four locomotives, these locomotives being 37405 (EWS livery), 37411 (BR green livery), 37419 (EWS livery) and 37425 (BR Large Logo). 37419 replaced 37408 "Loch Rannoch", which was involved in a collision with parked stock at Rhymney sidings, which was suspected to be caused by vandals. 37408 suffered extensive damage and was written off at Toton TMD with its power unit removed and used to revive 37422. Its body was later scrapped at European Metal Recycling, Kingsbury, Warwickshire.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: By mid-2008, only three EWS Class 37s were still in regular use on the mainline (37401, 417 & 422). 37422 was placed in WNTS tactical store pool in September leaving only 37 401 and 417 in traffic. On 16 December, 37 417 suffered serious engine failure and was sent to Eastleigh for storage, resulting in 37401 becoming the only Class 37 to remain in traffic into the new DB Schenker era.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: DB Schenker had one operational Class 37/4, 37401, at the time of its rebranding from EWS on 1 January 2009. DB Schenker also had hired locomotives for temporary duties, such as 37 423 from Direct Rail Services (DRS) to cover for failed 37417. DB Schenker 37401 (and DRS's 37 423) were on snowplough duty at Inverness for the winter months. 37401, DB Schenker's sole operational English Electric Type 3 at the time, was reported sounding rough and was later stored, although this did not last long, as it was soon sent to Toton TMD for repairs along with 37406 "The Saltire Society".


title: British Rail Class 37

text: 37401, DB Schenker's most reliable Class 37, was repaired and returned to service. 37406 was returned to service, failing on its first working. 37670 was also returned operational.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: 37419 was prepared for a return to traffic and repainted into DB Schenker livery, however its long time in store did not help its power unit and it failed with a serious engine fault on its trial run. The locomotive is now operational with DRS.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: DB Schenker had the largest route for railhead treatment trains for Autumn 2009 and required Class 37 haulage due to their route availability. Much speculation was surrounding the return of several Class 37s, however DB Schenker was eventually given clearance from Network Rail to use Class 66s and 67s on the routes instead, resulting in the Class 37 plan being ditched despite several of the machines having their air horns moved onto the nose to resolve clearance problems.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Reliability problems plagued 37670 during its short time in traffic and the loco was eventually stored unserviceable.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: With the storage of 37670, this meant that (once again) 37401 was the sole operational Class 37 in active service under DB Schenker. To take the strain off 37401, 37425 "Pride of the Valleys" was fitted with OTMR safety equipment and was returned fully operational. The locomotive retained in BR blue large logo livery, however (like 37670) it was also plagued with unreliability.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: In June 2013, DB Schenker offered six Class 37s for sale: 37703, 37714, 37716, 37718, 37800 and 37884. These had been stored out of use at Dollands Moor after returning from mainland Europe, where they had been working on the construction of a new high speed line. 37703 went on hire/loaned (but still owned by Direct Rail Services) to the Scottish Railway Preservation Society, 37 703/714/716/718 were bought by Direct Rail Services. 37718 was scrapped at CF Booth, Rotherham in July 2015. 37800 and 37884 were bought by Europhoenix and once restored to working order, went on long term hire to Rail Operations Group in a dual Europhoenix/ROG livery.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: West Coast Railways (WCR) purchased four locomotives from Ian Riley Engineering in 2004. The two operational locomotives (nos. 37197 and 37261) were used on charter trains or as standby locomotives for "The Jacobite" steam-hauled excursion services from Fort William to Mallaig during 2005. These two, along with non-operational 37423, have since been sold to DRS. The fourth (no. 37 235) was for spares.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: In late 2007, WCR purchased several non-operational Class 37/5 and Class 37/7s from EWS: nos. 37517, 37668, 37676, 37685, 37706, 37712 and 37710. Of the acquired locomotives 37710 will be used as a source of spares, 37676 and 37712 were the first two returned to mainline. 37676 was named "Loch Rannoch" at a special event in Carnforth Steamtown. 37712 suffered a fire on an empty coaching stock move and was subsequently stored. It is known that major work will need to be done on 37712, however demand exists for chartered Class 37s.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: By the end of 2019, WCR had seven Class 37s running in service: nos. 37516, 37518, 37668, 37669, 37676, 37685, 37706 with nos. 37710 as a spares donor and 37517 and 37712 stored.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Since 2017 Locomotive Services Limited (LSL) began to acquire a number of class 37s to use alongside its own fleet of BR Class 47s. As of February 2020 LSL has four on its books and running in service: nos. 37190, 37521, 37667 and 37688. Not all of these are owned by LSL, as some are hired in by the company from their owners, for use on LSL-run trains.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Rail Operations Group (ROG) leases six Class 37s (37510, 37601, 37608, 37611, 37800, 37884) from Europhoenix for frequent moves of passenger stock. These have been modified to be able to couple with and operate the brakes on various EMU classes without the need for translator vehicles.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Network Rail restored four Class 37s as part of the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) trial project on the Cambrian Line. The site of the restoration was the Barrow Hill Roundhouse, where ex-HNRC locomotives 37100, 37170, 37178 and 37217 were taken in. The restored Class 37s for ERTMS use were re-designated as Class 97/3, numbered 97301, 97302, 97303 and 97304.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: The class was chosen because of its original fitment with both air and vacuum braking, a feature which will allow them to pull both modern freight trains as well as special enthusiast trains. The main work of the locomotives is to pull on-track machines (such as tampers) through the ERTMS section.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: The 97/3s are based at the newly constructed Coleham Depot for the duration of the ERTMS testing on the Cambrian Line, thereafter they are used to pilot trains not fitted with the ERTMS signalling system. They are also used to work Network Rail test trains on other parts of the network when not required for ERTMS testing.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: These locos were effectively refurbished, having been completely stripped down to bare steel, with reconditioned engines, somewhat updated cabs, all new signalling systems installed (ERTMS in this instance) and extensive re-wiring.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: 97302, 303, and 304 all remain operational as of August 2022. 97301 is currently stored at Derby RTC.


title: British Rail Class 37

text: Class 37 locomotives have proved to be very popular, with many examples saved for preservation on heritage railways as well by enthusiast groups. Notable examples saved include the first-built locomotive, No. D6700, and the last built locomotive 37308. A number of the class have been sold back out of preservation to mainline operators including both Ruston-engined prototypes Nos. 37905/6. One locomotive, 37372, has been procured by a group called the Baby Deltic Project, for conversion into a replica of a Class 23 "Baby Deltic".


title: Xibalba

text: Xibalba is described in the "Popol Vuh" as a court below the surface of the Earth associated with death and with twelve gods or powerful rulers known as the Lords of Xibalba. The first among the Maya death gods ruling Xibalba were Hun-Came ("One Death") and Vucub-Came ("Seven Death"), though Hun-Came is the senior of the two.


title: Xibalba

text: The remaining ten Lords are often referred to as demons and are given commission and domain over various forms of human suffering: to cause sickness, starvation, fear, destitution, pain, and ultimately death. These Lords all work in pairs: Xiquiripat ("Flying Scab") and Cuchumaquic ("Gathered Blood"), who sicken people's blood; Ahalpuh ("Pus Demon") and Ahalgana ("Jaundice Demon"), who cause people's bodies to swell up; Chamiabac ("Bone Staff") and Chamiaholom ("Skull Staff"), who turn dead bodies into skeletons; Ahalmez ("Sweepings Demon") and Ahaltocob ("Stabbing Demon"), who hide in the unswept areas of people's houses and stab them to death; and Xic ("Wing") and Patan ("Packstrap"), who cause people to die coughing up blood while out walking on a road. The remaining residents of Xibalba are thought to have fallen under the dominion of one of these Lords, going about the face of the Earth to carry out their listed duties.


title: Xibalba

text: Xibalba was a large palace and a number of individual structures or locations within Xibalba are described or mentioned in the "Popol Vuh". Chief among these was the council place of the Lords, the five or six houses that served as the first tests of Xibalba, and the Xibalban ballcourt. Also mentioned are the homes of the Lords, gardens, and other structures indicating that Xibalba was at least a great city.


title: Xibalba

text: Xibalba seemed to be rife with tests, trials, and traps for anyone who came into the city. Even the roads to Xibalba were filled with obstacles: first a river filled with scorpions, a river filled with blood, and then a river filled with pus. Beyond these was a crossroads where travellers had to choose from among four roads that spoke in an attempt to confuse and beguile. Upon passing these obstacles, one would come upon the Xibalba council place, where it was expected visitors would greet the seated Lords. Realistic mannequins were seated near the Lords to confuse and humiliate people who greeted them, and the confused would then be invited to sit upon a bench, which was actually a hot cooking surface. The Lords of Xibalba would entertain themselves by humiliating people in this fashion before sending them into one of Xibalba's deadly tests.


title: Xibalba

text: The city was home to at least six deadly houses filled with trials for visitors. The first was Dark House, a house that was completely dark inside. The second was Rattling House or Cold House, full of bone-chilling cold and rattling hail. The third was Jaguar House, filled with hungry jaguars. The fourth was Bat House, filled with dangerous shrieking bats, and the fifth was Razor House, filled with blades and razors that moved about of their own accord. In another part of the "Popol Vuh", a sixth test, Hot House, filled with fires and heat, is identified. The purpose of these tests was to either kill or humiliate people placed into them if they could not outwit the test.


title: Xibalba

text: Xibalba was home of a famous ballcourt in which the heroes of the "Popol Vuh" succumbed to the trickery of the demons in the form of a deadly, bladed ball, as well as the site in which the Maya Hero Twins outwitted the Gods and brought about their downfall.


title: Xibalba

text: According to the "Popol Vuh", the Xibalbans at one point enjoyed the worship of the people on the surface of the Earth, who offered human sacrifice to the gods of death. Over the span of time covered in the "Popol Vuh", the Xibalbans are tricked into accepting counterfeit sacrifices, and then finally humiliated into accepting lesser offerings from above. Anthropologist Dennis Tedlock has speculated that this version of history may be a K'iche' slander on earlier Mayan forms of worship.


title: Xibalba

text: The role of Xibalba and the Xibalbans after their great defeat at the hands of the hero twins is unclear, although it seems to have continued its existence as a dark place of the underworld long after.


title: Frogmore House

text: Frogmore House is a 17th-century English country house owned by the Crown Estate. It is a historic Grade I listed building. The house is located on the Frogmore estate, which is situated within the grounds of the Home Park in Windsor, Berkshire. Half a mile (800 m) south of Windsor Castle, Frogmore was let to a number of tenants until the late 18th century, when it was used intermittently as a residence for several members of the British royal family.


title: Frogmore House

text: Queen Charlotte spent much time on the estate, and it was later the home of Queen Victoria's mother. Although occasionally used as a retreat into the early 20th century, the house has been largely unoccupied since 1872. Queen Mary often stayed there early in her marriage and for the rest of her life took a special interest in furnishing the house with family mementos. Keepsakes from the royal yacht HMY "Britannia" were placed there in the late 20th century by Prince Philip. In the 21st century, it is used by the royal family to host both private and official events.


title: Frogmore House

text: The Frogmore estate has been under royal ownership since the 16th century and was then leased to a series of Crown tenants. Construction on Frogmore House was not begun until 1680 for tenants Anne Aldworth and Thomas May. Work continued until 1684 and is thought to be the work of Hugh May, an architect employed by Charles II at Windsor Castle and uncle of tenant Thomas May.


title: Frogmore House

text: The house's first royal resident was George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland, the illegitimate son of Charles II and Barbara Palmer, 1st Duchess of Cleveland. The duke died in 1716, but his wife continued to live at Frogmore until her death in 1738. There were a number of successive tenants, including Edward Walpole, until 1792 when George III purchased the house for his wife, Queen Charlotte.


title: Frogmore House

text: Queen Charlotte used the house as a country retreat for herself and her unmarried daughters. They used Frogmore as a "refuge" away from court life where they could practise their pastimes of "painting, drawing, needlework, japanning, reading and 'botanising'". The Queen's interest in botany is reflected in a number of the rooms at Frogmore, including a room decorated with painted flowers by the artist Mary Moser. Great attention was paid to the gardens, where the queen planted a number of Spanish chestnut, laburnum and birch trees and installed a number of follies.


title: Frogmore House

text: The house was in good condition, but to make it fit for royal inhabitants, James Wyatt was employed to enlarge and modernise Frogmore House. Between 1795 and 1804, Wyatt enlarged the second floor, added flanking pavilions to the north and south of the house and extended to make room for a new dining room and library. As part of developing Frogmore's gardens, Queen Charlotte had built a simpler retreat house in 1801, now known as Frogmore Cottage. When Charlotte died in 1818, she left the house to her daughter Princess Augusta Sophia, who lived there until her death in 1840.


title: Frogmore House

text: Following Augusta Sophia's death, Queen Victoria gave Frogmore to her mother, the Duchess of Kent. During this time, the house was subject to a number of alterations. The Duchess's taste differed greatly from Queen Charlotte's and much of the decoration from her time was lost. The house was used regularly between 1841 and the death of the Duchess of Kent in 1861, with Queen Victoria often visiting and a number of private family functions being held there. Victoria wrote of the house: "All is peace and quiet and you only hear the hum of the bees, the singing of the birds and the occasional crowing and cackling from the Poultry Yard!"


title: Frogmore House

text: Frogmore was used intermittently for the remainder of the 19th century. Princess Alexandra (then Princess of Wales) gave birth to her first child (Prince Albert Victor) at the house in 1864, after which it was the home of Princess Helena, third daughter of Queen Victoria, and her husband Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. Helena and her husband moved to Cumberland Lodge in 1872. Queen Victoria's great-grandson Louis Mountbatten was born on the estate in 1900. From 1902 to 1910, the Prince and Princess of Wales (later George V and Queen Mary) were frequent residents. From 1925 until her death in 1953, Mary collected and arranged in the house souvenirs of the Royal Family, describing it as "a 'family' souvenir museum as well as a museum of 'bygones' and of interesting odds and ends."


title: Frogmore House

text: During this time, George V allowed his first cousin Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia to live at Frogmore Cottage by 1925 when she was escaping the Russian February Revolution. Xenia was "very grateful" that her cousin let her stay at Frogmore. By March 1937, Xenia had moved from Frogmore Cottage to Wilderness House in the grounds of Hampton Court Palace. Since 1928, most members of the Royal Family, except for sovereigns and their consorts, have been interred at the Royal Burial Ground, on the Frogmore Estate.


title: Frogmore House

text: In 1997, following the decommissioning of the Royal Yacht "Britannia", Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, furnished what had previously been Queen Charlotte's library and the Duchess of York's dining room with a selection of items from the vessel. This included a mahogany table constructed for "Britannia" c. 1950.


title: Frogmore House

text: The house continued to be used by the royal family for entertaining and it was used as a venue for the wedding reception after the marriage of the Queen's grandson, Peter Phillips, to Autumn Kelly in May 2008. In May 2018, it was also used for the reception after the marriage of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle.


title: Frogmore House

text: During the 1980s, the house underwent extensive restoration, revealing the lost early 18th-century wall paintings by Louis Laguerre. Work was also done on the "Green Pavilion", in an effort to restore it to its appearance during the occupation of Queen Charlotte. Work was done on the cornice, dado and chimneypiece, which retain Wyatt's "characteristically crisp detailing." The restorations cost a total of £2.5 million by the time they were completed in 1990.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The London Borough of Southwark ( ) in South London forms part of Inner London and is connected by bridges across the River Thames to the City of London and London Borough of Tower Hamlets. It was created in 1965 when three smaller council areas amalgamated under the London Government Act 1963. All districts of the area are within the London postal district. It is governed by Southwark London Borough Council.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The part of the South Bank within the borough is home to London Bridge terminus station and the attractions of The Shard, Tate Modern, Shakespeare's Globe and Borough Market that are the largest of the venues in Southwark to draw domestic and international tourism. Dulwich is home to the Dulwich Picture Gallery and the Imperial War Museum is in Elephant and Castle.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: Southwark is the oldest part of south London. An urban area to the south of the bridge was first developed in the Roman period, but subsequently abandoned. The name Southwark dates from the establishment of a defensive position in the area by King Alfred in the 9th century. The London Borough of Southwark was formed in 1965 from the former area of the Metropolitan Borough of Southwark, the Metropolitan Borough of Camberwell, and the Metropolitan Borough of Bermondsey.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The name "Suthriganaweorc" or "Suthringa geweorche" is recorded for the place in the early 10th-century Anglo-Saxon document known as the "Burghal Hidage" and means "Surrey folk's fort" or "the defensive work of the men of Surrey". Southwark is recorded in the 1086 Domesday Book as "Sudweca". The name means "southern defensive work" and is formed from the Old English "sūþ" (south) and "weorc" (work). In Old English, Surrey means “southern district (or the men of the southern district)”, so the change from “southern district work” to the latter “southern work” may be an evolution based on the elision of the single syllable ge element, meaning district.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The strategic context of the defences would have been in relation to London, its bridge and preventing waterborne attackers from travelling further up the Thames.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The borough borders the City of London and the London Borough of Tower Hamlets to the north (the River Thames forming the boundary), the London Borough of Lambeth to the west and the London Borough of Lewisham to the east. To the south the borough tapers giving a brief border with the London Borough of Bromley.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The northwest part of the borough is part of Central London and is densely developed. To the east, the Rotherhithe peninsula has lower-density modern housing and open space formed around the former docks. The southern part of Southwark includes the Victorian suburbs of Camberwell, Peckham and Nunhead, and the prosperous "village" of Dulwich with some very large houses forms the far south of the borough.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: Tower Bridge, the Millennium Bridge, Blackfriars Bridge, Southwark Bridge and London Bridge all connect the City of London to the borough. The Tate Modern art gallery, Shakespeare's Globe Theatre, the Imperial War Museum and Borough Market are also within the borough. At wide, Burgess Park is Southwark's largest green space.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The borough's boundary, save for around its broad northern third, forms the Norwood Ridge. Along these crests, against the extreme of the borough's southern narrow taper, is the highest point of the borough, Sydenham Hill. This is the fifteenth-highest peak in London.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The southern of the borough is the valley catchment of a present sewerage and surface water drainage basin, once a large stream with complex mouths across the north of the borough, the Effra. It is in very large part converted to a combined sewer under a Joseph Bazalgette-engineered reform to enable general urbanisation; all combined and public foul sewers drain far to the east – to the Crossness works.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: Similarly reformed, into all three types of drainage (foul, combined, surface), are the Neckinger and Peck catchments of the borough.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: At the 2001 census Southwark had a population of 244,866. Southwark was ethnically 63% white, 16% black African and 8% black Caribbean. By 2018 the population was 317,256, with 53% white, 16% black African and 6% black Caribbean. 31% of householders were owner–occupiers.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The area is the home of many Nigerian (Peckham is largely regarded as the heart of London's Nigerian community), Jamaican, South African, South American, Polish, and French immigrants.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: Southwark was per the last census about 50% Christian. It has many notable places of Christian worship and ceremony: Anglican, Roman Catholic and other denominations. These include Charles Spurgeon's Metropolitan Tabernacle, Southwark Cathedral (Church of England), Saint George's Cathedral (Roman Catholic), and Saint Mary's Cathedral (Greek Orthodox). London's Norwegian Church, Finnish Church and the Swedish Seamen's Church are all in Rotherhithe. Saint George the Martyr is the oldest church in London dedicated to England's patron saint. Southwark has the most British-Nigerian churches in the country and the highest concentration of African churches outside the continent.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: Per the 2011 Census, 35.6% of the borough's resident respondents identified as non-religious, or chose not to state their faith.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The following table shows the religious identity of residents residing in Southwark according to the 2001, 2011 and the 2021 censuses.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: Ex-St Thomas's Church is the Old Operating Theatre Museum and Herb Garret. The other redundant church in public use is Francis Bedford's in Trinity Church Square, as recording studio Henry Wood Hall.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: Southwark has many literary associations. Charles Dickens set several of his novels in the old borough where he lived as a young man. The site of The Tabard inn (featured in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales), the White Hart inn and the George Inn which survives.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The rebuilt Globe Theatre and its exhibition on the Bankside remind us of the area's being the birthplace of classical theatre. There is also the remains of the Rose Theatre. In 2007 the Unicorn Theatre for Children was opened on Tooley Street. The Southwark Playhouse is in Elephant and Castle and the Union Theatre is on Union Street near Southwark station. The Menier Chocolate Factory combines a theatre and exhibition space, whilst the newly opened Bridge Theatre is next to Tower Bridge and City Hall.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: Peckham Library, designed by Will Alsop won the Stirling Prize for modern architecture. Another architecturally innovative library designed by Piers Gough opened in Canada Water in 2011. The Tate Modern is also based at Bankside.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The Livesey Museum for Children was a free children's museum housed in the former Camberwell Public Library No.1, which was given to the people of Southwark by the industrialist Sir George Livesey. The museum was closed by Southwark council in 2008.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: MOCA, London, as curated by the artist Michael Petry, is a free museum in Peckham Rye that exposes and showcases new, cutting-edge artists and their work.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The northern end of the borough opposite the Square Mile includes the More London and London Bridge City developments accommodating the offices of major professional service firms. Notable such businesses include PricewaterhouseCoopers, Norton Rose, Ernst & Young, Lawrence Graham and Actis. The Greater London Authority is based at City Hall.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The press and publishing industry is also well represented in Southwark; the "Financial Times" has its head office in Southwark Bridge Road, and IPC Magazines in Southwark Street. Campus Living Villages UK also has its head office in the borough.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: Some of the old industrial and wharfside heritage remains at the now defunct Surrey Commercial Docks now Surrey Quays, including Greenland Dock and Baltic Quay, where major residential schemes were developed in the 1980s and 1990s. Near Tower Bridge old warehouses have been converted to new mixed uses at Butler's Wharf and Hay's Wharf. Similarly, further west, the Oxo Tower hosts restaurants, shops and housing.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: There are major retail concentrations at Surrey Quays, Old Kent Road, Elephant & Castle/Walworth Road and central Peckham.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: Southwark is currently home to three Opportunity Areas (areas with capacity for significant economic development) as designated in the Mayor of London's London Plan. These are Elephant and Castle, Canada Water and Old Kent Road.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: London South Bank University (LSBU) has over 23,000 students and 1,700 staff at its principal Elephant and Castle site. The Chancellor is the entrepreneur newscaster Richard Farleigh.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The University of the Arts London has two of its colleges in the borough – at Elephant and Castle is the London College of Communication and on Peckham Road is the Camberwell College of Arts.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The largest university teaching hospital in Europe King's College London is at the Guy's Hospital site, merging the teaching activities of the Guy's, St Thomas' and King's College Hospitals here. St Thomas' was founded in the mid-12th Century in the borough and parts of it remain at St Thomas Street; Guy's was founded opposite this in 1725. The Salvation Army maintains the William Booth Memorial Training College at Denmark Hill.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: Southwark has a wide variety of housing, including council housing, such as the post-Blitz Aylesbury Estate and the Heygate Estate to provide homes to low-income residents. The aforementioned estates have been turned over to local housing associations to demolish and redevelop as mixed-tenure developments. Southwark Council and the Greater London Authority have invested tens of millions of pounds in supporting the respective housing associations complete these projects, which in both cases will lead to a large increase in the number of properties on the sites, with an almost equal reduction in the amount of social housing: the Aylesbury Estate originally housed 2,403 properties at social rent while post-development there will be 1,323 for social rent and 1,733 for private sale, meanwhile the Heygate Estate had 1,214 properties before demolition, most of which were leased at social rent, while the final plans for the development will see 2,530 homes of which 500 will be social housing.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: Southwark's local residents' returns recorded in 2011 that its rented sector comprised 53.4% of its housing, marginally below the highest in England, which was recorded by Camden, at 53.5%. In neighbouring Lambeth this figure was 47.3% and in neighbouring Croydon the figure was 29.7%.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: Southwark had the greatest proportion of social housing in England, 43.7% (31.2% owned by the council itself with the other social housing in the hands of housing associations), at the time of the 2011 census. Tenant management organisations benefit many apartment blocks. The council set much housing policy among Housing Association blocks to allocate homes based on need and a rent that residents can afford, based on means testing, via headlease and/or by the Housing List. In many blocks a mixture of social, shared-ownership and private sector housing exists, particularly in those where the right to buy has been exercised and in newer developments.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The old Southwark borough hosted many Courts and Prisons of Royal Prerogative, the Marshalsea and King's Bench. As well as the manorial and borough courts, magistrates met until the 20th century at the Surrey Sessions House which had its own jail for the punitive aspect of its work. The Inner London Sessions House (or now Crown Court) on Newington Causeway descends from these. The Southwark Coroner's Court in Tennis Street dates back to the charter of 1550. In 1964 Southwark Crown Court was opened at English Grounds near London Bridge. Since 1994 the Crown Court for west London Boroughs, was rehoused from Knightsbridge to Southwark as Blackfriars Crown Court. When the decision was taken to separate the judiciary and legislature, in 2007, by transforming the House of Lords Judicial Committee of Law Lords into the Supreme Court took over the court occupying the Middlesex Guildhall, whose City of Westminster judges transferred to Southwark Crown Court, hence the senior judge holds the honorific title of the Recorder of Westminster. Southwark's local magistrates sit at two courts in the borough, Tower Bridge and Camberwell Green Magistrates Courts.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The concentration of major courts, which are unlawful to film save for sentencing with judicial permission, enables their media coverage: Southwark has seven jurisdictions, six of which are London's criminal courts and which commonly receive offences committed in public office or in businesses based in Westminster and several other London boroughs.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The Mayor of Southwark for 2009–2010 was Tayo Situ (Peckham Ward), who was elected on 19 May 2010. He replaced Jeff Hook who served from 2009 to 2010. Tayo Situ died in office on 9 May 2011 from cancer. Under the civic and legal protocol he was given a full civic and ceremonial funeral and no replacement could be elected until then which delayed the Annual Council Assembly.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The council is run by a Leader and Cabinet Cabinet, chaired by council leader Peter John. Following the election in 2010 the Cabinet is Labour, replacing the previous Liberal Democrat and Conservative Party coalition.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The two supporters on the coat of arms are an Elizabethan player dressed to play Hamlet to the left, indicating the theatrical heritage of the area, and the youth on the right side is the Esquire from Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. The coat of arms is an amalgam of elements of the three constituent Metropolitan Boroughs arms. The chequered band represents the three boroughs together. The cross was a common feature of Southwark and Camberwell. The well in the centre of the shield is a 'canting' reference to Camberwell and the cinquefoils represent the Dulwich area of Camberwell, while the ship on the top left refers to the maritime history of Bermondsey and was part of the Rotherhithe insignia. The rose on the right is from the Southwark arms where it represented St Saviour's parish, i.e. the cathedral.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The borough currently has since 2010 a Labour Party-led council which has been the case in all but eight years since its formation. Previous control saw a four-year coalition of Liberal Democrats and Conservatives, during which as small minority members the latter held 2 of the 10 executive positions, including deputy leader.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: (*) Danny McCarthy (Cathedrals ward) defected from the Lib Dems to Labour after the 2006 election. Ola Oyewunmi (Peckham ward) did the reverse over one month to January 2010. Ade Lasaki (South Bermondsey ward) defected from the Lib Dems to Labour in March 2010. Susan Elan Jones resigned as councillor for The Lane ward to stand for MP to Clwyd South in Wales in the impending 2010 round of coinciding elections.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: (**) Labour's candidates won 33 seats in 1998, of whom two resigned the whip to sit as independents, leaving no overall party-political control.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The borough is covered by three parliamentary constituencies. Two are currently represented by Labour MPs; Neil Coyle was suspended from Labour on 11 February 2022 and currently sits as an independent.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: The Bakerloo, Jubilee and Northern lines all run through the borough, below are the stations called at:


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: In 2012 it was revealed that the Southwark borough council has been permanently banned from accessing information from the Driver & Vehicle Licensing Agency. This information is normally made available to local authorities for purposes such as enforcing parking fines, but access can be withdrawn if they are found to be mis-using the service. The Big Brother Watch organisation, which obtained the information about the ban under a Freedom of Information request, claimed that "the public are right to be worried that their privacy is at risk across a range of government services."


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: In March 2011, the main forms of transport that residents used to travel to work were: bus, minibus or coach, 17.5% of all residents aged 16–74; underground, metro, light rail, tram, 8.5%; train, 8.5%; on foot, 8.2%; driving a car or van, 8.1%; bicycle, 4.9%; work mainly at or from home, 2.8%.


title: London Borough of Southwark

text: In 2003, the London Borough of Southwark started a blue plaque scheme for the commemoration of notable residents notably including living people in the awards. The London Borough of Southwark awards Blue Plaques through popular vote following public nomination. Unlike the English Heritage scheme, the original building is not necessary for nomination.